DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS II

Machine
Prime Mover

The device which consumes energy.

The device which Produces energy.
Prime mover

Rotary
T- characteristics.- Linear
Eg: Turbine, motor

Reciprocating
T- characteristics - Curve
Eg: Engines
Machine

Rotary
Compressor, lathe, drilling m/c

Reciprocating
Press, compressor etc.

SELECTION OF PRIME MOVER :

1. Availability of electricity
2. Space
3. T- characteristics
ELECTRIC MOTOR:
1. A.C. motor
2. D.C. motor
A.C. MOTOR
- No contact of stator and rotor
- Less maintenance
- robust
- high starting torque
- cheap
SELECTION OF PHASE OF MOTOR:
Single phase fraction kW, kW< 1 (Domestic)
Three phase kW > 1 (Industrial)
SYNCHRONOUS SPEED THE SPEED WHICH GIVES 50Hz FREQUENCY.
120 f
120 * 50
6000
Ns = ----------- = ----------- = ---------p
p
p
No. of Poles (p)
Theoretical Speed (RPM)
Actual Speed (RPM)

2
3000
2880

4
1500
1440

6
1000
960

8
750
720

10
600
576

12
500
480

- Increasing speed increases no. of stages required & decreasing speed increases motor
size as no. of poles increases.
Power of a prime mover = [P] = P * S.F.

Types of transmission system:

1. Hydraulic
2. Pneumatic
3. Mechanical
Factors considered for selection of Transmission system:
1. Shafting condition
2. Reliability OR life expected
3. Size
4. Noise level
5. Cost
6. Control
Mechanical Systems
Modes of power transmission
Friction
Direct
contact

Meshing

Flexible
connection

Friction
Drives

Belts

Direct
contact

Flexible
connection

Gears

Chains

By change of V.R.

Step by step

No change

Step less
(Variable speed)

By position of shaft

Parallel

Intersecting

Skew

MECHANICAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:

1. Positive (Slip = 0) & Friction (Slip 0)
2. Direct contact (transmission without coupler) & indirect contact (With coupler)
3. Rotary & reciprocating
4. Continuous & intermittent

Design of Machine Elements-II

COMPARISON BETWEEN MAJOR TRANSMISSION DRIVES:

CRITERIA
1. Slip
2. Overall Size
3.Operating Speed
4. Centre distance
5. Direction of rotation
6. Shock absorbing
capacity
7. Safety against
overload
8. Vibration Problems
9. Noise Problem
10. Life
11. Complexity in design
12. Manufacturing
13. Environmental
Conditions
14. Corrosion resistance
15. Mfg & Installation
cost
16. Maint. Cost
17. Variable V.R.
18. Instantaneous V.R.

GEARS
Zero (Positive Drive)
Compact
High
Short
Both

TRANSMISSION DEVICES
FLAT BELT
V BELT
Exist
Exist
More
Medium
Medium
Low
Large
Medium
Both
One

CHAIN
Zero (Positive Drive)
Medium
Low
Medium
One

Least for metallic gears

Better

Best

Least

No

Yes

Yes

No

More
Less Except Worm &
Worm wheel
More
Complex
Difficult

More than V

Least

More than V

Less

Less

More

Medium
Simple
Easy

Least
Simple
Difficult

Medium
Complex
Difficult

Best

Poor

Poor

Best

Poor for C.S.

Better for Alloy steel

Best

Best

Poor for C.S.

Better for Alloy steel

More

Least

Medium

More

Least
Limited by using
elliptical Gears

Medium
Limited by step pulley
Infinite by cone pulley

More

Medium

Infinite

Not possible

Constant

Changes due to Creep

Changes due to Creep

Changes due to Chordal

action

SPEED REDUCER:
SPEED REDUCER REQUIREMENTS:
1. High transmission efficiency
2. light
3. compact
4. Good Mechanical Strength
5. Good resistance to wear
6. Rigidity lateral & angular
7. Safety against overload
8. life
9. suitable to environmental conditions
10. safety
11. Cost initial, installation & maintenance low
CLASSIFICATION:
1. Configuration
2. Shafting condition
3. No. of stages
4. Elements used

: Open type / closed type

: Parallel/ coaxial / intersecting/ skew
: Single / Multi
: Flexible connectors / gears / linkages.

SINGLE STAGE REDUCER:

Single stage:
- VR 5 except worm & worm wheel
- Selection based on shafting.
1. Zero angled (Parallel) - Belt, chain, spur, Helical, herringbone
2. Angled
- I) Intersecting Flat belt , Bevel
II) Skew Worm & Worm-wheel, flat belt.
MULTI STAGE REDUCER:
1. Zero angled - I) Parallel shafting - Belt, chain, spur, Helical, herringbone
Combination.
II) Coaxial Spur & Helical combination
2. Angled

- I) Intersecting Flat belt, Bevel (As 1st stage always),

helical, spur combination
II) Skew Worm & Worm-wheel.

Multistage:
- Overall V.R., iO/A= Nin / Nout
- Equal Reduction in each stage:

istage = (iO/A)1/n

Where, n = no. of stages

- Unequal reduction:

iO/A = i1 x i2 x i3 x x in
Such that, i1

< i2 < i3 < < in to control O/A dimension.

Options
1. Low i/p sped & less no of stages
2. High i/p speed & more no. of stages
- Selection low speed less no. of stages, because as the no. of stages increases cost &
Complexity in design increases whereas O/A efficiency decreases.

Cost and Complexity

Overall Efficiency
No. of Stages
- Max. no. of stages = 3.
LOCATION OF FLEXIBLE CONNECTOR:
1. On high speed side O/A size less & life also less.
2. On low speed side O/A size more & life also more , more shock absorbing
capacity.
MULTISTAGE GEAR BOX (PARALLEL SHAFTING):
1. O/A size criteria
2. Cost criteria
3. Both the criterion

: Use Helical Helical combination

: Use Spur Spur combination
: Use Helical Spur / Spur Helical combination.
Generally Helical Spur combination is used becausea. can run at high speed
b. smooth power transmission
c. Noiseless.

- Incase of angled speed reducer with intersecting shafting, Bevel gear is always used as a
first stage to control O/A size and manufacturing cost.
- Tooth thickness of bevel gear varies along the pitch surface hence difficult to cut if the
module exceeds particular value. It will be costly in this case.

GUIDE LINES FOR MATERIAL SELECTION FOR GEARS:

MATERIAL
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Cast Iron
Structural steel and steel casting
Hardened / Tempered and case hardened
Alloy or stainless steel
Bronze, Aluminum and Zinc alloys

PURPOSE
Light loads
Light and medium duty
Heavy duty
For specific requirement
Worm and worm wheel

PRESSURE ANGLE (, ):
- As per IS: 2535 pressure angle is 20O. But the other values of pressure angle for
the std. tooth is 14.5,15, 25, 30 degrees.
- 25O common in automotive industry.
- 30O for involute spline
EFFECTS OF INCREASING PRESSURE ANGLE:
1. No. of teeth decreases
2. Shape of tooth becomes more pointed
3. Tooth flank becomes more curved
4. Relative sliding velocity reduced
5. Contact ratio & overlap are reduced
6. Tooth pr. & axial; pr. Increases
7. Tooth load carrying capacity increases
ADVANTAGE OF STUB TOOTH:
1. Greater strength
2. interference decreases
3. faster production as small qty of material is to be removed
4. sliding reduced
CONTACT RATIO (C.R.):
The contact ratio of a pair of mating spur gears must be well over 1.0 to assure a
smooth transfer of load from one pair of teeth to the next pair as the two gears
rotate under load.
As a general rule CR should not be less than about 1.4, because a reduction in
contact ratio due to tooth deflection, tooth spacing errors, tooth tip breakage, and
outside diameter and center distance tolerances.
A contact ratio of as low as 1.15 may be used in extreme cases.
Length of arc of contact
C.R. = ---------------------------Circular pitch
C.R.

= 1.4 used fro spur as a practical min. for satisfactory performance

(As per AGMA)
= 1.2 Min. in the extreme case

If

C.R. < 1
= 1
> 1

Intermittent transmission
Continuous motion (Ideal case)
Continuous & smooth motion transmission.

- Higher C.R. less is the dynamic load, vibration & noise.

- For helical gear
Face contact ratio (FCR) 1.15 (As per AGMA)
Face width b > 1.15 p / tan
b sin
FCR = ----------- mn

Where, b = Face width, = helix angle, mn = normal

module

CR = FCR + TCR

where, FCR = Face Contact ratio

TCR = Transverse contact ratio

MIN. NO. OF TEETH TO AVOID INTERFERENCE:

2 ap
Zmin = ------------For Std. tooth
2
Sin
Stub tooth
For

= 20O Full depth

= 14.5O
= 20O stub
= 25O

Zmin

ap = 1,
= 0.8

= 17 or 18
= 32
= 14
= 12

SLIDING VELOCITY:
Vs
= xa (1 + 2) ----------------- Approach
= xr (1 + 2) ----------------- Recess
POWER LOST IN FRICTION:
P = Frictional force x Sliding Velocity
HUNTING TOOTH CONCEPT:
- To control wear, the probability of contact of same pair is prolonged by adding
one tooth either to pinion or gear.
- If one of the no. is prime no. then no need to add hunting tooth.
- Generally hunting tooth is added to the gears, as it doesnt affect the V.R. much.

TOOTH PROFILE:
1. Involute
2. Cycloidal

- Power transmission
- Motion transmission

Selecting involute as 1. Constant Instantaneous V.R.

2. Pressure angle const.
3. Forces constant.
4. High Efficiency
5. Better strength
6. Long life
7. Low sliding velocity
8. Easy to manufacture
9. Slightly affected by deviation in centre dist.
10. simple cutting tool
11. allow modification/ correction
HOW TO REDUCE NOISE IN HIGH SPEED GEARING?
- Reduce impact force during engagement and disengagement:
Faces of the teeth are modified by flanking which is deliberate deviation from involute
profile. It reduces impacts due to deformation of teeth & errors in base pitch.
BASIC RACK:
- It is an uncorrected gear with no. of teeth equal to infinity.
- It determines the tooth profile of all normal gearing.
GEAR MANUFACTURING GRADES:
As per AGMA1. Grade 1, 2
- Master Gear (High precision gear)
2. Grade 3, 4
- Lapping (Precision gear)
3. Grade 5, 6
- Grinding, Shaving (Carefully cut gear)
4. Grade 7, 8, 9, 10 - Machining
(Commercially cut gear)
5. Grade 11, 12
- Course
MODULE SELECTION:
m
= 1 to 2 % of Centre distance
-------- For Structurally improved Gears
= 1.6 to 3.15 % of Centre distance ------- For Hardened Gears
GEAR CORRECTION:
- One of the methods to control interference is to use profile correction.
- Profile correction means modifying addendum by keeping pitch circle, base circle
and circular pitch same.
- Amt. of correction X = x * module.
Zmin - Z
x = ------------Zc

Where,
Zc
Zmin

= Critical no. of teeth.

= Min. no. of teeth.
= 12 Low speed.
= 14 Med. Speed.
= 18 high speed.
Addendum = m X.

Positive correction

Negative correction

Shifting rack cutter away from the centre of work piece.

Tooth is broader at root & narrow at crest.
Shifting rack cutter towards the centre of work piece.
Tooth is Narrow at root & Wider at crest.

MESHING OF CORRECTED GEARS:

1. Sn - Gearing (Normal Gearing)
2. So - Gearing (Long / short addendum)
3. S - Gearing

- X1 = X2 = 0
- X1 + X2 = 0, X1 = - X2
Pinion +ve correction, Gear ve correction
Used for Low to med. VR.
- X1 + X2 0, X1 0, X2 = 0; High VR.

PEAKING OF GEARS:
In case of gears with more positive correction top land reduces to pointed tip is called
Peaking.
Gears are corrected if

Z1 + Z2 2 Zmin

GEAR BODY CONSTRUCTION:

n = 0.55 (Pc Z2 ) 1/4 Where, Pc = Circular Pitch, in centimeter.

No. of arms
If,

n<3
n=34
n>4

Integral with shaft

Webbed construction
Armed construction

If
PCD 1.5 shaft dia. ------------ Integral
PCD 2 shaft dia. ------------ key fitted or Shrink fitted
Large gears are often made up of welded construction due to following adv.
1. Cheaper
2. Economical for large qty.
3. Mfg. time reduced

4. Light in wt.
5. Material required is less.

MOUNTING OF GEARS:
If

b
--------- 1.2
PCD

---------- Simply Supported

b
--------- 0.75
PCD

---------- Overhang

GEAR BOX HOUSING:

1. Housing wall thickness (C.I.)
2. Dia of cover bolts
3. Dia of Foundation bolts
4. Foundation Flange thickness
5. Lubrication

6 mm
= 2* (Torque)1/4
10 mm
= (10*Torque)1/3
12 mm
= (20*Torque)1/3
= 1.5* dia of Foundation bolts.
- Oil bath ----- For V = 12.5 15 m/s
- Flood lubrication fro V>15 m/s

DESIGN OF GEAR BLANKS:

The accuracy to which gears can be produced is affected by the design of the blank, so the following points of
design should be noted:
1) Gears designed with a hole should have the hole large enough that the blank can be adequately supported during
machining of the teeth and yet not so large as to cause distortion;
2) Face widths should be wide enough, in proportion to outside diameters, to avoid springing and to permit
obtaining flatness in important surfaces;
3) Short bore lengths should be avoided wherever possible. It is feasible, however, to machine relatively thin
blanks in stacks, provided the surfaces are flat and parallel to each other.
4) Where gear blanks with hubs are to be designed, attention should be given to the wall sections of the hubs. Too
thin a section will not permit proper clamping of the blank during machining operations and may also affect proper
mounting of the gear; and
5) Where pinions or gears integral with their shafts are to be designed, deflection of the shaft can be minimized by
having the shaft length and shaft diameter well proportioned to the gear or pinion diameter. The foregoing general
principles may also be useful when applied to blanks for coarser pitch gears.
BACKLASH:
Backlash in gears is play between mating teeth.
For purposes of measurement and calculation, backlash is defined as the amount by which a tooth space
exceeds the thickness of an engaging tooth.
It does not include the effect of center-distance changes of the mountings and variations in bearings.
When not otherwise specified, numerical values of backlash are understood to be given on the pitch circles.
The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming together and making contact on both
sides of their teeth simultaneously.
Lack of backlash may cause noise, overloading, overheating of the gears and bearings, and even seizing and
failure.
Excessive backlash is objectionable, particularly if the drive is frequently reversing, or if there is an
overrunning load as in cam drives.

On the other hand, specification of an unnecessarily small amount of backlash allowance will increase the
cost of gears, because errors in run out, pitch, profile, and mounting must be held correspondingly smaller.
Backlash does not affect involute action and usually is not detrimental to proper gear action.

ERRORS IN MESHING:
REFER PAGE 2.128 (GEAR DESIGN HAND BOOK GITIN MAITRA)

1. Individual -

2. Composite -

a. Profile error
b. Pitch Error
c. Radial run-out error
d. Axial run-out error
e. tooth Thickness error
f. Base circle error. Etc..
Two Or more combinations of above.

FAILURES IN GEARS:
REFER PAGE 8.38, 8.39 (GEAR DESIGN HAND BOOK GITIN MAITRA)

TYPES1. Mechanical
2. Wear

a. Pitting
b. Abrasion
c. Corrosion
d. Scoring

GEARS
1. SPUR & HELICAL GEARS :
- Permissible reduction :

Max. Power
Max. RPM
Velocity
Efficiency

1: 8 Single stage (1: 20)

1: 45 Double stage (1: 60)
1: 200 Three stage (1:300)
= 18000 kW
= 100000 RPM
= 200 m/s
= 96 99 %

HELICAL GEAR COMPARED TO SPUR GEAR:

- No. of teeth less
- More compact
- Nature of contact is point to line
- Less dynamic load
- High contact ratio
- Less noise and vibration
- High mfg. cost
- Problem of axial thrust
- High efficiency (Increases with helix angle)
EFFICIENCY:
Spur Gear

= 1 f * * {(1/Z1) + (1/Z2)}

Helical Gear

= 1 0.8 cos * f * {(1/Z1) + (1/Z2)}

Where,

= 0.07

&

f = 2.6 -------- Under normal conditions

(for CR = 1.65)

SELECTION OF HELIX ANGLE:

As the helix angle increases1. No. of teeth decreases
2. More compact
3. High FCR
4. Less noise and vibration
5. Side thrust increases
6. High Sliding velocity
Helix angle 8O to 30O (Lower limit approaches to spur; Higher limit Side thrust increases)
Generally used values are 16O to 18O
- Fundamental requirement of helical gear the Normal module must be same to have a
conjugate action
HELICAL GEARS FOR PARALLEL SHAFTS
1. RH LH combination
2. Helix angles must be same

3. axial thrust along shaft

NATURE OF CONTACT:
Spur Line
Helical Initially point and changes to line along the diagonal of face and flank
VIRTUAL NO. OF TEETH:
It gives equivalent no. of teeth on spur gear.
2. BEVEL GEAR:
- Reduction
= Max. 6.
- Power transmission through intersecting shaft
- Max. velocity
= 2 3 m/s
- Mfg difficulty for higher modules
- Pitch surface is frustum of cone
- Axial force on pinion is radial force on gear and vice versa.
- All the terms refer to largest side of cone.
- Nature of contact is line.
- If the shaft angle is other than 90O it is called angled gearing.
- If shaft angle is 90O and reduction is equal to 1, it is called meter gear.
- Virtual no. of teeth are calculated in back cone.
- Not ground in mass & large lot production. Only lapping is used, as
there is distortion due to hardening.
- Load transferred with Impact due to backlash.
- Axial adjustment is provided for proper tooth contact.
3. WORM & WORM-WHEEL :
- Reduction
= Upto 60 (Max. 100)
- Efficiency
= 45 97 %
- Max. Power
= 750 Kw
- Max. RPM
= 30,000 rpm
- Velocity
= 70 m/s
- Nature of contact line for cylindrical surfaces and area for throated surfaces.
- Power transmission through skew shafting.
- Shaft angle = 90O
- As helix angle increases efficiency increases, hence worm is driver.
- Efficiency = 65 85 % , depends upon no. of starts of worm.
- If compactness is the requirement, single start worn is used irrespective of other factors.
- PCD of worm is independent of module.
- Worm sets Reversible (Overhauling) or irreversible (Self locking).
- Lead angle of worm = Helix angle of wheel.

For worm, (Lead angle + Helix angle) = 90O

Nature of helix Must be same for both worm and worm wheel. (LH-LH/ RH-RH) RH-RH is
commonly used.
High frictional losses due to surface contact.
Heat generation is more and hence need to be checked for thermal conditions.
The drive is rated for particular no. of hours of service. (Can not run continuously as there is
sufficient time required for heat dissipation)

Types of Worm layouts Worm down/ worm up/ worm side/ worm level / worm inclined.
Material Selection Using dissimilar material combination to control wear. Generally Worm is
made up of steel and worm wheel with softer material like brass, bronze, or Cast iron.
Axial module of worm = transverse module of wheel.
Tangential force on worm = axial force on worm wheel, and vice versa.
Corrections Worm is never corrected whereas worm wheel may or may not.

ROLLING CONTACT BEARING

Used for purely radial, purely axial or combined load situations

Parts Inner race, outer race, rolling element (Ball or roller), Separator.
Separator is sometimes omitted but it has an important function of separating element
so that rubbing contact will not occur.
TYPES OF R.C. BEARINGS
Type of Bearing
Features
Take radial as well as thrust load
Load carrying capacity increases with no of
balls
Single row DGBB
Thrust capacity decreases due to bumping of
balls against the edge of notch
Accounts small misalignments only.
Angular contact bearing Greater thrust capacity
when shaft misalignments or deflections are
Self aligning bearings
severe
Greater load carrying capacity
Requires perfect geometry of races and rollers
Straight roller bearing
Retainer
must
be
heavy
for
heavy
misalignments
Used for only radial load. No thrust load.
Helical roller bearing
Account considerable misalignment
Used for heavy loads and misalignments.
Spherical roller bearing
Contact area increases with load.
Used for radial space constraint.
High load carrying capacity when separator is
used.
Needle roller bearing
Normally used without separator.
Needle dia. = 1.6 to 5 mm & length = 5 to 10
times of dia.
Combined advantage of ball & straight roller
bearing.
Taper roller bearing
Can take any king of load.
Taper cone angle = 9O 30O

SELECTION OF BALL AND ROLLER BEARINGS

In selecting a ball or roller bearing for a specific application five choices must be made:
1) Bearing series;
2) The type of bearing;
3) The size of bearing;
4) The method of lubrication; and
5) The type of mounting.

Naturally these considerations are modified or affected by the anticipated operating

conditions, expected life, cost, and overhaul philosophy.

PERMISSIBLE MISALIGNMENT:
Cylindrical and taper roller bearing Spherical roller bearing
D.G.B.B
-

Upto 0.001 rad.

0.0087 rad. Max
0.0035 to 0.0047 rad

Bearing Identification:
- First no. in the code is from width series 0,1,2,3,4,5,& 6
- Second no. is from Outer dia. series 0,1,2,3,4,8,& 9
- Last two digit x 5 = shaft dia. at inner race.
LUBRICATION OF R.C. BEARING:
GREASE
O
1. Temp < 100 C
2. Speed = Low
3. Protection required form the foreign
particles
4. Simple
bearing enclosures
are
desired
5. Operation without attention for along
time

OIL
1. High
2. High
3. Oil tight seals are employed
4. Bearings which are not suitable for grease
lubrication.
5. Bearing is lubricated from a central supply
which is also used for other parts

PRELOADING:
- Objective is to remove internal clearances to improve fatigue life.
- Preloading of straight roller bearings may be obtained by
1. Mounting the bearing on the tapered shaft or sleeve to expand the inner race.
2. Using interference fit for outer race.
3. Purchasing a bearing with the outer race preshrunk over the roller.
- Ball bearings are usually preloaded by axial load built in during assembly
- Good practice is to follow the manufacturers recommendation in determining the
preload as too much will lead to easily failure.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
1. Static load carrying capacity:
It is that load which causes a permanent deformation equal to 0.0001 times the dia of
rolling element (Ball or Roller) at the most heavily loaded rolling element (ball or roller)
and race contact when the bearing is at rest.
It is denoted by Co.
It depends upon
a.
Material characteristics i.e. Hardness (58 63 HRC )
b.
Bearing size
c.
Degree of conformity between mating parts.
2. Dynamic or Basic Load carrying capacity:
It is defined as a const. radial load in radial bearing or const. axial load in thrust
bearing that can be carried for a minimum life of 1 million revolutions with 10%
bearings fail or 90% survived under the service condition of inner race rotation.
It is denoted by C.
It depends upon
i.
Load
ii.
Speed
iii.
Lubrication
iv.
Design
v.
Installation
vi.
Manufacturing
vii.
Service condition
viii.
Environment
ix.
Degree of geometrical conformity between mating parts.
3. Static Equivalent load:
It is that purely axial or radial load which causes the same total permanent
deformation at the most heavily loaded ball/roller and race contact as that of
combined load applied on the bearing.
It is denoted by P
P = (X * V * Fr + Y * Fa) * SF * Kt
Where,

X&Y
V

Radial and Axial load factors resp.

- Race rotation factor
= 1 if inner race rotary, outer race stationary
= 1.2 if outer race rotary, inner race stationary
Fr & Fa - Radial and Axial load resp.
SF Service factor.
Kt Temp. Factor.

4. Baring life:
i. Nominal Life (L10 or L90) No. of million rev. corresponding to 10% bearings fail or
90% survived
ii. Median Life (L50) No. of million rev. corresponding to 50% bearings fail or 50%
survived