Sag and tension calculations for

mountainous terrain
J. Bradbury, Dip. Tech. (Eng.), G.F. Kuska, C. Eng., M.I.E.E., and D.J. Tarr
Indexing terms:

Cables and overhead lines, Power transmission

Abstract: While normal sag and tension calculations based on the 'equivalent-span' concept are satisfactory,
when applied to transmission lines located in a reasonably undulating terrain, the answers obtained by this
method are inaccurate for mountainous terrain. An alternative method of calculation, which is based on the
analysis of the change of state equation for each span of a section in turn, is given. It is shown that when
using this new approach the full effect of both the suspension and tension insulators can be included together
with the influence of the running-out blocks on the sag of the conductor.
The paper also shows how this concept can be adapted to the function of line design and gives several
examples of critical areas where existing methods may give unacceptable results.
When stringing conductors in mountainous terrain, it is not always practical to measure the conductor sag
using conventional techniques and the paper gives three additional means which may be used, and discusses
the advantages and disadvantages of each.
List of symbols

A = cross-sectional area of conductor, mm2

a,b,c,d = constants depending on sag>>
C catenary constant = H/W,m
E = Young's modulus of complete conductor, kg/mm2
H = horizontal tension of conductor, kg
H' = component of tension in line with AG (Fig. 2d), kg
h = height difference between attachment points at adjacent
towers, m
ht = vertical distance from tower to instrument, m
K = unstretched length of conductor in a span (i.e. length
after removing the tension at 0 C), m
L = chord length between adjacent towers (Fig. 1), m
/
= length of tension or suspension insulator set, m
S = stretched length of conductor in a span, m
T = total (tangential) tension in conductor, kg
V = vertical load at attachment point due to conductor (uplift load denoted by negative value), kg
W = conductor weight per unit length, kg/m
Wh = conductor wind load per unit length (wind acting
normal to conductor), kg/m
Wr = resolved conductor weight per unit length in the plane
(as shown in Fig. 2c), kg/m
Wv = W + weight of ice per unit length, kg/m
W' = resolved conductor weight per unit length in the plane
(as shown in Fig. 2b), kg/m
X = horizontal span length, m
Xo = horizontal distance from attachment point to low
point datum (Fig. 1), m
Xp = horizontal distance from any point on the catenary to
low point datum (Fig. 1), m
x = horizontal distance from attachment point to any
point on the catenary, m
xt = horizontal distance from tower to instrument, m
y = sag from chord line at point x on the catenary, m
y0 = sag from attachment point at low point datum (Fig.

= coefficient of thermal expansion of complete conductor, per deg C

/3 = blow-out angle of conductor (Fig. 2b), degrees
7 = angle to the vertical of the suspension or tension insulator sets, degrees
Ah = height difference between tower and conductor attachment points (Fig. 9), m
Ax = horizontal difference corresponding to Ah, m
5 = angle between chord line and the horizontal in the unresolved plane, degrees
6 = conductor temperature, C
i// = angle between chord line and the horizontal in the resolved plane (Fig. 2d), degrees
to = weight of tension or suspension insulator set, kg
<t> = angle of the tangent at point F to the horizontal
(Fig. 1), degrees
Subscripts 1 and 2 denote different values for the same variables.
1

Introduction

Paper 20S4C (P8), first received 2nd November 1981 and in revised
form 20th May 1982
The authors are with Balfour Beatty Power Construction Limited, Power
Transmission Division, 7 Mayday Road, Thorton Heath, Surrey CR4
7XA, England

Since the advent of transmission lines, theories have been progressively developed to define the sag and tension behaviour of
the conductor. Initially these were oriented towards manual
calculations and, consequently, were based upon the parabolic
theory (Boyse and Simpson [1]). With the introduction of
computers most theories are now based upon the accurate
catenary equations (Rieger [2]). In multi-span sections, it is
usual to assume that the horizontal tensions will react to
changes in load and temperature as a single span referred to by
the well known term 'equivalent span'. The mathematical
treatment to obtain the 'equivalent span' is based upon parabolic theory, and there is no similar concept using full catenary equations.
While the methods give acceptable and practical results for
the majority of lines constructed'in normal, reasonably undulating terrain, e.g. in the UK, in mountainous areas these
theories produce significant errors. Overhead-line engineers are
already aware of this problem, as illustrated by Winkelman [3],
which develops the parabolic and catenary theories for application to inclined sections. Our recent experience, on applying
this method to very mountainous terrain, highlighted the presence of further inaccuracies which will result in the towers and
conductors experiencing loads in excess of their limiting design
values. In an attempt to overcome these problems, a theory
has been developed which is the subject of this paper. At
the development stage it became evident that the above inaccuracies were valid for both the single- and multi-span
sections.
This paper was originally presented to the 2nd international conference on 'Progress in cables and overhead lines

IEEPROC, Vol. 129, Pt. C, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1982

0143-7046/82/050213 + 08 $01.50/0

yh
yh'
Z

= maximum value of y occurring at point X/2 (absence of

tension insulators) (Fig. 1), m
= maximum value of y not necessarily at point X/2 in
presence of tension insulators (Fig. 4), m
= transverse horizontal load at attachment point due to
conductor, kg

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213

for 220 kV and above' [4] and has now been expanded to include practical examples using the methods of calculations
described.
2

Theory

2.1

Basic equations

LT

catenary constant C =

(1)

= c/cosh^-

(2)

length of conductor between points A and D

S = Csinh
C
horizontal length Xo (D' A)
= -Csinh"1

= tan" 1 ! s i n h l - ^ |}
2.2

Before detailed considerations were given to the problem, it

was recognised that there are two theories, inelastic [2,3] and
elastic (Hattingh [5]), applicable to the solution of a catenary.
Considering the two theories, it became evident that the elastic
treatment requires lengthy computation without producing
worthwhile improvements in the accuracy of the result. It is
therefore felt that the inelastic theory gives a tolerable
accuracy, and, for this reason, the inelastic catenary equations
are used. These, by reference to Fig. 1, are given below:

Xo

angle to the horizontal of the tangent at point F

(3)

Change-of-state equation

When considering a length of conductor suspended between

two towers, after it has been clamped in, it is assumed that the
unstretched length K of the conductor at 0C is constant, i.e.
it equals the length given by the catenary equation less the
elastic and thermal changes.
To utilise the above statement in the development of the
change-of-state equation, two simplifications have been made
related to the unstretched length of the conductor and its
tension. With respect to the former, an assumption was made
that, when calculating the elastic and thermal changes, the value
of K is equal to the chord length L. This assumption causes an
error of less than 0.01 % in the estimation of the unstretched
length. It is felt that this accuracy is sufficient for practical
purposes, but, if further accuracy is required, it can be improved
by adopting the second-term-approximation system given in
step (d) of Section 3.1.
Regarding the tension, in calculating the elastic changes, the
mean total tension in the conductor length has been assumed
to equal the horizontal tension.
Referring to Fig. 1, the change-of-state equation becomes:

(4)

X
2Csinh

sinh

also

h sinh

yi

A (Y)

C2
Xo = Csinh" 1
H
vertical component of tension at point A

(5)

V = //sinh^-

(6)

total tension at point A

T =

(7)

half-span sag
yh

= C |cosh-1

1+
2 Csinh

X
2C~

(8)

Xo
Fig. 1

Inclined span

Sign convention: Xo positive and Xp negative for the case shown, i.e. if
point F is to the left of D, Xp becomes positive
214

(9)

(10)
EA

where subscripts 1 and 2 denote two different conditions.

It should be noted that this equation is only valid for stillair conditions. When the conductor is subjected to wind acting
normal to it, the vertical and transverse forces present must
be resolved in the deflected plane of the conductor before
applying eqn. 10. The method for resolving these forces is
given in Fig. 2 and explained below:
Step 1: Fig. 2a shows an inclined span under the influence
of a wind force. Consider the forces acting on the conductor
element, i.e. the wind force Wh acting normal to the conductor
and the vertical force Wv due to the conductor and ice weight.
Force Wv must be resolved along two axes normal to and parallel with the chord line.
Step 2: Fig. 2b shows a section through the element (Fig. 2a)
along the X X axis. The forces acting are Wh, Wv cos 5 and Wv
sin 5, the latter applied parallel with the chord line. The resultant force W' acting at an angle j3 to the vertical is obtained.
Step 3: Fig. 2c shows the inclined span rotated about axis
AB through angle /3. The forces in the deflected plane, W' and
Wv sin 5, are combined to give the resultant force Wr acting at
an angle i// to the normal to the chord line.
Step 4: Fig. 2d shows the inclined span rotated about point
A, such that the chord line makes an angle \p to the line AG.
This line represents the 'horizontal' plane in which the catenary
equations are valid. Under this condition, force Wr is the
only force present and acts 'vertically', thus satisfying the requirements to solve the change-of-state equation (eqn. 10).
To use eqns. 110 the parameters H and W should be replaced
by H' and Wr, respectively.
Having solved eqn. 1 for the unknown H'2 it should be
noted that this is the 'horizontal' tension in the rotated plane
(Fig. 2d~), and not the inline horizontal force at the tower. To
obtain the tension components H, V and Z at tower A (Fig. 2a),
it is first necessary to calculate the Vertical' force in the rotated
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Q=Wh
c = W v sin8
d = Wwcos6

Fig. 2 Resolution of forces under wind conditions

a Span subjected to a wind force normal to the conductor
6 Deflection of element through section X X
c Span through section Y Y
d Span in resolved plane

suspension
insulator

suspension
insulator

Fig. 3 Forces on suspension insulators

a Conductor on running-out blocks
b Conductor clamped in
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215

plane at point A (eqn. 6) and then reverse the above step-bystep procedure.
2.3 Effect of suspension insulators
Two conditions must be considered, when the conductor is on
running out blocks, and when it is clamped in.
2.3.1 Conductor on running-out blocks: Consider Fig. 3a which
shows the conductor mounted immediately below the suspension insulator. Assuming the block to be frictionless, it
follows that:

T = \IH\ + v\ = \ltii + v\

(11)

Taking moments about point Q, the following equation is

derived:
7 = tan - l

H2

(12)

Furthermore, as the block is free to rotate thus permitting

conductor movement between spans, the unstretched length
in individual spans is not constant. Obviously, the total unstretched length in a section is constant.
2.3.2 Conductor clamped in: Once the conductor is clamped
in, the unstretched length in individual spans remains constant,
because no conductor movement occurs at the clamp.
Considering this condition, it is evident that although previous theories assumed the suspension set to be always vertical
this assumption is incorrect, because the verticality depends
upon the geometry of the section and the temperature. For
this reason Fig. 3b shows the suspension insulator at an angle
7 to the vertical. Again by taking moments about Q, eqn. 12
can be derived. It follows that the horizontal tensionsHx and
H2 in the adjacent spans are different unless 7 equals zero.
2.4 Effect of tension insulator
The length and weight of a tension insulator cause errors in sag
and tension, particularly in EHV downleads. However, with
regard to tension, the reduction in span length X and the slight
variation in height difference h have only a marginal influence

on the solution of eqn. 10 and are ignored. As far as the error

in sag is concerned, the effect can be significant.
By reference to Fig. 4, the following equations apply:
tan

H
V + co/2

Ax
Ah

(13)

also3
/ = VA/J2 +

Ax2

(14)

The horizontal tension H is known from the change-of-state

equation and the insulator weight co given. The vertical force
V is dependent on Xo and hence on Ah. The solution for Ah
and Kcan be achieved by iterative technique.
To provide the necessary sagging information during stringing, the maximum sag y^ (which does not necessarily occur
at X/2) must be calculated. In this respect, it should be noted
that eqn. 8 no longer applies; and a practical approach is given
below:
(i) Calculate y for three different values of*
(ii) Solve

y = ax2 + bx + c

(15)

(iii) Calculate JC for maximum sag, i.e. JC = b/2a

(iv) Substitute x from (iii) into eqn. 15 thus obtaining ^
3

Application of theory by computer programming

For the purpose of tower design, profiling and stringing, an

overhead line contractor requires data resulting from a large
number of sag and tension calculations. These must, particularly in mountainous terrain, reflect the geometry of the line.
Under conditions of excessive gradients the suspension insulator will swing longitudinally, with the result that the horizontal tensions in adjacent spans may not be equal. Consequently, the 'equivalent span' concept is not valid. The solution
to the problem lies in the evaluation of the elastic and thermal
effects in the conductor in each individual span, i.e. span-byspan analysis. Without the aid of a computer program it is not
practical to undertake these calculations. While the programming of the sag equations was straightforward, the tension
equations presented some difficulties. For multi-span sections
these were overcome by the method outlined below:
3.1 Starting conditions
To carry out the calculations two parameters of the line must
be known at a given point in time, namely, the angle 7 of all
suspension insulators and a limit tension. Normally the
suspension insulators are assumed to be vertical at the expected
stringing temperature. The assumed tension values relate to a
limit in the horizontal or total component, as required by the
specification. For calculating the left-hand side of eqn. 10 the
procedure is as follows:

Fig. 4
216

Span with tension insulator

(a) The vertical and transverse loads are estimated at each

tower position.
(b) The total tension is estimated at the first tower.
(c) The left-hand side of eqn. 10 is evaluated for the first
span in the section, using the value of the chord length
for the unstretched length.
(d) Should further accuracy in the unstretched length be
required (see Section 2.2), the left-hand side of eqn. 10
can be recalculated using the value for the unstretched
length found under step (c) above. (This improves the
accuracy in calculating the unstretched length to better
than 0.0001 %).
(e) Steps (c) and (d) are repeated for all spans in the section
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taking into account the angle 7, if any, of the suspension

insulator, using eqn.12 for calculation of the horizontal tension in succeeding spans.
3.2

Condition when conductor is clamped in

This refers to the evaluation of the right-hand side of eqn. 10,

i.e. for a condition other than the starting condition. The
procedure adopted is as follows:
(a) Using the equivalent-span technique the horizontal,
vertical and transverse tensions are estimated at each
tower.
(b) The total tension is estimated at the first tower.
(c) The right-hand side of eqn. 10 is evaluated for each span
and angle 7 of the suspension insulator, changed to
accommodate any variation in the chord length. Before
considering the next span the horizontal tension is
altered according to eqn 12.
(d) By reiteration of steps (b) and (c), convergence on the
position of the conductor attachment point at the last
tower is obtained.
3.3 Condition when conductor is on running-out blocks
This refers to the conductor being free to move and the procedure adopted is the same as under Section 3.2 with the exception of step (c), which is as follows:
(c) A summation of the values for the right-hand side of
eqn. 10 is made. When considering successive spans, the horizontal tension is changed according to eqn. 11.
4

Application of theory to practical line situations

Conventional sag and tension methods are satisfactory for the

majority of situations, and use of the method described above,
cannot be normally justified in view of the additional data required. Computer runs have shown that for normal level singlespan sections there is no difference between conventional
methods and the one now proposed; unlike multi-spans, where
even with level span sections, there is a small difference of
approximately 0.3 % between the theories. This is due to the
fact that under wind conditions, if conventional suspension
insulators are used, the bottom of the suspension insulator
will move in the transverse direction, causing an increase in the
chord length between the fixing points. This effect is included
in the present theory, but ignored in conventional techniques.
As conditions on the line change from a level span, the difference between conventional methods and the one proposed
gradually increases. Under extreme circumstances, limited
investigations have shown that conventional theories will
underestimate the maximum tension and sag by up to about
20%; hence, it is apparent that in critical situations there is a
need for more accurate sag and tension techniques. It is therefore necessary to have available a method of assessing these
critical situations. As guidelines, the following empirical conditions have been developed, to determine the sections in which
the more rigorous treatment given in this paper should be
considered:
(a) if the span gradient for any span within the section exceeds 0.2 or if the average span gradient within the section exceeds 0.15
(b) if the conventional sag and tension using the modifications given by Winkelman [3] give an offset in excess
of 0.5 m
(c) for all sections containing spans in excess of 1 km, e.g.
river crossings
(d) if aircraft warning spheres are fitted
(e) if for some reason one or more suspension sets are not
designed to be vertical at the time of clamping.
Naturally, when considering a complete line, it is not ideal to

adopt more than one sag and tension method for its construction. Hence, at an early stage, one method is selected and used
throughout the line; even though, when the conventional
method is selected, isolated sections may be found which
slightly exceed the limits given above. With some line constructions, where conventional techniques may be ideal, isolated
mountainous sections may be present where the method from
this paper must be considered.
5

Practical application to line design

Following the development of the program, it has been found

increasingly useful in connection with studies and calculations
relevant to the following design activities:
(a) the determination, for tower-design purpose, of all loads
imposed by the conductors and earthwires
(b) the design and selection of profile-plotting templates
which reflect the effect of gradients
(c) the investigation of tower loads in cases where a combination of long and short spans may result in unacceptable out-of-balance longitudinal and vertical loads
(d) an accurate determination of sags and tensions in circumstances where the route topography imposes a
severe limitation on tower locations. This, in cases of
excessive gradients, can lead to critical ground-clearance
problems
(e) the production of sags and tension data for field use. In
mountainous terrain the output refers to two stringing
conditions:
(i) when the conductor in a section is located on running-out blocks
(ii) when the conductor in a section is clamped in
(f) the evaluation of suspension-insulator longitudinalswing and out-of-balance tensions. This may be required when dealing with very long sections
(g) use as a general-purpose design aid for the evaluation
of sags and tensions leading to rapid solution of field
problems
In order that a better understanding of this theory can be obtained, a number of examples are given below. These examples
relate to a 'Zebra' conductor (54/7/3.18mm ACSR) strung to
typical UK loading conditions. This Section, however, does
not constitute a criticism of UK practice which employs a
special technique, see below, for safely overcoming the inadequacies of conventional sag and tension calculations, mentioned
in this paper.
In the UK external loads and factors of safety related to
transmission lines are governed by the Statutory Instruments
1970, number 1355. Clause 9.2 defines the minimum factor
of safety for total (tangential) tensions of the conductors as
2.0. For the 'Zebra' conductor this corresponds to a tension of
6722 kg. The conventional UK practice for sag and tension calculations for this conductor is to employ a maximum horizontal tension of 5505 kg. The difference between these two
figures is more than sufficient to account for any increases
in tension due to the nature of the terrain in the UK.
5.1 Variation of tensions with span gradients
In most specifications, the maximum working tension (MWT)
in the conductors refers to the maximum tension anywhere in
the conductor's length. This occurs at the highest point of
attachment of the conductor to the tower. Tension calculations
(eqn. 10) are ruled by the horizontal tensions. Thus, the tension
used in eqn. 10 should be reduced as the span gradient is
increased, to ensure that the MWT is not exceeded. Fig. 5
illustrates this reduction in horizontal tension against span
gradient, to ensure that the tension on a 366 m span does not
exceed 2651 kg under still-air conditions anywhere in the span

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217

length. This shows, considering a span having a difference in

height between the conductor attachment points of 100 m
that the tension in eqn. 10 should be reduced to 2454 kg, a
reduction of 7.4%. Even on level spans, this figure shows the
specified tension should be reduced by 0.7%, a fact often
ignored when conventional sag and tension equations are used.
>.

0.6

specified maximum
tension

>v
0.5

n200

\
-

- 0.4

150g

I 0.3

100? c

c si

a, a

"50 ^
\

0.1

2000

2200
2400
horizontal tension, kg

2600

Fig. 5 Horizontal tension on a 366 m span to ensure conductor's

tension should not exceed 2651 kg

5.2 Profile plotting

The problems mentioned in Section 5.1 cause further complications during the profile plotting stage, because the templates
are based on horizontal tensions. It follows, therefore, that
template selection is a function of equivalent span length and
span gradient. This problem has been solved by introducing a
graph, Fig. 6, from which template selection is made .

equivalent span,mSketch of template selection graph

Fig. 6 is obtained by determining the number of templates,

and tensions for each template, to be used during plotting. The
program is run to predict the horizontal tension, at maximum
operating temperature, from the specified limiting conditions
for a number of spans and span gradients. From this data, Fig. 6
can be drawn by plotting the lines corresponding to the horizontal tension chosen for the templates. The straight line given
in the Figure represents the level single-span condition, below
which the graph is indeterminate.
In practice, this graph is used in the following manner:
(a) The worst span in a section is visually selected, usually
having the highest span gradient
(b) Any template is offered to this span and the weight
span at the highest tower read off the template
(c) The weight span is checked against Fig. 6, and the
correct template selected for use in final plotting
5.3

Transverse loads on suspension earth wire peaks

As eqn. 12 shows, the suspension insulator is not normally

218

1.0

sets,

0.8

& 0.6

thwi

in 0.2 :

0.4

o
<D

0.2

"o

ength

Fig. 6

vertical and, hence, longitudinal loads of a magnitude H2

Hi are transmitted to the suspension towers. The magnitude
of this force is influenced by the length of the insulator string
or earthwire set. In the case of insulator sets, owing to their
length, the transmitted force is normally very small. However,
in recent years, there has been a tendency to reduce the length
of the earthwire set which connects the earthwire to the tower.
Fig. 7 shows that if this set is made too short, this may give
rise to high longitudinal loads at the tower. This Figure was
constructed assuming a level two-span section having 150
and 500 m span lengths. It was further assumed the set is
vertical when under wind conditions, and the longitudinal
out-of-balance forces shown are calculated at 75 C in still air.

Fig. 7

2
4
6
8 10 12 14 16
horizontal tension applied to earthwire
peak at suspension tower, "U

Loads applied to the suspension tower

Effect of masses on conductors

5.4

On some lines, located in the vicinity of aircraft flight paths, it

is necessary to install aircraft warning spheres on the earthwires. These form effective masses at discrete points of the
line, causing a discontinuity in eqn. 2 at the point of their
application. While the effect of this is mainly on the sag
calculations, a second and far more important effect can
arise with some designs, because the sag of the earthwire
should be equal or less than the sag of the conductor from
electrical considerations. This results in the tension of the
earthwire being increased. Fig. 8 shows a simplified example
of this, in which the increase in tension has been calculated to
accomodate a single-centre span mass, placed on a 366 m level
span; so that the sag remains the same as a conductor without
such a mass.
When considering additional masses under MWT conditions,

30-

3400

3200

3000
10
2800

20
40
60
80
weight of central mass, kg

100

Fig. 8 Increase in tension to accommodate a centre span mass without increasing sag
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the effect of the weight of ice load and extra wind load on the
added masses, together with their weight, must also be included
in the tension calculations.
To accommodate this additional tension caused by fitting
spheres, while still maintaining the required factors of safety,
the selected earthwire must be sufficiently strong. Failure
to achieve this can result in a situation in which the sag of the
earthwire dictates the main conductor sags, which can prove to
be an uneconomical solution.
6

Sag measuring techniques

When stringing conductors in mountainous terrain it is not

always possible or desirable to use the conventional sagging
technique. To provide field staff with alternatives, four further
methods have been developed. Each has its limitations, but the
selection of the appropriate method will be dictated by site
circumstances, and is made by the stringing engineer.
6.1

Conventional method

This is illustrated in Fig. 9a, where the gun sight and the
sighting board are fixed to the towers at a distance yh> below
the conductor attachment points. The field application is
straightforward, but limited to cases when yh' is less than the
tower heights. Its accuracy will decease with small spans.
6.2

Modified conventional method

By reference to Fig. 9b, it is seen that this method applies to

conditions when the gun sight and the sighting board cannot
be located on the tower. It requires care in accurate location
of the theodolite, and has the same limitations as in Section
6.1.

6.3

Low-point method

With this method (Fig. 9c), the instrument, e.g. theodolite

or dumpy level, is located at a distance y0 below the conductor attachment point. Obviously, its application is limited
to cases having a low-point datum, and the accuracy achieved
is dependent upon the variation of y0 with changes in temperature. If the variation is small the method may be unsuitable.
6.4

Tangent method

Fig. 9d illustrates the case where the location of the theodolite

is defined by limited access. In application, the stringing engineer, having fixed its location, is required to make use of the
following equations:
(16)
where d = C In (tan 0 + sec 0)

(17)

The difficulty in using this method lies in the reiterative calculation for 0 and the accuracy with which it has to be measured.
For reason of accuracy and site calculation this method is to
be avoided if possible.
6.5

Tension method

When considering short span sections, an accurate sagging

method can be achieved by the use of a load cell prior to conductor marking and the installation of tension insulator. This
technique lends itself to situations where compression deadends are made aloft.
6.6

Stringing tables

It is not possible to provide site staff with sufficient information in conventional sag-chart form to string conductors using

sighting
board

Fig. 9 Method of sag measurement

a Conventional
b Modified conventional
c Low-point datum
d Tangent
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219

Table 1 : Typical stringing table obtained from computer

kg

Total tension
high tower
low tower
number
number
kg
kg

Half
span
sag
m

2400
2290
2189
2096
2011
1933
1862
1796

2400
2290
2189
2097
2012
1934
1862
1796

3.32
3.48
3.64
3.80
3.96
4.12
4.20
4.44

-31.95
-25.86
-20.26
-15.13
-10.43
-6.11
-2.14
1.51

0.60
0.52
0.46
0.42
0.40
0.39
0.39
0.40

233.74
227.65
222.05
216.92
212.22
207.90
203.93
200.28

16.50
16.42
16.36
16.32
16.30
16.29
16.29
16.30

Temperature

Horizontal
load

C
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00

2422
2312
2211
2118
2033
1955
1883
1817

low tower number

Y
X

high
X

tower

number
Y

all five methods given above. The program provides computerprintout tables, illustrated in Table 1, which has an added
advantage over conventional sag-chart owing to ease of reading
rather than interpolation of graphs.

In many instances, where conditions were so severe that the

use of helicopters became the only means of access, the use of
the tension method, where the tangential tension is measured
by a load cell, proved extremely effective.

Conclusions

To satisfy the statutory ground clearance requirements, and to

ensure that the specified factors of safety of the line are maintained, an accurate method of span-to-span analysis has been
developed. This is of particular importance in mountainous
terrain, where existing techniques may result in noticeable
errors.
Normally, in reasonable terrain, consideration need not be
given to the out-of-balance loads due to the longitudinal swing
of the suspension insulator. However, in long multi-span sections with excessive gradients this effect can be significant and
should be examined.
In mountainous terrain, where the conventional method of
sagging is either impossible or impracticable, then, alternative
methods must be available to the site organisation. During the
construction of the 400 kV line through the formidable Zagros
mountains in Central Iran, it was necessary to apply the full
range of methods, as detailed under Section 6, each being determined by the relative conditions of each section encountered.

220

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the help of their colleagues in the

preparation of this work, and wish to thank the General
Manager of the Power Transmission Division, Balfour Beatty
Power Construction Limited, and the Directors of Balfour
Beatty Limited for permission to publish this paper.
9

References

1 BOYSE, CO., and SIMPSON, N.G.: 'The problem of conductor

sagging on overhead transmission lines', J. IEE, 1944, 91, Pt. II,
pp. 219-238
2 RIEGER, H.: 'Der Freileitungsbau' (Springer Verlag, 1960)
3 WINKELMAN, P.F.: 'Sag-tension computations and field measurements of Bonneville Power Administration', Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect.,
Engrs., 1959, 78, Pt. Ill B pp. 1532-1547
4 BRADBURY, J., KUSKA, G.F., and TARR, D.J.: 'Sag and tension
calculations in mountainous terrain'. IEE Conf. Publ. 176, 1979,
pp. 1-5
5 HATTINGH, J.T.: 'A universal stress-sag chart (for line computations)' (Blackie & Sons, 1936)

IEEPROC, Vol. 129, Pt. C, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1982

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