Mesopotamian Civilization

Emerged in Mesopotamia which is the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in what
is now Iraq.
Mesopotamia comes from a Greek word which means land between the two rivers.
It is a part of the Fertile Crescent or the arc of fertile land in West Asia that stretches from the
Persian Gulf up to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea.
It is considered the oldest civilization in the world.
Political Structure
Sumerian government was based on a monarchy. Sumerians believed their kings established
rule through divine right.
The first leaders of Sumer were priest-kings. He was the main mediator between the patron
god and the inhabitants of the city. As a political leader, he enforced laws to maintain peace
and order. He was also responsible for constructing buildings and temples, maintaining the
city borders and irrigation systems.
As wars became more frequent, the priest-king was replaced by a military king whose main
function was to lead the soldiers in wars and to defend the city.
The priest was still considered important but his role became second to that of the military
king.
As the government became more complex, the king employed scribes, official public
secretaries, to collect taxes and keep records for the government. The king was also assisted
by his advisors who helped him rule and ensured that people obeyed his laws.
Sumerian governments drafted commoners to work on community projects. All citizens in
ancient Sumer had to pay taxes to the government. A portion of the crops was taken by the
government as tax. The city could either sell the crops or use them feed its soldiers.
Social Structure
Developed as a result of distinction in wealth among the people and because the society
always needs order.
Everybody couldn't be a king. There had to be workers. While people were working and
supplying the higher class people with resources, the priests enforced the law. The slaves
were used for grueling work and no pay, the jobs the lower class wouldnt do.
You could move down in the hierarchy in social level by robbery, losing your job, and
stealing or breaking the law. You could move up if you married a higher class person or made
enough money to no longer have to work. That was the main goal of all of the lower class
people.
Social Class
Sumerian society grew complex, split into social groups, or classes - class systems unequal;
define who has power, less desirable jobs.

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Women had more rights in early Sumer than in later Mesopotamia - some upper-class women
were priestesses - some women landowners, merchants, artisans; most raised children

The King was responsible for creating the laws. They were believed to as literal gods on
Earth. They served as the head of the army. They used to wear a lot of jewelry made up of
gold and had a nice clothing.
The Priest belonged to the upper class of the society. They were influential because religion
was much important at the time and people believed that priests have relationship with the
God. They were considered as doctors of the time. In case of any physical illness, the people
used to request the priests for treatment.
The Scribes also belonged to the upper class and well educated. They were primarily engaged
in various professions such bas working in the palace, army, government and merchants etc.
Most of them also ran their own business as public writers.
The Merchants & Artisans also belonged to the upper class. They played the main job role in
creating the required wealth for the growth of the civilization. They were known to invent
Cuneiform to document the various trade deals. They also invented calendars to keep track of
the trades.
The Commoners belonged to the laboring lower class of the Mesopotamia social hierarchy.
More than 85 percent of this class was engaged in farming. They were not educated. The
other professions of this class included fishing and pottery making etc. They had their own
homes. Although their life was not as luxurious as that of the upper class people, they led a
comfortable life.
Slaves were at the bottom of the Mesopotamia social hierarchy. They had no rights and
generally worked for the upper class people. The slaves mostly worked in the agricultural
fields.

Economy/Trade System
Sumer did not have many natural resources aside from fish, reeds, and mud bricks. However,
the people who lived in the mountains and traveling merchants had many resources that
Sumerians desperately needed including stone, wood, and metals such as copper. Thus, a
complex system of trade developed.

 People who lived in the Zagros and Taurus Mountains needed wheat and barley from the citystate of Sumer. In exchange for these products, the mountain people would give Sumerians
timber, limestone, gold, silver, and copper. Riverboats were used to transport goods for trade.
Many of these boats were referred to as turnips because they resembled an upside down
turnip. These boats were round and made from woven reeds.
Money was not usually used to pay for goods that were traded. A barter system in which
goods were directly exchanged for other goods developed. If money had to be used, it was
usually in the form of small silver disks.
Sumerians had the privilege of a free economy, and strict records were kept of all business
transactions. These documents were the first written artifacts recovered by archaeologists and
helped contribute to Sumer also being known as the birthplace of economics.
Temples were the key location for most commercial activity. In addition, temples were the
chief employer. Artisans, scribes, priests, local administrators, and teachers all were
employed by the temple. Temples gained their economic strength based on their vast real
estate holdings. Temples were the largest single land owner in the city-state.
The ownership of land was so valued that even kings had to buy land. People of all classes
had the opportunity to own land however. Many of the people who were considered poor by
Sumerian standards owned houses, gardens, and fishery ponds.
Craftsmanship was an important skill in Sumer and was developed for survival on a day-today basis. The most important craftsmen were the copper and bronze workers. These artisans
were responsible for making most of the tools that farmers, shepherds, soldiers, and other
workers needed for survival. Hoes, axes, and plows, as well as knives, daggers, and spears
were made from copper and bronze which were plentiful and easy to work with.
Carpentry was also extremely important. Furniture was made from imported wood. Carts,
boats, and chariots were also made from wood. Leather workers used hides from different
animals to fashion harnesses, saddles, shoes, and water bags. Basket weavers were also an
important part of Sumerian life. Baskets were used by Sumerians for many purposes
including carrying food and goods from one place to another, storing items in houses, and for
holding infants as they slept.
Technologies
Pottery
People had been using clay to make objects but true pottery was only possible once the
ability to control the firing had been mastered. Distinctive shapes of pottery reflected their
use, and fashions changed over time and between regions. Early pottery was made of slabs or
coils of clay. The potters wheel was developed in the mid-fourth millennium B.C.
Metalwork
As early as the seventh millennium B.C. objects were manufactured out of copper. The
earliest objects were shaped by hammering but by the end of the 4th millennium B.C. copper
objects were cast from smelted metal. At the same time gold, silver and lead also came into
use. The cire perdue, or lost-wax method of casting complicated shapes in bronze, gold or
silver was invented in the 4th millennium B.C. First a model was made out of wax over a

clay core. This was covered with more clay and then heated so that the wax melted and ran
away. Molten metal was poured into the space left by the wax which would be broken open
to release the complete object. The properties of copper were improved by alloying with
other metals: first antimony or arsenic, then tin, lead and zinc (c. 700 B.C.). In the 2nd
millennium B.C. iron was manufactured but the technology was not perfected until the first
millennium B.C.
Textiles
Cloth was manufactured from a variety of materials such as wool, linen (flax), and palm
fiber. Early evidence dates from around 7000 B.C. with impressions left by textiles on clay
objects. Cylinder seals of the late fourth millennium B.C. appear to show women gathered
together to weave textiles and early texts refer to hundreds of women employed by the palace
and temple in textile manufacture.
Faience
Faience is an artificial glazed material and was made in Mesopotamia by 4000 B.C. but glaze
was not applied to pottery until the 2nd millennium B.C.
Glass
Mesopotamian craftsmen invented glass around 1600 B.C. Glass vessels were molded on a
core, i.e. molten glass was poured over a clay core which was scraped away when the glass
solidified. Rods of colored glass were sometimes let into the still plastic surface of vessels
and then dragged up and down to create a zigzag pattern.
Mud-brick making and building
The earliest mud-bricks date to around 8000 B.C. and were molded by hand and had a flat
base and a round top. Later bricks were made in a mould. Houses were made of mud-bricks
and usually had flat roofs. The walls and the roofs were coated with plaster made of mud and
straw. A damp course was created using burnt bricks (which was expensive) or bitumen.
When the buildings fell down or were abandoned the roof timbers were removed but the rest
of the structure was left to form a small, flat mound of mud.
Knowledge/Inventions/Writings
The Invention of the Wheel
The first wheel wasnt used for transportation. The wheel was invented
to serve as porters wheels. The first wheel was believed to be existed around
3,500 BC in Mesopotamia. Even though the wheels believed to be first existed
in Ancient Mesopotamia, the oldest wheel named Ljubljana Marshes Wheel
was discovered in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, in 2002 dated 5,150 years
old.
The wheel was not only used for the transportation purpose. It was used widely in irrigation, pottery
making, and milling. It acts as the luxurious mode of transportation for the rich people.

The invention of a chariot

Human learn to domesticate horses, bulls, and other animals that are
useful for them. The chariot is not a sudden invention, but the gradual
improvement of the earliest carriage. The chariot was the first concept of
personal transportation. It had been used for years as a key technology for
the warfare, most of the ancient sports, and the means of transportation. The structure of earliest
chariot was made of light wood with a bend woods rim.
The First chariot was appeared around 3200 BC in Mesopotamia. The derived form of the
chariot was used mostly in every civilization until the motorized transportation came into existences.
Chariots were also used as a luxurious means of transportation for the Royal families and higher
class people.
The invention of the Sailboat
The transportation by the land was hectic and takes an enormous
amount of time. Sumerians realized that the transportation via sea will
be a lot easier and convenient. The first boat was invented and used as
the transportation in the river, downstream and back upstream. The boats
need a person navigate through the water. Thus, the sailboat was
invented with a primitive design, which ultimately helped them for
prosperous trade and commerce. It was initially used to cross the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for
fishing and to explore other sides.
The primitive sailboat was square in shape. The sail was made of the clothes. The direction of
the sailboat couldnt be changed. If the wind didnt blow in the direction, they were going; they had
to wait to change the winds direction in their favor.
The Plow
Human learned to domesticate animals and use it in their daily life to make their task easier.
In Mesopotamia, man first harnessed the OX and developed the first plow called ARD. The earliest
Plow was made of wooden material and was heavy. The major problem with the plow was that the
dirt would stick on the plow, which needs to be removed manually.
Time
Mesopotamia developed the concept of time; dividing time unites into 60 parts which
eventually lead to 60 seconds, minute, and hour. The Babylonians made astronomical calculation in
the base 60 system inherited by Sumerians. The 60 was chosen because it was easily divisible by six
counting numbers.
Astronomy and Astrology:
The concept of Astrology was developed during the Sumerians period. The everyday incident
had a religious meaning. It was believed that every good and bad happened for the reason. The
astrologers observed the moment of the planet and advised the people with high social or political
levels. The astronomical mythology like the concept of a constellation like Capricorn, Leo,

Sagittarius were handed to Greek by Sumerians and Babylonians which is still in use today. The
constellations were also used in day to day activities. It was heavily used to mark the seasons for
harvesting or sowing crops. They also mapped the movement of sky, sun, stars, and moon, and
predict the celestial events like eclipse
The inventions of Map
The oldest map was discovered in Babylonian in around 2300 B.C. The
Ancient Cartography that was used in Babylonian was a simple sketch on
the
clay tablets. The clay map discovered in Mesopotamia illustrates
the Akkadian region of Mesopotamia (present day northern Iraq). It
covered a small area and is mostly used for a city, a military campaign, a hunting ground, and a trade
route.
Mathematics
When the civilization started to florist, people began to trade, they need an accurate system to
count the goods that they received. Sumerians were the first people on the earth that developed the
concept of countings. They also developed the sexegesimal, or base 60. The sexegesimal helped to
develop the concept like 360 degree circle, 12 months in a year. They used 12 knuckles to count on
one hand and another five fingers on the other hand. The Babylonians used base 6(modern system
uses base 10), where digit on the left Column represents large value.
The concept of zero was developed by Babylonian. People had understood the value of having
nothing, but concept of zero wasnt invented before it.
The first form of writing: Cuneiform
The Sumerians developed the first form of writing called
Cuneiform to maintain the business records. It was mostly used in
the trade where the merchant can record the trade like the amount of
grains, he traded. Mesopotamian used writing to record daily event,
trade, astronomy.
It was evolved as a simple pictograph. For instance, the pictograph for a horse might be a
small image of a horse. The writer had to drag the tip of a stylus in the clay to create a shape. It was
hard to remember every character. It would take 12 years for a person to learn to write in cuneiform.
The symbols were reduced to 600 word by the 2900 B.C. By 2500 BC, Scribes (specialized people
that were hired to write) had changed from a drawing image to stamp or imprint with a use of reed
stylus, wedge-shaped tip. Cuneiform script was used by Assyrians, Elamites, Hittites, Babylonians,
and Akkadians for about 3,000 years.
Agriculture and Irrigation
Farmers used to cultivate wheat, barley, cucumbers and other different foods and vegetables.
They use the stone hoes to plow the ground before the invention of the plough. The Tigris and the
Euphrates rivers that surround Mesopotamia made the irrigation and farming a lot easier and
convenient. Mesopotamian learned to control the flow of water from the river and used it for

irrigating crops. During the main growing season, the flow of water is properly regulated. Each
farmer was allowed a certain amount of water which was adjusted from the canal into an irrigation
ditch.
Religion Beliefs
Like many peoples in the Fertile Crescent, the Sumerians believed that many different gods
controlled the various forces in nature. The belief in many gods is called polytheism.
Enlil, the god of clouds and air, was among the most powerful gods.Sumerians feared him as
the raging flood that has no rival.
Lowest of all the gods were demons known as Wicked Udugs, who caused disease,
misfortune, and every kind of human trouble. Altogether, the Sumerians believed in roughly
3,000 gods.
Sumerians described their gods as doing many of the same things humans do like falling in
love, having children, quarreling, and so on.
Sumerians also believed that their gods were both immortal and all-powerful. Humans were
nothing but their servants. At any moment, the mighty anger of the gods might strike, sending
a fire, a flood, or an enemy to destroy a city. To keep the gods happy, the Sumerians built
impressive ziggurats for them and offered rich sacrifices of animals, food, and wine.
Sumerians worked hard to earn the gods protection in this life. They expected little help
from the gods after death. The Sumerians believed that the souls of the dead went to the land
of no return, a dismal, gloomy place between the earths crust and the ancient sea. No joy
awaited souls there. A passage in a Sumerian poem describes the fate of dead souls: Dust is
their fare and clay their food.
Some of the richest accounts of Mesopotamian myths and legends appear in a long poem
called the Epic of Gilgamesh. It is one of the earliest works of literature in the world.
Through the heroic adventures of Gilgamesh, a legendary king, the narrative offers a glimpse
into the beliefs and concerns of the ancient Sumerians. The epic tells of Gilgameshs
unsuccessful quest for immortality, a theme that recurs in ancient literature.
Arts and Architecture
Warka Vase, is the oldest ritual vase in carved stone discovered in ancient Sumer and can be
dated to round about 3000 B.C. or probably 4th-3rd millennium B.C. It shows men entering
the presence of his gods, specifically a cult goddess Innin, represented by two bundles of
reeds placed side by side symbolizing the entrance to a temple.
The most distinctive type of Mesopotamian architecture is the ziggurat, a structure shaped
like a stepped pyramid. A ziggurat typically featured little or no interior space, instead
serving mainly as a platform for a temple. The exterior of a ziggurat was often decorated with
glazed tiles, murals, or mosaics, and landscaped with trees and gardens.
The greatest surviving work of Mesopotamian architecture is the Ishtar Gate, one of a series
of gates that guarded the route into the heart of Babylon. Coated in glazed blue tiles, the gate
is graced with reliefs of lions, bulls, and dragons, providing a taste of the glazed-tile
decoration that once coated large portions of Mesopotamian palaces, temples, and ziggurats.

Ishtar gate features a flat roof (upon which defenders could stand) edged with a battlement (a
wall with regular gaps, providing defenders with shelter).
River System
As water ways they make inland navigation possible. The rivers yearly flood its banks,
producing fertile land. The Tigris is rough and fast flowing. The upper course in particular is
difficult to pass. The river cuts deep in the surrounding land and the water flow can hardly be
used for irrigation. The Euphrates is a lifeline. It can more easily be used by ships. The banks
are lower, suitable for irrigation, with less violent floods. Precipitation in the mountains to the
north is large and rainfall-agriculture is possible.
In the last few hundred kilometer in the lower course, the river drops only of order 10 meter.
Consequently the river flow has changed significantly in the course of time. The ruins of
many famous ancient cities, like Eridu, Ur, Nippur and Kish are now far from the river, but
were in the past situated at the river banks. The location of the sea shore is determined by the
extend of silk deposition in the Persian Gulf and the rising of the sea level. The river delta has
probably gained territory over the Persian gulf. The coastal line has moved further south or at
least lagoons and estuaries in the past have now become silted up. The city of Eridu, home of
the water god (in Sumerian Enki, Akkadian Ea, one of the top three deities in the pantheon)
was in the past situated at a lagoon near the sea and had a famous port.
City State
The city was surrounded by a wall. A large Sumerian city held between 30,000 and 40,000
inhabitants, and one of the largest, Lagash, had a territory of 2,880 square kilometers. At the
heart of the city, both physically and metaphorically, stood the temple to its patron god.
Uruk was one of the first major cities in the history of the world. It reached its peak around
2900 BC when it had an estimated population of nearly 80,000 people making it the largest
city in the world. Uruk was located in southern Mesopotamia along the banks of the
Euphrates River. It was the center of the Sumerian civilization. It was able to grow so large
because of advanced farming and irrigation techniques. The abundance of food made the city
rich. The most famous king of Uruk was Gilgamesh. He was later turned into a mythical hero
through the tales of his exploits and superhuman strength in the Epic of Gilgamesh.
Babylon was the capital city and center of the Babylonian Empire. It was home to kings such
as Hammurabi and Nebuchadnezzar as well as the fabled Hanging Gardens of Babylon which
are one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Babylon is located in central
Mesopotamia along the banks of the Euphrates River.
Persepolis was the capital of the Persian Empire. The name is actually Greek for "Persian
city". The city was originally built by Cyrus the Great around 515 BC. Other kings such as
Darius I and Xerxes completed the palace and other buildings.

Reference:
Asian Civilization by Mateo, Jose, Miranda, Camagay & Boncan

Early River Valley Civilization.Pdf

http://www.hierarchystructure.com/
http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/staff/resources/background/bg07/home.html
http://www.ducksters.com/history