HICKMAN CHAPTER 9 INFO BANK

Despite structural and functional evolution, new forms are constrained by the
architecture of their ancestors. Ex. Although penguin bodies are modified for aquatic life,
their wings and feathers might never adapt as well as fish fins and scales.
The basic uniformity of biological organization derives from the common ancestry of
animals and from their basic cellular construction.
HEIRARCHICAL ORGANIZATION OF ANIMAL COMPLEXITY wherein each grade is more
complex than the one preceding and builds on it
PROTOZOA UNICELLULAR EUKARYOTIC ORGANISMS (proto primitive / original, zoa
animals)
1. Protoplasmic grade of organization unicellular groups
- The simples eukaryotic organisms
- Within confines of the cell, they exhibit remarkable organization and division
of labor
- Also possess distinct supportive structures
In METAZOANS MULTICELLULAR ANIMALS, combined cells into larger units contributing
to greater structural complexity
-

A metazoan cell is not capable of existing independently (for long periods of

time)
Cells of metazoans perform the various tasks accomplished by subcellular elements
in unicellular forms.

ANALOGY
METAZOANS: CELLS = PROTOZOA: ORGANELLES / SUBCELLULAR COMPONENTS
2. Cellular grade of organization shown by simplest metazoans;
- Cells demonstrate division of labor but are not strongly associated to perform
a specific collective function.
- An aggregation of cells that are functionally differentiated.
- Ex. Volvox, a flagellate that has distinct somatic and reproductive cells; many
authorities place sponges at this level too.
3. Cell-tissue grade of organization consists of aggregation of similar cells into
definite patterns or layers and organized to form a tissue. A tissue is a highly
coordinated unit of cells that perform common functions.
- SPONGES, again are considered to be in this grade but Cnidarians (jellyfishes,
corals) exhibit the tissue plan more clearly.
- Ex. Nerve net of cnidarians nerve cells form a definite tissue structure with the
function of coordination of the organism.
- animals at or beyond the cell-tissue grade of organization are known as
eumetazoans (true metazoans)
4. Tissue-organ grade of organization tissues are assembled into functional units called
organs.
- Primary work of an organ falls on usually only one type of tissue; other tissues
are support tissues.

Chief functional cells of an organ are called parenchyma, the supportive tissues are
its stroma. example of this: For instance, in the vertebrate pancreas the secreting
cells are the parenchyma; capsule and connective tissue framework represent
stroma.
- FLATWORMS (phylum Platyhelminthes) belong to this level have well-defined
organs such as eyespots, proboscis, and reproductive organs. (in fact their
reproductive organs are organized in a reprod. System)
5. Organ system grade of organization the highest level of organization in animals
- Are associated with basic body functions such as circulation, respiration and
digestion.
- Simplest animals w/ this level of organization are nemertean worms which have a
complete digestive system distinct from the circulatory system. Most animal phyla
demonstrate this body plan.
- There are eleven different kinds of organ systems in metazoans: skeletal,
integumentary, muscular, respiratory, digestive, nervous, circulatory, excretory,
endocrine, reproductive and immune. (+ lymphatic ?? in some)
ANIMAL BODY PLANS differ in grade of organization, symmetry, number of embryonic germ
layers and in the number of body cavities.
Symmetry refers to correspondence in size and shape of parts on opposites of a plane.
1. Spherical Symmetry any plane passing through the center divides a body into
mirrored halves.
- Found in unicellular forms and is rare in animals.
- Best suited for animals that float and roll
2. Radial Symmetry applies to forms that could be divided into similar halves by more
than two planes passing through the longitudinal axis.
LONGITUDINAL lengthwise, along the length
- Found in some sponges, and in hydras, jellyfish, sea urchins, and related groups, in
which one end of the longitudinal axis is usually the mouth (the oral surface).
3. Biradial symmetry variant form of radial symmetry
- Because of some part/s that is / are paired or single, only two planes passing
through the longitudinal axis produce mirrored halves.
- Comb jellies (phylum Ctenophora) which are globular, are biradial because they
contain a pair of tentacles.
Radial and biradial animals are usually sessile, freely floating, or weakly swimming.
Radial animals have no anterior and posterior ends. Therefore they can interact with
their environment in all directions, a feeding advantage since they can obtain prey from
any direction.
- ECHINODERMS are primarily bilateral animals since their larvae are bilateral. But
they become secondarily radial as adults.
4. Bilateral Symmetry applies to animals that could be divided along a sagittal plane
into two mirrored portions right and left.
- Animals that have this form of symmetry are better suited for directional
movement (forward).
- It is strongly associated with the differentiation of a head called CEPHALIZATION
- Cephalization is always accompanied by differentiation along an anteroposterior
axis.

REGIONS OF BILATERALLY SYMMETRICAL ANIMALS:

-

Anterior head end, posterior opposite or tail end, dorsal back side, ventral
belly side, medial refers to midline of the body, lateral refers to the sides. Distal
parts are farther from the middle of the body while proximal parts are nearer.

FRONTAL PLANE divides body into dorsal and ventral sides; runs through the
anteroposterior axis and the right-left axis.
SAGITTAL PLANE divides body into right and left sides
TRANSVERSE PLANE (ALSO CALLED CROSS SECTIONAL PLANE) divides
body to anterior and posterior portions.
PECTORAL associated with front appendages / front limbs
PELVIC associated with posterior appendages / hind limbs
Note: an axis, for example right-left axis is the light that contains both right and left sides.
The anteroposterior axis contains the anterior and posterior

CELLULAR COMPONENTS: TISSUES

A TISSUE IS A group of similar cells (and their associated CELL PRODUCTS)
specialized for performance of a common function.
Histology- the study of tissues (also called microanatomy).
All cells in metazoan animals form tissues.
FOUR TYPES:
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE sheet of cells that covers an external or internal surface.
- Outside the body, epithelium forms a protective covering.
- Inside the body, it lines all the organs of the body cavity as well as ducts and
passageways through which materials and secretions move.
- A large variety of transport proteins are located on epithelial cell membranes as
they aid in the entry and exit of ions and molecules into and out of epithelial
cells.
- Some epithelial cells are also modified into glands that produce and secrete
mucus or other specialized products such as hormones and enzymes.
- All types of epithelial tissue are composed of underlying basement membrane,
a condensed region of connective tissue.
- Blood vessels never penetrate this type of tissue, therefore it relies on diffusion of
oxygen and nutrients from underlying tissues.
TYPES of EPITHILIAL TISSUE BASED ON NUMBER OF LAYERS
I.

SIMPLE one layer (found in all metazoans)

(BASED ON CELL FORM)
a. Simple squamous composed of flattened cells that form continuous linings

Ex. Found in lungs, capillaries, and other surfaces where it permits diffusion
of gases and transport of molecules into and out of cavities.
b. Simple cuboidal short, boxlike cells. Usually lines small ducts and tubules
May have active secretory and absorptive functions.
Ex. Found in tissues of the kidney and salivary glands.
c. Simple columnar taller than cuboidal and usually have elongate nuclei.
Ex. Found in highly absorptive surfaces such as those of the intestinal tract of
most animals. These cells often bear minute finger-like projections called
microvilli which increase absorptive surface area.
II.
STRATIFIED many cell layers (found mostly in vertebrates only)
a. Stratified squamous adapted to withstand mild mechanical abrasion and
distortion. The basal layer of these cells undergoes continuous mitotic divisions
pushing cells toward the surface where they peel off and are replaced by cells
from beneath.
Ex. Found in oral cavity, esophagus, anal canal of many vertebrates, and the
vagina of many mammals.
b. Transitional epithelium specialized to accommodate great stretching
Appears as 4 to 5 layers when relaxed but when stretched it only has two to
three layers of cells. (Which are extremely flattened when the cells relax)
Ex. Found in urinary tract and bladder of vertebrates
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE has supportive and binding functions
Connective tissue consists of a relatively few cells, many extracellular fibers and a
ground substance (called MATRIX) in which the fibers are suspended.
TWO KINDS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
1. Loose connective tissue (also called areolar connective tissue)
- Composed of fibers and both fixed and wandering cells suspended in a viscous fluid
ground substance.
- The packing material of the body that anchors blood vessels, nerves, and body
organs.
- Contains fibroblasts that synthesize the fibers and ground substance of
connective tissue and wandering macrophages that phagocytize pathogens or
damaged cells.
- FIBER TYPES include COLLAGEN FIBERS which are thick and ELASTIC FIBERS
which are thin and made of the protein elastin.
2. Dense connective tissue
- Composed largely of densely packed fibers and little ground substance.
- Forms tendons, ligaments and fasciae, the latter arranged as sheets or bands of
tissue surrounding skeletal muscle.
Much of the fibers of connective tissue are composed of COLLAGEN, a protein of great
tensile strength
COLLAGEN is the most abundant protein in the Animal Kingdom. It provides FLEXIBILITY and
RESISTANCE TO STRETCHING (?)
Other types of specialized connective tissue include: blood, lymph, adipose tissue, cartilage
and bone.
VASCULAR TISSUE (lymph and blood collectively) are composed of distinctive cells in a fluid
ground substance, the plasma. Vascular tissue lacks fibers under normal conditions.

Cartilage is a semirigid form of connective tissue with closely packed fibers embedded in a gellike ground substance.
-

Is a vertebrate connective tissue composed of a firm matrix containing cells called

chondrocytes located in small pockets called lacunae
and collagen and/or elastic fibers (depending on type of cartilage.)
Nutrients and wastes diffuse through ground substance from surrounding tissues
since cartilage lacks a blood supply.

TYPES:
1. Hyaline

Bone is a calcified connective tissue containing calcium salts organized around collagen
fibers.
-

Is the strongest vertebrate connective tissue;

Contains mineralized collagen fibers (calcium);
Small pockets (lacunae) in the matrix contain bone cells, called osteocytes. The
osteocytes communicate w/ each other through a tiny network of channels called
CANALICULI
Blood vessels are contained in larger channels including the central canals;
Bones can repair themselves and remodel themselves.

3. MUSCULAR TISSUE most abundant tissue in the body of most animals.

- Its unit cell is the muscle fiber, specialized for contraction.
TYPES:
1. Striated muscle appears transversely striped with alternating dark and light bands.
a. Skeletal found in both inverteb and vertebrates.
- Composed of extremely long, cylindrical cells which may extend until the end of
the muscle.
- These muscle fibers are multinucleate cells
- Called voluntary muscle (in vertebrates) because it is contracted and relaxed
consciously
b. Cardiac found only in the vertebrate heart
- Shorter than skeletal muscle and is uninucleate
- Cardiac Muscle Tissue is a branching network of fibers with individual cells
interconnected by junctional complexes called intercalated disks.
- Considered involuntary muscle.
c. (appears only in invertebrates) obliquely striated muscle
2. Smooth Muscle lacks alternating bands, appears in both vertebrates and
invertebrates.
- Is long and tapering
- Each cell contains a single nucleus
- Is the most common type of muscle in invertebrates; in which it serves as body wall
musculature and surrounds ducts and sphincters.

In vertebrates, it surrounds blood vessels and internal organs such as intestine

and uterus. It is called involuntary muscle in vertebrates since its contraction is
usually not consciously controlled.

Unspecialized cytoplasm of muscles is called sarcoplasm and contractile elements within

the fiber are called myofibrils.
4. NERVOUS TISSUE is specialized for reception of stimuli and conduction of
impulses from one region to another.
Two basic types of cells in nervous tissue
1. Neurons basic functional unit of nervous systems
FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY:
a. From the nucleated cell body, also called SOMA, extend one or more dendrites
which receive electrical signals from receptors or other nerve cells;
b. From the cell body also extends one axon that carries electric signals from the cell
body to the synaptic terminals and then to effector organs and other nerve cells. It is
also often called a nerve fiber.
c. SCHWANN CELL forms insulating sheath around axon
d. NODES OF RANVIER interruptions in Schwann cell insulation which allow action
potentials to leap from node to node.
2. Neuroglia a variety of nonnervous cells that insulate neuron membranes and serve
various supportive functions
(ADDITIONAL) COMPLEXITY AND BODY SIZE
-

As animals become larger, the body surface increases much more slowly than body
volume because surface area increases as the square of bodylength (length2),
whereas volume (and therefore mass) increases as the cube of body length
(length3). In other words, a large animal has less surface area relative to its volume
than does a small animal of the same shape. The surface area of a large animal may
be inadequate for respiration and nutrition by cells located deep within its body.
There are two possible solutions to this problem:
1. One solution is to fold or invaginate the body surface to increase the surface area
or, as exploited by flatworms, flatten the body into a ribbon or disc so that no
internal space is far from the surface. This solution allows a body to become
large without internal complexity.
2. However, most large animals adopted a second solution; they developed internal
transport systems to shuttle nutrients, gases, and waste products between cells
and the external environment.

Benefits of larger body size:

1. Provides greater protection against predation
2. Enhances offensive tactics
3. Permits more efficient use of metabolic energy - moves greater distances, energy cost
of moving its body over a given distance is less for a larger animal
4. Enhanced homeostasis

CHAPTER 29 HICKMAN SUPPORT, PROTECTION AND MOVEMENT

INTEGUMENT the outer covering of the body

FUNCTIONS:
-

Includes the skin and its derivatives and associated structures such as hair, setae,
scales, feathers and horns.
In most, it is tough and pliable
Provides mechanical protection against abrasion and puncture
Forms an effective barrier against invasion of bacteria.
It may also provide moisture proofing against fluid loss or gain
Helps protect underlying cells against UV rays of sun
Also serves a variety of regulatory functions (ex. heat loss and heat conservation in
endotherms)
Contains sensory receptors that provide info about environment
Has excretory and in some, respiratory functions as well
Skin pigmentations for camouflage and hiding and skin secretions that serve as cues
(for ex. For sexual attraction)

INVERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT
I.

Many protozoa have plasma membrane as the only integument.

II.
Most multicellular invertebrates have more complex tissue coverings:
1. Principal covering is a single-layered epidermis.
2. Some invertebrates have added a secreted noncellular cuticle over the epidermis
for additional protection.
Molluscan epidermis is delicate and soft
-

Contains mucous glands, some of which secrete calcium carbonate of their shells.

Cephalopod molluscs squids and octopuses

-

More complex integument consisting of (from surface inward) cuticle, simple

epidermis, layer of connective tissue, layer of reflecting cells (iridocytes), and thicker
layer of connective tissue.

ARTHROPODS have the most complex of invertebrate integuments, providing not only
protection but also skeletal support.
Arthropod integument consists of:
1. Single layered epidermis (more precisely called HYPODERMIS) secretes a complex
cuticle of two zones
a. Procuticle thicker inner zone composed of protein and chitin laid down in layers like
wood.
b. Epicuticle thin outer zone
- A non chitinous complex of proteins and lipids that provides a protective moistureproofing barrier to the integument.
Arthropod cuticle could be tough but soft and flexible as in many microcrustaceans and insect
larvae, or it can also be hardened by one of two ways:

1. Calcification Occurs in decapods crustaceans, which includes crabs and lobsters.

- The cuticle is stiffened by the deposition of calcium carbonate in the outer layers of
the procuticle.
2. Sclerotization occurs in insects
- Hardening occurs when protein molecules bond together with stabilizing crosslinkages within and between adjacent lamellae of the procuticle.
- The process forms a highly resistant and insoluble protein called sclerotin.
The arthropod cuticle is one of the toughest materials synthesized by animals
-

It is strongly resistant to pressure and tearing

WHEN ARTHROPODS MOLT, epidermal cells first divide mitotically. Enzymes secreted by the
epidermis digest most of the procuticle. Digested materials are then reabsorbed. In the space
beneath the old cuticle, the new procuticle and epicuticle are formed. The old cuticle is shed and
then the underlying cuticle is then hardened.
VERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT AND DERIVATIVES:
BASIC PLAN CONSISTS OF:
1. A thin outer stratified epithelial layer, the epidermis is derived from ectoderm
2. A thicker inner layer, the dermis (true skin) of mesodermal origin
EPIDERMIS gives rise to most of the derivatives of the integument such as hair, feathers,
claws and hooves.
-

Stratified squamous epithelium

Cells of the basal part undergo frequent mitosis
As outer layers are displaced upward, keratin accumulates in the interior of the cells.
Gradually it replaces all active cytoplasm, the cell is dead and has become cornified.
This process is called keratinization. These abrasion resistant and water diffusion
resistant cells forms the stratum corneum.

DERMIS dense connective tissue layer containing blood vessels, collagenous fibers, nerves,
pigment cells, fat cells, and connective tissue cells called fibroblasts.
-

These elements support, cushion and nourish the epidermis which is devoid of blood
vessels.
Other cells present including macrophages, mast cells and lymphocytes provide the
first line of defense in case the outer epidermal layer is broken.
May also contain true bony structures. Scales of contemporary fishes are bony
dermal structures
In reptiles dermal bones provide the armor of crocodilians, the beaded skin of many
lizards, and contribute to the shell of turtles. Dermal bone also gives rise to antlers,
as well as the bony core of horns.
Structures such as claws, beaks, nails, and horns contain combinations of epidermal
(keratinized) and dermal components. Their basic structure is described below:

Has a central bony core

^ this is covered by a vascular nutritive layer of dermis and an outer epithelial
layer
^this epithelial layer has a germinative component responsible for continual
growth of horns, hooves, claws and beaks.
The non-germinative component of the outer epithelial layer is keratinized.

ANIMAL COLORATION
A. Structural color colors produced by the physical structure of the surface tissue
Ex. Designs of butterflies, birds, beetles and a few fishes.
B. Pigments (biochromes) a group of large molecules that reflect light rays
- In crustaceans and ectothermic vertebrates, these are contained in
chromatophores.
- CHROMATOPHORES large cells with branching processes
Ex. Chromatophores of squids and octopuses allow them to change color
when muscles contract or expand
- Melanins most widespread of animal pigments (housed in 1.
MELANOPHORES)
;a group of black or brown polymers responsible for earth-colored shades that
most animals wear.
- Yellow and red pigments are caused by CAROTENOIDS which are frequently
contained in pigment cells called 2. XANTHOPHORES.
3. IRIDOPHORES third type, consists of crystals of guanine or some
other purines rather than pigment. They produce a silvery or metallic effect by
reflecting light.

SKELETAL SYSTEMS

Are supportive systems that provide rigidity to the body

Surfaces for muscle attachment
Protection of vulnerable body organs

1. HYDROSTATIC SKELETONS
- Found in many invertebrate groups
- The use of body fluids as an internal skeleton.
- Example: muscles of the earthworm body wall contract against
incompressible coelomic (body cavity) fluids to develop muscular force.
o By alternate contraction of longitudinal and circular muscles, a wave of
contraction passes from anterior to posterior. Their bristlelike setae
provide anchorage to prevent slippage of the earthworm.
MUSCULAR HYDROSTATS consists of examples like: elephants trunk, tongues of
mammals and reptiles, and tentacles of cephalopod molluscs.
-

Work because they are composed of incompressible tissues that remain at

constant volume. (same mechanism as hydrostatic skeleton)

2. RIGID SKELETONS
- Consist of rigid elements to which muscles can attach
- They provide the anchor points required by contracting muscles
TWO TYPES OF RIGID SKELETONS:
1. Exoskeleton found in molluscs, arthropods, and many other invertebrates.
- Mainly protective
- But also serve locomotion functions
- May be a shell, spicule, or a calcareous, proteinaceous, or chitinous plate.
- It may be rigid as in molluscs

Or jointed and movable as in arthropods.

A limiting coat of armor that must be molted periodically to make way for
enlargement
- Exceptions: shells of snails and bivalves grow with the animal
2. Endoskeleton found in echinoderms, vertebrates, and some cnidarians.
- Grows with the animal
- Forms inside the body
- Composed of bone and cartilage
THE NOTOCHORD a semirigid supportive axial rod of protochordates and all vertebrate
larvae and embryos.
-

Composed of large vacuolated cells

Surrounded by layers of elastic and fibrous sheaths.
A stiffening device that preserves body shape during locomotion;
Except in jawless fishes (lampreys and hagfishes), the notochord is
surrounded or replaced by the vertebrae during embryonic development.

CARTILAGE is a major skeletal element of some vertebrates.

-

Jawless fishes and elasmobranchs (sharks, skates, and rays) have purely
cartilaginous skeletons
Other vertebrates have bony skeletons w/ some cartilage interspersed.
Is a soft pliable tissue that resists compression

TYPES:
1. HYALINE CARTILAGE has a clear glassy appearance.
- Composed of cartilage cells called chondrocytes surrounded by a firm
complex protein-sugar gel interlaced with a meshwork of collagen fibers.
- Blood vessels are absent.
- Forms articulating surfaces of many bone joints of most adult vertebrates and
supporting tracheal, laryngeal, and bronchial rings of the respiratory system.
2. ELASTIC CARTILAGE predominant fiber type is elastic
3. FIBROUS CARTILAGE numerous collagenous fiber bundles are present, often
arranged in herringbone patterns.
BONE is a living tissue that has significant deposits of inorganic calcium salts laid down in an
extracellular matrix composed of collagenous fibers in a protein-sugar gel.
-

It is highly vascular.
Is laid down by replacement in areas occupied by some form of connective
tissue. Most bone develops from cartilage and is called
1. endochondral or replacement bone.
2. A second type is intramembranous bone develops directly from sheets
of embryonic cells. Ex. In tetrapod vertebrates, bones of the face, cranium
and clavicle.
Note that whatever the origin, once fully formed, these two bones LOOK SIMILAR.

Fully formed bones vary in density:

1. Spongy consists of an open, interlacing framework of bony tissue, oriented to give
maximum strength under normal stresses.
2. Compact formed through further deposition of bone matrix;
- Dense, appears solid to the unaided eye
COMPACT BONES consist of:
1. A calcified bone matrix arranged in concentric rings,
2. Lacunae, which are cavities that contain bone cells (OSTEOCYTES) which are
connected by many minute passages called CANALICULI. These passages allow
communication between bone cells via gap junctions.
3. This entire organization of lacunae and canaliculi is arranged into an elongated cylinder
called an OSTEON (also called HAVERSIAN SYSTEM).
4. Bone heals rapidly because of the presence of blood vessels.
Bone-resorbing (bone destructing) cells OSTEOCLASTS
Bone-building cells OSTEOBLASTS
5. Bone is covered by dense connective tissue known as periosteum.

THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON:

Consists of
1. Axial Skeleton includes skull, vertebral column, sternum, and ribs
2. Appendicular Skeleton limbs and pectoral and pelvic girdles.

The vertebral column / vertebrae is the main stiffening axis of the post cranial
skeleton.
-

In fishes it serves the same function as the notochord, providing points for
muscle attachment and preserves body shape during muscle contraction.
In AMNIOTE TETRAPODS (birds, reptiles and mammals), the vertebrae are
differentiated into cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), lumbar (back), sacral
(pelvic), and caudal (tail) vertebrae.
In frogs, birds and in humans, the caudal vertebrae are reduced in number
and size, and sacral vertebrae are fused.
In mammals, the first two cervical vertebrae, atlas and axis are modified to
support the skull and to permit pivotal movements.
The ATLAS bears the globe of the head.
The AXIS permits head-turning side to side.

Ribs are long or short skeletal structures that articulate medially with vertebrae and extend
into the body wall.

ANIMAL MOVEMENT
-

Ranges from cytoplasmic streaming to extensive moments of powerful

skeletal muscles
Most animal movement depends on CONTRACTILE PROTEINS which can
change form to allow relaxation and contraction.
Movement is powered by ATP
The most important contractile system is the actomyosin system composed of
ACTIN AND MYOSIN.

1. AMOEBOID MOVEMENT a form of movement characteristic of amoebas and other

unicellular forms, and in wandering cells of metazoans white blood cells, embryonic
mesenchyme (develops into blood and lymph), and other mobile cells that move through
tissue spaces.
-

Have pseudopodia (false feet)

Ectoplasm the non-granular, gel-like outer layer surrounding the endoplasm
Endoplasm the more fluid core
Movement depends on ACTIN; as the pseudopod extends, hydrostatic
pressure forces actin subunits in the endoplasm into the pseudopod where
they dissociate from regulatory proteins and are then able to assemble to
form the gel-like ectoplasm.
At the trailing end of the gel, where the network disassembles, freed actin
interacts (in the presence of Ca2+) with myosin to create a contractile force
that pulls the cell forward.
Locomotion is assisted by membrane-adhesion proteins that attach
temporarily to substrate.

2. CILIARY AND FLAGELLAR MOVEMENT

A. CILIA minute, hairlike motile processes that extend from surfaces of cells of many
animals.
- Distinctive feature of ciliate protistans, but are found in all major groups of
animals (except nemertean worms where they are absent and in arthropods
where they are rare)
- Functions include: moving small organisms such as unicellular ciliates and
propelling fluids and materials over epithelial surfaces of larger animals.
- Has at its base a basal body (has a 9 + 0 triplet microtubule-arrangement)
which gives rise to a peripheral circle of nine doublet microtubules arranged
around two single microtubules in the center. (9+2 arrangement)
- Each microtubule is composed of protein subunits called TUBULIN
- The microtubule doublets around the periphery are connected to each other
and to the central pair of microtubules by MICROTUBULE-ASSOCIATED
PROTEINS. (MAPs) * The doublets are connected to the central pair by
RADIAL SPOKES ? (answer sa quiz)
- From the doublets also extend a pair of DYNEIN arms which act as CROSS
BRIDGES to produce a sliding force between microtubules during ciliary
movement.
- During ciliary movement, microtubules act as SLIDING FILAMENTS
- Dynein arms attach then detach in cycles to contract then relax the cilium.
B. FLAGELLUM a whiplike structure longer than a cilium found singly or in small
numbers at one end of a cell.
- Found in many single-celled eukaryotes, in animal spermatozoa, and in
sponges.
- Has same basic internal structure as cilia, although several exceptions have
been discovered. (some have only one or no central microtubules)
- Main difference from cilia is in the beating pattern; a flagellum beats
symmetrically with SNAKELIKE undulations so that water is propelled
PARALLEL to the flagellum axis.
- A CILIUM, in contrast beats asymmetrically with a fast power stroke and a
slow recovery stroke propelling water parallel to the ciliated surface
(perpendicular to ciliary axis)

3. MUSCULAR MOVEMENT contractile tissue is most highly developed in muscle cells

called FIBERS.
A. Types of VERTEBRATE MUSCLE
1. Skeletal Muscle arranged in sturdy, compact bundles, or bands.
- Called skeletal muscle because it is attached to skeletal elements and is
responsible for the movements of the trunk, appendages, respiratory organs,
eyes, mouthparts, and other structures.

Skeletal Muscle Fibers are extremely long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells that
usually reach from one end of the muscle to the other. They are packed into
bundles called FASCICLES which are enclosed by tough connective tissue.
- The Fascicles are then grouped into a discrete MUSCLE surrounded by a
thick connective tissue layer.
- Muscles connect to bones by tendons.
- Contracts powerfully and quickly but fatigues more rapidly than does smooth
muscle.
- Called voluntary muscle
2. Smooth Muscle lacks striations
- Are much smaller, tapering strands, each containing a single, central nucleus.
- Encircles cavities and tubular structures of the body such as the walls of the
alimentary canal, blood vessels, respiratory passages, and urinary and
genital ducts.
- Typically slow acting and can maintain prolonged contractions with very little
energy expenditure.
- Functions by sustained contraction or relaxation.
3. Cardiac Muscle combines characteristics of skeletal and smooth muscles
- Fast acting and striated like skeletal
- Involuntary contraction like smooth
- Composed of closely opposed but separate uninucleate cell fibers joined by
junctional complexes known as INTERCALATED DISKS.

TYPES OF INVERTEBRATE MUSCLES

1. Adductor muscles of molluscs contain fibers of two types
a. Striated muscle that can conduct rapidly enabling the bivalve to snap shut its valves
when disturbed.
b. Smooth muscle using these fibers, the bivalve can keep its valves tightly shut for
hours or even days.
2. FIBRILLAR MUSCLE operate at frequencies greater than 1000 beats per second
through periodic signals that produce 20 to 30 contractions each. (different from the one
signal one contraction for other muscles)
- Found in insects

STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE

Each cell or FIBER is a multinucleated tube consisting of numerous MYOFIBRILS packed
together and invested by a plasma membrane called the SARCOLEMMA.
The MYOFIBRIL consists of two types of filaments, MYOSIN and ACTIN.
ACTIN FILAMENTS are held together by a dense structure called the Z LINE.
The functional unit of the myofibril, the SARCOMERE extends between successive z lines.

MYOSIN FILAMENT composed of many myosin molecules packed together in an elongate

bundle.
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Each MYOSIN molecule contains two polypeptide chains, each having a

club-shaped head. They are lined up in two bundles to form the filament.
These myosin heads act as binding sites for high-energy ATP and during
muscle contraction they form molecular cross-bridges that interact w/ actin
filaments.

ACTIN FILAMENT composed of a double helical structure of actin.

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Two thin strands of TROPOMYOSIN lie near the grooves of actin strands.
Each tropomyosin strand is itself a double helix.
TROPONIN a complex of three globular proteins, is located at intervals
along the actin filament.
o Acts as a calcium-dependent switch that controls the contraction process.

THE SLIDING FILAMENT HYPOTHESIS OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

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Explains striated muscle contraction

During contraction, the club-shaped heads on the myosin filaments form
cross bridges that move rapidly back and forth, alternately attaching to and
releasing from receptor sites on the actin filaments, drawing actin filaments
past the myosin filaments.
During contraction, Z lines are pulled closer together, shortening the
sarcomere.
Relaxation also requires some force to lengthen the muscle, which is
provided by the recoil of elastic fibers and by antagonistic muscles or the
force of gravity.

CONTROL OF CONTRACTION

Muscle contracts in response to nerve stimulation.

If nerve supply to a muscle is removed, the muscle ATROPHIES, or wastes
away.
Cell bodies from the Central Nervous System extend their axons by way of a
PERIPHERAL TRUNK to a muscle where it branches repeatedly into many
TERMINAL BRANCHES.
Each terminal branch innervates a single muscle fiber.
A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it innervates is called a MOTOR UNIT.
The increase in the number of units brought to play increases muscle tension.
This is called motor unit RECRUITMENT.

NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
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The place where motor axon terminates on a muscle fiber (also called
myoneural junction)
SYNAPTIC CLEFT a tiny gap in the junction that separates the nerve
terminal and the muscle fiber.
Close to the junction, the neuron stores ACETYLCHOLINE in SYNAPTIC
VESICLES. These vesicles are released when the action potential reaches
the synapse.
Acetylcholine is a NEUROTRANSMITTER that diffuses across the cleft and
binds to receptor sites on the SARCOLEMMA generating an electrical
depolarization.
This depolarization spreads rapidly over the muscle-fiber sarcolemma.
Membrane depolarization passes down T-tubules, invaginations along the
membrane that project into the muscle fiber.
The T-tubules are closely associated with the SARCOPLASMIC
RETICULUM, a system of modified endoplasmic reticulum that stores
calcium and releases it around actin and myosin filaments upon receipt of the
signal / depolarization.

EXCITATION-CONTRACTION COUPLING
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When muscle is stimulated by acetylcholine, the action potential travels down

T-tubules to the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
The Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium upon stimulation.
Calcium binds to TROPONIN, causing it to change shape causing
TROPOMYOSIN to move out of its blocking position to expose binding sites
for myosin.
The MYOSIN HEADS bind to these sites to form the CROSS BRIDGES.
CROSS-BRIDGE CYCLING the attach-pull-release cycle

Each cycle requires expenditure of energy in the form of ATP.

When stimulation stops, calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum, troponin resumes original configuration, tropomyosin moves back
to blocking position, and the muscle relaxes.

ENERGY FOR CONTRACTION

ATP is the immediate source of energy;

Its levels within the muscle is kept constant by three main sources:
1. Glucose catabolized through aerobic metabolism to yield ATP.
2. Glycogen supply glucose molecules; has three advantages:
a. Relatively abundant
b. Can be mobilized quickly
c. Can provide energy under anoxic conditions
3. Creatine phosphate an energy reserve of muscles;
A high energy phosphate compound that stores bond energy
during periods of rest.

Under normal conditions, glucose would be completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water by
aerobic metabolism. During prolonged or heavy exercise, however, blood supply to the muscles
cant supply oxygen to the mitochondria rapidly enough to complete oxidation of glucose.
The machinery receives its energy then, largely by ANAEROBIC METABOLISM where
glucose is degraded to lactic acid with release of energy.
-

Is self limiting, since continued heavy exertion leads to exhaustion (due to

accumulation of inorganic phosphate)
Muscles incur an OXYGEN DEBT to oxidize the lactic acid.

MUSCLE PERFORMANCE
Skeletal muscles of vertebrates contain more than one type of fibers.
1. Slow oxidative fibers specialized for slow, sustained contractions without fatigue;
- Important in maintaining posture in terrestrial vertebrates;
- Called RED MUSCLES because they contain:
a. an extensive blood supply.
b. A high density of mitochondria for ATP supply
c. An abundant stored myoglobin which supplies oxygen reserves
2. Fast Fibers capable of fast, powerful contractions
I.
Fast glycolytic fiber lacks an efficient blood supply, a high density of
mitochondria and myoglobin.
- Called WHITE MUSCLES because they are pale in color.
- Operate anaerobically and fatigue rapidly.
- Ex. Is the white meat of chickens
- Weight lifters favor activation and development of these muscle fibers
- Running muscles in cheetahs make use of these and incur a large oxygen
debt
II.
Fast oxidative fiber has an extensive blood supply and a high density of
mitochondria and myoglobin, and functions largely aerobically.
- Animals use this for rapid, sustained activities

Active locomotion for long periods of time ex. In geese and swans and other
migratory birds, dogs

IMPORTANCE OF TENDONS IN ENERGY STORAGE

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Much kinetic energy is stored in tendons as elastic strain energy

Example, during running, the Achilles tendon is stretched by a combination of
downward force from the body and contraction of calf muscles. The tendon
then recoils extending the foot propelling the leg forward.

GAS EXCHANGE CHAPTER 42 CAMPBELL

REECE
GAS EXCHANGE the uptake of molecular O2 from the environment and the discharge of CO2
to the environment
PARTIAL PRESSURE the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases.
-

Is equal to the pressure exerted by the gas mixture times percent

composition of the particular gas
A GAS ALWAYS DIFFUSES FROM A REGION OF HIGHER PARTIAL
PRESSURE TO A REGION OF LOWER PARTIAL PRESSURE
Gas exchange with air as the medium is relatively easy