CHAPTER2: PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH & SCIENTIFIC METHODS

Contents

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Language of Research2.2.1

Concept & Construct

2.2.2

Abstraction & Empiricism

2.2.3

Propositions & Hypothesis

2.2.4

Theory & Model

2.2.5

Theory Building

2.3 The Four Method to Know Unknowing (kerlinger page5)

2.4 Scientific Methods
2.5

2-SCIENTIFIC METHODS & PHILOSOPHY OF

RESEARCH
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon
Francis Bacon, Viscount Saint Alban, (22 January 1561 9 April
1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist,
author and pioneer of the scientific method. He served both as
Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Although his
political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential
through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and
practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution.
Bacon has been called the father of empiricism. His works
established and popularized inductive methodologies for scientific
inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the scientific
method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all
things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical
framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today.
His dedication probably led to his death, bringing him into a rare historical group of scientists
who were killed by their own experiments. He famously died of pneumonia contracted while
studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat.
Probably, Bacons most important & lasting contribution to the scientific method is his
discussion on common biases that cause us to make irrational decisions. In his magnum opus,
Novum Organum, or "new instrument", Francis Bacon argued that there are four main human
biases that hinder our ability to think clearly. These biases, as he referred, are called "Idols"
(idola), and are of four kinds:

"Idols of the Tribe" (idola tribus), which are common

to the race; Limitations because we are humanfeeble,
poor eyesight, sense of touch, etc. These handicapped
us in understanding nature. Idols of the tribe are
illusions that stem from the manner in which human
beings perceive the world. We tend to look only at the
superficial appearance of objects, and therefore mistake
our sensory impressions for the true underlying nature
of things. An oar in water appears bent when observed
from above the water's surface even though it is not
(sound familiar?). Bacon thought that we need to get
beyond the superficial appearance and nature, not only of things but of ideas as well.
We must seek to understand what lies beneath to see the real nature of anything or
idea.

"Idols of the Den" (idola specus), which are peculiar to the individual; Limitations
due to education and societypreconditions, biases, blind-spots. It varies from
individual to individual. Idols of the den addresses the issue of how we allow private
concerns and wishes to distort our perceptions. We see what we want to see rather than
what really is. Focusing on our own needs and desires, we relate other events to
ourselves, missing the truth in the process.

"Idols of the Marketplace" (idola fori), coming from the misuse of language;
Limitations and ambiguities imposed by words and language used for communication.

These Idols are formed by the intercourse and association of men with each other, which
Bacon called Idols of the Market Place, on account of the commerce and consort of men
there. The ill and unfit choice of words wonderfully obstructs the understanding. Words
plainly force and overrule the understanding, and throw all into confusion, and lead men
away into numberless empty controversies and idle fancies.

"Idols of the Theatre" (idola theatri), which result from an abuse of authority;
Limitations of philolsophical systems that circumscribe and control human thought.
Idols of the theatre describe the false beliefs of traditional philosophy. Sometimes we
pay too much respect and reverence to old schools of thought. Bacon made particular
reference in this critique to the philosophies of the schools of his time, especially the
"scholastic school."

Illustrations for Bacon Idols:

Galileo claims that the earth is revolving around the sun. However, many people
criticize his idea because they see the sun move across the sky during the day.
Therefore, they say, the sun is obviously moving around the earth. These people are
confused by the Idols of the Tribe.
As a boy, King Rex of Country Y once lost a game of cards to a courtier with red hair,
and he suspected the courtier of cheating. Even since then, he has not trusted redhaired people: people with red hair are not allowed to serve in the court. King Rex is
suffering from a bad case of the Idols of the Cave.

The Aztecs often talked about a great white god that would come and rule over them.
So, when Cortez arrived with his men, they believed that this white man was the great
white god. The Aztecs were confused by the Idols of the Marketplace.

Aquinas reasoned that woman is inferior to man because, according to the great
philosopher Aristotle, the male sperm ideally forms a male offspring and female gender
results from some defect in the reproduction process. Aquinas shows signs of Bacons
Idols of the Theatre.

Francis Bacons Idols suggested that although philosophy at the time used deductive syllogisms
to interpret nature, mainly owing to Aristotle's logic, the philosopher should instead proceed
through inductive reasoning from fact to axiom to physical law. Before beginning this induction,
the inquirer is to free his or her mind from certain false notions or tendencies (as described by
Francis Bacon) which distort the truth.
2.2 LANGUAGE OF RESEARCH:

1.1

What is a Theory?

Concepts are the basic building blocks of theory development. A concept is a

generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that
have been given a name. Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale, Assets, Inflation

 Level of Abstraction is the level of knowledge expressing concept that exists only as
an idea apart from the object itself.
A concept may vary in terms of the level of abstraction.
Construct is a concept with higher level of abstraction.

A proposition is a statement concerned with the relationship between concepts. It

asserts a universal connection and logical linkage between concepts. Propositions are
at a higher level of abstraction than concepts
Example: Smoking is injurious to health
Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They are usually
concerned with the relationships between variables. Hypothesis are empirical counter
parts of propositions.
Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production
Zikmund (p. 41) has defined a theory as a coherent set of general propositions, used
as principles of explanation of the amount of the apparent relationships of certain
observed phenomena

Good Theory makes Good Practice

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in 1943.

Theory and Practice
1. Business and management research need to provide findings that advance knowledge
and understanding.
2. It needs to address business issues and provide a process for solving managerial
problems.
3. You may satisfy your intellectual curiosity but you must also consider the practical
implications of your findings.

The Abstraction Ladder

How are theories generated

One more example:p-12 last para, Kerlinger, Foundation of Behavioral Research

Qualities of a Good Theory

A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements. It must accurately

describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a few
arbitrary elements. And it must make definite predictions about the result of future
observations
Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, 1988

 Often, competing theories are put forth to explain certain phenomena. One cannot really
be 100% certain that a given theory is correct because, no matter on how many
occasions the results of experiments agree with the theory, there may come an occasion
when some do not.
Theories must be:

Objective
Verifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of error)

Falsifiable / disprovable
Good theories must understand, explain and predict

The Scientific Method

Scientific Methods are techniques or procedure used to analyze empirical evidence in an
attempt to confirm or disprove prior conception.
The scientific method is basically an overarching perspective on how scientific
investigations should be undertaken. It can, in effect, be considered as a complete set of
principles and methods that help researchers in all scientific disciplines obtain valid
results for their research studies, and which includes the provision of clear and
universally accepted guidelines for acquiring, evaluating and communicating
information in the context of a research study
The goals of scientific research are, broadly speaking, to understand, explain and
predict.
Characteristics of the Scientific Method
The Karl Pearson, in his book The Grammar of Science observes three distinct
characteristic of the scientific method:
Careful & accurate classification of facts & observation of their correlation &
sequences

The discovery of scientific laws with aid of the creative imagination

Self-criticism and the final touchstone of equal validity for normally constituted
mind.

Apart from the above we can observe following characteristic in scientific methods:

Systematic

Objectivity

Accuracy

Credibility (Ethics)

Elements of the Scientific Method

Empirical Approach
Observation

Questions

Hypotheses

Experiments

Analysis

Conclusion

Replication

Empirical Approach
Evidence-based approach. The guiding principle behind all research conducted in
accordance with the scientific method
Data derived from direct, systematic and careful observation and experimentation (as
opposed to speculation, intuition, opinions, hunches, gut feeling)
Observation
Awareness of the real / physical / social world in which we exist. This, in turn, gives rise
to questions as the basis for research studies or investigations
Operational Definitions Ensures consistency when researchers talk about or are
interested in undertaking or replicating research on the same phenomenon.
Questions: Making an answerable question out of a research idea. The question must be
answered using available and established scientific research techniques and procedures.
Scientific Analysis should not be attempted on questions which cannot be answered
Example of an answerable question: Can regular exercising reduce an individuals
cholesterol level?
Example of a (currently) unanswerable question: Is time travel possible?
Hypotheses: Hypotheses attempt to explain phenomena of interest. A hypothesis is a
proposition which is empirically testable. It usually seeks to explain relationships between
variables, and predict, and must be falsifiable
Typical hypotheses structures:
Conditional - If Condition X is fulfilled, then Outcome Y will result
Correlational - The value of Variable B is observed to be related with changes in the value of
Variable A
Causal The value of Variable determines the value of Variable
Experiments:
Experiments are basically about measuring phenomena and collecting
accurate and reliable data which are used for analysis and evaluation
Accuracy Correctness of the Measurement
Reliability Consistency of the Measurement
Analysis: Analysis is about the use of qualitative or quantitative tools and techniques to
process data
Quantitative tools and techniques are considered more desirable (objective) than
qualitative tools and techniques.
Statistical analysis is typically used to quantitatively analyze data acquired in research
studies
Conclusions: Based on the results of the analysis conducted, and used to support or refute a
hypothesis
When undertaking research, conclusions should only be based on the available data and
not broadened to include statements which are not supported by the data

 Example: If the research analysis shows that two variables are correlated (related), do
not assert also that a causal relationship exists between them
Replication: The purpose of replication is to ensure that if the same research study is
conducted with different participants (i.e. researchers, research subjects), then the same
results are achieved
Replication establishes the reliability of a research studys conclusions
Conclusions are often based on the results of one research study (aberration effect)
which may not be accurate