World History and Geography

World History and
Geography
Grade 12
World History and Geography

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Preface
This book has explored the grand scheme of world history as a product of real-life human beings pursuing their individual and collective interests. It has also offered a global perspective on the past by
focusing on both the distinctive characteristics of individual societies and the connections that have
linked the fortunes of different societies. It has combined a clear chronological framework with the twin
themes of tradition and encounter, which help to make the unwieldy story of world history both more
manageable and more engaging. From the beginning, Traditions & Encounters has offered an inclusive vision of the global pastone that is meaningful and appropriate for the interdependent world of
contemporary times.
How is it possible to make sense of the entire human past? Given the diversity of human societies,
gathering and organizing the sheer mass of information in a meaningful way is a daunting challenge
for any world history survey course.
The activities in this book, a new assignment and assessment platform, are based on the narrative content, so they build on what students learn from reading the text and push them to explore that
knowledge at greater depth.
How to use this Book

This book has been divided into many chapters. Chapter gives the motivation for this book and the use
of templates.
1. Chapter in the book includes a number of pedagogical aids. The text is presented in the
simplest language. Each paragraph has been arranged under a suitable heading for easy
retention of concept. All important formulae, figures and practical steps have been presented with better visibility to grab the attention. Each unit has been uniformly organized.
2.
Objectives in the beginning of the chapter provide a glimpse of related issues which has
been discussed in the chapter.
3.
Key Vocabulary is a technique designed to use the most meaningful words in a childs
world to develop literacy. It is a structured process that can be used with individuals or
classes to expand reading vocabulary. As a student accumulates a bank of key words,
he/she develops confidence as a reader. While they are used primarily for rhetoric, they
are also used in a strictly grammatical sense for structural composition, reasoning, and
comprehension. Indeed, they are an essential part of any language.
4.
Multiple choice questions provide a set of answers from which the respondent must
choose. Multiple choice questions are closed questions. It is a form of assessment in which
respondents are asked to select the best possible answer (or answers) out of the choices
from a list.
5.
Review questions at the end of each chapter ask students to review or explain the concepts.
For an easier navigation and understanding, this book contains the complete 3G curriculum of this
subject and the topics.
Introduction
An introduction is a beginning of
section which states the purpose
and goals of the topics which are
discussed in the chapter. It also
starts the topics in brief.
Objectives
Objectives in the beginning of
the chapter provide a glimpse
of related issues which has been
discussed in the chapter.
Key Vocabulary
Key Vocabulary is a technique
designed to use the most meaningful words in a childs world to
develop literacy. It is a structured
process that can be used with individuals or classes to expand
reading vocabulary.
Multiple Choice questions

Multiple choice questions provide a set of answers from which
the respondent must choose. It is
a form of assessment in which respondents are asked to select the
best possible answer (or answers)
out of the choices from a list.
Review Questions
Review questions at the end of
each chapter ask students to review or explain the concepts.
Table of Contents
1.
1.1 Human Geography

2
1.2 Nature of Human Geography
4
1.2.1 Human Geography through
the Corridors of Time
6
1.2.2 Fields and Sub-fields of Human
Geography 7
1.3 Environmental Impact
of Humans
8
1.4 Determinism or Environmental
Determinism 9
1.4.1 Some Supporters of this
Theory and their View
9
1.4.2 Criticism of the Theory of
Determinism
10
1.5 Possibilism
10
1.5.1 Criticism of Theory of
Possibilism 10
1.6 Emergence of Man
11
1.6.1 The Races of Mankind
12
1.6.2 Physical Characteristics
of Major Racial Groups
13
1.6.3 Cultural Evolution
of Man
14
1.7 Beginnings of Civilization
15
1.8 Major Cultural Realms of
the World
16
1.9 Economics and Human
Geography 22
2.
2.3
Factors Influencing the

Distribution of Population
35
2.3.1 Geographical Factors
35
2.3.2 Economic Factors
35
2.3.3 Social and Cultural
Factors 36
2.4 Population Growth
36
2.4.1 Population Change
37
2.4.2 Impact of Population
Growth 41
2.4.3 Population Control
Measures 41
2.5 Sex Composition
42
2.5.1 Age Structure
42
2.5.2 Ageing Population
45
2.5.3 Rural Urban
Composition 46
2.6 Human Development
48
2.6.1 Growth and
Development 48
2.6.2 The Four Pillars of
Human Development
49
2.6.3 Approaches to Human
Development 49
2.6.4 Measuring Human
Development 49
Human Geography: Nature and Scope

Periods
People Periods
2.1 Patterns of Population
Distribution in the World
2.2 Density of Population
32
32
3.
Human Activities
3.1 Primary Activities
55
3.1.1 Hunting and Gathering
55
3.1.2 Pastoralism
56
3.1.3 Nomadic Herding
57
3.1.4 Commercial Livestock
Rearing 58
3.1.5 Agriculture
58
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.
3.1.6 Mining
63
Secondary Activities
64
3.2.1 Manufacturing
64
3.2.2 Household Industries or
Cottage Manufacturing
67
3.2.3 Industries based
on Ownership
69
Tertiary Activities
71
3.3.1 Types of Tertiary
Activities 72
Quaternary Activities
77
Quinary Activities
77
6.
Population: Distribution, Density,

Growth and Composition
4.1 Distribution of Population
4.1.1 Density of Population
4.2 Growth of Population
4.3 Regional Variation in
Population Growth
4.4 Population Composition
4.4.1 Rural Urban
Composition
4.4.2 Linguistic Composition
4.4.3 Religious Composition
4.4.4 Composition of
Working Population
4.5 Migration
4.5.1 Indian Diaspora
4.5.2 Streams of Migration
4.5.3 Causes of Migration
4.6 Consequences of Migration
4.6.1 Economic Consequences
4.6.2 Demographic
Consequences
4.6.3 Social Consequences
4.6.4 Environmental
Consequences
5.
5.4.3 Functions of Urban

Centers 107
5.4.4 Classification of Towns on
the Basis of Forms
108
5.4.5 Distribution of Mega
Cities 109
5.4.6 Problems of Urban
Settlements 111
5.5 Problems of Human Settlements
in Developing Countries
113
5.6 Morphology of Cities
113
6.1 Local Culture

118
6.1.1 Local Culture in India
118
6.1.2 Types Local Culture
in India
119
6.2 Popular Culture
120
6.2.1 Popular Culture in India 121
6.2.2 Types of Popular
Culture in India
122
6.3 Cultural Landscapes
124
6.3.1 Type of Cultural
Landscapes 125
6.3.2 Cultural landscapes
in India
125
6.3.3 Example Cultural
Landscape 126
6.4 Types of Culture in India
127
6.4.1 Different Type Indian
Culture 128
6.5 Cultural Diversity in India
130
6.5.1 Different Type of Diversity
in India
131
6.5.2 Features of Indian
Culture
132
6.6 Effects of Western Culture
in India
133
6.6.1 Type of Effects of Western
Culture in India
134
81
82
83
85
86
86
87
87
88
89
90
90
91
94
94
95
96
96
Human Settlements
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
Types of Settlements
100
Patterns of Settlements
100
Rural Settlements
101
Urban Settlements
105
5.4.1 Urbanization
105
5.4.2 Classification of Urban
Settlements 106
Local Culture, Popular Culture, and

Cultural Landscapes
7.
Human Rights
7.1 History of Human Rights
138
7.2 Universality
139
7.3 Cultural Struggles over
Human Rights
140
7.4 Struggles for Human Freedoms 142
viii
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.4.1 Freedom from Discrimination

for Equality
143
7.4.2 Precursors of 20th Century
Human Rights
Documents 143
Generations of Human Rights 144
Birth of the United Nations
145
Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (1948)
146
7.7.1 Universal Declaration of
Human Rights Official
Document 149
7.7.2 International Human Rights
Law 152
7.7.3 The Human Rights
Covenants 152
7.7.4 Subsequent Human
Rights Documents
153
The Political Geography of
Human Rights
153
Political Geography of Human Rights
in the Twenty-First Century
154
The Role of Non-governmental
Organizations 155
8.6 Coffee
172
8.6.1 Here is a List of the Three Most
Well-known Coffee
Plants: 172
8.6.2 Geographical Conditions
for Coffee
172
8.7 Cotton
173
8.7.1 Geographical Conditions for
Cotton Production are
174
8.7.2 Cotton Varieties
175
8.8 Jute
175
8.8.1 Variety
176
for Jute
176
8.9 Sugarcane
177
for Sugarcane
178
8.9.2 Crop Description and
Climate 178
8.10 Rubber Trees
178
8.10.1 Distribution
179
for Rubber
179
8.11 Agricultural Development and
Problems 179
8.11.1 Agricultural Implements
and Machinery
180
8.11.2 Agricultural Problems 182
8.12 Water Resources-Availability
and Utilization-Irrigation
182
8.12.1 Water Resources
Utilization
183
8.13 Scarcity of Water
186
8.13.1 Rain Water Harvesting 186
8.13.2 Watershed Management 187
8.14 Mineral and Energy Resources 188
8.14.1 Conventional
188
8.14.2 Non-conventional
Energy Sources
189
8.15 Industries
190
8.16 Industrial Clusters
191
8. Resources-and-Development
8.1 Land Resources
160
8.2 General Land Use
161
8.2.1 Land Use Classification 161
8.2.2 Agro-climatic Regions
161
8.2.3 Agro-ecological Regions (AERs)
and Sub-regions (AESRs) 162
8.2.4 Area under Agricultural
Uses 163
8.3 Wheat
163
of Wheat
163
8.3.2 Production of India
164
8.4 Rice
165
8.4.1 Geographical and
Economic Factors
165
8.5 Tea
169
8.5.1 Growing Conditions
for Tea
169
8.5.2 Tea Picking
169
8.5.3 Tea Production
170
8.5.4 Types of Tea
170
8.5.5 Major Tea Producing
States In India
171
9.
Transport, Communication, and Trade

9.1 Modes OF Transportation
9.1.1 Land Transport
9.1.2 Roads
ix
194
194
195
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.1.3 Highways
9.1.4 Border Roads
Railways
9.2.1 Types of railways
Water Transport
Air Transport
9.4.1 Hot Air Balloons
9.4.2 Blimps
9.4.3 Zeppelins
9.4.4 Airplanes
9.4.5 Helicopters
9.4.6 Rockets
Pipelines
Communications
Satellite Communication
Cyber Space Internets
Radio
Television
9.10.1 Direct View Tube
9.10.2 Digital Light
Processing (DLP)
9.10.3 Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD)
9.10.4 Plasma Display
Panels (PDP)
International Trade
Changing Pattern of Indias
Foreign Trade
196
197
197
199
199
201
202
203
203
204
204
205
206
208
208
209
211
212
213
9.13.1 Types of Foreign Trade 216

9.13.2 Need and Importance
of Foreign Trade
216
10. Geographical Perspective on Selected

Issues and Problems
10.1 Environmental Pollution
10.2 Urban Waste
227
10.2.1 Types of Waste
227
10.3 Urban-waste Disposals
229
10.3.1 Waste Management
229
10.3.2 Recycled Waste
229
10.3.3 Advantages of Recycling 230
10.3.4 Defining Consumption 230
10.3.5 Specializing Consumption 231
10.3.6 Theorizing Consumption 233
10.4 Urbanization
233
10.4.1 Problems of Urbanization 234
10.5 Rural-urban Migrations
235
10.5.1 Migration Strategy
236
10.6 SLUMS
237
10.6.1 Problems of Slums.
239
10.7 Land Degradation
241
10.7.1 The Effects of Land
Degradation 242
10.7.2 The Causes of Land
Degradation 243
10.7.3 Land, Population, and
Degradation 243
213
214
214
214
215
216
Chapter 1
Human Geography: Nature

and Scope Periods
INTRODUCTION
This chapter has broadly covered and introduced you to the nature of geography. You are also acquainted with the important branches that sprout from
the body of geography. If you re-read the chapter you will be able to recall
the link of human geography with the mother discipline i.e. geography. As
you know geography as a field of study is integrative, empirical, and practical. Thus, the reach of geography is extensive and each and every event or
phenomenon which varies over space and time can be studied geographically. Subfields of human geography are behavior, economy and politics.
How do you see the earths surface? Do you realize that the earth comprises
two major components: nature (physical environment) and life forms including human beings? Make a list of physical and human components of your
surroundings. Physical geography studies physical environment and human
geography studies the relationship between the physical/natural and the
human worlds, the spatial distributions of human phenomena and how they
come about, the social and economic differences between different parts of
the world. You are already aware of the fact that the core concern of geography as a discipline is to understand the earth as home of human beings
and to study all those elements which have sustained them. Thus, emphasis
is on study of nature and human beings. You will realize that geography
got subjected to dualism and the wide-ranging debates started whether geography as a discipline should be a lawmaking/theorizing (nomothetic) or
descriptive (idiographic). Whether its subject matter should be organized
and approach of the study should be regional or systematic? Whether geographical phenomena be interpreted theoretically or through historic institutional approach? These have been issues for intellectual exercise but finally
you will appreciate that the dichotomy between physical and human is not
a very valid one because nature and human are inseparable elements and
should be seen holistically. It is interesting to note that both physical and human phenomena are described in metaphors using symbols from the human
anatomy. We often talk of the face of the earth, eye of the storm, mouth
of the river, snout (nose) of the glacier, neck of the isthmus and profile
of the soil. Similarly regions, villages, towns have been described as organisms. German geographers describe the state/country as a living organism. Networks of road, railways and water ways have often been described
as arteries of circulation. Can you collect such terms and expressions from
your own language? The basic questions now arises, can we separate nature
and human when they are so intricately intertwined?
Objectives
After studying this
chapter, you will be
able to:
Understand
human geography
Discuss about
nature of human geography
Explain
environmental impact of
humans
Define determinism or environmental
determinism
Understand
the role of
possibilism
Discuss about
beginnings of
civilization
Identified
major cultural
realms of the
world
Discuss
economics
and human
geography
1.1 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

Human geography is a major sub discipline within the wider subject field
of geography. Traditionally, geography is considered the study of the
Earths environments and peoples, and the interactions between them. Geography comes from ancient Greek origins, literally translating as to write
or describe the world. In classical and Enlightenment geography, humans
and the natural world were usually described in conjunction, often in a
regional fashion, as Europeans encountered unfamiliar places in exploration and empire. Modern geography traces its origins to the 17th century.
Since the late nineteenth century, this conjoint understanding of geography as describing the natural and human world, region by region has
Key Vocabulary
gradually been augmented by more precise sub disciplinary pursuits and
identities. The most basic of these describes geography as consisting two
Civilization: The most
fundamental halves: physical and human geography. Physical geography
advanced stage of human generally means the science of the Earths surface, while human geography
social development and
usually refers to the study of its peoples, and geographical interpretations
organization.
of economies, cultural identities, political territories, and societies. Physical geographers classify and analyze landforms and ecosystems, hydrological, geomorphologic, and coastal processes, and examine problems such as
erosion, pollution, and climatic variability. Human geographers analyze
population trends, theorize social and cultural change, interpret geopolitical conict and seek to explicate the geography of human economic activities around the world. The essential perspective used by geographers in
forming their concepts is spatial. How exactly this division of labor came
to be is a most pivotal story of contemporary geography. It is a story about
twentieth-century scientic fragmentation, and about different theories on
the status of humans visa nonhuman nature. It is also a more slippery and
difcult story about how academic knowledge are produced, mutate, and
travel (and how this happens in particular places), how knowledge and
popularity, fade away, or are challenged in time and across space. The central division of labor in geography produced by these means over more
than a hundred yearshas established and dened the space within which
most human geographical practice now occurs. An outsider could be forgiven for thinking that human geography was the study of the existence
and distribution of humans on Earth of Homo sapiens as a distinct species
(Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: Human geography.
Human Geography: Nature and Scope Periods
Literally, human geography could be interpreted as the study of the

geography of humans: when, where, and how humans evolved, developed
strategies for survival, and dispersed to other parts of the world. Some within geography would indeed consider such themes important to geography.
They invite analysis of how humans inhabited and related to physical environments, how humans used resources, adapted to different climates, and
developed distinct regional cultures. When prominent geographer Halfred
Mackinder presented ideas on the scope and purpose of geography to the
Royal Geographical Society in 1887, this idea of geography as the interaction of man [sic] in society and so much of environment as varies locally
proved immensely popular and would shape future interpretations. However, for most human geographers in the current era such questions have
fallen from favor because of ethical and intellectual concerns while more
contemporaneous themes have grown popular, rmly on the human side
of geography. The science of human evolution and geographical dispersal
has instead become the purview of other disciplines such as archeology,
paleontology, and anthropology. Most contemporary academic geographers hold some nominal allegiance to either of geographys halves (human or physical), although for important intellectual and philosophical
reasons some do resist this division and instead prefer to regard geography
as a disciplinary whole, or insist on troubling the conceptual distinction between the human and nonhuman parts of the world. Some commentators
have criticized a perceived widening of the gulf between geographys two
halves. Others see human geography as merely a convenient badge for its
diverse contents, while still adhering to the principle of a wider, umbrella
discipline of geography. Regardless, contemporary human geography has
taken on a particular character. Human geographers tend to explore social,
economic, cultural, political, and demographic dimensions of human existence, and situate analysis in geographical space (conceptualized across and
between scales from the body to the city, nation, and globe). While diversity
dened contemporary human geography, there are common questions of
geographical scale, causality, agency and structure, interrelationships and
networks, place and movements. Human geographers are concerned with
observed distributions and analytical explanation. They invariably focus on
the spatial and, whether implicit or explicit, have a great deal to say about
the moral and political dimensions of human activity.
Reecting current thinking, a single, linear story about canonical development of ideas in human geography is sought to be avoided. Such stories only reinforce the dominant narrative at the expense of less powerful
ones, and are invariably Eurocentric. However, the manner in which such
knowledge are produced, and what those knowledge mean, is contingent
on the degree of formal academic practice, on the political, institutional,
and cultural circumstances whence they came, and on the perspective of
the onlooker or interpreter. Certain actors and institutions beneted (sometimes enormously) from the production of particular kinds of human geographical knowledge, while others suffered. It necessarily cannot do adequate justice to all subthemes, topics, and perspectives. Part of the problem
is that most of the disciplinary histories written in English have come from
Britain and America. This has subsequently given the impression of an Anglo-American axis of academics creating the history of the discipline a
history to which others from elsewhere occasionally contribute, but not to
shape in any fundamental way. Alas, probably more than a whiff of such a
Key Vocabulary
Environment: The surroundings or conditions in which a person,
animal, or plant lives or
operates.
Key Vocabulary
Human Geography: Basically is the study of how
humans interact with the
earth on a physical and
cultural standpoint.
bias seeps into this story too. There are attempts to decanter the sense of an
Anglo American dominance, but nding and fully surveying the mass of
non-Anglo-American explanations of human geography is beyond my capacity. As Sidaway (1997: 74) argued, no single could ever do justice to all
traditions of geography, everywhere in the world. Human geography exists as a formal academic discipline in tens, if not over a hundred, different
countries and languages, with diverse meanings and contexts. Only a fraction of those stories have been properly documented. Instead, the reader is
recommended to treat as an entry point, and to explore the subdisciplines
various trails from it. That hopes it will become apparent as the reader progresses that the development and diffusion of human geography has been
dynamic and context dependent and amidst signicant advances, has often been far from straightforward
1.2 Nature of Human Geography

Human geography studies the inter-relationship between the physical environment and socio-cultural environment created by human beings through
mutual interaction with each other. You know that these elements are landforms, soils, climate, water, natural vegetation and diverse flora and fauna
(Figure 1.2). Can you make a list of elements which human beings have
created through their activities on the stage provided by the physical environment? Houses, villages, cities, road-rail networks, industries, farms,
ports, items of our daily use and all other elements of material culture have
been created by human beings using the resources provided by the physical environment. While physical environment has been greatly modified by
human beings, it has also, in turn, impacted human lives. Naturalization of
Humans and Humanization of Nature Human beings interact with their
physical environment with the help of technology. It is not important what
human beings produce and create but it is extremely important with the
help of what tools and techniques do they produce and create. Technology
indicates the level of cultural development of society. Human beings were
able to develop technology after they developed better understanding of
natural laws. For example, the understanding of concepts of friction and
heat helped us discover fire. Similarly, understanding of the secrets of DNA
and genetics enabled us to conquer many diseases. We use the laws of aerodynamics to develop faster planes. You can see that knowledge about Nature is extremely important to develop technology and technology loosens
the shackles of environment on human beings. In the early stages of their
interaction with their natural environment humans were greatly influenced
by it. They adapted to the dictates of Nature. This is so because the level of
technology was very low and the stage of human social development was
also primitive. This type of interaction between primitive human society
and strong forces of nature was termed as environmental determinism. At
that stage of very low technological development we can imagine the presence of a naturalized human, who listened to Nature, was afraid of its fury
and worshipped it.
Key Vocabulary
Figure 1.2: Socio-cultural environment created by human beings.
The story in the box represents the direct relationship of a household
belonging to an economically primitive society with nature. Read about
other primitive societies which live in complete harmony with their natural
environment. You will realize that in all such cases nature is a powerful
force, worshipped, revered and conserved. There is direct dependence of
human beings on nature for resources which sustain them. The physical
environment for such societies becomes the Mother Nature. The people
begin to understand their environment and the forces of nature with the
passage of time. With social and cultural development, humans develop
better and more efficient technology. They move from a state of necessity
to a state of freedom. They create possibilities with the resources obtained
from the environment. The human activities create cultural landscape. The
imprints of human activities are created everywhere; health resorts on
highlands, huge urban sprawls, fields, orchards and pastures in plains and
rolling hills, ports on the coasts, oceanic routes on the oceanic surface and
satellites in the space. The earlier scholars termed this as possibilism. Nature provides opportunities and human being make use of these and slowly
nature gets humanized and starts bearing the imprints of human endeavor.
Can you imagine what has made such a life style possible? It is technology
that has allowed the people of Trondheim and others to overcome the constraints imposed by nature. Do you know about some other such instances?
Such examples are not difficult to find. A geographer, Griffith Taylor introduced another concept which reflects a middle path (Madhyam Marg)
between the two ideas of environmental determinism and possibilism. One
termed it as Neodeterminism or stops andgo determinism. Those of you
who live in cities and those who have visited a city might have seen that
traffic is regulated by lights on the cross-roads. Red light means stop, amber light provides a gap between red and green lights to get set and green
light means go. The concept shows that neither is there a situation of absolute necessity (environmental determinism) nor is there a condition of absolute freedom (possibilism). It means that human beings can conquer nature
by obeying it. They have to respond to the red signals and can proceed in
their pursuits of development when nature permits the modifications. It
means that possibilities can be created within the limits which do not damage the environment and there is no free run without accidents. The free
run which the developed economies attempted to take has already resulted
in the green house effect, ozone layer depletion, global warming, receding
Nature: The general psychological characteristics,

feelings, and behavioral
traits of humankind,
regarded as shared by all
humans.
glaciers and degrading lands. The neo-determinism conceptually attempts

to bring a balance nullifying the either or dichotomy.
The early Greeks observed how humans lived in various areas against
the backdrop of the earths physical features.
1.2.1 Human Geography through the Corridors of

Time
The process of adaptation, adjustment with and modification of the environment started with the appearance of human beings over the surface of
the earth in different ecological niches. Thus, if we imagine the beginning
of human geography with the interaction of environment and human beings, it has its roots deep in history. Thus, the concerns of human geography
Key Vocabulary
have a long temporal continuum though the approaches to articulate them
Neolithic Age: Latest part have changed over time. This dynamism in approaches and thrusts shows
the vibrant nature of the discipline. Earlier there was little interaction beof the Stone Age begintween different societies and the knowledge about each other was limited.
ning about 10,000 BC in
Travelers and explorers used to disseminate information about the areas
the Middle East.
of their visits. Navigational skills were not developed and voyages were
fraught with dangers. The late fifteenth century witnessed attempts of explorations in Europe and slowly the myths and mysteries about countries
and people started to open up. The colonial period provided impetus to
further explorations in order to access the resources of the regions and to
obtain inventoried information. The intention here is not to present an indepth historical account but to make you aware of the processes of steady
development of human geography. The summarized Table 1.1 will introduce you to the broad stages and the thrust of human geography as a subfield of geography.
Table 1.1: Broad stages and thrust of human geography
Period
Approaches
Broad Features
Colonial period
Exploration and
description
Imperial and trade

interests prompted the
discovery and exploration of new areas. An
encyclopedic description
of the area formed an
important aspect of the
geographers account.
Colonial period
Regional analysis
Elaborate description of
all aspects of a region
was undertaken. The
idea was that all the
regions were part of a
whole, i.e. (the earth); so,
understanding the parts
in totality would lead to
an understanding of the
whole.
1930s through the

inter-War period
Areal differentiation
The focus was on identifying the uniqueness of

any region and understanding how and why
it was different from
others.
Late 1950s to the

late 1960s
Spatial organization
Marked by the use of

computers and sophisticated statistical tools.
Laws of physics were
often applied to map
and analyze human
phenomena. This phase
was called the quantitative revolution. The main
objective was to identify
mappable patterns for
different human activities.
1970s
Emergence of
humanistic, radical
and behavioral
schools
Discontentment with the

quantitative revolution
and its
dehumanized manner of
doing geography led to
the emergence of three
new schools of thought
of human geography
in the 1970s. Human
geography was made
more relevant to the
socio-political reality by
the emergence of these
schools of thought. Consult the box to know a
little bit more about these
schools of thought.
1990s
Post-modernism in geog- The grand generalizaraphy

tions and the applicability of universal Theories
to explain the human
conditions were questioned. The importance
of understanding each
local context in its own
right was emphasized.
1.2.2 Fields and Sub-fields of Human Geography

Human geography, as you have seen, attempts to the relationship between
all elements of human life and the space they occur over. Thus, human geography assumes a highly inter-disciplinary nature. It develops close interface
with other sister disciplines in social sciences in order to understand and
human elements on the surface of the earth. With the expansion of knowledge, new subfields emerge and it has also happened to human geography.
Key Vocabulary
Paleolithic Age: Second
part of the Stone Age
beginning about 75,000 to
500,000 years BC and lasting until the end of the
last ice age about 8,500
years BC.
Let us examine these fields and sub-fields of Human Geography (Table 1.2).
You would have noticed that the list is large and comprehensive. It reflects
the expanding realm of human geography. The boundaries between subfields often overlap.
Table 1.2: Fields and sub-fields of human geography
Fields of Human Geography
Sub-fields
Interface with Sister

Disciplines of Social
Sciences
Social Geography
Social Sciences Sociology
Behavioral Geography
Psychology
Geography of Social
Well-being
Welfare Economics
Geography of Leisure
Sociology
Cultural Geography
Anthropology
Gender Geography
Sociology, Anthropology, Womens Studies
Historical Geography
History
Medical Geography
Epidemiology
Urban Geography
Urban Studies and Planning
Political Geography
Political Science
Electoral Geography
Psephology
Military Geography
Military Science
Population Geography
Demography
Settlement Geography
Urban/Rural Planning
Economic Geography
Economics
Geography of Resources
Resource Economics
Geography of Agriculture
Agricultural Sciences
Geography of Industries
Industrial Economics
Geography of Marketing
Business Studies, Economics, Commerce
Geography of International Trade
International Trade
Geography of Tourism
Tourism and Travel

Management
1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF

HUMANS
The study of man and adjustments to natural environment is known as
human geography. Man has module habitats and life style according to
physical surrounding natural endowments. The impact of environment on
man and adaptation to physical environment has been emphasized by the
Greek, Roman, and Arab Scholars.
Humans use energy and technology to reach into the environment to
create and extract resources. As humans interact with the Environment to
extract resources, they impact and modify existing spatial distributions and
underlying spatial processes of the environment. The number of people
and the length of time they are in an area influence the degree to which
they will impact it. More recently, the level of technology a group of people
possesses has become one of the most important variables in determining
the degree and spatial extent that people impact the environment. Over
the past few thousand years, human developments in Technology have increased our ability to extract resources and, hence, have increased the number of humans the planet can support, or the carrying capacity.
Basic of Geographical Environment

Scope of Human Geography: The scope of human geography is enormous.
In this we study the influence of physical environment on the economic
activity, society, culture and religion of the people of a region (Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3: Influence of physical environment.
1.4 DETERMINISM OR
ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM
The philosophies, approaches and practices which inform and flow from
a concern with the environment are known as environmental determinism. The determinists generally consider man as a passive agent on whom
environmental factors are acting and determining attitude, decision making process & lifestyles. The first attempt was made by Greek and Roman
Scholars, including the physician Hippocrates, philosopher Aristotle and
historians Thucydides and Herodotus.
1.4.1 Some Supporters of this Theory and their

View
Aristotle: Philosopher explained the difference between North Europeans and Asians in terms of climatic causes.
Habitats of Europe were:(Cold Climate
Habitats of Asia were:(Warm Climate)
Brave & Courageous
Lacking in courage
Unintelligent
Intelligent
Lacking in Political org.
Politically strong
Have capacity to rule their neighbors
Slavery is their destiny their natural state.
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The people of Greece, who occupy the middle position geographically,

one sees as endowed with the finest qualities and thus destined by nature
itself to rule all over. Strabo (Roman Geographer) attempted to explain
how, slope, relief and climate all were the works of God and how these
phenomena govern the lifestyles of people.
Montesquieu pointed out the difference between the people living in
cold climate conditions and people living in warm climate conditions.
Habitats of cold climatic region are stronger physically, more courageous, frank, less suspicious and less cunning than those of living in warm
climates. Habitats of warm climatic regions on other hand are timorous,
timid, weak in body, indolent lethargic and passive.
AL-Masudi asserted that the Land where water is abundant, the people are gay and numerous, while the people of dry and arid lands are shorttempered. The nomads who live in open air are marked by strength and
resolution, wisdom and physical fitness. Immanual kant stated that the
people of new Holland have half closed eyes and cannot see to any distance
without bending their needs back until they touch their backs. This is due
to the innumerable flies which are always flying in their eyes.
He further stressed that all inhabitants of hot lands are exceptionally
lazy and timid. Timidity engenders superstitions and in lands ruled by
kings leads to slavery.
In support of hypothesis of influence of Climates, stated that animals
and man who migrate to other countries are gradually affected by their new
environment.
For example: The Brown squirrels which migrate to Siberia turn grey
and the colors of white cows in winters terms grayish. Darwin argued that
a struggle for existence most take place; it followed that those who survived
were better fitted to environment than competitors.
1.4.2 Criticism of the Theory of Determinism

Man is a tool-making, tool-using and culture-making animal. The human
life is not exclusively controlled by habitat and natural environment. We
are the creatures of rules, the rules are our creations and we make our own
world. Thus, man is not the product of environment But the creation of
social rules and customs.
1.5 POSSIBILISM
It explains relationship between man and environment in a different way
taking man as an active agent in environment. This is a belief that asserts
that natural environment provides options the number of which increase as
the knowledge & technology of a cultural group develop.
This point of view was named possibilism by Fever who wrote: - The
truth and only geographical problem is that of utilization of possibilities.
There are no necessities, but everywhere possibilities.
1.5.1 Criticism of Theory of Possibilism

In spite of the fact that man has numerous possibilities in a given physical
setting, one cannot go against the directions laid by the physical environ-
ment this approach has been criticized by many of the contemporary thinkers. Griffith Taylor while criticizing possibilism stressed that society as a
where should make the choices and since only an advisory role is assigned
to geographers, function is not that of interpreting natures plan. The task of
Geography is to study the natural environment and its effects on man, not
all problems connected with man or the cultural landscape.
1.6 EMERGENCE OF MAN

The evolution of man from simple life forms through apes to the present
day human beings can be studied from various sources ranging from comparative bio-physiological studies of man and other mammals to the study
of fossils of ancestors of present day human beings.
Man belongs to the Order Primate having a relatively large brain, a
grasping hand with nails and stereoscopic eyesight which has been developed at the expense of sense of smell. Other primates include tree shrews,
lemurs, monkey and apes (chimpanzees, orangutans and gorillas). Man
shows the closest affinity, among all primates, to the apes by virtue of
unique ability to develop culture. The study of fossils wrong with remains
of tools and other artifacts tells us a lot about the physiology, environment
and the way of life of our ancestors.
Biologically, man is related to the apes and diverged from a common ancestral species which, not nearly specialized lived both upon the ground and
on trees during the Tertiary era (around 65 million years ago). The tertiary era
witnessed the Alpine orogeny and the emergence of mammals. Apes, on the
whole, have become arboreal and vegetarian. By being able to move from one
tree to another on higher branches, they have attained security from terrestrial predators like tiger lion, leopard and they can also pluck fruits and edible
forest products from trees at any height. They are essentially quadrupeds,
generally having prehensile tails. Man having become a biped with an erect
posture, has no use for a tail. These feet are fully adapted for a brisk walk.
Hand with an opposable thumb is a highly controlled organ with a precise
grip. This enabled man to develop and use a variety of tools.
The adoption of an erect posture has been accompanied by an enlargement
of the brain especially of the frontal lobe which is the seat of function of a higher
intellectual level. Lowe jaw has become elongated because of the diet consisting
mainly of cooked food. Freer and more delicately controlled movements of the
jaw, face and tongue have enabled man to develop the faculty of speech.
The change of habitat from trees to the ground added animal flesh to
a diet which was originally vegetarian. The final stage of evolution as a
separate species (Homo sapiens) took place mainly during the later Pleistocene period. This was also the period of drastic climatic changes. As savannas, grasslands and steppes became more extensive towards the close of the
Pleistocene period, ape-man ranged in the outer regions of the tropics and
in sub-tropical latitudes of Asia, Africa and Europe. This is vindicated by
fragments of skulls and bones which have been found in China, central and
Western Europe as well as in Africa. But mans survival instincts enabled
him to survive near the equator also, as some of the most significant remains have been recovered in Java. The ability of man to use fire and make
tools, which could be used for skinning of animals, enabled him to survive
in colder climates.
During the inter-glacial periods when climate became milder, the early
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12
hominids spread even into higher latitudes, because their remains have
been found in regions like Europe and northern China. Similarly, during
the glacial periods, the hominids moved to tropical and sub-tropical areas.
By the time the last of the glacial periods came, man was able to survive in
more rigorous climates by retreating into caves and using animal skins and
fire. Among the best known of these early species was the Neanderthal man
with larger bones and more powerful muscles than the modern man, but
having a more primitive skull, a massive and protruding jaw, a receding
forehead and a prominent bony ridge the eyes. The Neanderthal appears
to have evolved as a separate species north of the Tertiary mountain belt of
Europe and Asia. The remains have been found in northern China as well
as in Europe.
Mankind, thus, appears to have evolved south of the mountain zone
in Eurasia and to have lived in India, Java, western and southern Asia and
northern Africa. It seems that Neanderthaloids and more modern species
lived together in Europe and south-western Asia during the latter part of
the last glaciations. Although the more specialized Neanderthals have not
survived as a species, some of their physical characteristics have been identified in present day Europeans. Some authorities believe that the Neanderthals of eastern Asia have contributed to the Mongoloid peoples.
1.6.1 The Races of Mankind

Race has been defined as a biological grouping within the human species, distinguished or classified according to genetically transmitted differences. The race as an expression has been used in different context, viz.
culture, tradition, language and nationality. These are not scientific criteria,
since they are neither biological nor inherited (Figure 1.4).
There has been some difference of opinion regarding the origin of different races. One school of thought argues that racial differences existed
from the very beginning, while another school of thought believes that different races developed from one single ancestral species.
The scientific classification of human racial types is based on certain
combinations of fixed, inherited, as far as possible measurable and visually
identifiable traits, such as head shape, eye shape and color, skin color, stature, blood groups etc. These traits represent morphological, biological and
genetical aspects. With the inclusion of more and more traits, the number of
combinations increases and the analysis becomes more complex.
Figure 1.4: Human races.
There is no single way of classifying mankind into biological races.

In the past, physical characteristics, such as skin color and hair type, were
used to delineate three to five biological races (Caucasoid, Negroid and
Mongoloid and later, Austrloid and American Indian). More subtle techniques, taking into account blood types and hereditary diseases well as
terrain barriers, result in classifications that may include as many as eight
or nine geographical race. Although difference of opinion exists regarding
terminology and the exact classification, the following divisions are generally accepted:
Caucasoid (European)
Negrodi (African)
Mongoloid (Asiatic or Oriental)
Indic (Hindu)
Australoid (Australian aboriginals)
Polynesians/Melanesioan / Micronesian (sometimes, these three
are classified as the Oceanic)
Generally speaking, the spatial distribution and concentration of these
races is Caucasoid in Europe, Mongoloids in Asia and Negroids in Africa.
But these races are not limited, in spatial extent, to these areas only. For
instance, the Caucasoid race is also found along the northern belt of Africa, Turkey and from Iran to Baluchistan and India.The Mongoloid race is
mainly found in the central, eastern and south-eastern parts of Asia and the
western parts of the Americas (Red Indians etc.), Arctic region (Eskimos in
Canada, Greenland and Yakuts in Siberia). In other worlds, the Mongoloids are clustering around the Pacific and the Arctic Oceans. The Negroids
are mainly concentrated in the south of Sahara desert in Africa, but they are
also found in Indonesia (pygmy group), Papua New Guinea and Melanesia. The Australoids, a mixture of Negroids and Dravidians (south India),
are largely concentrated in Australia, especially in the north and west.
1.6.2 Physical Characteristics of Major Racial

Groups
Skin Colour: The Caucasoid have pale reddish white to olive brown
skin color. Among the Mongoloids, the skin color ranges between
saffron to yellow brown, while some individuals have reddish
brown skin color. The Negroids have brown to brown-black or yellow-brown skin color.
Stature: The Caucasoid have a medium to tall sature, while the
Mongoloids are medium tall to medium short and Negroids, tall to
very short.
Head Form Among the Caucasoid, head is generally long to broad
and short and medium high to very high. Among the Mongoloids,
head is predominantly broad and medium high, while it is predominately long and low to medium high among Negroids.
Face It is narrow to medium broad and tends to be high with no
prognathism, among the Caucasoid. Among the Mongoloids, it is
medium broad to very broad and medium high. The face is medium
broad to narrow and tends towards medium high with strong prognathism among Negroids.
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14
Hair Among the Caucasoid, hair color is light brown to dark brown,
texture is fine to medium and the form is straight to wavy. The body
hair among the Caucasoid is moderate to profuse. Among the Mongoloids, the color of hair is brown to brown black, texture is coarse,
and form is straight and body hair sparse. Among the negroids, hair
color is brown black, texture is coarse, and form is wooly or frizzly
and body hair, spares.
Eye the color of eyes, among the caucasoids, is light blue to dark
brown while the lateral eye-fold is occasional. Among the mongoloids, the eye color is brown to dark brown and the medial epicanthic fold is very common. Among the Negroids, eye color is brown
to brown black and vertical eye fold is common.
Nose: Among the caucasoids, the nasal bridge is usually high and
the form, narrow to medium broad. The nasal bridge, among the
mongoloids, is usually low to medium and the form, medium broad.
Among the negroids, the nasal bridge is usually low and the form,
medium broad to very broad.
Body Shape: Among the caucasoids, it is linear to lateral and slender to rugged. Among the mongoloids, it tends to be lateral with
some linearity and among the negroids; the body shape is lateral
and muscular.
Blood Group: Among the caucasoids, frequency of A is more than
that of B, while the mongoloids have more B than A and the negroids have both A and B.
1.6.3 Cultural Evolution of Man

Culture is a collective term for the traits acquired by man, living in a society,
in order to a particular environment. These traits include knowledge, belief,
art, morals, law, customs, religion and any other capability acquired as a
member of the society.
Culture is a unique feature of mans evolutionary process and has
modified culture as a tool. Because of this unique feature, the human evolution has been more repaid than that of other species. Thus, the biological
and cultural evolutions have progressed simultaneously, complementing
each other in the process. Culture evolved mainly though the second half of
Pliocene and first three-quarters of Pleistocene period. Evolution of culture
a made possible the following developments:
Dispersal of human beings across the earths surface. Adaptation to
nearly all of biotic and physical situations by man. Growth in number to
reach a population of 5 million around 10,000 years ago. Based on technology of stone tools, the various stages in cultural evolution of man are
referred to as Old Stone Age, the middle stone age and the new Stone Age.
The main features of these stages are
Paleolithic Age
This age dates back to a period two million years ago. During this age, successive glaciations alternated with milder climatic conditions. Plants, animals and humans tried to adapt to these climatic extremes and those, which
could not became extinct. Speech was evolved and mastered by humans
along with tools and fire, thus completing the tripod of culture. Speech
made communication and exchange of information, ideas and experiences

possible. Man could now innovate and reorganize. Man started making
tools using stone, bones and wood and adopted hunting and gathering as
the main economic activities. The earliestcriteria for occupation of an area
were access to source of water, least effort and continuous food supply and
security.
A revolutionary development, during this period, was the discovery
and control of fire which made possible movement to higher latitudes,
keeping the animals away , storage of animal flesh, security from predators
and from fellow beings and the origin of a religious cult which centered
around fire. The progress on the cultural from was slow during the early
Pleistocene, while there rapid advances from a period on million years of
onwards. Another feature which evolved during this age was gender-based
division of labor and sharing of food. Thus, during the Palaeolithic age,
man evolved from am unspecialized food gatherer (Homo habilis) to s specialized hunter-gatherer (advanced species of Homo sapiens).
Neolithic Age
This period is characterize by grinding and polishing of stone, beginning ofagriculture, a settled lifestyle, pottery, domestication of animals and a more
purposeful and intensive manipulation of biotic environment. Three main
sites of early agriculture are the Middle-East, Meso and Andean America
and South-East Asia. There was greater regional spread of tool types and
advancements were made in food preservation and storage. The animals
for food were hunted outside, but were brought to the camp site and consumed there. From various sites, remains of wheat, barley, peas, lentil, and
skeletal remains of cattle and pigs have been found.
1.7 BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION

The early civilizations appeared in the uplands which had adequate amounts
of rainfall to support agriculture of the local inhabitants. Gradually, with
increase in population, the communities moved to the lowlands, where the
river valleys offered natural sites for settlement, agriculture and domestication of animals. The early river valley civilizations came up around the
rivers Nile, Tigris and Euphrates Indus, etc. the agricultural advances were
represented by development of water management techniques like canals,
bunds, ditches, etc. Pottery and weaving had already developed.
Around 3500B.C, metallurgy came into existence with the use of copper, silver, gold and, later, bronze and iron. Around 3000 B.C., the use of
wheel for vehicles and sail for hsips made easier the transportation of greater loads. During the second millennium, domestication of horse started in
grasslands of the central Asian steppes. In the meantime, agricultural surpluses gave rise to urban centers. Further intellectual progress was reflected in writing, mathematics, astronomy and development for calendar. The
economic, scientific and technological advancement led to further social,
political and intellectual progress.
It was around 1500 B.C. that iron began to be used. This was a landmark as it increased agricultural productivity and made possible the clearing of forests for purposes of settlement and agriculture. Also, more effective weapons could be made which made are important element of political
life during this period.
15
16
The modern technological revolution began with the Industrial Revolution during the ast two centuries and a new way of life arose out of it. The
Industrial Revolution increased productivity, transformed patterns of organization, sparked new theories of economic management and stimulated
political thought regarding distribution of wealth. Communication, transportation and sources of energy in manifold forms gave people a freedom
they had never imagined possible.
The most significant advances in recent decades have been in the field
of transport and communication and include railways, air transport, ocean
transport, telephone, radio, television, computers, satellite communication, internet, fax etc. Apart from this, advancements in tapping of various
sources of energy, non-renewable of renewable, have been tremendous.
Cultures vary in how they utilize technological advances. Japan has
developed a dense railway web and its road traffic is also increasing rapidly. Countries, where economic development began to accelerate only two
or three decades ago, may never acquire a completely developed railway
system. More probably, roads complemented by air routes will serve most
of their needs.
Similarly, agriculture has been completely transformed by scientific
and technological advancements which include the bio-technological revolution involving advanced knowledge of genetics, improved high-yielding
and disease resistant varieties of seeds, crop rotation methods, and increased use of chemical fertilizers, extensive mechanized operations and
scientific forestry.
But regional disparities in development exist. As a result, primitive
techniques and cultures co-exist with modern and complex one. With increased communication compared to the ancient times, these differences
are being obliterated fast.
1.8 MAJOR CULTURAL REALMS OF THE

WORLD
A cultural realm is a geographical region where cultural traits maintain homogeneity. The cultural traits are supposed to be the product of regional
geographical circumstances. It is, thus, regional geography which has become the basis of the delineation of cultural realms in the world. Ratzels
concept of cultural landscape provided encouragement to geographers for
culture regionalization.
Blache and Spencer are other geographers who considered the study of
the cultural realms as an important part of human geography. Apart from
the geographers, historians, anthropologists and sociologists have also tried
to regionalize the world into cultural realms. The variables of culture include the economic organization, social customs, traditional values, dietary
habits, dress patterns, language and uniformity in physical characteristics.
On the basis of these variables, various cultural realms can be identified.
Political Geography
Political geography as a systematic branch of human geography has a long,
but not always distinguished, history. Like other branches of the discipline
a precise definition is elusive with the nature of political geography, the
issues explored, the approaches adopted, and the methods utilized display-
ing considerable breadth and variety. The nature of the sub discipline has
changed over time and its fortunes have waxed and waned for a variety
of reasons. While being mindful of over simplifying, it could be said that
political geography is concerned with the interface between politics and
geography. To be more precise, there is a focus on the spatial dimensions of
power and with political phenomena and relationships at a range of spatial
scales from the global down to the local. Another way of viewing this is to
see it as revolving around the intersections of key geographical concerns
of space, place, and territory on the one hand and issues of politics, power,
and policy on the other. From this it follows that contemporary political
geography encompasses a wide variety of themes. Rather than rigidly defining political geography it is perhaps best to think in terms of geographical approaches being brought to bear on a wide range of political issues.
For some the study of spatial political units is central, for others there is an
emphasis on major processes such as colonialism, while for still others it
is concepts such as territory, state, or nation that are key. The diversity of
issues and approaches means that it is more meaningful to talk of political geographies rather than a single uni dimensional political geography.
Changes in themes, approaches, and methods have occurred in response
to intellectual and methodological developments within the broader discipline and in academia more generally. However, they have also reflected
broader social, economic, political, cultural, and environmental changes.
The blurring of boundaries within the sub disciplines of human geography (and indeed the blurring of disciplinary boundaries more generally)
means that some research that might be regarded as falling within the ambit
of political geography is carried out by people who would not necessarily
describe themselves as political geographers. Indeed they might not even
regard themselves as geographers at all.
Ideas and Developments

The German geographer Friedrich Ratzel has been attributed with the first
major work to include political geography in its title Politische geographie, published in 1897. Ratzel likened the state to an organism which
needed further space or lebensraum in order to expand. This organic theory
of the state could be said to reflect two main characteristics of much late
nineteenth century and early twentieth century political geography. First,
it employed ideas derived from biology and other physical sciences and
applied these to politics and society. Second, it reflected the view of Ratzel
and others that geography and other branches of academia should be put
into the service of the state. Ratzel was a supporter of German imperialism and theories and politics went hand in hand. In the UK perhaps the
most famous political geographer of the era was Halford Mackinder. He
has been credited with attempting to shape the nature of geography in Britain in the early twentieth century and argued that the discipline should
have objectives which were not just academic and educational but which
should also serve the needs of politicians and business people. This vision
of geography was a reflection of own political views and was at one time
an MP and served as a British government advisor at the Versailles conference at the end of World War I. Mackinder is most remembered for heartland theory or geographical pivot of history in which suggested that, while
sea power had served Britain well, technological changes, most notably the
expansion of railways, meant that control over major land masses was of
crucial importance. One argued the Eurasian landmass (essentially Russia)
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18
was of crucial significance and containing Russian expansion was of the

utmost importance for Britain in its wish to maintain political prominence.
Mackinder, like Ratzel, wrote from what can be seen as an imperial point of
view. For all these imperial political geographers their ideas were bound
up with the influence of both physical features, such as mountains and rivers, and human geographical considerations on politics and their role in
affecting the strategies of states. Their task, as they saw it, was the devising of practical geostrategies which could be utilized by political leaders.
Like his European counterparts, the US geographer Isaiah Bowman was
an adviser to the government. Following World War I, played a role in the
redrawing of European borders in capacity as a member of the US delegation at Versailles. While Bowman tended to see contributions as detached
and objective, view of the world was mediated through the lens of US geostrategic interests. With anticommunist views he endeavored to fashion a
political geography reflective of US interests. At about the same time the
German geographer Karl Haushofer utilized and developed Ratzels ideas
of lebensraum. Hitlers subsequent use of the concept as justification for
German territorial expansion meant that both Haushofer and ideas were
heavily criticized.
The subsequent significant decline of geopolitics has been at least partly
attributable to this tainted episode in its history. In the 1930s and 1940s the
American geographer Richard Hartshorne attempted to delineate the field
of geography. More specifically he also sought to outline the sphere of political geography as a sub discipline. He saw political areas, most obviously
the state, as a central concern, which dovetailed with broader view of geography as an idiographic discipline in which the region was the central object
of study. The discrediting of geopolitics and the retreat of geography into a
largely descriptive regionalizing phase meant that for much of the mid part
of the twentieth century political geography became pre occupied with the
study of states and their borders. Issues of natural and artificial borders and
theories of state evolution which likened these human creations to natural
phenomena were devised. While it would be simplistic to dismiss all of
the work produced at this time, it has been seen as largely descriptive and
politically conservative in its naturalizing of the role of the state. Recent
decades have seen a significant rebirth of political geography stimulated by
a number of methodological and theoretical developments. The dawn of a
more quantitative approach in the 1960s saw political geographers work
much more extensively with large volumes of data. This is most obviously
reflected in the development of an electoral geography which cast light on
such things as the importance of place and locality in voting patterns and
the intersections of national issues with more local concerns. In exploring
voting patterns attention was drawn to the ways in which neighborhood
effects cross cut broader political issues to produce particular spatial patterns. Geographys radical revolution brought about two key political geographic changes. Firstly it saw the introduction of more overtly structures
list perspectives into political geography and secondly it resulted in a very
politicized geography. In the first instance a range of human geographical
phenomena were analyzed within a broader framework. The impact of overarching social, economic, and political processes on people and places was
emphasized. An example of this is the application of Wallersteins world
systems theory in the work of Peter Taylor. Here, rather than seeing states
in isolation, there is an emphasis on the complexities of an interstate system
and the connections between long term cycles of economic change and state
stability and state structure. The radical revolution within geography saw
an intense politicization of the discipline. The 1960s saw the promulgation

of the idea that everything is political and hence all areas of geographic
inquiry were infused with political connotations. Radical geographers began asking intensely political questions about the distribution of wealth
and power, control over resources, issues of discrimination, development
and so on, while advocating radical political change in order to eradicate
inequality in its various guises. Territorial social justice became a key concern, while the idea of academic objectivity and neutrality was eschewed in
favor of a politically committed geography designed to radically transform
the unjust structures which resulted in gross inequities. This development
reflected broader social and political turmoil in an era of US involvement
in Vietnam, struggles against racism in various parts of the world, and the
growth of the womens movement and environmental concerns. The resurgence of interest in political geography and the emergence of politicized
geographers were reflected in the launch of the journal Political Geography
Quarterly in 1982. This has subsequently increased its annual output and
is now known simply as Political Geography. More recently the influence
of social theory in its broadest sense can be detected in some branches of
research. Some geographers have explored aspects of everyday life and the
ways in which political processes impact on people and inform their sense
of identity. It is clear that politics affects us all in a myriad of ways. While
older political geographies tended to focus on the world of formal politics
and happenings in the corridors of power, more recent versions explore
the everyday consequences of power and challenges to it. There has been
a growing emphasis on the politics of identity, whether framed in terms
of nationality, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, or other divisions. Alongside
this, and closely connected to it, a postmodern influence has focused attention on the discourses employed by different groups in relation to political
space. There is an emphasis on diversity and allowing different voices to be
heard. This has helped bolster earlier concerns with those at the receiving
end of unequal power relationships. Similarly, using the ideas of Foucault
and others, there have been explorations of the ways in which power operates and diffuses across geographic scales.
Major Themes
While political geography now embraces a wide range of concerns
some core themes can be identified. Chief among these are:
Territory and territoriality
State
Geopolitics
Nation
Identity and citizenship
Electoral geography
Environment
These themes are not discrete and they cross cut the more general geographic themes of space and place. As noted earlier the themes examined
and the approaches adopted owe a lot to shifting paradigms within the
broader discipline. The regionalist, empiricist, structuralist, and postmodern perspectives in particular are all apparent within the work produced
within the past 50 or so years. By the same token, the scales of analyses have
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varied from the global through the national and regional down to the local.
More recently, the inter connections between different scales of analysis
have been emphasized. The local impacts of more national or global political processes or policies are one example.
Territory and Territoriality

Territory refers to a bounded geographic space with territoriality referring
to the attempts to control that space. Traditionally formal political territories were the main concern of political geographers but more recently
territory at a more in formal level has come in for scrutiny. Thus, we can
think not only of territory defined by the borders between countries but
also reflected in everyday life when we are confronted with signs saying
authorized personnel only, keep out, no tress passing, strictly no admittance, and so on. The idea of the home as private space and territorial
divisions in the home based on divisions between adult and child space or
on gendered divisions of labor are examples of more micro scale territoriality. Some strands of thought have naturalized territorial behavior as
something innate in humans. In this view the claiming of geographic space
is seen as natural and defense of territory is seen as a biological urge. Others have viewed this in more social terms and, utilizing the ideas of Robert
Sack, have seen territory as a key organizing device and territorial behavior
as a means of retaining or resisting political power. From a political geographic perspective, territorial behavior might be viewed as a geographic
and political strategy designed to achieve particular ends. In this way, the
control of geographic space can be used to assert or to maintain power, or
to resist the power of a dominant group. It follows from this that territories,
whether, states, regions, counties, workplaces, the home, are not natural
entities but the outcomes of a variety of social practices and processes in
which space and society are linked. It is easy to regard territories as spatial
containers but they are much more than that. They serve to convey messages of authority, power, and control. Issues of territory and territoriality
are seen to be key underpinnings for many political geographic issues.
Population geography is the sub discipline of human geography that has
concerned itself with describing, analyzing, and reflecting upon the geographical organization and growth of human populations in their environmental and social settings. It thus distinguishes itself from demography
which, as the mathematical science of the human population, focuses on
the processes of fertility, mortality, and migration and how these create
predictable populations. Put another way, population geography emphasizes how populations and population processes appear and change across
space, while demography emphasizes change over time. This is explores
the disciplinary basis of knowledge, reviews three major approaches to
knowledge creation, and closes with a brief resume of outstanding debates. It argues that while spatial science approaches have lent credibility
and vitality to intellectual debates within and beyond the field, and structural approaches have offered important insights about inequalities, a further integration of these with emerging cultural approaches is needed to
tackle contemporary knowledge challenges.
Disciplinarily
Like other clusters of knowledge in geography, population geography frequently presents itself, and is criticized, as an institutionalized sub discipline of geography. The advantage of such a disciplinary view is to draw
attention to the structures, norms, and intellectual bases of such an enterprise, including the extent to which developments outside geography
(notably in demography, but also economics, sociology, mathematics, and
cultural studies) and within geography transform the field. The potential
disadvantage with this organizing view is to divorce the activities of the
field from their broader social and political context that is, we must pay
heed to how the activities of population geographers always reflect, and
sometimes influence, events in the real world. Indeed, some of the outputs of the field are closely allied to political agendas, such as nineteenth
century population maps that showed the national distribution of racial
and ethnic concentrations and helped legitimize the idea of a natural community which was contained within the bounds of the nation state. Certainly, taking the long view, human societies have consistently had a use
for knowledge about their people, how they occupy the surface of the earth,
and what such patterns of organization might mean for political and civic
organization, military security, commerce, inequality, environmental depletion, resource use, and wellbeing. Yet, while population geography has
cross cultural and interdisciplinary roots, it is still dominated by its Euro
American intellectual pedigree, which is not to say this will not nor should
not change.
It is the conventional view of the disciplinary development of the field
that the comments of the then president of the Association of American Geographers, Glenn Trewartha, at the Cleveland annual conference in 1953,
provided a nucleus around which some key concepts began to cluster. Trewartha believed in a unitary and synthetic geography and spoke of a holistic vision to highlight the importance of studying areal differentiation and
geographic diversity. Trewartha wrote: Physical and cultural, systematic
and regional, general and special, are dualisms which appear at times to fog
the oneness. As geographers believe we are committed to the study of earth
regions. Rejecting dualistic thinking within geography (human physical,
physicalcultural, productionconsumption), approach placed population
at the apex of geographys concerns, buttressed by analyses of the cultural
earth and the physical earth: The here suggested trinomial organization
results in giving man deservedly explicit and important position within
the unitary geographic structure. The only final value is human life or human living, and this being the case it is difficult to understand why geographers should judge the creation of man, and the environment out of which
creates them, relatively more important than man himself . Students of
this new sub discipline would study regional variations in population distributions and look at explanations for diversity in terms of demography,
the potential for livelihood, and settlement systems. Furthermore, historical population geography would serve to place regional variations in their
historic context. The key characteristics of population included the gross
patterns of numbers, fertility and mortality dynamics, measures of under
and over population, density of population and settlement and migration
patterns. They would also study the physical characteristics of populations.
Informed by mid and late nineteenth century anthropological and sociological classifications, these included body type, race, nationality, sex, age, and
health status. Relevant socio economic characteristics included religion,
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education, occupation, family structure, urban/rural residence, development level, and customs. This rather detailed vision was to have an enduring legacy for how population geography developed. Although discussions by Preston James and David Hooson also adopted a unitary view of
geography that emphasized the importance of looking at both human and
environmental explanations, developments elsewhere in geography and
sciences led researchers to focus on that part of Trewarthas work that said
that population processes can be understood from description and analysis
of population patterns. In short, this inspired the field to cross disciplinary
boundaries in a quest for ideas, concepts, and theories that could help explain, or at least bring some sense of order to, the population diversity they
saw. Crucially, this was an overt foundation of the spatial science approach
that was to exert a powerful influence on human geography during the
middle part of the twentieth century.
1.9 ECONOMICS AND HUMAN

GEOGRAPHY
The often fraught relationship between human geography and economics
is by no means a recent development. Dating back to the late 1800s, the relationship has been characterized by the different disciplinary approaches
taken to often similar research problematic. For example, Barnes writing in
the book The New Industrial Geography outlines how the first English language textbook in economic geography, George Chisholms A Handbook
of Commercial Geography, sought to position commodity production and
trade as fundamentally geographical research concerns. While economists
such as David Ricardo and J S Mill had studied trade, particularly through
the development of concepts such as comparative advantage, Chisholm
sought to demonstrate that it was precisely through geographical differences that such comparative advantages emerged. Moreover, in addition
to signaling the importance of geography to economic research agendas,
he also forwarded a distinctive methodological approach that privileged
detailed empirical research and the presentation of arguments through a
distinctly geographical imagination, most notably through maps. Consequently, while the early relationship between human geography and economics in many ways foreshadows contemporary differences between
the two disciplines, at a certain point in the history of human geography,
the potential for a close relationship with economics seemed to exist. The
quantitative revolution of the 1950s and 1960s ushered in a period of more
positivist study in which the modeling of spatial structures dominated the
work of most (but not all) human geographers. This was both methodologically and philosophically closer to economics than present day human
geography. The chance of a long standing relationship developing diminished, however, with changes in human geography that took place from
the 1970s onwards. Two such developments stand out as being particularly
significantdevelopments that echo the earlier relationship between the
two disciplines. First, led by the work of Manuel Castells, David Harvey,
and Doreen Massey, human geography underwent a critical and radical
turn in the 1970s and 1980s in response to economic changes that were
leading to deindustrialization, mass unemployment, and social in equality
in developed economies. This gave energy to the work of geographers
that emphasized critical, normative politics. Scholarship sought to do more
than sociospatial phenomena, instead being designed to develop social sci-
ence theory while actively influencing policy in a way that might reduce
inequalities and highlight the exploitative nature of, and inherent contra
dictions of, capitalism. Research in this period was heavily influenced by
Marxist political economy that emphasized the intricate relationships between production and distribution and the need for revolutionary change
in capitalist systems so as to break down class relations and associated inequalities. This was a very different political economy to that espoused by
Adam Smith, mainly because of the desire to overhaul rather than clarify
systems of accumulation and the expropriation of surplus. This opened up
a disjuncture between the projects of human geographers and economists.
Not only were geographers increasingly radical in their work but a methodological revolution was also further distinguishing their research from
economists. New interest in the impacts of economic structures and systems, the winners and losers and the lived experiences of deindustrialization and unemployment that were resulting from capitalisms spatial adjustments of the 1970s and 1980s, led to a burgeoning amount of qualitative
research. This methodological shift was far from total and many human
geographers continued and continue today to use quantitative methods
to explore a range of geographical questions. For example, Sheppard and
Barnes in their book The Capitalis Space Economy provide perhaps one of
the most thorough analyses of how a quantitative approach can reveal the
intricacies of location as the interaction of places and labor as a heterogeneous social entity, something that allows a direct critique of neoclassical
economic work to be made. Nevertheless, a significant switch away from
quantitative methods swept the field of human geography in the 1980s and
set the foundations for the predominance of qualitative research that now
pervades human geography.
Second, this methodological shift was given further momentum by
the growing influence of the cultural turn in human geography from the
1990s. Inspired by the growth of cultural studies as an academic discipline
from the late 1980s onwards, as well as the rise of diverse and flexible post
Fordist regimes of production and consumption in capitalist space economies, the cultural turn had a significant impact on the ways in which
human geographers study the economic. Most broadly, research into the
economic began to place emphasis on more qualitative dimensions including: meanings, identities, trust, and knowledge. This was accompanied
by research into neglected and relatively new areas of the economy, including most notably e commerce, consumption practices, and commodity
chains and networks. Moreover, there was increasing interest in drawing
on post structuralist thought to critically rethink the economy as an object
of analysis. In particular, geographers such as Andrew Leyshon, Roger Lee
and Colin Williams in their book Alternative Economic Spaces sought to
demonstrate that the economy is not necessarily contiguous with capitalism and pointed to the emergence of a range of proliferative and diverse
economies.
Environmental Studies and Human Geography

As academic disciplines, the fields of geography and environmental studies
share common themes of study, theoretical perspectives, and methodological approaches. They also differ according to how their relative coherence
as a distinct academic discipline, how they define and employ inter disciplinarily, and how they relate to public opinion and public policy. Human
geography is the part of geography that explores the patterns and processes
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that shape social relations and delineates human interactions with the environment. Humanenvironment geography deals directly with the latter,
and typically requires some understanding of the dynamics of climatology, geology, ecology, hydrology, biogeography, and geomorphology, in
addition to the multiple historical and social processes that produce the
diversity of cultural, economic, and political institutions across the planet.
Humanenvironment geography, as with human geography, employs a diverse array of qualitative and quantitative methods and methodologies, including case studies, historical research, textual analysis, survey research,
and statistical analysis among others. Environmental studies, in a fashion
similar to humanenvironment geography, examines how human interactions produce environmental changes and how those changes in turn influence social dynamics. It is a broad field of inquiry that includes within
its purview both the natural environment and human produced environments such as cities and agricultural systems. Environmental studies is
strongly oriented toward the study of current environmental problems and
the complex set of biophysical, economic, political, and cultural dynamics that have produced them. The problem oriented nature of environmental studies has produced a strong set of linkages between its practitioners
and a variety of policymakers and advocates in government agencies, the
popular media, independent research institutes, nongovernmental organizations, and community groups. Roughly 400 colleges and universities in
North America offer an undergraduate program in environmental studies,
and there are over 220 graduate programs in environmental studies. According to Educational Directories Unlimited, an online guide to graduate
programs, there are an additional 150 graduate programs in environmental
studies and hundreds of undergraduate programs with an environmental studies orientation beyond North America. This represents a remarkable rate of growth for a discipline that originated in the late 1960s. While
environmental studies is by definition an interdisciplinary field of study
that embraces education and training in the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities, a majority of programs at both the under graduate and graduate level are firmly oriented toward environmental science.
The variety of disciplinary expertise and course offerings in environmental
studies is quite broad. Topics of study in the biophysical sciences include
environmental chemistry, environmental toxicology, geophysical sciences,
conservation biology, wildlife ecology, and host of applied fields oriented
toward natural resources such as fisheries, forestry, water resources, and
the like. The breadth of social science approaches within environmental
studies is similarly wide, spanning anthropology, environmental sociology, environmental politics, environmental and resource economics, and
geography. While fields from the humanities are not as well represented in
environmental programs, many programs do include a focus on environmental literature, Eco criticism, or similar areas of study. Finally, a significant number of programs are oriented toward or include aspects of environmental engineering and public health, while many also have linkages
with environmental law and public policy programs.
The Historical Roots of Disciplinary Identities

The historical trajectories of humanenvironment geography and environmental studies as academic disciplines and as approaches to the study of
humanenvironment relationships provide a foundation for interpreting
their current place within academia and within the public eye. Humanenvironment geography, as a core concern of the broader discipline of geography, has waxed and waned following the fortunes of its parent discipline
from the time of geographys formalization within European academic
structures in the late nineteenth century and throughout its development,
particularly in the United States, during the twentieth century. By contrast,
environmental studies emerged as a response to mounting societal concerns over environmental pollution, resource depletion, and nature conservation in the latter half of the twentieth century. Many of the earliest environmental studies programs in Canada and the United States came about in
conjunction with the enactment of a significant amount of national environ
mental legislation in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The key differences that
drive how scholars in human geography (and subsequently humanenvironment geography) versus those in environmental studies interpret environmental change and humanenvironment relations derive from the quite
different historical development of the two fields. A closer examination of
these histories reveals, on the one hand, humanenvironment geographys
maturation almost entirely within the strictures of academic institutions
and, on the other, environmental studies emergence in response to an array
of external actors and events located within broader society. Geography,
and as a result human geography, traces its roots to the nineteenth and early twentieth century, when it became more or less established as a scholarly
endeavor in a variety of European and North American academic settings.
Geography as the study of humanenvironment relations owes its early academic standing to the efforts of European practitioners active in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries such as Alexander von Humboldt
and Frederich Ratzel in Germany, Elisee Reclus in France, Joachim Schouw
in Denmark, Vidal de la Blache in France, and Halford Mackinder in Great
Britain. Oftentimes, these efforts to inculcate geography within academic
institutions were directly linked to the nationalist sentiments and geopolitical aspirations of these scholars nation states, where the descriptions of the
physical and human characteristics of new places were useful to expanding
colonial empires. These geographers, through their research, writings, and
participation in public forums, sought to define geographys unique place
in academia as both a spatialchorological discipline and a field concerned
with explaining the dialectical relationship between human activities and
environmental processes. In the United States, the humanenvironment tradition in geography was carried forward in the early twentieth century by
scholars such as William Morris Davis, Ellsworth Huntington, and Ellen
Churchill Semple, all of who strongly advocated the idea that geographical
circumstances determined human behavior. This perspective, now recognized as environmental determinism, was challenged later in the century
through the work of Harlan Barrows, who called for stronger links between
geography and the budding field of ecology, and Carl Sauer, whose unique
vision of landscapes as mutually constituted by cultural and biophysical
processes dominated discussions of humanenvironment geography certainly up to and including the 1960s. From the late 1960s to the present,
however, geographys concern with the humanenvironment condition has
witnessed an efflorescence of theoretical and method logical approaches.
These approaches ranging from older traditions such as human ecology,
cultural ecology, and hazards research through to more recent iterations
such as political ecology and the social construction of nature school have
been influenced by a variety of social theories that became incorporated
into the discipline during this period. The most prominent of these, from
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the standpoint of humanenvironment geography, include Marxist political economy, ecological Marxism, feminist theory, post structuralism, social constructivism, and more recently post colonialism, science studies,
and cultural studies. These perspectives have at times rested uncomfortably against humanenvironment geographys continuing engagement
with ecological theory and a broad array of biophysical sciences. During
the past two decades, scholars working within humanenvironment geography have also widened their geographical purview. The array of approaches collectively identified as political ecology have been particularly
ardent about investigating humanenvironment relations in the Global
South, where a majority of research has focused on the intersections among
resource dependent communities, developmental states, and an evolving
global economy. Tellingly, efforts to define the essential character of humanenvironment geography and its place within the social sciences by
its practitioners throughout the twentieth century have taken place almost
entirely within academic settings.
Environmental studies, although its roots can in part be traced back to
the nineteenth century and the seminal work of George Perkins Marsh, is
a relatively young discipline in terms of academic recognition, becoming
more or less firmly established in a variety of North American and European institutions in the 1970s and 1980s. In contrast to humanenvironment geography, the origins of environmental studies and the continuing
activities of its practitioners are the result of a series of dialogs between
academic institutions and individuals and events located within broader
societal contexts. Environ mental studies owes its existence, in large part,
to the efforts of students and faculty who became intellectually and politically engaged with the debates over environ mental quality and resource
exhaustion ignited by these widely read works and the ensuing public debates over their ramifications. In the United States, as support both within
and outside of academia grew for programs of higher education focused on
environmental problems, a number of undergraduate programs emerged
in the 1970s. These early programs, such as those at Dartmouth College and
Middlebury College in the northeastern United States during the late 1960s
and early 1970s, linked together a loose confederation of faculty whose primary research and teaching responsibilities tended to be identified with
traditional disciplines. The primary goal at these and other liberal arts institutions was to raise awareness of the rapidity and intensity of environmental changes con fronting the planet and to educate undergraduate stu dents
in both the fundamentals of environmental science and how environmental knowledge is applied in society at large through policy and advocacy
mechanisms. At the graduate level, environmental studies became interlinked with applied sciences, focusing on the training of resource professionals who upon graduation typically found employment with state and
federal resource management agencies or specific resource based industries. For example, a number of natural resource and forestry schools and
colleges embedded within broader university settings, including those at
Yale University, the University of Minnesota, the University of Michigan,
and many others, broadened their graduate educational programs to embrace growing societal concerns over the long term effects of pollutants,
the global degradation of ecological systems, biodiversity loss, and, significantly, the need to address these problems through policy measures. In addition, research and writing in environ mental studies have both critically
analyzed and been influenced by a range of philosophical perspectives, in-
cluding the ecocentrism of the deep ecology movement, James Lovelocks

Gaia hypothesis, and ecofeminism. Programs in environmental studies, in
North America, Europe, and elsewhere, have increasingly taken a global
perspective. This has manifested in two distinct ways. The first concerns
recognition on the part of scholars in environmental studies that the scope
of planetary problems such as climate change, trans boundary pollution,
degradation of marine ecosystems, changes in biogeochemical cycles, and
biodiversity loss are genuinely global. Again, foundational publications
identified with environmental studies for example, The Limits to Growth
by Donella Meadows and coauthors, the World Conservation Strategy by
IUCN (World Conservation Union), and the assortment of publications put
out by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) bolster
the claim of environmental studies scholars that biophysical processes transcend political boundaries and the resolution of global environmental problems demands an international perspective. The second global perspective
focuses on questions commonly grouped under the rubric of environment
and development studies. As questions over NorthSouth relations, intergenerational equity, and sustainable development were catapulted into the
public sphere by publication of the Brundtland Commissions Our CommonFuture in the late 1980s and global for a such as the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and the follow
up World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 1992 and 2002,
respectively, environmental studies began to embrace difficult questions
regarding rapid ecological changes in the developing regions of Latin
America, Africa, and Asia in the context of industrialization, agricultural
intensification, and diverse political settings.
Philosophy and Human Geography

Geography has always had a relation to philosophy. Many of the great
thinkers of the Western philosophical tradition have written explicitly on
many of the key issues of concern to geographers. These have included
within metaphysics and physics concerning nature, space, time, place, and
the human; logic and epistemology on the nature of knowledge and scientific method; and ethical questions about behavior and its spatial variation, political organization, cultural difference, and our role in the world.
Philosophy, traditionally, included a far broader range of aspects than the
university discipline which goes under this title today. Philosophy is, literally, the love (philos) of wisdom (sophia), and can be argued to provide
the foundation for core arguments across the human and physical sciences.
The field of physics, for instance, used to be known as natural philosophy,
as the term physics derives from the Greek physis, nature. One of the key
insights of philosophy is that our assumed ideas are dependent on prior argument, and tracing the history of fields of human knowledge can provide
insight into how we came to think as we did. Philosophy can be a forbidding area, since it often depends both on conceptual rigor and knowledge
of earlier thinkers and their ideas, but its potential impact is substantial.
This extends across the range of concerns of geography, for many great
philosophers, such as Gottfried Leibniz, Rene Descartes, or Aristotle were
important scientists in their own right, and many of the figures of social/
spatial theory who have been so influential in contemporary human geography were trained in philosophy. Philosophy tends to abstract from particulars, whether through initial observation and generalizing from patterns
to produce explanatory theory, or through beginning with reasoned argu-
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ment which is then used to make sense of the world. Its impact has been felt
throughout the history of the discipline. In modern times, both positivism
or the spatial science of geography, or the reaction against this in humanism or post positivist theory have all been uses of philosophical arguments.
The Philosophical Tradition

Early Greek Thought within the Western philosophical tradition the key
thinkers and texts since its inception there are a number of philosophers
that have explicitly thought about geographical concerns. From the very
beginning of preserved Western thought, in the fragments of the texts of the
pre Socratics (so called because they preceded Socrates), philosophers have
been concerned with the nature of the world. Heraclitus, for example, likened change in the world to a child playing a game, suggesting the elements
of chance within rules that shape its destiny. It was, however, a later group
of Greek thinkers that defined much of the way in which philosophy came
to think, and the terms within which it did so. Socrates, whose ideas were
presented in dialogs by student Plato, provided a model of philosophical
inquiry as well as many of the key questions themselves. Platos writings,
which cover the full range of human inquiry, often do not have specific topics, and issues of interest to geographers appear throughout. This dialog to
provide an explanation for the origin of the universe, with the idea of the
creator and the laws governing it. It is also important for the khora, a term
sometimes misleadingly translated as space, but which is closer to a notion of place, a location, or a receptacle for something.
Aristotle
Platos most brilliant student was Aristotle, whose extant works are largely
notes for lecture courses, and therefore, tend to be more systematic and
less literary than those of predecessors. Aristotle wrote on almost all fields
of human know ledge, from zoology and biology to reflections on theater
and rhetoric. One made a number of analyses of questions in language and
logic, and studied political and social organizations in a comparative manner. Nicomachean Ethics contains reflections and arguments not just on
ethics, justice, and virtue, but also nature of knowledge and the division
between practical and philosophical wisdom. Rhetoric offers more than
simply an analysis of speech. In Physics that analyzes a range of concerns
around place, nature, and movement, and the Metaphysics so named because it came after (meta) the Physics is a collection of theoretical treatises
on being, matter, and mathematics. Aristotles work demonstrates an early
version of what might be called the scientific method, with a combination of
abstract reflection with practical observation. This deduced that the Earth
had a spherical shape because observed lunar eclipses and reasoned this
from the shadow cast on the moons surface. This work on biology and
comparative anatomy set the tone for much future analysis and work on
motion in the Physics is tied to understanding of place. For Aristotle, place
is an inherent quality of beings, it is their capacity to be present. Yet, the
physical extension of an object is insufficient to understand place. Objects
have, for Aristotle, their proper place, and therefore, motion is tied to this
understanding of place. Heavy things tend downward, and air and fire
trend upward. Celestial bodies move in a circular motion. These are natural motions. Aristotle believed that the speed of falling was proportional
to both the weight of the object and the density of the medium it is falling
through. In Aristotles theory, place does not move, and only what is movable is in a place. Motion is not spontaneous, and therefore, there must
always be a mover, giving rise to the idea of God as the prime mover the
being that initially sets things motion.
Population geography is the sub-discipline of human geography that has
concerned itself with describing, analyzing, and reflecting upon the geographical organization and growth of human populations in their environmental and social settings. It thus distinguishes itself from demography
which, as the mathematical science of the human population, focuses on
the processes of fertility, mortality, and migration and how these create
predictable populations. Put another way, population geography emphasizes how populations and population processes appear and change across
space, while demography emphasizes change over time. This explores the
disciplinary basis of knowledge, reviews three major approaches to knowledge creation, and closes with a brief resume of outstanding debates. It
argues that while spatial science approaches have lent credibility and vitality to intellectual debates within and beyond the field, and structural
approaches have offered important insights about inequalities, a further
integration of these with emerging cultural approaches is needed to tackle
contemporary knowledge challenges (Figure 1.5).
Figure 1.5: Population geography.
1.10 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1.
Platos most brilliant student was .
(a) Aristotle
(b) David Hooson
(c) Nostradamus
(d) DogenZenji
2.
Which of the following is not a subfield of human geography?
(a) Atmosphere
(b) Behavioral
(c) Economic
(d) Political
3.
..explains relationship between man and environment in a different way taking man as an active agent in environment.
(a) Possibilism
(b) Peoples perception
(c) Criticism
(d) Human brotherhood
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4.
Halfred Mackinder presented ideas on the scope and purpose of geography to the Royal Geographical Society in

(a) 1987 (b) 1887

(c) 1878 (d) 1848
5. he philosophies, approaches and practices which inform and flow
from a concern with the environment are known as.

(a) environmental deterioration
(b) physical influence
(c) human geography
(d) environmental determinism
6.
The first English language textbook in economic geography:
(a) Can Neighborhoods Save the City?
(b) A Handbook of Commercial Geography
(c) Spatial-Economic Metamorphosis of a Nebula City
(d) Enough Is Enough
7.
Geography is the study of ________.
(a) Human activities as they relate to their physical environment
(b) The influence of the physical environment on humans
(c) The human landscape
(d) All of the these.
8. The essential perspective used by geographers in forming their concepts is:

(a) Absolute
(b) Human
(c) Relative
(d) Spatial
9.
The early Greeks:
(a) Hired Muslims to describe and analyze their known world.
(b) Lost a great deal of their geographic knowledge during the Middle
Ages.
(c) Observed how humans lived in various areas against the backdrop
of the earths physical features.
(d) Were not interested in geography.
10. Modern geography traces its origins to the:

(a) 17th century
(b) 18th century.
(c) 19th century
(d) 20th century.
1.11 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define human geography.
2. Write the name of sub-fields of human geography.
3. How is human geography related to other social sciences?
4. Explain naturalization of humans.
5. Write a short note on the scope of human geography.
6. Explain cultural evolution of man.
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7. What are the fields and sub-fields of human geography?

8. What is the environmental impact of humans?
9. Explain the races of mankind.
10. Explain population geography.
ANSWERS FOR MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1 (a)
2 (a)
3 (a)
4 (b)
5 (d)
6 (b)
7 (d)
8 (d)
9 (c)
10 (a)
Chapter 2
People Periods
INTRODUCTION
opulation distribution means the pattern of where people live. World

population distribution is uneven. Places which are sparsely populated
contain few people. Places which are densely populated contain many people. Sparsely populated places tend to be difficult places to live. These are
usually places with hostile environments e.g. Antarctica. Places which are
densely populated are habitable environments e.g. Europe.
Human populations are not uniformly distributed across the globe, or
within a county Understanding this distribution is fundamental to understanding the highly complex relationships between humans and the physical
environment. The relationships are made even more complex by the mediating impacts of intermediate variables including technology, economy, and
social organization.
The recognition of equal rights for women along with men, and the determination to combat discrimination on the basis of gender are achievements
equal in importance to the abolition of slavery, the elimination of colonialism
and the establishment of equal rights for racial and ethnic minorities.
2.1 PATTERNS OF POPULATION

DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD
Patterns of population distribution and density help us to understand the
demographic characteristics of any area. The term population distribution
refers to the way people are spaced over the earths surface. Broadly, 90% of
the world population lives in about 10% of its land area. The 10 most populous countries of the world contribute about 60% of the worlds population.
Of these 10 countries, 6 are located in Asia.
The four areas of large population clusters: Southern Asia, Eastern Asia,
Western Europe, East-central, North America (the smallest).
2.2 DENSITY OF POPULATION

Each unit of land has limited capacity to support people living on it. Hence,
it is necessary to understand the ratio between the numbers of people to the
size of land. This ratio is the density of population. It is a measure of the
number of people in an area. It is an average number. Population density is
Objectives
After studying this
able to:
Discuss about
the population distribution, its
patterns, and
population
density
Explain the
population
growth,
population
change, and
its components
Find out the
doubling time
of population
Describe
about the
human development
and human
development
index
Discuss about
demographic
transition
Explain the
age and sex
composition
33
People Periods
calculated by dividing the number of people by area. It is usually measured

in persons per square kilometer (Table 2.1).
Density of Population = Population/Area
For Example: area of Region X is 100 sq km and the population is
1,50,000 persons.
The density of population is calculated as:
Density = 1,50,000/100
= 1,500 person/sq km
Table 2.1: Population density among some countries
Region
Density
in 1960
Density in % Change in
2007
population
World total
22.1
49
121.7
More developed
16
27
68.8
Less developed
27
65
140.7
Europe
86
132
53.5
US and Canada
9.2
15
63.0
Oceania
1.9
110.5
South Asia
54.9
154
180.5
East Asia
67
132
97.0
Africa
31
244.4
Latin America
10.5
28
166.7
Seven of the densest urban areas with more than 2.5,00,000 populations are on the Asian subcontinent. These include Dhaka and Chittagong
in Bangladesh, Mumbai, Ahmadabad, Surat, and Jaipur in India and Karachi, in Pakistan. Colombia has two of the densest, Bogota and Medellin.
Hong Kong is the only high income nation urban area among the 10 densest
(Figures 2.1 and 2.2).
Figure 2.1: Most dense world urban areas

(population per square kilometer).
Key Vocabulary
Arithmetic Density: It is
the total population of
an area divided by the
total area of the land they
inhabit.
34
Key Vocabulary
Dependency Ratio: It is
a simple statistic that
measures the role of
age composition on the
productive activity of a
population by comparing the proportion of the
population in the non
productive ages with
those in the working.
Figure 2.2: Most dense world urban areas (population per square mile).
The least dense urban areas with more than 2.5,00,000 populations are
all in the United States. The least dense is Atlanta, with 1800 people per
square mile or 700 per square kilometer. The second least dense is, perhaps surprisingly, Boston, despite its reputation for high density. Bostons
population density is 2200 per square mile or 800 per square kilometer.
Also, perhaps surprisingly, Philadelphia is the least dense urban area in
the world with more than 5, 00,000 populations, while Chicago is the least
dense urban area of more than 7.5, 00,000.
The Figure 2.3 is a choropleth (shading) map and illustrates population
density. The darker the color, the greater the population density.
Figure 2.3: Population density map of world.

The Figure 2.3 shows that world population distribution is uneven.
Some areas have a high population density while others have a low population density. Areas of high population density tend to be located between
20 and 60N. This area contains a large land area and a relatively temperate climate.
People Periods
35
2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
There are a range of human and natural factors that affect population density (Table 2.2).
2.3.1 Geographical Factors

Availability of Water: It is the most important factor for life. So,
people prefer to live in areas where fresh water is easily available.
Water is used for drinking, bathing and cooking and also for cattle, crops, industries and navigation. It is because of this that river
valleys are among the most densely populated areas of the world.
Key Vocabulary
Landforms: People prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes. Ecumene: It is permaThis is because such areas are favorable for the production of crops nently inhabited part of
and to build roads and industries. The mountainous and hilly areas the world.
hinder the development of transport network and hence initially do
not favor agricultural and industrial development. So, these areas
tend to be less populated. The Ganga plains are among the most
densely populated areas of the world while the mountains zones in
the Himalayas are scarcely populated.
Climate: Extreme climates such as very hot or cold deserts are uncomfortable for human habitation. Areas with a comfortable climate, where there is not much seasonal variation attract more people. Areas with very heavy rainfall or extreme and harsh climates
have low population. Mediterranean regions were inhabited from
early periods in history due to their pleasant climate.
Soils: Fertile soils are important for agricultural and allied activities.
Therefore, areas which have fertile loamy soils have more people
living on them as these can support intensive agriculture.
2.3.2 Economic Factors

Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits attract industries. Mining and industrial activities generate employment. So, skilled and
semiskilled workers move to these areas and make them densely
populated. Katanga Zambia copper belt in Africa is one such good
example.
Urbanization: Cities offer better employment opportunities, educational and medical facilities, better means of transport and communication. Good civic amenities and the attraction of city life draw
people to the cities. It leads to rural to urban migration and cities
grow in size. Mega cities of the world continue to attract large number of migrants every year.
Industrialization: Industrial belts provide job opportunities and attract large numbers of people. These include not just factory workers but also transport operators, shopkeepers, bank employees, doctors, teachers and other service providers. The Kobe-Osaka region
of Japan is thickly populated because of the presence of a number of
industries.
36
2.3.3 Social and Cultural Factors

Some places attract more people because they have religious or cultural significance. In the same waypeople tend to move away from places where
there is social and political unrest. Many a time, governments offer incentives to people to live in sparsely populated areas or move away from overcrowded places.
Table 2.2: Factors affecting population density
High density
Key Vocabulary
Emigration: Migrants
who move out of a place
are called Emigrants.
Low density
Physical factors
Relief(shape and
height of land)
Low land which is flat

e.g., Ganges valley in
India
High land that is mountainous e.g., Himalayas
Resources
Areas rich in resources Areas with few resources

(e.g. coal, oil, wood,
tend to be sparsely popufishing etc.) tend to
lated e.g., the Sahel
densely populated e.g.,
western Europe
Climate
Areas with temperate

climates tend to be
densely populated as
there is enough rain
and heat to grow crops
e.g., UK
Areas with extreme

climates of hot and cold
tend to be sparsely populated e.g., the Sahara
desert
Human factors
Political
Countries with stable

governments tend to
have a high population
density e.g., Singapore
Unstable countries tend

to have lower population
densities as people migrate e.g., Afghanistan.
Social
Groups of people want

to live close to each
other for security e.g.,
USA
Other groups of people

prefer to be isolated e.g.,
Scandinavians
Economic
Good job opportunities

encourage high population densities, particularly in large cities
in MEDCs and LEDCs
around the world
Limited job opportunities cause some areas to

be sparsely populated
e.g. Amazon rainforest
2.4 POPULATION GROWTH

The population growth or population change refers to the change in number of inhabitants of a territory during a specific period of time. This change
may be positive as well as negative. It can be expressed either in terms of
absolute numbers or in terms of percentage. Population change in an area
is an important indicator of economic development, social upliftment and
historical and cultural background of the region (Figure 2.4).
37
People Periods
BILLIONS
15
HUMAN POPULATION
GROWTH CHART
12.5
10
7.5
2.50
YEAR
1 AD
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000 2
0
5
0
2
0
7
5
Figure 2.4: Human population growth chart.
2.4.1 Population Change

The worlds population is growing very rapidly. In 1820 the worlds population reached one billion. In 1990 it reached six billion people (Figure 2.5).
Figure2.5: Worlds population.

This rapid growth in population has been called a population explosion. The major reason for population changes, whether in an individual
country or for the whole world, is the change in birth and death rates. The
birth rate is the number of live babies born in a year for every 1000 people
in the total population. Death rates are number of people dying per 1000
people. When birth rates are higher than death rates the population of an
area will increase (Table 2.3).
Over the past 150 years, improvements in health care and sanitation
around the world have led to a drop in the death rate. While birth rates
have dropped in MEDCs, birth rates are still high in LEDCs. Therefore, the
number of people in the world has grown rapidly.
Key Vocabulary
Non-ecumene: It is virtually uninhabited portion
of the world
38
Table 2.3: Population and growth rate in selected Asian countries, 2010
Country
Population
2010 (millions)
Average population growth rate %

(20052010)
Thailand
61.8
0.7
Myanmar
50.5
0.9
Sri Lanka
20.4
0.9
Bangladesh
142.3
1.3
India
1,214.5
1.4
Malaysia
27.9
1.7
Nepal
29.9
1.8
Pakistan
184.8
2.2
Singapore
4.8
2.5
Life Expectancy: life expectancy is the average age a person can expect
to live to in a particular area. Life expectancy can be used as an indicator of
the overall health of a country. From this figure you can determine many
features of a country e.g., standard of living. As a general rule the higher the
life expectancy the more healthily a country.
Components of Population Change

There are three components of population changebirths, deaths and migration. The crude (CBR) is expressed as number of live births in a year per
thousand of women. It is calculated as:
CBR =(Bi/P)1000
Here, CBR=Crude Birth Rate; Bi=live births during the year; P=mid
year population of the area. Death rate plays an active role in population
change. Population growth occurs not only by increasing births rate but also
due to decreasing death rate. Crude Death Rate (CDR) is a simple method
of measuring mortality of any area. The CDR is expressed in terms of number of deaths in a particular year per thousand of population in a particular
region. The CDR is calculated as:
CDR=(D/P)1000
Here, CDR=Crude Death Rate; D=Number of deaths; P=Estimated
mid-year population of that year. By and large mortality rates are affected
by the regions demographic structure, social advancement and levels of its
economic development.
Migration
Apart from birth and death there is another way by which the population
size changes. When people move from one place to another, the place they
move from is called the place of origin and the place they move to is called
the place of destination. The place of origin shows a decrease in population
while the population increases in the place of destination. Migration may
be interpreted as a spontaneous effort to achieve a better balance between
population and resources. Migration may be permanent, temporary or seasonal. It may take place from rural to rural areas, rural to urban areas, urban
to urban areas and urban to rural areas. Do you realize that the same person
is both an immigrant and an emigrant?
People Periods
Immigration: Migrants who move into a new place are called Immigrants.
Emigration: Migrants who move out of a place are called Emigrants.
People migrate for a better economic and social life. There are two
sets of factors that influence migration. The push factors make the
place of origin seem less attractive for reasons like unemployment,
poor living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters, epidemics, and socio-economic backwardness. The
pull factors make the place of destination seem more attractive than
the place of origin for reasons like better job opportunities and living conditions, peace and stability, security of life and property and
pleasant climate.
Trends in Population Growth

The population on the earth is more than 6 billion. It has grown to this
size over centuries. In the early periods population of the world grew very
slowly. It is only during the last few hundred years that population has
increased at an alarming rate. After the evolution and introduction of agriculture about 8,000 to 12,000 years ago, the size of population was small
roughly 8 million. In the first century A.D. it was below300 million. The
expanding world trade during the sixteenth and seventeenth century set
the stage for rapid population growth. Around 1750, at the dawn of the
Industrial Revolution, the world population was 550 million. World population exploded in the eighteenth century after the Industrial Revolution.
Technological advancement achieved so far helped in the reduction of birth
rate and provided a stage for accelerated population growth.
Doubling Time of World Population

It took more than a million years for the human population to attain the one
billion mark. Butt took only 12 years for it to rise from 5 to 6 billion. There
is a great variation among regions in doubling their population. Developed
countries are taking more time to double their population as compared to
developing countries. Most of the population growth is taking place in the
developing world, where population is exploding. From 6000 B.C. to 1650
A.D. the population of the earth doubled about every 2000 years. In 1650
A.D. there were about 500 million people in the world. Now, only 360 years
later the population is 6.7 billion people in the world. The worlds current
growth rate is about 1.14%, representing a doubling time of 61 years. We
can expect the worlds population of 6.7 billion to become 13.4 billion by
2070 if current growth continues. The worlds growth rate peaked in the
1960s at 2% with a doubling time of 35 years. Some countries are still experiencing this rate of growth or higher.
The growth rate can be used to determine a country or region or even
the planets doubling time, which tells us how long it will take for a countrys current population to double. This length of time is determined by
dividing the growth rate into 70. The number 70 comes from the natural log
of 2, which is 70.How to estimate doubling time: divide 70 by the annual
growth rate and you will get a very accurate estimate of the years it will
take anything that grows exponentially (population, production) to double
in size(70/annual rate of growth) = doubling time.
At 6.7 billion people, and a growth rate of about 1.7%, the worlds
39
40
population will reach 13.4 billion by about 2050. That is, world population
will double in size in about 41 years. This, of course, assumes that the 1.7%
growth rate will be maintained. Many Asian and African countries have
high growth rates. Afghanistan has a current growth rate of 4.8%, representing a doubling time of 14.5 years! If Afghanistans growth rate remained the
same (which is very unlikely as the countrys projected growth rate for 2025
is a mere 2.3%), then the population of 30 million would become 60 million
in 2020, 120 million in 2035, 280 million in 2049, 560 million in 2064, and 1.12
billion in 2078! This is a ridiculous expectation.
Spatial Pattern of Population Change

Population growth in different parts of the world can be compared. The
growth of population is low in developed countries as compared to developing countries. There is negative correlation between economic development and population growth. Although the annual rate of population
change seems to be low, it is actually not so. This is because: when a small
annual rate is applied to a very large population, it will lead to a large population change. Even if the growth rate continues to decline, the total population grows each year. The infant mortality rate may have increased as has
the death rate during childbirth.
Impact of Population Change

A small increase in population is desirable in a growing economy. However, population growth beyond a certain level leads to problems. Of these
the depletion of resources is the most serious. Population decline is also a
matter of concern. It indicates that resources that had supported a population earlier are now insufficient to maintain the population. The deadly
HIV/AIDS epidemics in Africa and some parts of the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS) and Asia have pushed up death rates and reduced
average life expectancy. This has slowed down population growth.
Demographic Transition
Demographic transition theory can be used to describe and predict the future population of any area. The theory tells us that population of any region changes from high births and high deaths to low births and low deaths
as society progresses from rural agrarian and illiterate to urban industrial
and literate society. These changes occur in stages which are collectively
known as the demographic cycle (Figure 2.6).
The model is divided into four stages:
Figure 2.6: Demographic transition.
People Periods
Stage 1: The first stage has high fertility and high mortality because
people reproduce more to compensate for the deaths due to epidemics and variable food supply. The population growth is slow
and most of the people are engaged in agriculture where large families are an asset. Life expectancy is low; people are mostly illiterate
and have low levels of technology. The 200 years ago all the countries of the world were in this stage. Birth rate and death rate are
high, natural increase is low and total population is also low.
Stage 2: Fertility remains high in the beginning of second stage but it
declines with time. This is accompanied by reduced mortality rate.
Improvements in sanitation and health conditions lead to decline
in mortality. Because of this gap the net addition to population is
high. Birth rate is high; death rate is falling and high natural increase (population growth).
Stage 3: In this stage birth rate is falling, while death rate is low and
there is natural increase in population growth.
Stage 4: In the last stage, both fertility and mortality decline considerably. The population is either stable or grows slowly. The population becomes urbanized, literate and has high technical knowhow
and deliberately controls the family size. Birth rate and death rate
are low with low natural increase and total population is high.
The Figure 2.6 shows that human beings are extremely flexible and are
able to adjust their fertility. In the present day, different countries are at different stages of demographic transition. The demographic model does not
take into account migration.
2.4.2 Impact of Population Growth

Indias population growth rate has been declining over the years but the
overall population will continue to grow as 51% of the population is in the
reproductive age group (15-49). Millions more will join this cohort each
year. Every year, 26 million babies are born. Only 53% of the eligible couples are using contraceptives. At current levels, it may take several decades
more to stabilize the population.
In India the levels of maternal and infant mortality are very high. Repeated childbirths are seen as an insurance against multiple infant and child
deaths. Vast numbers of people cannot avail of services even when they are
available, due to problems of knowledge and access.
India accounts for 2.4% of the worlds surface area yet it supports 16.7%
of the worlds population. As the population grows, the pressure on natural resources will intensify. Population pressure will reduce the per capita
availability of land for farming, which will affect availability of food grain,
drinking water, besides excluding millions of people from the benefits of
health and education and the opportunity to become productive members
of society. More than half a billion Indians are less than 25 years of age.
2.4.3 Population Control Measures

Family planning is the spacing or preventing the birth of children. Access to family planning services is a significant factor in limiting population growth and improving womens health. Propaganda, free availability
of contraceptives and tax disincentives for large families are some of the
41
42
measures which can help population control. Thomas Malthus in his theory
(1793) stated that the number of people would increase faster than the food
supply. Any further increase would result in a population crash caused by
famine, disease and war. The preventive checks are better than the physical
checks. For the sustainability of resources, the world will have to control
the rapid population increase People of any country are diverse in many
respects. Each person is unique in her/his own way. People can be distinguished by their age, sex and their place of residence. Some of the other
distinguishing attributes of the population are occupation, education and
life expectancy.
2.5 SEX COMPOSITION

The number of women and men in a country is an important demographic characteristic. The ratio between the number of women and men in the
population is called the Sex Ratio. In some countries it is calculated by using
the formula: (Male Population/Female Population)1000 or the number of
males per thousand females.
The sex ratio is important information about the status of women in a
country. In regions where gender discrimination is rampant, the sex ratio
is bound to be unfavorable to women. Such areas are those where the practice of female foeticide, female infanticide and domestic violence against
women are prevalent. One of the reasons could be lower socio-economic
status of women in these areas. You must remember that more women in
the population do not mean they have a better status. It could be that the
men might have migrated to other areas for employment. On an average,
the world population reflects a sex ratio of 990 females per 1000 males. The
highest sex ratio in the world has been recorded in Latvia which is 1187
females per 1000 males. In contrast, the lowest sex ratio occurs in U.A.E.
which is 468 females per 1000 males.
The world pattern of sex ratio does not exhibit variations in the developed regions of the world. The sex ratio is favorable for females in 139 countries of the world and unfavorable for them in the remaining 72 countries
listed by the United Nations. In general, Asia has a low sex ratio. Countries
like China, India, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Afghanistan have a lower
sex ratio. On the other extreme is greater part of Europe (including Russia)
where males are in minority. A deficit of males in the populations of many
European countries is attributed to better status of women, and an excessively male-dominated out-migration to different parts of the world in the
past.
2.5.1 Age Structure

Age structure represents the number of people of different age groups.
This is an important indicator of population composition, since a large size
of population in the age group of 15 59 indicates a large working population. A greater proportion of population above 60 years represents an ageing population which requires more expenditure on health care facilities.
Similarly high proportion of young population would mean that the region
has a high birth rate and the population is youthful. The worlds youngest populations are found in the Less Developed Countries (LDC) of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Europe ranks as the most elderly continent
with 16% of its population above 65+ (Italy is the country with the oldest
43
People Periods
population20% above age 65) Aging populations in European countries

are forcing many governments to reconsider the generosity of medical and
other benefits for the elderly. The youth issues in LDC: unemployment,
crime, lack of social services, political instability.
One of the tools that demographers use to understand population is
the age structure diagram (it is sometimes called a population pyramid,
but it is not always pyramidal in shape). This Figure 2.7 shows the distribution by ages of females and males within a certain population in graphic
form. The Figure 2.7 shows a diagram in which the ages and sexes for the
United States population are arranged so that ages are grouped together
such as 04 years, 59 years, and so on. The population of each is group is
represented as a bar extending from a central vertical line, with the length
of each bar dependent upon the population total for that particular group.
The centerline separates the females from the males. The female and male
populations for each group are represented by the distance from the centerline, with females on the right and males on the left (Figure 2.7).
Figure 2.7: Age structure diagram for the U.S..
Age and Sex Distribution

By looking closely at the age structure diagram, one will notice slightly
more boys in the younger age groups than girls; however, the ratio tends to
reverse in the upper age groups, as females tend to outnumber males. Many
countries have a female majority as a result of the longer life expectancy
for females. In the United States, this ratio change is clearly shown below
showing age and sex distribution in the census year 2000 (see Table 2.4).
Notice that at about age35, the majority changes.
Table 2.4: Age and sex distribution of US population in the census year 2000
Age
Numbers
Both sexes
Male
Female
Total population
281,421,906
138,053,563
143,368,343
Under 18 years
72,293,812
37,059,196
35,234,616
18 to 64 years
174,136,341
86,584,742
87,551,599
18 to 24 years
27,143,454
13,873,829
13,269,625
25 to 44 years
85,040,251
42,568,327
42,471,924
45 to 64 years
61,952,636
30,142,586
31,810,050
65 years and over
34,991,753
14,409,625
20,582,128
Median age
(years)
35.3
34.0
36.5
44
In China, the age and sex distribution is cause for alarm. Efforts there
to reduce the birth rate have apparently contributed to a prominent male
majority. Since the early 1980s, a thrust by the government to reduce population growth in the most populous country in the world has resulted in
many parents actively trying to have a male child if they are to have only
one child. Cultural traditions there tend to cause parents to see a male child
as more beneficial to the family than a female child; therefore, a striking imbalance has resulted between the numbers of males and females. There are
concerns that the imbalance could lead to instabilities (Figure 2.8).
Figure 2.8: Age structure diagram for China.
Constructing and Interpreting an Age Structure Diagram

With age and sex distribution data from a certain population, it is easy to
construct an age structure diagram. Once the diagram is constructed, one
can clearly see if the population will grow, decline, or experience no noticeable change in its population numbers; for example, if the diagram shows
a pyramidal shape, then one can expect a rapid rise in population. If the
diagram shows a generally straight up and down shape except for the older
age groups, a stable population is thus revealed. If the diagram shows a
top-heavy shape, then a decline is forecast for that population.
The Figure 2.9 shows the age structure diagrams for Mexico, Iceland,
and Japan. The different shapes seen in the diagrams reflect different population characteristics. The Figure 2.9 for Mexico shows the unmistakable
pyramidal shape caused by ever-increasing number of births. Japans diagram has the classic shape of a shrinking population. In it, you should note
how pre-reproductive age groups (014 years) have smaller populations
than the reproductive age groups (1544 years). Iceland shows a more stable population. Except for the post-reproductive groups (45+ years), the
populations for the age groups extend generally the same lengths.
People Periods
Figure2.9: Age structure diagrams for Mexico, Iceland, and Japan.
2.5.2 Ageing Population

Population ageing is the process by which the share of the older population
becomes proportionally larger. This is a new phenomenon of the twentieth
century. In most of the developed countries of the world, population in
higher age groups has increased due to increased life expectancy. With a
reduction in birth rates, the proportion of children in the population has
declined.
Age-sex Pyramid
The age-sex structure of a population refers to the number of females and
males indifferent age groups. A population pyramid is used to show the
age-sex structure of the population. The shape of the population pyramid
45
46
reflects the characteristics of the population. The left side shows the percentage of males while the right side shows the percentage of women in
each age group.
Expanding Populations
The age-sex pyramid of Nigeria as you can see is a triangular shaped pyramid with a wide base and is typical of less developed countries. These have
larger populations in lower age groups due to high birth rates. If you construct the pyramids for Bangladesh and Mexico, it would look the same.
Constant Population
Australias age-sex pyramid is bell shaped and tapered towards the top.
This shows birth and death rates are almost equal leading to a near constant
population.
Declining Populations
The Japan pyramid has a narrow base and a tapered top showing low birth
and death rates. The population growth in developed countries is usually
zero or negative.
Dependency Ratio
The dependency ratio is a simple statistic that measures the role of age
composition on the productive activity of a population by comparing the
proportion of the population in the non productive ages with those in the
working ages, i.e., population in nonproductive age groups/working age
population
Dependency Ratio = (Population< 20 + Population 65+)/Population
20-64 years old
The purpose of dependency ratio is to measure the number of dependents that each 100 people in the productive years must support. High
dependency ratio can result from :a) A high proportion of the elderly in the
population, orb) A high proportion of children in the population. There is
no country in the world where these two are happening together. The cause
is either a (all developing countries) or b (developed countries, or countries
with rapid decrease in birth rates, e.g. former Eastern Block countries)
2.5.3 Rural Urban Composition

The division of population into rural and urban is based on the residence.
This division is necessary because rural and urban life styles differ from
each other in terms of their livelihood and social conditions. The age-sexoccupational structure, density of population and level of development
vary between rural and urban areas. The criteria for differentiating rural
and urban population vary from country to country. In general terms rural
areas are those where people are engaged in primary activities and urban
areas are those when majority of the working population is engaged in nonprimary activities. The rural and urban differences in sex ratio in Canada
47
People Periods
and West European countries like Finland are just the opposite of those in African and Asian countries like Zimbabwe and Nepal respectively. In Western
countries, males outnumber females in rural areas and females outnumber
the males in urban areas. In countries like Nepal, Pakistan and India the case
is reverse. The excess of females in urban areas of U.S.A., Canada and Europe
is the result of influx of females from rural areas to avail of the vast job opportunities. Farming in these developed countries is also highly mechanized and
remains largely a male occupation. By contrast the sex ratio in Asian urban
areas remains male dominated due to the predominance of male migration.
It is also worth noting that in countries like India, female\participation in
farming activity in rural area is fairly high. Shortage of housing, high cost of
living, paucity of job opportunities and lack of security in cities, discourage
women to migrate from rural to urban areas.
Literacy
Proportion of literate population of a country in an indicator of its socioeconomic development as it reveals the standard of living, social status of
females, availability of educational facilities and policies of government.
Level of economic development is both a cause and consequence of literacy.
In India literacy rate denotes the percentage of population above 7 years
of age, who is able to read, write and have the ability to do arithmetic calculations with understanding.
Occupational Structure
The working population (i.e. women and men of the age group15 to 59)
take part in various occupations ranging from agriculture, forestry, fishing,
manufacturing construction, commercial transport, services, communication
and other unclassified services. Agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining are
classified as primary activities manufacturing as secondary, transport, communication, and other services as tertiary and the jobs related to research and
developing ideas as quaternary activities. The proportion of working population engaged in these four sectors is a good indicator of the levels of economic
development of a nation. This is because only a developed economy with
industries and infrastructure can accommodate more workers in the secondary, tertiary and quaternary sector. If the economy is still in the primitive
stages, then the proportion of people engaged in primary activities world be
high as it involves extraction of natural resources (Figure 2.10).
Proportion of all residents that live in either urban
or rural census sub-divisions, by age
Perfact of all residents
25.0
Urban
Rural
21.9
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
14.8
13.2
8.7
4.9
8.5
11.6
11.3
8.2
4.6
0-9
10-19
20-44
45-84
65+
Figure 2.10: Proportion of residents that live in urban and rural with respect to age group areas of Canada.
48
2.6 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

The words growth and development are not new to you. Look around
you, almost everything that you can see (and many that you cannot) grows
and develops.
2.6.1 Growth and Development

Both growth and development refer to changes over a period of time. The
difference is that growth is quantitative and value neutral. It may have a
positive or a negative sign. This means that the change may be either positive (showing an increase) or negative (indicating a decrease). Development
means a qualitative change which is always value positive. This means that
development cannot take place unless there is an increment or addition to
the existing conditions. Development occurs when positive growth takes
place. Yet, positive growth does not always lead to development. Development occurs when there is a positive change in quality. For example, if
the population of a city grows from one lakh to two lakhs over a period of
time, we say the city has grown. However, if facilities like housing, provision of basic services and other characteristics remain the same, then this
growth has not been accompanied by development. For many decades, a
countrys level of development was measured only in terms of its economic
growth. This meant that the bigger the economy of the country, the more
developed it was considered, even though this growth did not really mean
much change in the lives of most people. The idea that the quality of life
people enjoy in a country, the opportunities they have and freedoms they
enjoy, are important aspects of development, is not new. These ideas were
clearly spelt out for the first time in the late eighties and early nineties. The
works of two South Asian economists, Mahbub-ul-Haq and Amartya Sen
are important in this regard. The concept of human development was introduced by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq. Dr Haq has described human development
as development that enlarges peoples choices and improves their lives.
People are central to all development under this concept. These choices are
not fixed but keep on changing. The basic goal of development is to create
conditions where people can live meaningful lives. A meaningful life is not
just a long one. It must be a life with some purpose. This means that people
must be healthy, be able to develop their talents, participate in society and
be free to achieve their goals. Leading a long and healthy life, being able to
gain knowledge and having enough means to be able to live a decent life
are the most important aspects of human development. Therefore, access to
resources, health and education are the key areas in human development.
Suitable indicators have been developed to measure each of these aspects.
Very often, people do not have the capability and freedom to make
even basic choices. This may be due to their inability to acquire knowledge,
their material poverty, social discrimination, inefficiency of institutions and
other reasons. This prevents them from leading healthy lives, being able to
get educated or to have the means to live a decent life. Building peoples
capabilities in the areas of health, education and access to resources is therefore, important in enlarging their choices. If people do not have capabilities
in these areas, their choices also get limited.
For example, an uneducated child cannot make the choice to be a doctor because her choice has got limited by her lack of education. Similarly,
very often poor people cannot choose to take medical treatment for disease
because their choice is limited by their lack of resources.
People Periods
2.6.2 The Four Pillars of Human Development

Just as any building is supported by pillars, the idea of human development is supported by the concepts of equity, sustainability, productivity
and empowerment. Equity refers to making equal access to opportunities
available to everybody. The opportunities available to people must be equal
irrespective of their gender, race, income and caste. Yet this is very often not
the case and happens in almost every society.
For example, in any country, it is interesting to see which group the
most of the school dropouts belong to. This should then lead to an understanding of the reasons for such behavior. In India, a large number of women and persons belonging to socially and economically backward groups
drop out of school. This shows how the choices of these groups get limited
by not having access to knowledge.
Sustainability means continuity in the availability of opportunities. To
have sustainable human development, each generation must have the same
opportunities. All environmental, financial and human resources must be
used keeping in mind the future. Misuse of any of these resources will lead
to fewer opportunities for future generations. A good example is about the
importance of sending girls to school. If a community does not stress the
importance of sending its girl children to school, many opportunities will
be lost to these young women when they grow up. Their career choices will
be severely curtailed and this would affect other aspects of their lives. So
each generation must ensure the availability of choices and opportunities to
its future generations.
Productivity here means human labor productivity or productivity
in terms of human work. Such productivity must be constantly enriched
by building capabilities in people. Ultimately, it is people who are the real
wealth of nations. Therefore, efforts to increase their knowledge, or provide
better health facilities ultimately lead to better work efficiency. Empowerment means to have the power to make choices. Such power comes from
increasing freedom and capability. Good governance and people-oriented
policies are required to empower people. The empowerment of socially and
economically disadvantaged groups is of special importance.
2.6.3 Approaches to Human Development

There are many ways of looking at the problem of human development.
Some of the important approaches are: (a) The income approach; (b) the
welfare approach; (c) minimum needs approach; and (d) capabilities approach.
2.6.4 Measuring Human Development

The human development index (HDI) ranks the countries based on their
performance in the key areas of health, education and access to resources.
These rankings are based on a score between 0 and 1 that a country earns
from its record in the key areas of human development. The indicator chosen to assess health is the life expectancy at birth. A higher life expectancy
means that people have a greater chance of living longer and healthier lives.
The adult literacy rate and the gross enrolment ratio represent access to
knowledge. The number of adults who are able to read and write and the
49
50
number of children enrolled in schools show how easy or difficult it is to

access knowledge in a particular country. Access to resources is measured
in terms of purchasing power (in U.S. dollars). Each of these dimensions is
given a weight age of 1/3. The human development index is a sum total of
the weights assigned to all these dimensions. The closer a score is to one,
the greater is the level of human development. Therefore, a score of 0.983
would be considered very high while 0.268 would mean a very low level
of human development. The human development index measures attainments in human development. It reflects what has been achieved in the key
areas of human development. Yet it is not the most reliable measure. This is
because it does not say anything about the distribution. The human poverty
index is related to the human development index. This index measures the
shortfall in human development. It is a non-income measure. The probability of not surviving till the age of 40, the adult illiteracy rate, the number
of people who do not have access to clean water, and the number of small
children who are underweight are all taken into account to show the shortfall in human development in any region. Often the human poverty index is
more revealing than the human development index. Looking at both these
measures of human development together gives an accurate picture of the
human development situation in a country.
The ways to measure human development are constantly being refined
and newer ways of capturing different elements of human development are
being researched. Researchers have found links between the level of corruption or political freedom in a particular region.
The HDI is an index combining measures of life expectancy, literacy,
educational attainment, and GDP per capita for countries worldwide. Developed in 1990, this composite index introduced a new way of measuring
development. The HDI approach arose partly as a result of growing criticism of the development approach of the 1980s, which presumed a close
correlation between national economic growth and the expansion of individual human choices. According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the need for an alternative development model came about
for several reasons including:
Growing evidence that did not support the then prevailing belief
in the trickle down power of market forces to spread economic
benefits and end poverty;
The human costs of Structural Adjustment Programs became more
apparent;
Social ills (crime, weakening of social fabric, HIV/AIDS, pollution,
etc.) were still spreading even in cases of strong and consistent economic growth;
A wave of democratization in the early 1990s raised hopes for people-centered models.
Therefore, a new theoretical framework for examining development
was to be introduced as part of the broader human development approach.
This approach is defined as the process of enlarging peoples choices and
enhancing human capabilities and freedoms, enabling them to live a long
and healthy life, have access to knowledge and a decent standard of living,
and participate in the life of their community and decisions affecting their
lives. It was from this approach that the HDI emerged as a convenient, single figure, statistical measure of human development.
People Periods
The philosophy behind the HDI was partially inspired by the work of
Amartya Sen, the Nobel Laureate in Economics and Professor of Economics
at Harvard University. Although Sen, amongst others, has argued that index is a somewhat crude measure of human development, he argues that it
is less crude than a simple, single indicator, measure such as GDP or GNP.
However, it should be noted that due to the extreme complexity of the human experience, no single figure could ever represent the true conditions
that people face in their lives. According to Sen, although the HDI has its
flaws, it is concerned with the basic development idea: namely, advancing
the richness of human life, rather than the richness of the economy in which
human beings live, which is only a part of it (the human experience).
Human Development Reports (HDR)

The human development report (HDR) is an independent report. It is commissioned by the UNDP and is the product of a selected team of leading
scholars, development practitioners and members of the Human Development Report Office of UNDP.
The report was first launched in 1990 with the goal of putting people
at the centre of the development process rather than markets and other economic processes. The goal was to go beyond incoming assessing the level
of peoples long-term well-being. The UNDP believe that such an approach
is an effort to bring about development of the people, by the people, and
for the people, and emphasizing that the goals of development are choices
and freedoms, not simply economic growth. The philosophy behind this
approach was to highlight that it is not the level of income that matters
when examining development, but the use and freedom to use that income
to live the lives people value.
Each year the HDR examines a topic relating to human development.
The reports present data and analysis and calls international attention to
issues and policy options that put people at the centre of strategies to meet
the challenges of development.
The HDI forms an important part of the annual reports. As well as
examining a highly topical theme in the current development debate the
report contains a set of world rankings of the HDI. The report ranks 177
countries and divides them into high, medium and low human development groups. A countrys rank indicates its human development status in a
given year, and a change in rank from year to year indicates the progress (or
otherwise) that country is making in relation to all others. Just as competition in economic markets is good for efficiency, so too is political competition between countries when the goal is increased human development.
International Comparisons
International comparisons of human development are interesting. Size of
the territory and per capita income are not directly related to human development. Often smaller countries have done better than larger ones in
human development. Similarly, relatively poorer nations have been ranked
higher than richer neighbors in terms of human development. For example,
Sri Lanka, Trinidad and Tobago have a higher rank than India in the human
development index despite having smaller economies. Similarly, within India, Kerala performs much better than Punjab and Gujarat in human development despite having lower per capita income. Countries can be classified
51
52
into three groups on the basis of the human development scores earned by
them:
Countries with High Index Value

Countries with high HDI are those which have a score of over 0.8.According to the HDR of 2005, this group includes 57 countries. Providing education and healthcare is an important government priority. Countries with
higher human development are those where a lot of investment in the social
sector has taken place. Altogether, a higher investment in people and good
governance has set this group of countries apart from the others. You will
notice that many of these countries have been the former imperial powers.
The degree of social diversity in these countries is not very high. Many of
the countries with a high human development score are located in Europe
and represent the industrialized western world. Yet there are striking numbers of non-European countries also who have made it to this list.
Countries with Medium Index Value

Countries with medium levels of human development form the largest
group. There are a total of 88 countries in this group. Most of these are countries which have emerged in the period after the Second World War. Some
countries from this group were former colonies while many others have
emerged after the breakup of the erstwhile Soviet Union in 1990. Many of
these countries have been rapidly improving their human development
score by adopting more people-oriented policies and reducing social discrimination. Most of these countries have a much higher social diversity
than the countries with higher human development scores. Many in this
group have faced political instability and social uprisings at some point of
time in their recent history.
Countries with Low Index Value

As many as 32 countries record low levels of human development. A large
proportion of these are small countries which have been going through political turmoil and social instability in the form of civil war, famine or a
high incidence of diseases. There is an urgent need to address the human
development requirements of this group through well thought out policies.
International comparisons of human development can show some very interesting results. Often people tend to blame low levels of human development on the culture of the people. For example, X country has lower human
development because its people follow religion, or belong to Z community.
Such statements are misleading. To understand why a particular region
keeps reporting low or high levels of human development it is important to
look at the pattern of government expenditure on the social sector. The political environment of the country and the amount of freedom people have
is also important. Countries with high levels of human development invest
more in the social sectors and are generally free from political turmoil and
instability. Distribution of the countrys resources is also far more equitable.
On the other hand, places with low levels of human development tend
to spend more on defense rather than social sectors. This shows that these
countries tend to be located in areas of political instability and have not
been able to initiate accelerated economic development.
53
People Periods

1.
Which one of the following is the most significant feature of the Indian
population?
(a) Declining birth rate
(b) Improvement in the literacy level
(c) The size of its adolescent population
(d) Improvement in health conditions
2.
What is Sex ratio?
(a) Number of females per thousand males
(b) Number of females per hundred males
(c) Number of males per thousand females
(d) Number of males per hundred females
3.
A large proportion of children in a population are a result of:
(a) More married couples
(b) High death rate
(c) High life expectancies
(d) High birth rate
4.
Which is the most populous country of the world?
(a) India
(b) United States
(c) China
(d) Russia
5.
The number of people in different age groups is referred as:
(a) Sex ratio
(b) Age composition
(c) Adolescent population
(d) Occupational structure
6.
In India, literacy rate denotes the percentage of population above how

many years of age:

(a) 18 (b) 10

(c) 5
(d) 7
7.
Most dense world urban area:
(a) Dhaka
(b) Hong Kong
(c) Mumbai
(d) Karachi
8.
Which of the following is an important social indicator to measure to

extent of equality between males and females in a society at a given
time?
(a) Age composition
(b) Literacy Rate
(c) Sex ratio
d) Death Rate
9.
Crude birth rate is the number of:
(a) Live births per thousand persons
(b) Live births per thousand women
(c) Live births per thousand men
(d) Live births per hundred persons
10. Areas of high population density tend to be located between:

(a) 30 and 60N
(b) 20 and 60N
54
(c) 40 and 80N
(d) 50 and 100N

1. What is demographic transition? Explain the model of demographic
transition theory.
2. Discuss population control measures.
3. What is doubling time of growth?
4. What are CBR and CDR explain with formulas?
5. Describe human development index. How it is measured?
6. What do you understand by age structure diagrams?
7. How does age structure affect population growth?
8. Discuss the factors affecting factors influencing distribution of population.
9. Explain population change and describe its components.
10. Describe the impact of population growth.
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:

1. c
2. a
3. d
4. c
5. b
6 . d
7. a
8 . c
9. b
10. b
Chapter 3
Human Activities
INTRODUCTION
Human activities which generate income are known as economic activities.
The economics activities are the set of activities carried out by human beings to satisfy their needs. The economic activities produce goods and give
services that people need or wish. The economic activities have 3 factors: 1)
production, 2) commercialization and distribution, and 3) consumption. The
production of goods needs natural resources, technology and work. People
produce two types of goods: consumption goods and production goods. The
production of services needs organization and infrastructures. Economic activities are broadly grouped into primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
activities.
Primary group: employs people to collect or produce natural resources from the land or sea, like farming and fishing.
Secondary group: makes or manufacture goods, like car assembly.
Tertiary group: provides services for people, like the hospitals.
Quaternary groups: is a new definition related with high technology
services, industry that is carry out research and provides information
and advice.
3.1 PRIMARY ACTIVITIES

These economic activities are directly tied to the extraction of earths resources such as land, water, vegetation, building materials and minerals. Such economic activities occur at the beginning of the production cycle where people
live in close contact with the resources of the land. Such primary economic
activities produce basic food stuff and raw materials for industry and may
include; agriculture, hunting and gathering, pastoral farming, crop cultivation, forestry, mining, logging, and fishing.
3.1.1 Hunting and Gathering

The earliest human beings depended on their immediate environment for
their sustenance. They subsisted on: (a) animals which they hunted; and (b)
the edible plants which they gathered from forests in the vicinity. Primitive societies depended on wild animals. People located in very cold and
extremely hot climates survived on hunting. The people in the coastal areas
Objectives
After studying this
able to:
Explain the
different
types of human activities
Describe primary, secondary, tertiary,
and quaternary activities
Explain the
types of agriculture
Discuss
the different types of
industries
and their
significance in
development
of the country
56
still catch fish though fishing has experienced modernization due to technological progress. Many species now have become extinct or endangered
due to illegal hunting (poaching). The early hunters used primitive tools
made of stones, twigs or arrows so the number of animals killed was limited. Gathering and hunting are the oldest economic activity known. These
are carried out at different levels with different orientations.
Key Vocabulary
Nomadic Herding: It is
a primitive subsistence
Figure 3.1: Hunting.
activity, in which the
Gathering is practiced in regions with harsh climatic conditions. It
herders rely on animals
for food, clothing, shelter, often involves primitive societies, who extract both plants and animals to
satisfy their needs for food, shelter and clothing. This type of activity retools, and transport.
quires a small amount of capital investment and operates at very low level
of technology. The yield per person is very low and little or no surplus is
produced.
Gathering is practiced in:
(i) High latitude zones which include northern Canada, northern Eurasia and southern Chile;
(ii) Low latitude zones such as the Amazon Basin, tropical Africa,
northern fringe of Australia and the interior parts of Southeast Asia.
In modern times some gathering is market-oriented and has become
commercial. Gatherers collect valuable plants such as leaves, barks of trees
and medicinal plants and after simple processing sell the products in the
market. They use various parts of the plants, for example, the bark is used
for quinine, tannin extract, and cork, leaves supply materials for beverages,
drugs, cosmetics, fibers, thatch and fabrics; nuts for food and oils and tree
trunk yield rubber, balata, gums and resins. Gathering has little chance of
becoming important at the global level. Products of such an activity cannot
compete in the world market.
Moreover, synthetic products often of better quality and at lower prices, have replaced many items supplied by the gatherers in tropical forests.
3.1.2 Pastoralism
At some stage in history, with the realization that hunting is an unsustainable activity, human beings might have thought of domestication of animals.
People living in different climatic conditions selected and domesticated animals found in those regions. Depending on the geographical factors, and
technological development, animal rearing today is practiced either at the
subsistence or at the commercial level. It is a form of subsidence agriculture
based on the herding of domesticated animals. It is adapted to dry climates
where intensive subsistence agriculture is difficult or impossible.
57
Human Activities
(a) (b)
Figure 3.2: (a) Wodaabe of the Sahara and (b) Tibetan herdsmen.
3.1.3 Nomadic Herding

Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadic is a primitive subsistence activity,
in which the herders rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools, and
transport. They move from one place to another along with their livestock,
depending on the amount and quality of pastures and water. Each nomadic
community occupies a well-identified territory as a matter of tradition. Pastoral Nomads live in the arid and semi-arid belts of North Africa, Middle
East and parts of Central Asia. The Bedouins of Saudi Arabia and Maasai
of Kenya are examples of nomadic groups. In tropical Africa, cattle are the
most important livestock, while in Sahara and Asiatic deserts, sheep, goats
and camel are reared. In the mountainous areas of Tibet and Andes, yak
and llamas and in the Arctic and Sub-arctic areas, reindeer are the most
important animals.
Some pastoralists practice Trans humane which is a seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland pastures in search of
green pasture changes in climate.
The process of migration from plain areas to pastures on mountains
during summers and again from mountain pastures to plain are as during
winters is known as transhumance.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.3: Transhumance (a) and (b).
In mountain regions, such as Himalayas in India, communities like Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis, and Bhotiyas migrate from plains to the mountains
in summers and to the plains from the high altitude pastures in winters.
Similarly, in the tundra regions, the nomadic herders move from south to
north in summers and from north to south in winters. The number of pastoral nomads has been decreasing and the areas operated by them shrinking. This is due to (a) imposition of political boundaries; (b) new settlement
Key Vocabulary
Outsourcing: It is giving
work to an outside agency to improve efficiency
and reduce costs.
58
plans by different countries.
3.1.4 Commercial Livestock Rearing

Unlike nomadic herding, a commercial life to creaking is more organized
and capital intensive. Commercial livestock ranching is essentially associated with western cultures and is practiced on permanent ranches. These
ranches cover large areas and are divided into a number of parcels, which
are fenced to regulate the grazing.
When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals are moved to another
parcel. The number of animals in a pasture is kept according to the carrying capacity of the pasture. This is a specialized activity in which only
Key Vocabulary
one type of animal is reared. Important animals include sheep, cattle, goats
and horses. Products such as meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and
Pastoralism: It is the
packed scientifically and exported to different world markets. Rearing of
branch of agriculture conanimals in ranching is organized on a scientific basis. The main emphasis
cerned with the raising of
is on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control and health care of the
livestock. It is animal husanimals. New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, and USA are imbandry: the care, tending
portant countries where commercial livestock rearing is practiced.
and use of animals such
as camels, goats, cattle,
3.1.5 Agriculture
yaks, llamas, and sheep.
Agriculture involves the deliberate human effort to modify a portion of the
earths surface through cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock for
sustenance or for economic gain. Agriculture is practiced under multiple
combinations of physical and socio conditions, which gives rise to different
types of agricultural systems. Based on methods of farming, different types
of crops are grown and livestock raise. The following are the main agricultural systems.
Subsistence Agriculture
Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming are as consume all, or
nearly so, of the products locally grown. It can be grouped in two categoriesprimitive subsistence agriculture and intensive subsistence agriculture.
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting cultivation is widely practiced
by many tribes in the tropics, especially in Africa, south and Central America and Southeast Asia. It consists of numerous forms of shifting cultivation
in tropical forests and nomadic herding practiced mainly in developing
countries. It is a form of agriculture in which only enough crops and livestock are produced to meet the food requirements of the family. In good
years, there may be a surplus to sell and put aside for hard times. Subsistence farmers primarily use human labor and draft animals.
The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash and burn agriculture. The cultivated patches are very small and cultivation is done with
very primitive tools such as sticks and hoes. After sometime (3 to 5 years)
the soil loses its fertility and the farmer shifts to another parts and clears
Human Activities
59
other patch of the forest for cultivation. The farmer may return to the earlier
patch after sometime. One of the major problems of shifting cultivation is
that the cycle of jhum becomes less and less due to loss of fertility in different parcels. It is prevalent in tropical region in different names, e.g., Jhuming in North eastern states of India, Milpain Central America and Mexico
and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.
Key Vocabulary

(a) (b)
Figure 3.4: (a) Primitive subsistence agriculture and (b) Intensive subsistence agriculture.
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

This type of agriculture is largely found in densely populated regions of
monsoon Asia. This is also practiced in developing countries, farmers increase their inputs of human labor, and fertilizer and water to reap a higher
yield per area of cultivated land to produce enough to feed their families
and sell the surplus. Basically, there are two types of intensive subsistence
agriculture:
(i) Intensive Subsistence Agriculture Dominated by Wet Paddy Cultivation: This type of agriculture is characterized by dominance of the
rice crop. Land holdings are very small due to the high density of
population. Farmers work with the help of family labor leading to
intensive use of land. Use of machinery is limited and most of the
agricultural operations are done by manual labor. Farm yard manure
is used to maintain the fertility of the soil. In this type of agriculture,
the yield per unit area is high but per labor productivity is low.
(ii) Intensive Subsidence Agriculture Dominated by Crops other Than
Paddy: Due to the difference in relief, climate, soil and some of the
other geographical factors, it is not practical to grow paddy in many
parts of monsoon Asia. Wheat, soybean, barley and sorghum are
grown in northern China, Manchuria, North Korea, and North Japan. In India wheat is grown in western parts of the Indo Genetic
plains and millets are grown in dry parts of western and southern
India. Most of the characteristics of this type of agriculture are similar to those dominated by wet paddy except that irrigation is often used. The Europeans colonized many parts in the world and
they introduced some other forms of agriculture such as plantations
which were mainly profit-oriented large scale production systems.
Plantation Agriculture
Plantation agriculture was introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics. A form of industrialized agriculture found primarily in
Quinary Activities: It is
services that focus on the
creation, re-arrangement
and interpretation of
new and existing ideas;
data interpretation and
the use and evaluation of
new technologies.
60
developing countries in the tropics. It is a permanent agriculture in which

cash crops such as bananas, rubber, cotton, oil palm, pineapples, sugarcane,
coffee, tea, and cocoa are cultivated and harvested for sale in developed
countries. The characteristic features of this type of farming are large estates
or plantations, large capital investment, managerial, and technical support,
scientific methods of cultivation, single crop specialization, cheap labor,
and a good system of transportation which links the estates to the factories
and markets for the export of the products.
The French established cocoa and coffee plantations in West Africa.
The British set up large tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka, rubber plantations in Malaysia and sugarcane and banana plantations in West Indies.
Spanish and Americans invested heavily in coconut and sugarcane
plantations in the Philippines. The Dutch once had mono poly over sugKey Vocabulary
arcane plantation in Indonesia. Some coffee fazed as (large plantations) in
Brazil are still managed by Europeans. Today, ownership of the majority of
Subsistence Agriculture:
plantations has passed into the hands of the government or the nationals of
Subsistence agriculture is
the countries concerned.
one in which the farming areas consume all, or
nearly so, of the products
locally grown.
Figure 3.5: Plantation agriculture.
Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation

Commercial grain cultivation is practiced in the interior parts of semi-arid
lands of the mid-latitudes. Wheat is the principal crop, though other crops
like corn, barley, oats and rye are also grown. The size of the farm is very
large; therefore entire operations of cultivation from ploughing to harvesting are mechanized. There is low yield per acre but high yield per person.
Why does this happen? This type of agriculture is best developed in Eurasian steppes, the Canadian and American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the Velds of South Africa, the Australian Downs and the Canterbury
Plains of New Zealand.
Mixed Farming
This form of agriculture is found in the highly developed parts of the world,
e.g., North-western Europe, Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia and
the temperate latitudes of Southern continents. Mixed farms are moderate
in size and usually the crops associated with it are wheat, barley, oats, rye,
maize, fodder, and root crops. Fodder crops are an important component
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of mixed farming. Crop rotation and inter cropping play an important role
in maintaining soil fertility. Equal emphasis is laid on crop cultivation and
animal husbandry. Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the
main income along with crops. Mixed farming is characterized by high capital expenditure on farm machinery and building, extensive use of chemical fertilizers and green manures and also by the skill and expertise of the
farmers.
Dairy Farming
Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch animals. It
is highly capital intensive. Animal sheds storage facilities for fodder; feeding and milching machines add to the cost of dairy farming. Special emphasis is laid on cattle breeding, health care and veterinary services. It is highly
labor intensive as it involves rigorous care in feeding and milching. There is
no off season during the year as in the case of crop rising.
It is practiced mainly near urban and industrial centers which provide
neighborhood market for fresh milk and dairy products. The development
of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurization, and other preservation processes have increased the duration of storage of various dairy products.
There are three main regions of commercial dairy farming. The largest is
North Western Europe the second is Canada and the third belt includes
South Eastern Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania.
Figure 3.6: Dairy farming.
Mediterranean Agriculture
Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialized commercial agriculture. It
is practiced in the countries on either side of the Mediterranean Sea in Europe and in North Africa from Tunisia to Atlantic coast, southern California, central Chile, south western parts of South Africa and south and south
western parts of Australia. This region is an important supplier of citrus
fruits.
Viticulture or grape cultivation is specialty of the Mediterranean region. Best quality wines in the world with distinctive flavors are produced
from high quality grapes in various countries of this region. The inferior
grapes are dried into raisins and currants. This region also produces olives
and figs. The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that more valuable
crops such as fruits and vegetables are grown in winters when there is great
demand in European and North American markets.
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Gardening and Horticulture

Market gardening and horticulture specialize in the cultivation of high value crops such as vegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for the urban markets.
Farms are small and are located where there are good transportation links
with the urban centre where high income group of consumers is located. It
is both labor and capital intensive and lays emphasis on these of irrigation,
HYV seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, greenhouses, and artificial heating in
colder regions. This type of agriculture is well developed in densely populated industrial districts of North West Europe, north eastern USA and the
Mediterranean regions. The Netherlands specializes in growing flowers
and horticultural crops especially tulips, which are flown to all major cities of Europe. The regions where farmers specialize in vegetables only, the
farming is known as truck farming. The distance of truck farms from the
market is governed by the distance that a truck can cover overnight, hence
the name truck farming. In addition to market gardening, a modern development in the industrial regions of Western Europe and North America is
factory farming. Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle rearing, is done
in stalls and pens, fed on manufactured feedstuff and carefully supervised
against diseases. This requires heavy capital investment in terms of building, machinery for various operations, veterinary services and heating and
lighting. One of the important features of poultry farming and cattle rearing is breed selection and scientific breeding. Types of farming can also be
categorized according to the farming organization. Farming organization is
affected by the way in which farmers own their farms and various policies
of the government which help to run these farms.
Co-operative Farming
A group of farmers form a co-operative society by pooling in their resources voluntarily for more efficient and profitable farming. Individual farms
remain intact and farming is a matter of cooperative initiative. Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure all important inputs of farming, sell
the products at the most favorable terms and help in processing of quality
products at cheaper rates. Co-operative movement originated over a century ago and has been successful in many western European countries like
Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc. In Denmark, the movement has been so successful that practically every farmer is a member of a
co-operative.
Collective Farming
The basic principal behind these types of farming is based on social ownership of the means of production and collective labor. Collective farming or
the model of Kolkhoz was introduced in erstwhile Soviet Union to improve
upon the inefficiency of the methods of agriculture and to boost agricultural production for self-sufficiency.
The farmers pool in all their resources like land, livestock, and labor.
However, they are allowed to retain very small plots to grow crops in order
to meet their daily requirements. Yearly targets are set by the government
and the produce is also sold to the state at fixed prices. Produce in excess of
the fixed amount is distributed among the members or sold in the market.
The farmers have to pay taxes on the farm produces, hired machinery etc.
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Human Activities
Members are paid according to the nature of the work allotted to them by
the farm management. Exceptional work is rewarded in cash or kind. This
type of farming was introduced in former Soviet Union under the socialist regime which was adopted by the socialist countries. After its collapse,
these have already been modified.
3.1.6 Mining
The discovery of minerals in the history of human development is reflected
in many stages in terms of copper age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. The use
of minerals in ancient times was largely confined to the making of tools,
utensils, and weapons. The actual development of mining began with the
industrial revolution and its importance is continuously increasing eg- coal
mining.
Factors Affecting Mining Activity

The profitability of mining operations thus, depends on two main factors:(i)
Physical factors include the size, grade , and the mode of occurrence of the
deposits.(ii) Economic factors such as the demand for the mineral, technology available and used, capital to develop infrastructure and the labor and
transport costs.
Figure 3.7: Mining.
Methods of Mining
Depending on the mode of occurrence and the nature of the ore, mining is
of two types: surface and underground mining. The surface mining also
known as open-cast mining, it is the easiest and the cheapest way of mining minerals that occur close to the surface. Overhead costs such as safety,
precautions and equipments are relatively low in this method. The output
is both large and rapid.
When the ore lies deep below the surface, underground mining method (shaft method) has to be used. In this method, vertical shafts have to be
sunk, from where underground galleries radiate to reach the minerals. Minerals are extracted and transported to the surface through these passages. It
requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles, ventilation system
for safety and efficient movement of people and material. This method is
risky. Poisonous gases, fires, floods and caving in lead to fatal accidents.
Have you ever read about mine fires and flooding of coalmines in India?
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The developed economies are retreating from mining, processing and

refining stages of production due to high labor costs, while the developing
countries with large labor force and striving for higher standard of living
are becoming more important. Several countries of Africa and few of South
America and Asia have over 50% of the earnings from minerals alone.
3.2 SECONDARY ACTIVITIES

These economic activities add value to the raw materials by changing their
form, or combining them into useful and hence more valuable commodity.
Cotton in the boll has limited use but after it is transformed into yarn, becomes more valuable and can be used for making clothes. Iron ore, cannot
be used; directly from the mines, but after being converted into steel it gets
its value and can be used for making many valuable machines, tools, etc.
The same is true of most of the materials from the farm, forest, mine and
the sea. Secondary activities, therefore, are concerned with manufacturing,
processing and construction (infrastructure) industries.
3.2.1 Manufacturing
Manufacturing involves a full array of production from handicrafts to
molding iron and steel and stamping out plastic toys to assembling delicate computer components or space vehicles. In each of these processes, the
common characteristics are the application of power, mass production of
identical products and specialized labor in factory settings for the production of standardized commodities. Manufacturing may be done with modern power and machinery or it may still be very primitive. Most of the Third
World countries still manufacture in the literal sense of the term. It is difficult to present a full picture of all the manufacturers in these countries.
More emphasis is given to the kind of industrial activity which involves
less complicated systems of production.
Figure 3.8: Car assembly (manufacturing).
Characteristics of Modern Large Scale Manufacturing

Modern large scale manufacturing has the following characteristics:
specialization of skills/methods of production. The craft method factories
produce only a few pieces which are made-to-order. So the costs are high.
On the other hand, mass production involves production of large quantities
of standardized parts by each worker performing only one task repeatedly.
Human Activities
Mechanization
Mechanization refers to using gadgets which accomplish tasks. Automation (without aid of human thinking during the manufacturing process)
is the advanced stage of mechanization. Automatic factories with feedback
and closed loop computer control systems where machines are developed
to think, have sprung up all over the world.
Technological Innovation
Technological innovations through research and development strategy
are an important aspect of modern manufacturing for quality control, eliminating waste and inefficiency, and combating pollution.
Organizational Structure and Stratification

Modern manufacturing is characterized by:
A complex machine technology
Extreme specialization and division of labor for producing more
goods with less effort, and low costs
Vast capital
Large organizations
Executive bureaucracy
Uneven Geographic Distribution

Major concentrations of modern manufacturing have flourished in a few
numbers of places. These cover less than 10% of the worlds land area. These
nations have become the centers of economic and political power. However, in term of the total area covered, manufacturing sites are much less conspicuous and concentrated on much smaller areas than that of agriculture
due to greater intensity of processes. For example, 2.5 km2 of the American
corn belt usually includes about four large farms employing about 1020
workers supporting 50100 persons. But this same area could contain several large integrated factories and employ thousands of workers.
Industries maximize profits by reducing costs. Therefore, industries
should be located at points where the production costs are minimum. Some
of the factors influencing industrial locations are as under:
Access to Market
The existence of a market for manufactured goods is the most important
factor in the location of industries. Market means people who have a
demand for these goods and also have the purchasing power (ability to
purchase) to be able to purchase from the sellers at a place. Remote areas
inhabited by a few people offer small markets. The developed regions of
Europe, North America, Japan, and Australia provide large global markets
as the purchasing power of the people is very high. The densely populated
regions of South and South-east Asia also provide large markets. Some industries, such as aircraft manufacturing, have a global market. The arms
industry also has global markets.
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Access to Raw Material

Raw material used by industries should be cheap and easy to transport.
Industries based on cheap, bulky and weight-losing material (ores) are located close to the sources of raw material such as steel, sugar, and cement
industries. Perish ability is a vital factor for the industry to be located closer
to the source of the raw material. Agro-processing and dairy products are
processed close to the sources of farm produce or milk supply respectively.
Access to Labor Supply

Labor supply is an important factor in the location of industries. Some types
of manufacturing still require skilled labor. Increasing mechanization, automation, and flexibility of industrial processes have reduced the dependence
of industry upon the labors.
Access to Sources of Energy

Industries which use more power are located close to the source of the energy supply such as the aluminum industry. Earlier coal was the main source
of energy; today hydroelectricity and petroleum are also important sources
of energy for many industries.
Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities

Speedy and efficient transport facilities to carry raw materials to the factory
and to move finished goods to the market are essential for the development
of industries. The cost of transport plays an important role in the location of
industrial units. Western Europe and eastern North America have a highly
developed transport system which has always induced the concentration of
industries in these areas. Modern industry is inseparably tied to transportation systems. Improvements in transportation led to integrated economic
development and regional specialization of manufacturing. Communication is also an important need for industries for the exchange and management of information.
Government Policy
Governments adopt regional policies to promote balanced economic development and hence set up industries in particular areas.
Access to Agglomeration Economies/Links between Industries

Many industries benefit from nearness to a leader-industry and other industries. These benefits are termed as agglomeration economies. Savings
are derived from the linkages which exist between different industries.
These factors operate together to determine industrial location.
Foot Loose Industries

Foot loose industries can be located in a wide variety of places. They are not
dependent on any specific raw material, weight losing or otherwise. They
largely depend on component parts which can be obtained anywhere. They
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produce in small quantity and also employ a small labor force. These are
generally not polluting industries. The important factor in their location is
accessibility by road network.
Classification of Manufacturing Industries

Manufacturing industries are classified on the basis of their size, inputs/
raw materials, output/products and ownership.
Industries based on Size

The amount of capital invested, number of workers employed and volume
of production determine the size of industry. Accordingly, industries may
be classified into household or cottage, small-scale and large-scale.
3.2.2 Household Industries or Cottage

Manufacturing
It is the smallest manufacturing unit. The craftsmen or artisans use local raw
materials and simple hand tools to produce everyday goods in their homes
with the help of their family members or part-time labor. Finished products
may be for consumption in the same household or, for sale in local (village) markets, or, for barter. Capital and transportation do not wield much
influence as this type of manufacturing has low commercial significance
and most of the tools are devised locally. Some common everyday products
produced in this sector of manufacturing include foodstuffs, fabrics, mats,
containers, tools, furniture, shoes, and figurines from woodlot and forest,
shoes, thongs and other articles from leather; pottery and bricks from clays
and stones. Goldsmiths make jewelers of gold, silver and bronze. Some artifacts and crafts are made out of bamboo, wood obtained locally from the
forests. It also includes weaving and seamstress.
Figure 3.9: Cottage (household) industry.
Small Scale Manufacturing

Small scale manufacturing is distinguished from household industries by
its production techniques and place of manufacture (a workshop outside
the home/cottage of the producer). This type of manufacturing uses local
raw material, simple power-driven machines and semi-skilled labor. It provides employment and raises local purchasing power. Therefore, countries
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like India, China, Indonesia, and Brazil, etc. have developed labor-intensive
small scale manufacturing in order to provide employment to their population.
Large Scale Manufacturing

Large scale manufacturing involves a large market, various raw materials,
enormous energy, specialized workers, advanced technology, assemblyline mass production and large capital. This kind of manufacturing developed in the last 200 years, in the United Kingdom, north-eastern USA and
Europe. Now it has diffused in almost all over the world. On the basis of the
system of large scale manufacturing, the worlds major industrial regions
may be grouped under two broad types, namely
(i) Traditional large-scale industrial regions which are thickly clustered in a few more developed countries.
(ii) High-technology large scale industrial regions which have diffused
to less developed countries.
Industries based on Inputs/Raw Materials

On the basis of the raw materials used, the industries are classified as: (a)
agro-based; (b)mineral based; (c) chemical based; (d) forest based: and (e)
animal based.
(a) Agro based Industries: Agro processing involves the processing of
raw materials from the field and the farm into finished products for
rural and urban markets. Major agro-processing industries are food
processing, sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffee and
cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles (cotton, jute, and silk), rubber, etc.
Food Processing
Agro processing includes canning, producing cream, fruit processing and
confectionery. Wholesome preserving techniques, such as drying, fermenting and pickling, have been known since ancient times, these had limited
applications to cater to the pre-Industrial Revolution demands.
(b) Mineral based Industries: These industries use minerals as a raw
material. Some industries use ferrous metallic minerals which contain ferrous (iron), such as iron and steel industries but some use
non-ferrous metallic minerals, such as aluminum, copper and jewelers industries. Many industries use non-metallic minerals such as
cement and pottery industries.
(c) Chemical based Industries: Such industries use natural chemical
minerals, e.g. mineral-oil (petroleum) is used in petrochemical industry. Salt, sulfur and potash industries also use natural minerals.
Chemical industries are also based on raw materials obtained from
wood and coal. Synthetic fiber, plastic, etc. are other examples of
chemical based industries.
(d) Forest based Raw Material using Industries: The forests provide
many major and minor products which are used as raw material.
Timber for furniture industry, wood, bamboo and grass for paper
industry, lac for lac industries come from forests.
Human Activities
(e) Animal based Industries: Leather for leather industry and wool for
woolen textiles are obtained from animals. Besides, ivory is also obtained from elephants tusks.
Industries based On Output/Product

You have seen some machines and tools made of iron or steel. The raw
material for such machines and tools is iron and steel which is itself an industry. The industry whose products are used to make other goods by using them as raw materials is basic industry. The consumer goods industries
produced goods which are consumed by consumers directly. For example,
industries producing breads and biscuits, tea, soaps and toiletries, paper for
writing, televisions, etc. are consumer goods or non-basic industries.
3.2.3 Industries based on Ownership

a. Public sector Industries are owned and managed by governments.
In India, there were a number of Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs).
Socialist countries have many state owned industries. Mixed economies have both public and private sector enterprises.
b. Private sector Industries are owned by individual investors. These
are managed by private organizations. In capitalist countries, industries are generally owned privately.
c. Joint Sector Industries are managed by joint stock companies or
sometimes the private and public sectors together establish and
manage the industries. Can you make a list of such industries?
Traditional Large-scale Industrial Regions

These are based on heavy industry, often located near coal-fields and engaged in metal smelting, heavy engineering, chemical manufacture or textile production. These industries are now known as smokestack industries.
Traditional industrial regions can be recognized by high proportion of employment in manufacturing industry, high-density housing, often of inferior type, and poor services. Unattractive environment, for example, pollution, waste heaps, and so on.
Problems of unemployment, emigration and derelict land areas caused
by closure of factories because of a worldwide fall in demand.
Ruhr Coal-field, Germany

This has been one of the major industrial regions of Europe for a long time.
Coal and iron and steel formed the basis of the economy, but as the demand
for coal declined, the industry started shrinking. Even after the iron ore was
exhausted, the industry remained, using imported ore brought by waterways to the Ruhr. The Ruhr region is responsible for 80% of Germanys total
steel production.
Changes in the industrial structure have led to the decay of some areas,
and there are problems of industrial waste and pollution. The future prosperity of the Ruhr is based less on the products of coal and steel, for which it
was initially famous, and more on the new industries like the huge Opel car
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assembly plant, new chemical plants, universities. Out of- town shopping
centers have appeared resulting in a New Ruhr landscape.
Concept of High Technology Industry

High technology, or simply high-tech, is the latest generation of manufacturing activities. It is best understood as the application of intensive research and development (R and D)efforts leading to the manufacture of
products of an advanced scientific and engineering character. Professional
(white collar) workers make up a large share of the total workforce.
These highly skilled specialists greatly outnumber the actual production (blue collar) workers. Robotics on the assembly line, computer-aided
design (CAD) and manufacturing, electronic controls of smelting and refining processes, and the constant development of new chemical and pharmaceutical products are notable examples of a high-tech industry.
Neatly spaced, low, modern, dispersed, office-plant-lab buildings rather than massive assembly structures, factories and storage areas mark the
high-tech industrial landscape. Planned business parks for high-tech startups have become part of regional and local development schemes.
High-tech industries which are regionally concentrated, self-sustained
and highly specialized are called technologies. The Silicon Valley near San
Francisco and Silicon Forest near Seattle are examples of technologies. Are
some technologies developing in India? Manufacturing contributes significantly to the world economy. Iron and steel, textiles, automobiles, petrochemicals and electronics are some of the worlds most important manufacturing industries.
Iron and Steel Industry

The iron and steel industry forms the base of all other industries and, therefore, it is called a basic industry. It is basic because it provides raw material
for other industries such as machine tools used for further production. It
may also be called a heavy industry because it uses large quantities of bulky
raw materials and its products are also heavy. Iron is extracted from iron
ore by smelting in a blast furnace with carbon (coke) and limestone. The
molten iron is cooled and molded to form pig iron which is used for converting into steel by adding strengthening materials like manganese. The
large integrated steel industry is traditionally located close to the sources of
raw materials iron ore, coal, manganese and limestone or at places where
these could be easily brought, e.g. near ports. But in mini steel mills access
to markets is more important than inputs. These are less expensive to build
and operate and can be located near markets because of the abundance of
scrap metal, which is the main input. Traditionally, most of the steel was
produced at large integrated plants, but mini mills are limited to just onestep process steel making and are gaining ground.
Distribution
The industry is one of the most complex and capital-intensive industries
and is concentrated in the advanced countries of North America, Europe
and Asia. In U.S.A, most of the production comes from the north Appalachian region (Pittsburgh), Great Lake region (Chicago-Gary, Erie, Cleveland, Lorain, Buffalo and Duluth) and the Atlantic Coast (Sparrows Point
Human Activities
and Morrisville). The industry Donetsk in Ukraine. In Asia, the important

centers include Nagasaki and Tokyo-Yokohama in Japan; Shanghai, Tientsin and Wuhan in China; and Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem, Visakhapatnam and Bhadravati in India.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.10: Large scale industries (a) Iron and steel industries
and (b) Cotton textile industry.
Cotton Textile Industry

Cotton textile industry has three sub-sectors i.e. handloom, power loom
and mill sectors. Handloom sector is labor-intensive and provides employment to semi-skilled workers. It requires small capital investment. Why did
Mahatma Gandhi propagate Khadi as part of the independence movement?
This sector involves spinning, weaving and finishing of the fabrics. The
power loom sector introduces machines and becomes less labor intensive
and the volume of production increases. Cotton textile mill sector is highly
capital intensive and produces fine clothes in bulk. Cotton textile manufacturing requires good quality cotton as raw material. India, China, U.S.A,
Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Egypt produce more than half of the worlds raw
cotton. The U.K, European countries, and Japan also produce cotton textile made from imported yarn. Europe alone accounts for nearly half of the
worlds cotton imports. The industry has to face very stiff competition with
synthetic fibers hence it has now shown a declining trend in many countries. With the scientific advancement and technological improvements the
structure of industries changes. For example, Germany recorded constant
growth in cotton textile industry since Second World War till the seventies
but now it has declined. It has shifted to less developed countries where
labor costs are low.
3.3 TERTIARY ACTIVITIES

The activities that serve as the connections between the producers and consumers of products are tertiary activities. The tertiary sector of the economy
is the service industry. This sector provides services to the general population and to businesses. Activities associated with this sector include retail
and wholesale sales, transportation and distribution, entertainment (movies, television, radio, music, theater, etc.), restaurants, clerical services, media, tourism, insurance, banking, healthcare, pilots and law.
When you fall ill you go to your family doctor or you call a doctor.
Sometimes your parents take you to a hospital for treatment. While in
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school, you are taught by your teachers. In the event of any dispute, legal
opinion is obtained from a lawyer. Likewise, there are many professionals
who provide their services against payment of their fee. Thus, all types of
services are special skills provided in exchange of payments. Health, education, law, governance and recreation etc. require professional skills. These
services require other theoretical knowledge and practical training. Tertiary
activities are related to the service sector. Manpower is an important component of the service sector as most of the tertiary activities are performed
by skilled labor, professionally trained experts and consultants. In the initial stages of economic development, larger proportion of people worked
in the primary sector. In a developed economy, the majority of workers get
employment in tertiary activity and a moderate proportion is employed in
the secondary sector.
Tertiary activities include both production and exchange. The production involves the provision of services that are consumed. The output
is indirectly measured in terms of wages and salaries. Exchange, involves
trade, transport and communication facilities that are used to overcome
distance. Tertiary activities, therefore, involve the commercial output of
services rather than the production of tangible goods. They are not directly involved in the processing of physical raw materials. Common examples are the work of a plumber, electrician, technician, launderer, barber,
shopkeeper, driver, cashier, teacher, doctor, lawyer and publisher etc. The
main difference between secondary activities and tertiary activities is that
the expertise provided by services relies more heavily on specialized skills,
experience and knowledge of the workers rather than on the production
techniques, machinery and factory processes.
3.3.1 Types of Tertiary Activities

There are given some types of tertiary activities:
Trade and Commerce

Trade is essentially buying and selling of items produced elsewhere. All the
services in retail and wholesale trading or commerce are specifically intended for profit. All this work takes place in towns and cities also known as
trading centers. The rise of trading from barter at the local level to moneyexchange of international scale has produced many centers and institutions
such as trading centers or collection and distribution points.
Trading centers may be divided into rural and urban marketing centers. Rural marketing centers cater to nearby settlements. These are quasiurban centers they serve as trading centers of the most rudimentary type.
Here personal and professional services are not well-developed. These
form local collecting and distributing centers. Most of these have mandis
(wholesale markets) and also retailing areas. They are no turban centers per
se but are significant centers for making available goods and services which
are most frequently demanded by rural folk.
Periodic markets in rural areas are found where there are no regular markets and local periodic markets are organized at different temporal intervals.
These may be weekly, biweekly markets from where people from the surrounding areas meet their temporally accumulated demand. These markets are
held on specified dates and move from one place to another. The shopkeepers
thus, remain busy on all the days while a large areas served by them.
Human Activities
Urban marketing center shave more widely specialized urban services.

They provide ordinary goods and services as well as many of the specialized goods and services required by people. Urban centers, therefore, offer manufactured goods as well as many specialized markets develop, e.g.
markets for labor, housing, semi or finished products. Services of educational institutions and professionals such as teachers, lawyers, consultants,
physicians, dentists and veterinary doctors are available.
Retail Trading Services

This is the business activity concerned with the sale of goods directly to the
consumers. Retail trading is done through fixed Stores- large shops. It is
also done through Non-stores- Street peddling, door-to-door, mail-order,
telephone, automatic vending machines and internet of non-store retail selling.
Wholesale Trading Service

This is the business activity concerned with the bulk selling of goods through
merchants and supply-houses not through retail stores. Wholesalers acts as
intermediaries between retail stores and manufacturers. Wholesalers also
give credit to retail stores. Some large stores including chain stores are able
to buy directly from the manufacturers. However, most retail stores procure supplies from an intermediary source.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.11: (a) Trade and commerce and (b) transport services.
Transport and Communication Services

Transport is a service or facility by which persons, manufactured goods,
and property are physically carried from one location to another. It is an
organized industry created to satisfy mans basic need of mobility. Modern
society requires speedy and efficient transport systems to assist in the production, distribution and consumption of goods. At every stage in this complex system, the value of the material is significantly enhanced by transportation. In selecting the mode of transport, distance, in terms of time or
cost, is the determining factor. Isochrones lines are drawn on a map to joins
places equal in terms of the time taken to reach them.
Factors Affecting Transport Services

Demand for transport is influenced by the size of population. The larger
the population size, the greater is the demand for transport. Routes depend
on: location of cities, towns, villages, industrial centers and raw materials,
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pattern of trade between them, nature of the landscape between them, type
of climate, and funds available for overcoming obstacles along the length
of the route.
Communication Services
Communication services involve the transmission of words and messages,
facts and ideas. The invention of writing preserved messages and helped to
make communication dependent on means of transport. These were actually carried by hand, animals, boat, road, rail and air. That is why all forms
of transport are also referred to as lines of communication. Where the transport network is efficient, communications are easily disseminated. Certain
developments, such as mobile telephony and satellites, have made communications independent of transport. All forms are not fully disassociated
because of the cheapness of the older systems. Thus, very large volumes of
mail continue to be handled by post offices all over the world. Some of the
communication services are given:
Telecommunications
The use of telecommunications is linked to the development of electrical
technology. It has revolutionized communications because of the speed
with which messages are sent. The time reduced is from weeks to minutes
and recent advancements like mobile telephony have made communications direct and instantaneous at any time and from anywhere. The telegraph, Morse code and telex have almost become things of the past.
Radio and television also help to relay news, pictures, and telephone
calls to vast audiences around the world and hence they are termed as mass
media. They are vital for advertising and entertainment. Newspapers are
able to cover events in all corners of the world. Satellite communication
relays information of the earth and from space. The internet has truly revolutionized the global communication system.
Services
Services occur at many different levels. Some are geared to industry, some
to people; and some to both industry and people, e.g. the transport systems.
Low-order services, such as grocery shops and laundries, are more common and widespread than high-order services or more specialized ones
like those of accountants, consultants and physicians. Services are provided to individual consumers who can afford to pay for them. For example
the gardener, the launderers and the barber do primarily physical labor.
Teacher, lawyers, physicians, musicians and others perform mental labor.
Many services have now been regulated. Making and maintaining highways and bridges, maintaining firefighting departments and supplying or
supervising education and customer-care are among the important services
most often supervised or performed by governments or companies. State
and union legislation have established corporations to supervise and control the marketing of such services as transport, telecommunication, energy
and water supply. Professional services are primarily health care, engineering, law and management. The location of recreational and entertainment
services depends on the market. Multiplexes and restaurants might find
location within or near the Central Business District (CBD), whereas a golf
Human Activities
course would choose a site where land costs are lower than in the CBD.
Informal/Non-Formal Sector
Personal services are made available to the people to facilitate their work in
daily life. The workers migrate from rural areas in search of employment
and are unskilled. They are employed in domestic services as housekeepers, cooks, and gardeners. This segment of workers is unorganized.
People Engaged in Tertiary Activities

Today most people are service workers. Services are provided in all societies. But in more developed countries a higher percentage of workers is
employed in provision of services in contrast to less than 10% in the less developed countries. In U.S.A. over 75% of workers are engaged in services.
The trend in employment in this sector has been increasing while it has remained unchanged or decreasing in the primary and secondary activities.
Tourism is travel undertaken for purposes of recreation rather than
business. It has become the worlds single largest tertiary activity in total registered jobs (250 million) and total revenue (40% of the total GDP).
Besides, many local persons are employed to provide services like accommodation, meals, transport, entertainment and special shops serving the
tourists. Tourism fosters the growth of infrastructure industries, retail trading, and craft industries (souvenirs). In some regions, tourisms seasonal
because the vacation period is dependent on favorable weather conditions,
but many regions attract visitors all the year-round.
Tourist Regions
The warmer places around the Mediterranean Coast and the West Coast
of India are some of the popular tourist destinations in the world. Others include winter sports regions, found mainly in mountainous areas, and
various scenic landscapes and national parks, which are scattered. Historic
towns also attract tourists, because of the monument, heritage sites and
cultural activities.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.12: Services (a) doctors and (b) tourism.
75
76
Factors Affecting Tourism

Demand
Since the last century, the demand for holidays has increased rapidly. Improvements in the standard of living and increased leisure time permit
many more people to go on holidays for leisure.
Transport
The opening-up of tourist areas has been aided by improvement in transport facilities. Travel is easier by car, with better road systems. More significant in recent years has been the expansion in air transport. For example,
air travel allows one to travel anywhere in the world in a few hours of
flying time from their homes. The advent of package holidays has reduced
the costs.
Tourist Attractions Climate

Most people from colder regions expect to have warm, sunny weather for
beach holidays. This is one of the main reasons forth importance of tourism
in Southern European the Mediterranean lands. The Mediterranean climate
offers almost consistently higher temperatures, than in other parts of Europe, long hours of sunshine and low rainfall throughout the peak holiday
season. People taking winter holidays have specific climatic requirements,
either higher temperatures than their own homelands, or snow cover suitable for skiing.
Landscape
Many people like to spend their holidays in an attractive environment,
which often means mountains, lakes, spectacular sea coasts and landscapes
not completely altered by man.
History and Art

The history and art of an area have potential attractiveness. People visit
ancient or picturesque towns and archaeological sites, and enjoy exploring
castles, palaces and churches.
Culture and Economy

These attract tourists with a penchant for experiencing ethnic and local customs. Besides, if a region provides for the needs of tourists at a cheap cost,
it is likely to become very popular. Home-stay has emerged as a profitable
business such as heritage homes in Goa, Madikere and Coorgin Karnataka.
Empowered Workers
Entrepreneurs are the empowered workers of the quaternary sector and
the slowly emerging quinrary sector. They represent an important stage of
development in the hierarchy of economic activity where the need for self
77
Human Activities
actualization is not motivated by wealth and security alone but by other

factors. They have predominantly a value system which emphasizes quality of life and believe in creativity and individual values. No one can be sure
where all this change will lead to but some patterns do point strongly to
the future. As ideas and freedom of information and communication grow,
people will expect their applications at the workplace. More employees will
receive training and become highly skilled. They will work more and more
on their own initiative. Many will have flexible working arrangements.
Some will choose work paid and unpaid that is personally fulfilling and
accords with their concern for natural environment and social issues.
Tertiary Sector
(services)
trade, banks, transport
education, culture, health
Secondary Sector
(production of goods)
industrie, construction
craft
Primary Sector
(basic production)
agriculture, forestry
mining, fishery
Figure 3.13: Human activity hierarchy.
3.4 QUATERNARY ACTIVITIES

Quaternary activities involve some of the following: the collection, production and dissemination of information or even the production of information. Quaternary activities centre on research, development and maybe seen
as an advanced form of services involving specialized knowledge, technical
skills, and administrative competence. These activities refer to intellectual
occupations which are advance and specialized such as thinking, research
and developing new ideas.
These services offer high income. These services are mainly concentrated in developed countries and growing fast. It involves specialized knowledge, technical skills, and administrative competence. It belongs to service
sector that is knowledge oriented. Important occupations belonging to
quaternary activities are: mutual fund managers, tax consultants, software
developers, statisticians. Like some of the tertiary functions, quaternary activities can also be outsourced. They are not tied to resources, affected by
the environment, or necessarily localized by market.
3.5 QUINARY ACTIVITIES

The highest level of decision makers or makers performs quinary activities.
These are subtly different from the knowledge based industries that the
quinary sector in general deals with. Quinary activities are services that
focus on the creation, re-arrangement and interpretation of new and exist-
78
ing ideas; data interpretation and the use and evaluation of new technologies. Often referred to as gold collar professions, they represent another
subdivision of the tertiary sector representing special and highly paid skills
of senior business executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and legal consultants, etc. Their importance in the structure of advanced economies far outweighs their numbers.
Outsourcing has resulted in the opening up of a large number of call
centers in India, China, Eastern Europe, Israel, Philippines and Costa Rica.
It has created new jobs in these countries. Outsourcing is coming to those
countries where cheap and skilled workers are available. These are also
out-migrating countries. With the work available though outsourcing, the
migration in these countries may come down. Outsourcing countries are
facing resistance from job-seeking youths in their respective countries. The
comparative advantage is the main reason for continuing outsourcing. New
trends in quaternary services include knowledge processing outsourcing
(KPO) and home shoring, the latter as an alternative to outsourcing. The
KPO industry is distinct from Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) as it
involves more high skilled workers. It is information driven knowledge
outsourcing.KPO enables companies to create additional business opportunities. Examples of KP include research and development (R and D) activities, e-learning, business research, intellectual property (IP) research, legal
profession and the banking sector.
Outsourcing
Outsourcing or contracting out is giving worktop an outside agency to improve efficiency and reduce costs. When outsourcing involves transferring
work to overseas locations, it is described by the term off -shoring, although
both off - shoring and outsourcing are used together. Business activities
that are outsourced include information technology (IT), human resources,
customer support and call centre services and at times also manufacturing
and engineering. Data processing is an IT related service easily is carried
out in Asian, East European and African countries, In these countries IT
skilled staff with good English language skills are available at lower wages
than those in the developed countries. Thus, a company in Hyderabad or
Manila does work on a project based on GIS techniques for a country like
U.S.A or Japan. Overhead costs are also much lower making it profitable
to get job-work carried out overseas, whether it is in India, China or even a
less populous country like Botswana in Africa.

1.
Human activities which generate income are known as ..
(a) economic activities
(b) primary activities
(b) social activities
(c) Both (b) and (c)
2.
Gathering is practiced in regions with harsh climatic conditions.

(a) True (b) False
3.
Automobile assembly plants are
(a) primary activities
(b) secondary activities
(c) tertiary activities
(d) quinary activities
79
Human Activities
4.
Agriculture involves the deliberate human effort to modify a portion

of the..through cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock
for sustenance or for economic gain.
(a) surface
(b) earths surface
(b) Both (a) and (b)
(d) water surface
5.
Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting cultivation is widely practiced by many tribes in the tropics, especially in..
(a) Africa
(b) south and Central America
(c) Southeast Asia
(d) All of these.
6.
Dairy is not the most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch
animals.

(a) True (b) False
7. . agriculture is highly specialized commercial agriculture.

(a) Mediterranean
(b) Plantation
(c) Intensive subsistence
(d) Primitive subsistence
8.
Which one of the following activities is related to quaternary sector?
(a) Software developers
(b) Paper and raw pulp production
(c) University teaching
(d) Printing books
9.
Automobile assembly plants is a
(a) Primary activities
(b) Secondary activities
(c) Tertiary activities
(d) Quinary activities
10. Cotton textile industry has three sub-sectors like, and mill sectors.

(a) hand loom
(b) power loom
(c) All of these.
(d) None of these.

1. What are primary activities?
2. What are tertiary activities? Name the four types of tertiary activities.
3. Distinguish between:
(i) Wholesale and retail trading services
(ii) Rural marketing centers and urban marketing centers
4. Describe different types of services.
5. What are quaternary activities? And write its important features?
6. What do you understand by quinary activities?
7. Explain in detail the significance of transport and communication
services.
8. Give differences between primary s and secondary activities
9. Explain the factors which affect the development of tourism in the
world.
10. Describe the four importance of service sector in modern economics
80
ANSWERS FOR MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. (a)
2. (a)
3. (b)
4. (b)
5 (d)
6. (b)
7. (a)
8. (c)
9. (b)
10 (c)
Chapter 4
Population: Distribution,
Density, Growth and Composition
INTRODUCTION
The people are very important component of a country. India is the second
most populous country after China in the world with its total population of
1,028 million. Indias population is larger than the total population of North
America, South America and Australia put together. More often, it is argued
that such a large population invariably puts pressure on its limited resources
and is also responsible for many socio-economic problems in the country.
In this chapter, we will converse the patterns of distribution, density,
growth, and composition of Indias population.
4.1 DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

Examine Figure 4.1 and try to describe the patterns of spatial distribution of
population shown on it. It is clear that India has a highly uneven pattern of
population distribution. The percentage shares of population of the states
and Union Territories in the country show that Uttar Pradesh has the highest population followed by Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and Andhra
Pradesh.
Figure 4.1: Distribution of population of India in 2011.
Objectives
After studying this
able to:
Describe the
distribution of
population
Define the
growth of
population
Explain the
regional variation in population growth
Define the
population
composition
Describe the
migration and
consequences
of migration
82
Check from the Figure 4.1 that U.P., Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal,
Andhra Pradesh along with Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Gujarat, together account for about 76% of the total population
of the country. On the other hand, share of population is very small in the
states like Jammu and Kashmir (0.98%), Arunachal Pradesh (0.11%) and
Uttaranchal (0.83%) in spite of these states having fairly large geographical
area. Such an uneven spatial distribution of population in India suggests
a close relationship between population and physical, socioeconomic and
historical factors. As far as the physical factors are concerned, it is clear that
climate along with terrain and availability of water largely determines the
pattern of the population distribution. Consequently, we observe that the
North Indian Plains, deltas and Coastal Plains have higher proportion of
Key Vocabulary
population than the interior districts of southern and central Indian States,
Himalayas, some of the north eastern and the western states. However,
Density of Population: It development of irrigation (Rajasthan), availability of mineral and energy
is expressed as number of resources (Jharkhand) and development of transport network (Peninsular
States) have resulted in moderate to high proportion of population in areas
persons per unit area.
which were very thinly populated (Figure 4.1). Among the socio-economic
and historical factors of distribution of population, important ones are evolution of settled agriculture and agricultural development; pattern of human settlement; development of transport network, industrialization and
urbanization. It is observed that the regions falling in the river plains and
coastal areas of India have remained the regions of larger population concentration. Even though the uses of natural resources like land and water in
these regions have shown the sign of degradation, the concentration of population remains high because of an early history of human settlement and
development of transport network. On the other hand, the urban regions
of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore, Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai and
Jaipur have high concentration of population due to industrial development and urbanization drawing a large numbers of rural-urban migrants.
4.1.1 Density of Population

Density of population is expressed as number of persons per unit area. It
helps in getting a better understanding of the spatial distribution of population in relation to land. The density of population in India (2001) is 313 persons per sq km and ranks third among the most densely populated countries of Asia following Bangladesh (849 persons) and Japan (334 persons).
There has been a steady increase of about 200 persons per sq km over the
last 50 years as the density of population increased from 117 persons/ sq
km in 1951 to 313 persons/sq km in 2001. The data give an idea of spatial
variation of population densities in the country which ranges from as low as
13 persons per sq km in Arunachal Pradesh to 9,340 persons in the National
Capital Territory of Delhi. Among the northern Indian States, West Bengal (903), Bihar (880), and Uttar Pradesh (690) have higher densities, while
Kerala (819) and Tamil Nadu (480) have higher densities among the peninsular Indian states. States like Assam, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana,
Jharkhand, Orissa have moderate densities. The hill states of the Himalayan
region and North eastern states of India (excluding Assam) have relatively
low densities while the Union Territories (excluding Andaman and Nicobar islands) have very high densities of population (Figure 4.2). The density
of population, is a crude measure of human and land relationship. To get
a better insight into the human-land ratio in terms of pressure of population on total cultivable land, the physiological and the agricultural densities
83
Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition
should be found out which are significant for a country like India having a
large agricultural population.
Key Vocabulary
Growth of Population:
It is the change in the
number of people living in a particular area
between two points of
time.
Figure 4.2: Density of population of India.
4.2 GROWTH OF POPULATION

Growth of population is the change in the number of people living in a
particular area between two points of time. Its rate is expressed in percentage. Population growth has two components namely; natural and induced.
While the natural growth is analyzed by assessing the crude birth and death
rates, the induced components are explained by the volume of inward and
outward movement of people in any given area. However, in the present
chapter, we will only confer the natural growth of Indias population. The
decadal and annual growth rates of population in India are both very high
and steadily increasing over time. The annual growth rate of Indias population is 2.4%. At this current rate of increase, it is estimated that the countrys population will double itself in another 36 years and even surpass
population of China. The growth rate of population in India over the last
one century has been caused by annual birth rate and death rate and rate of
migration and thereby shows different trends (Figure 4.3). There are four
distinct phases of growth identified within this period:
Table 4.1: Decadal growth rates in India, 1901-2001
Census Years
1901
Total Population
238,396,327
Growth Rate*
Absolute
Number
------------
% of Growth
------------
84
1911
1921
1931
1941
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
Key Vocabulary
Migration: It is refer to is
a response to the uneven
distribution of opportunities over space.
252,093,390
251,321,213
278,977,238
318,660,580
361,088,090
439,234,771
548,159,652
683,329,097
846,302,688
1,028,610,328
* Decadal growth rate

=
:g
(+) 13,697,063
(-) 772,117
(+) 27,656,025
(+) 39,683,342
(+) 42,420,485
(+) 77,682,873
(+) 108,924,881
(+) 135,169,445
(+) 162,973,591
(+) 182,307,640
(+) 5.75
(-) 0.31
(+) 11.60
(+) 14.22
(+) 13.31
(+) 21.51
(+) 24.80
(+) 24.66
(+) 23.85
(+) 21.54
p2 p1
100
p2
Where
P1 = population of the base year
P2 = population of the present year
Figure 4.3 Growth of population of India.

Phase I: The period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a period of
stagnant or stationary phase of growth of Indias population, since
in this period growth rate was very low, even recording a negative
growth rate during 1911-1921. Both the birth rate and death rate
were high keeping the rate of increase low Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people at large and inefficient distribution
system of food and other basic necessities were largely responsible
for a high birth and death rates in this period.
85
Phase II: The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the period of

steady population growth. An overall improvement in health and
sanitation throughout the country brought down the mortality rate.
At the same time better transport and communication system improved distribution system. The crude birth rate remained high in
this period leading to higher growth rate than the previous phase.
This is impressive at the backdrop of Great Economic Depression,
1920s and World War II.
Phase III: The decades 1951-1981 are referred to as the period of
population explosion in India, which was caused by a rapid fall in
the mortality rate but a high fertility rate of population in the country. The average annual growth rate was as high as 2.2%. It is in this
period, after the Independence, that developmental activities were
introduced through a centralized planning process and economy
started showing up ensuring the improvement of living condition
of people at large. Consequently, there was a high natural increase
and higher growth rate. Besides, increased international migration
bringing in Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepalese, and even people from
Pakistan contributed to the high growth rate.
Phase IV: In the post 1981 till present, the growth rate of countrys
population though remained high, has started slowing down gradually (Table 4.1). A downward trend of crude birth rate is held responsible for such a population growth. This was, in turn, affected
by an increase in the mean age at marriage, improved quality of life
particularly education of females in the country. The growth rate
of population is, however, still high in the country, and it has been
projected by World Development Report that population of India
will touch 1,350 million by 2025. The analysis done so far shows
the average growth rate, but the country also has wide variation in
growth rates from one area to another.
4.3 REGIONAL VARIATION IN

POPULATION GROWTH
The growth rate of population during 1991- 2001 in Indian States and Union Territories shows very obvious pattern. The States like Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Pondicherry, and Goa show a
low rate of growth not exceeding 20%over the decade. Kerala registered
the lowest growth rate (9.4) not only in this group of states but also in the
country as a whole. A continuous belt of states from west to east in the
north-west, north, and north central parts of the country has relatively high
growth rate than the southern states. It is in this belt comprising Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal,
Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and
Jharkhand, the growth rate on the average remained 20-25%.
An important aspect of population growth in India is the growth of its
adolescents. At present the share of adolescents i.e. up to the age group of
10-19 years is about 22% (2001), among which male adolescents constitute
53% and female adolescents constitute 47%. The adolescent population,
though, regarded as the youthful population having high potentials, but
at the same time they are quite vulnerable if not guided and channelized
properly. There are many challenges for the society as far as these adoles-
Key Vocabulary
Population Composition: It is a distinct field
of study within population geography with a
vast coverage of analysis
of age and sex, place of
residence, ethnic characteristics, tribes, and so
on.
86
Key Vocabulary
Religion: It is one of the
most dominant forces
affecting the cultural and
political life of the most
of country.
cents are concerned, some of which are lower age at marriage, illiteracy
particularly female illiteracy, school dropouts, low intake of nutrients, high
rate of maternal mortality of adolescent mothers, high rates of HIV/AIDS
infections, physical and mental disability or beardedness, drug abuse and
alcoholism, juvenile delinquency and commitence of crimes, etc. In view of
these, the Government of India has undertaken certain policies to impart
proper education to the adolescent groups so that their talents are better
channelized and properly utilized. The National Youth Policy is one example which has been designed to look into the overall development of
our large youth and adolescent population. The National Youth Policy of
Government of India, launched in 2003, stresses on an all-round improvement of the youth and adolescents enabling them to shoulder responsibility
towards constructive development of the country. It also aims at reinforcing the qualities of patriotism and responsible citizenship. The thrust of this
policy is youth empowerment in terms of their effective participation in
decision making and carrying the responsibility of an able leader. Special
emphasis was given in empowering women and girl child to bring parity in
the male-female status. Moreover, deliberate efforts were made to look into
youth health, sports and recreation, creativity, and awareness about new
innovations in the spheres of science and technology. It appears from the
discussion that the growth rate of population is widely variants over space
and time in the country and also highlights various social problems related
to the growth of population. However, in order to have a better insight into
the growth pattern of population it is also necessary to look into the social
composition of population.
4.4 POPULATION COMPOSITION

Population composition is a distinct field of study within population geography with a vast coverage of analysis of age and sex, place of residence,
ethnic characteristics, tribes, language, religion, marital status, literacy and
education, occupational characteristics, etc. The composition of Indian population with respect to their rural-urban characteristics, language, religion
and pattern of occupation.
4.4.1 Rural Urban Composition

Composition of population by their respective places of residence is an important indicator of social and economic characteristics. This becomes even
more significant for a country where about 72% of its total population lives
in villages.
Do you know that India has 638,588 villages according to the Census
2001 out of which 593,731 (93%) are inhabited villages? However, the distribution of rural population is not uniform throughout the country. You
might have noted that the states like Bihar and Sikkim have very high percentage of rural population. The states of Goa and Maharashtra have only
little over half of their total population residing in villages. The Union Territories, on the other hand, have smaller proportion of rural population,
except Dadra and Nagar Haveli (77.1%).The size of villages also varies considerably. It is less than 200 persons in the hill states of north-eastern India,
Western Rajasthan and Rann of Kuchchh and as high as 17000 persons in
the states of Kerala and in parts of Maharashtra. A thorough examination
of the pattern of distribution of rural population of India reveals that both
at intra-State and inter- State levels, the relative degree of urbanization and
extent of rural-urban migration regulate the concentration of rural population. You have noted that contrary to rural population, the proportion
of urban population (27.8) in India is quite low but it is showing a much
faster rate of growth over the decades. In fact since 1931, the growth rate of
urban population has accelerated due to enhanced economic development
and improvement in health and hygienic conditions. The distribution of
urban population too, as in the case of total population, has a wide variation
throughout the country.
It is, however, noticed that in almost all the states and Union Territories,
there has been a considerable increase of urban population. This indicates
both development of urban areas in terms of socio-economic conditions
and an increased rate of rural-urban migration. The rural-urban migration
is conspicuous in the case of urban areas along the main road links and
railroads in the North Indian Plains, the industrial areas around Kolkata,
Mumbai, Bangalore Mysore, Madurai Coimbatore, Ahmedabad Surat,
Delhi Kanpur and Ludhiana Jalandhar. In the agriculturally stagnant
parts of the middle and lower Ganga Plains, Telengana, non-irrigated Western Rajasthan, remote hilly, tribal areas of northeast, along the flood prone
areas of Peninsular India and along eastern part of Madhya Pradesh, the
degree of urbanization has remained low.
4.4.2 Linguistic Composition

India is a land of linguistic diversity. According to Grierson (Linguistic
Survey of India, 1903 1928) there were 179 languages and as many as
544 dialects in the country. In the context of modern India, there are about
18 scheduled languages (1991 census) and a number of nonscheduled
languages. See how many languages appear on a 10 Rs note. Among the
scheduled languages, the speakers of Hindi have the highest percentage
(40.42). The smallest language groups are Kashmiri and Sanskrit speakers
(0.01%each). However, it is noticed that the linguistic regions in the country
do not maintain a sharp and distinct boundary, rather they gradually merge
and overlap in their respective border zones.
Linguistic Classification
The speakers of major Indian languages belong to four language families,
which have their sub-families and branches or groups.
4.4.3 Religious Composition

Religion is one of the most dominant forces affecting the cultural and political life of the most of Indians. Since religion virtually permeates into almost
all the aspects of peoples family and community lives, it is important to
study the religious composition in detail (Table 4.2). The spatial distribution of religious communities in the country shows that there are certain
states and districts having large numerical strength of one religion, while
the same may be very negligibly represented in other states. Hindus are distributed as a major group in many states (ranging from 70 90%and above)
except the districts of states along Indo- Bangladesh border, Indo-Pak border, Jammu and Kashmir, Hill States of North-East and in scattered areas of
Deccan Plateau and Ganga Plain. Muslims, the largest religious minority,
87
88
are concentrated in Jammu and Kashmir, certain districts of West Bengal

and Kerala, many districts of Uttar Pradesh in and around Delhi and in
Lakshadweep. They form majority in Kashmir valley and Lakshadweep.
Table 4.2: Religious communities of India, 2001
Religious
2001
Population
(in million)
% of Total
Hindus
827.6
80.5
Muslims
138.2
13.5
Christians
24.1
2.3
Sikhs
19.2
1.9
Buddhists
8.0
0.9
Jains
4.2
0.4
Others
6.6
0.6
The Christian population is distributed mostly in rural areas of the

country. The main concentration is observed along the Western coast
around Goa, Kerala and also in the hill states of Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland, Chotanagpur area and Hills of Manipur. Sikhs are mostly concentrated in relatively small area of the country, particularly in the states
of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi. Jains and Buddhists, the smallest religious
groups in India have their concentration only in selected areas of the country. Jains have major concentration in the urban areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra, while the Buddhists are concentrated mostly in
Maharashtra. The other areas of Buddhist majority are Sikkim, Arunachal
Pradesh, Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir, Tripura, and Lahul and Spiti in
Himachal Pradesh.
The other religions of India include Zoroastrians, tribal and other indigenous faiths and beliefs. These groups are concentrated in small pockets
scattered throughout the country.
4.4.4 Composition of Working Population

The population of India according to their economic status is divided into
three groups, namely; main workers, marginal workers and non-workers.
It is observed that in India, the proportion of workers (both main and marginal) is only 39% (2001) leaving a vast majority of 61% as non-workers.
This indicates an economic status in which there is a larger proportion of
dependent population, further indicating possible existence of large number of unemployed or under employed people. The proportion of working
population, of the states and Union Territories show a moderate variation
from about 25%in Goa to about 53%in Mizoram. The states with larger percentages of workers are Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya. Among the Union Territories, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman
and Diu have higher participation rate. It is understood that, in the context
of a country like India, the work participation rate tends to be higher in the
areas of lower levels of economic development since number of manual
workers are needed to perform the subsistence or near subsistence economic activities. The occupational composition of Indias population (which
89
actually means engagement of an individual in farming, manufacturing

trade, services or any kind of professional activities) shows a large proportion of primary sector workers compared to secondary and tertiary sectors.
About 58.2% of total working population are cultivators and agricultural
laborers, whereas only 4.2% of workers are engaged in household industries and 37.6% are other workers including no household industries, trade,
commerce, construction and repair and other services. As far as the occupation of countrys male and female population is concerned, male workers
out-number female workers in all the three sectors (Table 4.3).
Table 4.3: Sectoral composition of work force in India, 2001
Categories
Population
Persons
% to total
Workers
Male
Female
Primary
234088181
58.2
142745598
91342583
Secondary
16956942
4.2
8744183
8212759
Tertiary
151189601
37.6
123524695
27664906
4.5 MIGRATION
You are familiar with Census in India. It contains information about migration in the country. Actually migration was recorded beginning from the
first Census of India conducted in 1881. This data were recorded on the basis of place of birth. However, the first major modification was introduced
in 1961 Census by bringing in two additional components via; place of birth
i.e. village or town and duration of residence (if born elsewhere). Further in
1971, additional information on place of last residence and duration of stay
at the place of enumeration were incorporated. Information on reasons for
migration were incorporated in 1981 Census and modified in consecutive
Censuses. In the Census the following questions are asked on migration:
Is the person born in this village or town? If no, then further information is taken on rural/urban status of the place of birth, name of
district and state and if outside India then name of the country of
birth.
Has the person come to this village or town from elsewhere? If yes,
then further questions are asked about the status (rural/urban) of
previous place of residence, name of district and state and if outside
India then name of the country.
In Chapter, reasons for migration from the place of last residence and duration of residence in place of enumeration are also asked. In the Census of
India migration is enumerated on two bases: (i) place of birth, if the place
of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time migrant); (ii) place of residence, if the place of last residence is different from
the place of enumeration (known as migrant by place of last residence). Can
you imagine the proportion of migrants in the population of India? As per
2001 census, out of 1,029 million people in the country, 307 million (30%)
were reported as migrants by place of birth. However, this figure was 315
million (31%) in case of place of last residence.
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4.5.1 Indian Diaspora

During colonial period (British period) millions of the indentured laborers
were sent to Mauritius, Caribbean islands (Trinidad, Tobago and Guyana),
Fiji and South Africa by British from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar; to Reunion
Island, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Surinam by French and Dutch and by
Portuguese from Goa, Daman and Diu to Angola, Mozambique to work
as plantation workers. All such migrations were covered under the timebound contract known as Girmit Act (Indian Emigration Act). However,
the living conditions of these indentured laborers were not better than
the slaves. The second wave of migrants ventured out into the neighboring countries in recent times as professionals, artisans, traders and factory
workers, in search of economic opportunities to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei and African countries, etc. and the trend still
continues. There was a steady outflow of Indias semi-skilled and skilled
labor in the wake of the oil boom in West Asia in the 1970s. There was also
some outflow of entrepreneurs, storeowners, professionals, businessmen
to Western Countries. Third wave, of migrant was comprised professionals like doctors, engineers, software engineers, management consultants,
financial experts, media persons and others migrated to countries such as
USA, Canada, UK, Australia, New Zealand and Germany, etc. These professional enjoy the distinction of being one of highly educated, the highest
earning and prospering groups. After liberalization, in the 90s education
and knowledgebased Indian emigration has made Indian Diaspora one
of the most powerful Diasporas in the world. In all these countries, Indian
diasporas has been playing an important role in the development of the
respective countries.
4.5.2 Streams of Migration

A few facts pertaining to the internal migration (within the country) and
international migration (out of the country and into the country from other
countries) are presented here. Under the internal migration, four streams
are identified: (a) rural to rural (R-R); (b) rural to urban (R-U); (c) urban to
urban (U-U); and (d) urban to rural (U-R). In India, during 2001, out of 315
million migrants, enumerated on the basis of the last residence, 98 million
had changed their place of residence in the last ten years. Out of these, 81
million were intrastate migrants.
40
Female
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Male
Male
35
Rural to Rural
Rural to Urban Urban to Rural Urban to Urban
Migration Streams
Migration in Millions
Migration in Millions
45
4
Female
3
2
1
0
Rural to Rural
Rural to Urban Urban to Rural Urban to Urban
Migration Streams
Figure 4.4: (a) Intra state migration by place of last residence, indicating
migration streams (Duration 0-9 years), India, 2001 (b) Inter state migration by place of last residence, indicating migration streams (Duration 0-9
years), India, 2001.
The stream was dominated by female migrants. Most of these were

migrants related to marriage. The distribution of male and female migrants
in different streams of intra-state and interstate migration is presented in
Figure 4.4 (a) and (b). It is clearly evident that females predominate the
streams of short distance rural to rural migration in both types of migration. Contrary to this, men predominate the rural to urban stream of interstate migration due to economic reasons. Apart from these streams of internal migration, India also experiences immigration from and emigration to
the neighboring countries. Table 4.4 presents the details of migrants from
neighboring countries. Indian Census 2001 has recorded that more than 5
million person have migrated to India from other countries. Out of these,
96%came from the neighboring countries: Bangladesh (3.0 million) followed
by Pakistan (0.9 million) and Nepal (0.5 million). Included in this are 0.16
million refugees from Tibet, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan,
Iran, and Myanmar. As far as emigration from India is concerned it is estimated that there are around 20 million people of Indian Diaspora, spread
across 110 countries.
Table 4.4: Immigrants by last residence from neighboring countries by all
duration in India, 2001
Countries%
No of immigrants
% of total immigrants
Total international
migration
5,155,423
100
Migration from
neighbouring
countries
4,918,266
95.5
Afghanistan
9,194
0.2
Bangladesh
3,084,826
59.8
Bhutan
8,337
0.2
China
23,721
0.5
Myanmar
49,086
1.0
Nepal
596,696
11.6
Pakistan
9997,106
19.3
Sri Lanka
149,300
2.9
Spatial Variation in Migration

Some states like Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana attract migrants
from other states such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, etc. Maharashtra occupied
first place in the list with 2.3 million net in-migrants, followed by Delhi,
Gujarat and Haryana. On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh (-2.6 million) and
Bihar (-1.7 million) were the states, which had the largest number of net
out-migrants from the state. Among the urban agglomeration (UA), Greater
Mumbai received the higher number of in migrants. Intra-states migration
constituted the largest share in it. These differences are largely due to the
size of the state in which this Urban Agglomeration is located.
4.5.3 Causes of Migration

People, generally are emotionally attached to their place of birth. But millions of people leave their places of birth and residence. There could be
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92
variety of reasons. These reasons can be put into two broad categories:
(i) Push Factor, these cause people to leave their place of residence or
origin; and (ii) Pull Factors, which attract the people from different
places.
Figure 4.5: Migration of people.

In India people migrate from rural to urban areas mainly due to poverty,
high population pressure on the land, lack of basic infrastructural facilities
like health care, education, etc. Apart from these factors, natural disasters
such as, flood, drought, cyclonic storms, earthquake, tsunami, wars and local conflicts also give extra push to migrate. On the other hand, there are
pull factors which attract people from rural areas to cities. The most important pull factor for majority of the rural migrants to urban areas is the better
opportunities, availability of regular work and relatively higher wages. Better opportunities for education, better health facilities and sources of entertainment, etc. are also quite important pull factors (Figure 4.5). On the basis
of the figures, it can be seen that reason for migration of males and females
are different. For example, work and employment have remained the main
cause for male migration (38%) while it is only 3%for the females. Contrary
to this, about 65%of females move out from their parental houses following
their marriage. This is the most important cause in the rural areas of India
except in Meghalaya where reverse is the case. In comparison to these marriage migration of the male, is only 2%in the country.
It is interesting to know why some people migrate while others do not.
The important factors which motivate people to move may broadly be classified into five groups given.
Economic Factors
Despite the relevance of non-economic factors most of the studies indicate
that migration is primarily motivated by economic factors. In large number
of developing countries, low agricultural income, agricultural unemployment and underemployment are considered basic factors pushing the migrants towards prosperous or dynamic areas with greater job opportunities. Even the pressure of population resulting in a high man-land ratio has
been widely recognized as one of the important reasons of poverty and rural out migration. Thus, almost all studies concur that most of the migrants
(excluding forced and sequential migrants) have moved in search of better
economic opportunities. This is an accepted fact in both internal as well as
international migration. The basic economic factors which motivate migra-
tion may be further classified as Push Factors and Pull Factors. In other words people migrate due to compelling circumstances which pushed
them out of the place of origin or they are lured by the attractive conditions
in the new place.
The push factors are those that compel a person, due to different
reasons, to leave that place and go to some other place. For instance, low
productivity, unemployment and underdevelopment, poor economic conditions, lack of opportunities for advancement, exhaustion of natural resources and natural calamities may compel people to leave their native
place in search of better economic opportunities. In most developing countries, due to population explosion land-man ratio has declined resulting in
significant increase in unemployment and underemployment. Introduction
of capital intensive methods of production into the agricultural sector, and
mechanization of certain processes reduce labor requirements in rural areas. The non-availability of alternative sources of income (non-agricultural
activities) in rural areas is also important factor for migration. In addition to
this, the existence of the joint family system and laws of inheritance, which
do not permit the division of property, may also force many young men to
move out to cities in search of jobs. Even sub division of property leads to
migration, as the property become too small to support a family.
The Pull factors refer to those factors which attract the migrants to an
area, such as, opportunities for better employment, higher wages, facilities,
better working conditions and amenities etc. There is generally city ward
migration, when rapid growth of industry, commerce and business takes
place. Migration from the country side to the cities bears a close functional
relation to the process of industrialization, technological advancement and
other cultural changes which characterize the evolution of modern society
in almost all parts of the world. Under the capitalistic model of development, there is a tendency for large proportion of investments to concentrate
in the urban centers which encourage people to move to urban areas in the
expectation of higher paid jobs. In recent years, the high rate of migration
of people from India as well as from other developing countries to U.K.,
U.S.A., Cana, and Middle East is due to the better employment opportunities, higher wages and the chances of attaining higher standard of living.
Sometimes the people are also attracted to cities in search of better cultural
and entertainment activities. Thus, pull factors operate not only in the ruralurban migration, but also in other types of domestic as well as international
migration. The question arises: Which factors is more important push or
pull? The researchers are divided on this issue. Some researchers argue that
the push factor is stronger than the pull factor as they feel that it is the rural
problems rather than the urban attractions that play a dominating role in
the migration of the population. On the other hand, those who consider the
pull factors as more important emphasize high rates of investment in urban
areas leading to more employment and business opportunities and greater
attraction for the urban way of life. There is a third category of researchers
who argue that both push and pull factors are closely interrelated; those
who are pushed into migration are simultaneously pulled by the expectation of finding something better elsewhere.
Demographic Factors
The differences in the rates of population increase between the different
regions of a nation have been found to be a determinant in the internal mi-
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gration. Fertility and the natural increase in population are generally higher
in rural areas which drift the rural population towards the city. Paucity of
domestic labor supply promoted immigration to a number of countries like
Canada, The United States, New Zealand, Australia and gulf countries etc.
Other important demographic factor in internal migration is marriage. The
female migration is largely sequential to marriage, because it is a Hindu
custom to take brides from another village. According to National Sample
Survey, more than 46%migration to urban areas is caused by marriage. The
custom of women returning to her parents to deliver her first child also accounts for significant internal migration.
Socio-cultural Factors
Social and cultural factors also play an important role in migration. Sometimes family conflicts, the quest for independence also cause migration
especially, of those in the younger generation. Improved communication
facilities, such as, transportation, impact of the television, the cinema, the
urban oriented education and resultant change in attitudes and values also
promote migration.
Political Factors
Sometimes even political factors encourage or discourage migration from
region to another. For instance, in India, the reservation of the jobs for sons
of the soil policy by the state governments will certainly discourage the
migration from other states. Nair (1978) observed that 14.5%of those who
left their native places in Tamil Nadu because of lack of job opportunities
stated that lack of job opportunities was the result of anti- Brahmanism
perpetuated by the D.M.K. government in Tamil Nadu. Hence, the political background, attitudes and individual viewpoint of the people exercise a
significant influence on the migration of the people.
Miscellaneous Factors
A number of other factors, such as the presence of relatives and friends in
urban areas who mostly provide help, desire to receive education which is
available only in urban areas are factors responsible for migration. Migration is considerably influenced by factors such as the closeness of cultural
contracts, cultural diversity etc. Great vitality, strong self-assertion, individualistic attitude etc. are personality traits associated with a high propensity
to migrate.
4.6 CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION

Migration is a response to the uneven distribution of opportunities over
space. People tend to move from place of low opportunity and low safety to
the place of higher opportunity and better safety. This, in turn, creates both
benefits and problems for the areas; people migrate from and migrate to.
Consequences can be observed in economic, social, cultural, political and
demographic terms.
4.6.1 Economic Consequences
A major benefit for the source region is the remittance sent by migrants.
Remittances from the international migrants are one of the major sources
of foreign exchange. In 2002, India received US $ 11 billion as remittances
from international migrants. Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu receive very
significant amount from their international migrants. The amount of remittances sent by the internal migrants is very meager as compared to international migrants, but it plays an important role in the growth of economy
of the source area. Remittances are mainly used for food, repayment of
debts, treatment, marriages, childrens education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc. For thousands of the poor villages of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, etc. remittance
works as life blood for their economy. Migration from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa to the rural areas of
Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh accounted for the success of
their green revolution strategy for agricultural development. Besides this,
unregulated migration to the metropolitan cities of India has caused overcrowding. Development of slums in industrially developed states such as
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi is a negative consequence of unregulated migration within the country (Figure 4.6).
Figure 4.6: Economy.
4.6.2 Demographic Consequences

Migration leads to the redistribution of the population within a country.
Rural urban migration is one of the important factors contributing to the
population growth of cities. Age and skill selective out migration from the
rural area have adverse effect on the rural demographic structure. However, high out migration from Uttaranchal, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Eastern Maharashtra have brought serious imbalances in age and sex composition in these states. Similar imbalances are also brought in the recipients states. What is the cause of imbalance in sex ratio in the place of origin
and destination of the migrants?
Figure 4.7: Migrant doing anti-social activities.
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96
4.6.3 Social Consequences

Migrants act as agents of social change. The new ideas related to new technologies, family planning, girls education, etc. get diffused from urban to
rural areas through them. Migration leads to intermixing of people from
diverse cultures. It has positive contribution such as evolution of composite
culture and breaking through the narrow considerations and widens up
the mental horizon of the people at large. But it also has serious negative
consequences such as anonymity, which creates social vacuum and sense of
dejection among individuals. Continued feeling of dejection may motivate
people to fall in the trap of anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse
(Figure 4.7).
4.6.4 Environmental Consequences

Overcrowding of people due to rural-urban migration has put pressure on
the existing social and physical infrastructure in the urban areas (Figure
4.8). This ultimately leads to unplanned growth of urban settlement and
formation of slums shanty colonies. Apart from this, due to over-exploitation of natural resources, cities are facing the acute problem of depletion of
ground water, air pollution, and disposal of sewage and management of
solid wastes.
Figure 4.8: Overcrowding in urban areas.
Others
Migration (even excluding the marriage migration) affects the status of
women directly or indirectly. In the rural areas, male selective out migration leaving their wives behind puts extra physical as well mental pressure
on the women. Migration of women either for education or employment
enhances their autonomy and role in the economy but also increases their
vulnerability. If remittances are the major benefits of migration from the
point of view of the source region, the loss of human resources particularly highly skilled people is the most serious cost. The market for advanced
skills has become truly a global market and the most dynamic industrial
economies are admitting and recruiting significant proportions of the highly trained professionals from poor regions. Consequently, the existing underdevelopment in the source region gets reinforced.

1.
Indias population as per 2001 census is:
(a) 1028 million
(c) 3287 million
(b) 3182 million
(d) 20 million
2.
Which one of the following states has the highest density of population
in India?
(a) West Bengal
(c) Uttar Pradesh

(b) Delhi (d) Punjab
3.
Which one of the following states has the highest proportion of urban
population in India according to 2001 Census?
(a) Tamil Nadu
(c) Kerala

(b) Goa (d) Gujarat
4.
Which one of the following is the largest linguistic group of India?
(a) Sino Tibetan
(c) Austric
(b) Indo Aryan
(d) Dravidian
5.
Which one of the following is the main reason for male migration in
India?
(a) Education
(c) Work and Employment
(b) Business
(d) Marriage
6. Which one of the following states receives maximum number of immigrants?

(a) Uttar Pradesh
(c) Maharashtra
(b) Delhi
(d) Bihar
7.
Which one of the following streams is dominated by male migrants in

India?
(a) Rural-rural
(c) Rural-urban
(b) Urban-rural
(d) Urban-Urban
8.
Which one of the following urban agglomeration has the highest share
of in migrant population?
(a) Mumbai UA
(c) Bangalore UA
(b) Delhi UA
(d) Chennai UA
9.
Migration was beginning in India in:
(a) 1861
(b) 1881
(c) 1871
(d) 1891
10. Which is the major region in all states?

(a) Muslim
(b) Sikh
(c) Hindu
(d) Christian

1. Explain the distribution of population with example.
2. Describe the density of population.
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98
3. Define the growth of population.

4. What do you understand by regional variation in population
growth?
5. Differentiate between rural -urban and linguistic composition.
6. Explain the religious composition.
7. What is the migration?
8. Write the short note:
(i) Streams of migration
(ii) Indian diasporas
9. Explain the causes of migration.
10. Describe the migration factor.
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION:

1 (a) 2(b) 3(b) 4(a) 5(c)
6 (a)
7(c)
8 (a)
9 (b)
10 (c)
Chapter 5
Human Settlements
INTRODUCTION
A settlement is a place where people live. We all live in clusters of houses. We
may call it a village, a town or a city, all are examples of human settlements.
The study of human settlements is basic to human geography because the
form of settlement in any particular region reflects human relationship with
the environment. A human settlement is defined as a place inhabited more
or less permanently. The houses may be designed or redesigned, buildings
may be altered, functions may change but settlement continues in time and
space. There may be some settlements which are temporary and are occupied
for short periods, may be a season. Economic development and the provision
of services can be enhanced through improved human settlements activities,
such as urban revitalization, construction, upgrading and maintenance of
infrastructural facilities, and building and civil works. These activities are
also important growth factors in the generation of employment, income and
efficiency in other sectors of the economy. In turn, in combination with appropriate environmental protection policies, they result in the sustainable
improvement of the living conditions of city residents as well as of the efficiency and productivity of countries.
Human settlements are called cities, towns, or villages, and a distinction
is made between urban and rural settlements. A city is not defined merely
n the basis of size, but also on the basis of the diversity of its inhabitants,
and the complexity of their activities. The basic difference between towns
and villages is that in towns the main occupation of the people is related
to secondary and tertiary sectors, while in the villages most of the people
are engaged in primary occupations such as agriculture, fishing, lumbering,
mining, animal husbandry, etc. Urban residents can be distinguished from
rural residents by their dependence on the formal provision services. Urban
residents tend to rely on established providers in the public or private sector
to meet their daily needsusually through a cash economy. Rural residents
seem less reliant on the cash economy, and on the institutional or corporate
provision of goods and services.
Developed countries experienced rapid urbanization during the nineteenth century. Developing counties experienced rapid urbanization during
the second half of the twentieth century. The most important cause of urbanization is rural-urban migration. During the late 1990s some 20 30 million
people were leaving the countryside every year and moving into towns and
cities.
Objectives
After studying this
able to:
Discuss about
rural and
urban settlements
Explain about
the problems
of human
settlement in
developing
countries
Describe the
functions and
services of
urban settlement
Discuss the
morphology
of cities
100

(a) (b)
Key Vocabulary
Conurbation: A super
city consisting of multiple cities and towns. The
population is usually a
several million.
Figure: 5.1: (a) Rural and (b) Urban.
5.1 TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS

This includes:
Conurbation/metropolitan Area: A super city consisting of multiple
cities and towns. The population is usually a several million.
Large City: a city with a large population and many services. The
population is greater than 1 million.
City: A city would have abundant services, but not as many as a
large city. The population is usually 100,000.
Large Towns: A large town has a population of 20,000100,000.
Town: A town has a population of 1,0002,000. Towns are larger
than villages but smaller than city.
Village: It is a clustered human settlement or community, larger
than a hamlet, but smaller than town and city. These are generally
located in rural areas. A village generally does not have any service,
possibly only a small corner shop or small post office. Villages have
population of 1001,000.
Hamlet: A hamlet is a rural community a small settlement which is
too small to be considered as village. A hamlet has a tiny population
(less than 100) and very few (if any) services and few buildings.
Increase in size of selement,

higher populaation and
more services
Conurbotion
City
Large town
Small town
Decrease in
frequency
Village
Hamlet
Isolated dwelling
Figure 5.2: Types of settlements.
5.2 PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENTS
101
Human Settlements
Settlements may also be classified by their shape, patterns types. The major
types classified by shape are:
Compact or Nucleated Settlements: These settlements are those in
which large number of houses and buildings are close together, often clustered around a central point. The location of a nucleated
settlement can be determined by a range of factors, including being
easy to defend, close to a water supply, located at a route centre or
in fertile plains. Communities are closely knit and share common
occupations. Villages that are situated by a water supply often grow
into towns. Often we see nucleated settlements where people have
settled on flat lowland areas, where the town can expand in many
directions. Route centers often create settlements with a nucleated
pattern which grow up around a crossroad. Due to urbanization
and site factors, many settlements will expand quickly.
Dispersed Settlements: In these settlements, houses are spaced far
apart and often interspersed with fields. A cultural feature such as
a place of worship or a market, binds the settlement together.
Linear Settlement: It is where the buildings are built in lines and is
often found on steep hillsides.

(a) (b)
Figure 5.3: (a) Dispersed settlements and (b) Nucleated settlements.
Figure 5.4: Linear settlement.
5.3 RURAL SETTLEMENTS

Settlements are divided mainly into urban and rural settlements. They vary
according to function, size and characteristics.
Rural settlements include communes and villages. Their function is
mostly residential only. They are dominated by primary activities such
as agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing etc. The settlements size is rela-
Key Vocabulary
Hamlet: A hamlet is a
rural communitya
small settlementwhich
is too small to be considered as village.
102
tively small. People sleep there while work in a nearby town. It comprises
all the settlements with number of inhabitants up to 2,000. However, there
are many communes with higher number of people living there but without status of a town. Rural settlements (rural areas) are typical for, low
buildings, no skyscrapers, no industrial zones, often poorly developed infrastructure, few services, basic services only, example grasslands, forests,
small post office.
Key Vocabulary
The world started off with people inhabiting rural settlements, and
then surviving on the food they farmed. As time has progressed on, people
have moved out to the urban areas, but many have stayed in these rural settlements. People have remained inhabiting rural settlements for the same
purpose they did hundreds of years ago, farming. Rural settlements offer
farmers miles of open range to raise animals and grow crops.
Megalopolis: Signifies
super- metropolitan region extending as union
of conurbations.

(a) (b)
Figure: 5.5: (a) Hamlet and (b) village.
There are many types of rural settlements such as,
Clustered Rural Settlements: a rural settlement where a number of
families live in close proximity to each other, with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farm buildings.
A clustered rural settlement typically includes homes, barns, tool
sheds, and other farm structures along with religious and school
structures. Each person that lives on a clustered rural settlement is
allocated strips of land in the surrounding fields. The strips of land
are allocated differently, some people own or rent the land. When
the population of a settlement grows too large for the capacity of
the surrounding fields, new settlements are established nearby.
Homes, public buildings, and fields in a clustered rural settlement
are arranged according to local cultural and physical characteristics.
Clustered rural settlements are often arranged in one of two types
of patterns circular and linear.
Circular Rural Settlements: The circular form consists of a central
open space surrounded by structures. This model has a center with
homes, barns, schools, and churches and as we move away from the
center, it is surrounded by farmland. Small garden plots were located in the first ring surrounding the village, with cultivated land,
pastures and woodlands in successive rings. They resemble Von
Thunens model as they are circular and have a center focal point.
Linear Rural Settlements: Linear rural settlements feature buildings
clustered along a road, river, or dike to facilitate communications.
The fields extend behind the buildings in long, narrow strips. The
town would follow the river. The Town goes in a straight line because the French did it like this so the river can supply the people
Human Settlements
103
with a water source and the availability to travel and communicate.

Roads were constructed in parallel to the river for access to inland
farms. In this way, a new linear settlement emerged along each
road, parallel to the original riverfront settlement.
Dispersed Rural Settlements: Rural settlement which has farmers
living on individual farms, isolated from neighbors alongside other
farmers in settlements.
Dispersed Settlement: Patterns dominated in the American Midwest
in part because the early settlers came primarily from the Middle
Atlantic colonies. In New England a dispersed distribution began
to replace the clustered settlements in the eighteenth century. The
bonds that created the initial clustered rural settlement had weakened.
Colonial American Clustered Settlements: Were built in a cluster formation around an open common. The colonists that created these
settlements settled the land together as a group, and therefore
traveling across sea together to settle on land grants. Most of these
people in the group were of one church/culture. These clustered
settlements helped reinforce religious and cultural values. Land
was not sold but awarded to a person when a towns residents felt
the recipient would work hard, and each person owned several discontinuous pieces of land. As the population grew, new clustered
settlements were created.

In the south, the plantation system ruled. These large pieces of land
held enough land and workers to be able to grow cash crops such
as tobacco and cotton. Many of these plantations were fairly self
sufficient, as they made things themselves. The mansion often was
next to a body of water.
Water Supply: Usually rural settlements are located near water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and springs where water can be easily obtained. Sometimes the need for water drives people to settle in otherwise disadvantaged sites such as islands surrounded by swamps
or low lying river banks. A clean supply of water was needed for
drinking, cooking and cleaning. Water could be taken from a river
or a well. Most water based wet point settlements have many advantages such as water for drinking, cooking and washing. Rivers
and lakes can be used to irrigate farm land. Water bodies also have
fish which can be caught for diet and navigable rivers and lakes
can be used for transportation. The shape of Riverside settlement is
linear and they are classified as rural because of their situation.
Land: People choose to settle near fertile lands suitable for agriculture. In Europe villages grew up near rolling country avoiding
swampy, low lying land while people in south east Asia chose to
live near low lying river valleys and coastal plains suited for wet
rice cultivation. Early settlers chose plain areas with fertile soils.
Upland: Upland which is not prone to flooding was chosen to prevent damage to houses and loss of life. Thus, in low lying river basins people chose to settle on terraces and levees which are dry
points. In tropical countries people build their houses on stilts near
marshy lands to protect themselves from flood, insects and animal
pests.
Building Material: The availability of building materials- wood,
Key Vocabulary
Planned Settlements:
They are constructed by
governments by providing shelter, water, and
other infrastructures on
acquired lands.
104
stone near settlements is another advantage. Early villages were

built in forest clearings where wood was plentiful. In loess areas of
China, cave dwellings were important and African Savannas building materials were mud bricks and the Eskimos, in Polar Regions,
use ice blocks to construct igloos.
Defense: During the times of political instability, war, hostility of
neighboring groups villages were built on defensive hills and islands. In Nigeria, upstanding inselbergs formed good defensive
sites. In India most of the forts are located on higher grounds or
hills.
Key Vocabulary
Settlement: It is a place
where people live.
Planned Settlements: Sites that are not spontaneously chosen by villagers themselves, planned settlements are constructed by governments by providing shelter, water and other infrastructures on acquired lands. The scheme of villagisation in Ethiopia and the canal
colonies in Indira Gandhi canal command area in India are some
good examples.
Rural Settlement Patterns

Patterns of rural settlements reflect the way the houses are sited in relation
to each other. The site of the village, the surrounding topography and terrain influence the shape and size of a village.
Rural settlements may be classified on the basis of a number of criteria:
On the Basis of Setting: The main types are plain villages, plateau
villages, coastal villages, forest villages and desert villages.
On the Basis of Functions: There may be farming villages, fishermens villages, lumberjack villages, pastoral villages etc.
On the Basis of Forms or Shapes of the Settlements: These may be a
number of geometrical forms and shapes such as Linear, rectangular, circular star like, T-shaped village, double village, cross-shaped
village etc.
Linear Pattern: In such settlements houses are located along a road,
railway line, and river, canal edge of a valley or along a levee.
Rectangular Pattern: Such patterns of rural settlements are found in
plain areas or wide inter Montane valleys. The roads are rectangular
and cut each other at right angles.
Problems of Rural Settlements

Rural settlements in the developing countries are large in number and poorly equipped with infrastructure. They represent a great challenge and opportunity for planners. Supply of water to rural settlements in developing
countries is not adequate. People in villages, particularly in mountainous
and arid areas have to walk long distances to fetch drinking water. Water
borne diseases such as cholera and jaundice tend to be a common problem.
The countries of South Asia face conditions of drought and flood very often.
Crop cultivation sequences, in the absence of irrigation, also suffer.
The general absence of toilet and garbage disposal facilities cause health
related problems. The design and use of building materials of houses vary
from one ecological region to another. The houses made up of mud, wood
and thatch, remain susceptible to damage during heavy rains and floods,
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Human Settlements
and require proper maintenance every year. Most house designs are typically deficient in proper ventilation. Besides, the design of a house includes
the animal shed along with its fodder store within it. This is purposely done
to keep the domestic animals and their food properly protected from wild
animals.
Unmetalled roads and lack of modern communication network creates
a unique problem. During rainy season, the settlements remain cut off and
pose serious difficulties in providing emergency services. It is also difficult
to provide adequate health and educational infrastructure for their large
rural population. The problem is particularly serious where proper villagisation has not taken place and houses are scattered over a large area.
5.4 URBAN SETTLEMENTS

Urban settlements include towns and cities. They represent organisms
within socio-economic sphere with roads as arteries and residential zones
as main organs of a body. Rapid urban growth is a recent phenomenon. Until recent times, few settlements reached the population size of more than a
few thousand inhabitants. The first urban settlement to reach a population
of one million was the city of London by around A.D. 1810. By 1982 approximately 175 cities in the world had crossed the one million population
mark. Presently 48% of the worlds population lives in urban settlements
compared to only 3%in the year 1800.

(a) (b)
Figure 5.6: (a) City and (b) town.
The function is mostly:
Administrative (seat of regional administrative bodies)
Economic (providing jobs)
Cultural (including entertainment)
Characteristics of Urban settlements:
High buildings, in the largest cities also skyscrapers
Industrial zones, i.e. light industry, sometimes heavy industry
Developed infrastructure, example easy access to motorways, train
stations, etc.
Developed services, example hypermarkets, car repairs, banks, insurances, etc.
Green areas and parks
5.4.1 Urbanization
Urban population in the Asia and Pacific region is growing at an average
annual rate of 3%, having doubled between 1960 and 1980 from 359 mil-
106
lion to 688 million. The total urban population in the region at present is
about 850 million containing 40% of the world urban population. By the
year 2000, an estimated 300 million more population will be added during the decade in urban areas in the region, including 14 of the worlds 22
mega-cities with more than 10,000,000 people (Table 5.1).
However, in spite of high population growth rates in many of the large
cities, developing nations in the region even economically fast growing
countries are still characterized by low urbanization levels, if compared to
Latin America. This would mean that the growth potential of urban populations is vast. Currently, less than 30% of the regions population live urban areas; the rate will increase to more than 40% in 20 years.
Urban population growth rates are markedly higher than overall national population growth rates. In some countries, notably Bangladesh, cities grow at double the national rate. This rapid urban growth is accompanied by problems of urban congestion, environmental degradation, regional
imbalances and a burgeoning population of under and unemployed workers and sprawling slums and squatter settlements.
Table 5.1: World population in urban areas
Urban world population
World
1800
1900
1950 2010
2030
3%
14%
30%
60%
50.5%
5.4.2 Classification of Urban Settlements

Some of the common basis of classification is size of population, occupational structure and administrative setup.
Population Size
Normally, every commune with number of inhabitants more than 2,000 is
considered to be urban settlement: A commune with the status of town.
If a town has more than 100,000 inhabitants, it is a city. It is an important
criteria used by most countries to define urban areas. The lower limit of
the population size for a settlement to be designated as urban is 1,500 in
Colombia, 2,000 in Argentina and Portugal, 2,500 in U.S.A. and Thailand,
5,000 in India and 30,000 in Japan. Besides the size of population, density
of 400 persons per sq km and share of non-agricultural workers are taken
into consideration in India. Countries with low density of population may
choose a lower number as the cut-off figure compared to densely populated
countries. In Denmark, Sweden and Finland, all places with a population
size of 250 persons are called urban. The minimum population for a city is
300 in Iceland, whereas in Canada and Venezuela, it is 1,000 persons.
Occupational Structure
In some countries, such as India, the major economic activities in addition
to the size of the population in designating a settlement as urban are also
taken as a criterion. Similarly, in Italy, a settlement is called urban, if more
than 50% of its economically productive population is engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. India has set this criterion at 75%.
107
Human Settlements
Administration
The administrative setup is a criterion for classifying a settlement as urban
in some countries. For example, in India, a settlement of any size is classified as urban, if it has a municipality, Cantonment Board or Notified Area
Council. Similarly, in Latin American countries, such as Brazil and Bolivia,
any administrative centre is considered urban irrespective of its population
size.
Location
Location of urban centers is examined with reference to their function. For
example, the sitting requirements of a holiday resort are quite different from
that of an industrial town, a military centre or a seaport. Strategic towns
require sites offering natural defense; mining towns require the presence
of economically valuable minerals; industrial towns generally need local
energy supplies or raw materials; tourist centers require attractive scenery,
or a marine beach, a spring with medicinal water or historical relics, ports
require a harbor etc.
Locations of the earliest urban settlements were based on the availability of water, building materials and fertile land. Today, while these considerations still remain valid, modern technology plays a significant role
in locating urban settlements far away from the source of these materials.
Piped water can be supplied to a distant settlement; building material can
be transported from long distances. Apart from site, the situation plays an
important role in the expansion of towns. The urban centers which are located close to an important trade route have experienced rapid development.
Figure 5.7: Urban settlement.
5.4.3 Functions of Urban Centers

The earliest towns were centers of administration, trade, industry, defense
and religious importance. The significance of defense and religion as differentiating functions has declined in general, but other functions have
entered the list. Today, several new functions, such as, recreational, residential, transport, mining, manufacturing and most recently activities related to information technology are carried on in specialized towns. Some
of these functions do not necessarily require the urban centre to have any
fundamental relationship with their neighboring rural areas.
In spite of towns performing multiple functions we refer to their dominant function. For example, we think of Sheffield as an industrial city, London as a port city, Chandigarh as an administrative city and so on. Large
108
cities have a rather greater diversity of functions. Besides, all cities are dynamic and over a period of time may develop new functions. Most of the early nineteenth-century fishing ports in England have now developed tourism.
Many of the old market towns are now known for manufacturing activities.
Towns and cities are classified into the following categories:
Administrative Towns
National capitals, which house the administrative offices of central governments, such as New Delhi, Canberra, Beijing, Addis Ababa, Washington
D.C., and London etc. are called administrative towns. Provincial (sub-national) towns can also have administrative functions, for example, Victoria
(British Columbia), Albany (New York), and Chennai (Tamil Nadu).
Trading and Commercial Towns

Agricultural market towns, such as, Winnipeg and Kansas city; banking
and financial centers like Frankfurt and Amsterdam; large inland centers
like Manchester and St Louis; and transport nodes such as, Lahore, Baghdad and Agra have been important trading centers.
Cultural Towns
Places of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem, Mecca, Jagannath Puri and Varanasi etc. are considered cultural towns. These urban centers are of great religious importance. Additional functions which the cities perform are health
and recreation (Miami and Panaji), industrial (Pittsburgh and Jamshedpur),
mining and quarrying (Broken Hill and Dhanbad) and transport (Singapore and Mughal Sarai).
5.4.4 Classification of Towns on the Basis of Forms

An urban settlement may be linear, square, star or crescent shaped. In fact,
the form of the settlement, architecture and style of buildings and other
structures are an outcome of its historical and cultural traditions.
Towns and cities of developed and developing countries reflect marked
differences in planning and development. While most cities in developed
countries are planned, most urban settlements of developing countries
have evolved historically with irregular shapes. For example, Chandigarh
and Canberra are planned cities, while smaller town in India have evolved
historically from walled cities to large urban sprawls.
Types of Urban Settlements

Depending on the size and the services available and functions rendered, urban centres are designated as town, city, million city, conurbation, megalopolis.
Town
The concept of town can best be understood with reference to village.
Population size is not the only criterion. Functional contrasts between
towns and villages may not always be clearcut, but specific functions such
as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional services exist in towns.
Human Settlements
City
A city may be regarded as a leading town, which has outstripped its local
or regional rivals. In the words of Lewis Mumford, the city is in factthe
physical form of the highest and most complex type of associative life.
Cities are much larger than towns and have a greater number of economic
functions. They tend to have transport terminals, major financial institutions and regional administrative offices. When the population crosses the
one million mark it is designated as a million city.
Conurbation
The term conurbation was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915 and applied to
a large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns or cities. Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and
Tokyo are examples. Can we find out an example from India?
Megalopolis
This Greek word meaning great city, was popularized by Jean Gottman
(1957) and signifies super- metropolitan region extending as union of conurbations. The urban landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south
of Washington in U.S.A. is the best known example of a megalopolis.
Million Cities
The number of million cities in the world has been increasing as never before. London reached the million marks in 1800, followed by Paris in 1850,
New York in 1860, and by 1950 there were around 80 such cities. The rate
of increase in the number of million cities has been three-fold in every three
decades around 160 in 1975 to around 438 in 2005.
3.4.5 Distribution of Mega Cities

A mega city or megalopolis is a general term for cities together with their
suburbs with a population of more than 10 million people. This includes
city, associated suburbs, urban development zones. There were 20 urban
agglomerations with more than 10 million inhabitans in 2005. New York
was the first to attain the status of a mega city by 1950 with a total population of about 12.5 million. The number of mega cities is now 25. The number
of mega cities has increased in the developing countries during the last 50
years vis-a-vis the developed countries. China and India have five of the
worlds largest mega cities. By 2015, it is expected that there will be 25-30
megacities, 20 of them will be in developing countries (see Table 5.2).
Figure 5.8: Cities with at least one million population in 2006.
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110
Reasons why megacities are expanding so fast:

Increasing job opportunities
Availability of health services
Communication and transport facilities
Good scope of trade and commerce
Rural to urban migration: this is the movement of people from the
countryside to the city. It is contributes in the expanding of the mega cities.
Table 5.2: Largest megacities of world
Megacities (city, million inhabitans)
1950
1975
2000
2015
1. New York 12.3
1. Tokyo 19.8
1. Tokyo 26.4
1. Tokyo 34.2
2. New York 15.9
2. Mexico city 18.1
2. Mexico city 22.8
3. Sanghai 11.4
3. Mumbai 18.1
3. Seoul 22.3
4. Mexico city 11.2
4. Sao Paulo 17.8
4. New York 21.9
5. Sao Paulo 10.0
5. New York 16.6
5. Sao Paulo 20.2
6. Lagos 13.4
6. Mumbai 19.9
7. Los Angeles 13.1 7.Delhi 19.7

8.Calcutta 12.9
8. Sanghai 18.2
9.Shangai 12.9
9. Los Angeles 18.0
10. Buenos Aires 10. Osaka 16.8

12.6
11. Dhaka 12.3
11. Jakarta 16.6
12. Karachi 11.8
12. Kolkatta 15.7
13.Delhi 11.7
13. Cairo 15.6
14. Jakarta 11.0
14. Manila 15.0
15. Osaka 11.0
15. Karachi 14.3
16. Metro manila 16. Moscow 13.8

10.9
17.Beijing
17. Buenos Aires

13.5
18.Dhaka 13.3
19. Rio de Janeiro
12.2
20. Beijing12.1
21. London 12.0
22.Tehran 11.9
23.Istanbul 11.
24.Lagos 11.1
25.Shenzhen 10.7
5.4.6 Problems of Urban Settlements

People flock to cities to avail of employment opportunities and civic amenities. Since most cities in developing countries are unplanned, it creates
severe congestion. Shortage of housing, vertical expansion and growth of
slums are characteristic features of modern cities of developing countries.
Human Settlements
In many cities an increasing proportion of the population lives in substandard housing, example slums and squatter settlements. In most million plus
cities in India, one in four in habitants lives in illegal settlements, which are
growing twice as fast as the rest of the cities. Even in the Asia Pacific countries, around 60% of the urban population lives in squatter settlements.
Urban decay is when parts of the city become run down and undesirable to live in. It causes economic (money), social (people) and environmental (our surroundings) problems. Examples of
Urban decay is:
Slum housing: with outside toilets, overcrowding, no hot water or
central heating
Traffic congestion
Many buildings have been poorly built and now have leaking roofs,
draughty windows and crumbling stonework. Empty buildings are
vandalized; gap sites where buildings have been knocked down
turn into derelict land.
Waste land where old houses and factories are demolished
Crime, vandalism and litter
Land is expensive so housing tends to be too

(a) (b)
Figure 5.9: (a) Slum areas of the city and (b) Water pollution.
Economic Problems
The decreasing employment opportunities in the rural as well as smaller
urban areas of the developing countries consistently push the population
to the urban areas. The enormous migrant population generates a pool of
unskilled and semi-skilled labour force, which is already saturated in urban
areas. As the factories and housing have been in the same areas air, noise
and water pollution have been common.
Socio-cultural Problems
Cities in the developing countries suffer from several social ills. Insufficient
financial resources fail to create adequate social infrastructure catering
to the basic needs of the huge population. The available educational and
health facilities remain beyond the reach of the urban poor. Health indices
also, present a gloomy picture in cities of developing countries. Lack of employment and education tends to aggravate the crime rates. Male selective
111
112
migration to the urban areas distorts the sex ratio in these cities.
Environmental Problems
The large urban population in developing countries not only uses but also
disposes off a huge quantity of water and all types of waste materials. Many
cities of the developing countries even find it extremely difficult to provide
the minimum required quantity of potable water and water for domestic
and industrial uses. An improper sewerage system creates unhealthy conditions. Massive use of traditional fuel in the domestic as well as the industrial sector severely pollutes the air. The domestic and industrial wastes are
either let into the general sewerages or dumped without treatment at unspecified locations. Huge concrete structures erected to accommodate the
population and economic play a very conducive role to create heat islands.
Cities, towns and rural settlements are linked through the movements of
goods, resources and people. Urban-rural linkages are of crucial importance for the sustainability of human settlements.
As the growth of rural population has outpaced the generation of employment and economic opportunities, rural-to-urban migration has steadily increased, particularly in the developing countries, which has put an
enormous pressure on urban infrastructure and services that are already
under serious stress. It is urgent to eradicate rural poverty and to improve
the quality of living conditions, as well as to create employment and educational opportunities in rural settlements. Full advantage must be taken of
the complementary contributions and linkages of rural and urban areas by
balancing their different economic, social and environmental requirements.
The physical geography of an area was very important to early people
when they were deciding on the site for a new settlement.
5.5 PROBLEMS OF HUMAN

SETTLEMENTS IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
Urban areas in developing countries are characterized by increasing poverty. There is typically a large population of less affluent people residing
in slums and squatter settlements. Squatters reside illegally on land, while
slum residents have legal access to the land through ownership or lease. A
slum can be broadly defined as a dilapidated shelter. The term informal
settlement is used for, example, an illegal subdivision or a squatter settlement. Although economically and politically weak, squatters are important in the urban economy, since they provide inexpensive labor. Usually a
squatter settlement is highly organized despite being illegal. Asian informal
settlements have evolved into real informal cities over the years. Important changes that have taken place in informal settlements are the development of trade, commerce, and manufacturing, and the emergence of leaders and activists representing the inhabitants of the settlements. Because of
political expediency, informal settlements now sometimes have some basic
form of services such as water, post offices, police stations, government
clinics and schools. In most Asian cities over 50% of jobs are generated in
the informal sector, and in certain cases this may be as high as 76%.
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Human Settlements
5.6 MORPHOLOGY OF CITIES

Istanbul is a fascinating city that is at least 2,000 years old. The original
settlement was across the Bosporus in Asia near present skardar. It was
later supplanted by a site that overlooked the Bosporuson the European
side because of its strategic importance overlooking the entry to the Bosporus the only passage between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. This
Greek settlement was named Byzantium. It became a Roman colony about
100 B.C.E. and then the capital (Nova Roma) of the Roman Empire by Constantine; hence, later it came to be known as Constantinople and became the
capital of the Byzantine Empire. The original plan of Constantinople was
based on that of Roman cities with forums, villas and palaces. As Romes
influence declined, Constantinople took over the role of the dominating city
in Europe and the center of Christianity. As such, it contained numerous
churches and monasteries in addition to other public buildings. The most
spectacular structure and still standing was Aya Sofia (Hagia Sofia) which
became the mother church of Orthodox Christianity before Istanbul was
conquered by the Ottomans.
Figure 5.10: Istanbul metropolitan city.

Gradually due to a numerous factors, such as the split between Roman and Orthodox Christianity (which also determined political alliances),
development of rivals such as the Venetians, inept leadership and particularly the expansion of the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople was reduced
to a declining city-state in the last century of its existence. In 1453, it was
conquered by the Ottomans and became their capital. The city structure
was transformed by the presence of the Ottoman who superimposed Islamic city structure over the existing Byzantine one characterized by mosque
complexes (which included schools, hospitals, kitchens for the poor, shops
etc.), kervansarays (hotels for traveling merchants), bazaars and private
short streets.
114
Figure 5.11: Land use in Istanbul metropolitan area.

Being the capital of the Ottoman Empire, numerous palaces and public
buildings were also constructed with the most magnificent being Topkapi
Saray (the Ottoman Palace), which was located on the same site as the first
By Zantine palace. In the 19th Century, similar to another capital, St. Petersburg, Istanbul became the Ottomans window to the West with subsequent
changes in the city structure. In 1923 with the establishment of the Republic
of Trkiye, the capital was transferred to Ankara and for several decades,
Istanbul languished.
Today, Istanbul is a dynamic and rapidly growing Super Metropolitan area or mega city with a population of over 10 million according to the
2000 census. The unofficial boundary of the urbanized area stretches nearly
100 kilometers from the European to the Asian side. In the early part of the
20th century, after the founding of the Republic of Turkiye, the population
was estimated to be approximately 1 million. At this time, the city had little industrialization, as industrialization came fairly late to the Ottoman
Empire and Trkiye was largely still an agricultural country at the turn of
the last century. During the 1930s, several foreign urban planners, Elgtz
(Germany), Agache (France) and Lambert (France) contributed to the urban planning in Istanbul. These plans resulted in industrial relocation, the
widening of streets in the center, similar to Haussmann superimposing the
boulevards over the medieval street patterns in Paris. This resulted in additional suburban development on the outskirts of the city.
Figure 5.12: Traffic analysis zones and highway network of Istanbul metropolitan area.
In the latter part of the1800s, two commuter rail lines were constructed,
with one on the European and the other on the Asian side. These did tend
to push the population outward from the center, but they would appear to
have a much lesser impact on development when compared to the impact
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Human Settlements
of commuter rail systems in Europe and North America that were more extensive and directly linked with development. The role of water on the development of Istanbul is a significant factor. Seaside villages were present
even in the Byzantine period. During the late Ottoman period, steamship
companies provided transportation to the villages along the Bosporus and
the Marmara. This access increased the development of these cities.
In the last part of the 20th century, several factors caused the Istanbul
area to grow to its present population and size: the rural migration in Istanbul; the building of two bridges across the Bosporus, the construction two
major highways (E-5 and Trans European Motorway (TEM) and increased
automobile ownership. These resulted in a phenomenal outward growth
built around the two major urban arterials (E-5 and TEM) as the population grew to its present level of more that 10 million. In the period after
the 1980s, Trkiyes economy grew with the liberalization of the economy.
Istanbul received a great share of the growth and such new industrial areas
were constructed throughout the city. Construction of housing also reflected new trends.
Up until the 1960s, most houses were at a maximum five stories and
mainly in the center. With the increasing demand for residential building
and limited space, high-rise apartments proliferated, as the city grew outward. The appearance of illegal self-constructed housing or gecekondus
proliferated as the result of poor population from rural areas migrating to
Istanbul. While most tourists see only the historic area of Istanbul with its
own distinct character, the vast majority of the metropolitan area of Istanbul
is a mass of nondescript buildings, representing a mix of unregulated and
often incompatible land uses set between the ribbons of major highways.
However, this is not only characteristic of the urban structure of Istanbul,
but worldwide. Simply substitute the name of almost any major city and
the description would fit.
5.8 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

1.
In hamlets or villages where houses and other buildings are grouped

in clusters, they are said to have a:
(a) Nucleated settlement pattern
(b) Dispersed settlement pattern
(c) linear settlement pattern
(d) Elongated settlement pattern
2. Which of the following probably did affect how our ancestors of

100.000 years ago built their shelters?

(a) Flood prone areas
(b) Hot weather
(c) Ideas from neighboring villages
(d) Available building materials
3.
Which economic activity is mostly found in rural settlements?
(a) Primary activity
(b) Secondary activity
(c) Tertiary activities
(d) Quaternary activities
4.
The shape of Riverside settlement is

(a) Roun (b) Linear
116
(c) Cross road
(d) T shaped
5.
The Riverside settlement is classified as rural because of its

(a) Shape (b) Size

(c) Situation (d) Setting
6.
Which of the following places satisfies the criteria to be considered an

urban area?
(a) A place in the United States with 2,500 or more inhabitants
(b) A place in Greece with at least 10,000 inhabitants
(c) A place in Greece with at least 10,000 inhabitants
(d) All of the these.
7.
The largest mega city in world:

(a) Mumbai (b) Tokyo

(c) Mexico
(d) New York
8.
Urbanization emerges out of rural settlement patterns when:
(a) Communities become self-contained
(b) Houses become dispersed along main roads
(c) The heights of buildings increase
(d) Trade develops between two or more settlements
9.
A large area of urban development that resulted from merging of originally separate towns or cities.

(a) Town (b) Conurbation

(c)
Hamlet (d) Mega city
10. The smallest cluster of houses and nonresidential buildings is known
as a:

(a) Village
(b) Hamlet

(c) Town (d) Rundling

1. Define settlement.
2. Distinguish between rural and urban settlements.
3. Classify settlements.
4. Write factors that influence settlement at any place.
5. Describe rural settlement and the problems in their establishment.
6. What is urban settlement? Explain the services of urban settlements.
7. Discuss the distribution of megacities.
8. What are the major problems of human settlements in developing
countries?
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Human Settlements
9. Classify towns on the basis of forms.

10. Describe the problems of urban settlement.
ANSWER OF MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION

1 (a)
2 (a)
3 (a)
4 (b)
5 (d)
6 (d)
7 (b)
8 (d)
9 (b)
10 (b)
Chapter 6
Local Culture, Popular Culture,

and Cultural Landscapes
INTRODUCTION
It. is impossible not to be astonished by India. Nowhere on Earth does humanity present itself in such a dizzying, creative burst of cultures and religions, races and tongues. Every aspect of the country presents itself on a
massive, exaggerated scale, worthy in comparison only to the superlative
mountain that over shadow it. Perhaps the only thing more difficult than to
be in different to India would be to describe or understand India completely.
Indias puzzle board of 30 states holds virtually every kind of landscape
imaginable. An abundance of mountain ranges and national parks provide
sample opportunity for eco-tourism and trekking, and its sheer size promises
something for everyone. From its northernmost point on the Chinese border,
India extends a good 2000 miles (3200 km) to its southern tip, where the island nation of Sri Lanka seems to be squeezed out of India like a great tear,
the synapse forming the Gulf of Manners. Indias northern border is dominated mostly by Nepal and the Himalayas, the worlds highest mountain
chain. Following are the sweeping mountains to the northeast, its borders
narrow to a small channel that passes between Nepal, Tibet, Bangladesh, and
Bhutan, then spreads out again to meet Burma in area called the eastern
triangle.
Equally enthralling monuments forts, palaces, temples, memorials line
its historic face. Dances from the past survive as living arts even today. There
is vibrancy to the culture, both ancient and modern.
6.1 LOCAL CULTURE

Group of people in a particular place who see themselves as a collective or
a community, who share experiences, customs, and traits, and who work to
preserve those traits and customs in order to claim uniqueness and to distinguish themselves from others.
The term local culture is commonly used to characterize the experience
of everyday life in specific, identifiable localities. It reflects ordinary peoples
feelings of appropriateness, comfort, and correctness attributes that define
personal preferences and changing tastes.
Objectives
After studying this
able to:
Understand
the culture of
India
Explain local
culture and
popular cultural of India
Describe
culture
landscapes of
India
Define the
different type
of culture in
India
Explain the
effect of western culture on
Indian culture
Local Culture, Popular Culture, and Cultural Landscapes
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6.1.1 Local Culture in India

India is rich in its customs and traditions, which keeps Indians binding together. Indian culture is widely accepted as a perfect model for people from
all communities. Though, India own a cultural heritage and strong cultural
background based on the Hindu faith, other religions also pursue the divine culture of India.
Most prominent among the culture of India is the importance given to
familial relationship. From time immemorial people in India live as families
including father, mother, and children. This is practiced in the 21st century
also. Familial relationship gives a new status to the Indian Diaspora round
the world. Another important cultural specialty of India is the prominence
given to home. House warming is performed in the Indian style irrespective of religion, caste, or creed. Godh Bharna is also a very significant event
in the lives of Hindu married women that celebrates the first pregnancy
of the bride of the house and is held in the seventh month of pregnancy.
Naamkaran or naming ceremony is also a part of the Indian culture, which
is still practiced throughout the country. One of the most important aspects
of Indian culture is the respect for parents, and for age. By touching the feet
of elders and parents, people usually pay respect to them.
6.1.2 Types Local Culture in India

Griha Pravesh
It is an auspicious ceremony performed on the occasion of a persons first
entry into a new house (Figure 6.1). Once the house is ready, the family
moves in on a particular day that is determined by the astrological charts.
Purity of panchang and auspicious time must be considered during the griha pravesh. Ancient Indian scriptures mention three types of griha pravesh:
apoorva, sapoorva, and dwandwah.
Figure 6.1: Griha pravesh.
Vastu Pooja
An Offering to the landlord is performed outside the house before the actual entry into the house. A copper pot is filled with water, navadhanya and
one rupee coin. A coconut is then placed on the top of the pot. Coconut is
covered with the red cloth and tied with the red thread called moli. After
this the priest performs the pooja, add the husband and wife take this copper pot in the house together and place it near the ceremonial fire.
Key Vocabulary
Civilization: It is refer to
a sometimes controversial term that has been
used in several related
ways.
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Indian Marriage
Key Vocabulary
Diversity: Understanding
that each individual is
unique, and recognizing
our individual differences.
Indian marriages are viewed as almost necessary in the Indian society. Arranging a marriage is the responsibility of Indian parents and other relatives
of both bride and groom. Indian Marriage alliances entail some redistribution of wealth as well as building and restructuring social realignments,
and, of course, result in the biological reproduction of families. In India
there is no greater event in a family than a wedding. In arranging and conducting of marriages, the complex permutations of Indian social systems
best display themselves. Some parents begin marriage arrangements on the
birth of a child, but most wait until later. Indian marriages are different
regionally, even though it follows the Hindu tradition.
Godh Bharna
In the lives of Hindu married women Godh Bharna is a very significant
event. This function that is held for and by women is celebrated with great
festivity. It is a ceremony that celebrates the first pregnancy of the bride of
the house and is held in the seventh month of pregnancy. In Hindu mythology godh means the lap of the woman and bharna means to fill. Therefore, the mother and mother-in-law of the prospective mother fill her godh,
represented by the palav of her sari with items symbolizing a good omen
like a coconut marked with a red swastika, moong, supari and silver coins
in one rupee and quarter rupee denominations.
Touching the Feet of Elders

Indians, from early age paid respect for their elders, especially to parents.
Children are taught to practice touching the feet of people who are older
than them.
The traditional Indian culture is characterized by a relatively strict social hierarchy. The hierarchy has its roots and foundation in Hinduism and
it defines the social order, roles and status of the people. Names also have
a lot to say about a persons culture and background. Names are highly
influenced by caste and religion for instance names with the suffix Kar
example. Chandraskar means that the person is from the Maharashtan high
caste, an Arabic name means that the person is a Muslim and an English
name or Christian name means that the person is a Christian.
Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism are the common religions
in India. India is one of the nations in the world with diverse religions and
where the religions still plays a very important and prominent role in the
affairs of the Indians. Christianity and Judaism are also some of the religions in India but they are not commonly practiced and as influential as
Hinduism, Buddhism Sikhism and Jainism. There are several languages in
India but the generally accepted one is Hindi.
The Indian dance is the expression of the divinity in man and the inner beauty and emotion. The Indian dance are classified into eight different
class and they are; the satriya of the Assam, the manupuri of the Manipur,
the yakshagana of the Kamataka, the kuchipudi of the Andhra Pradesh,
etc. The Indian drama and theater comes a long way and has made a great
impact in the Indian culture. Music is a very vital part of the Indian culture,
just like the drama and theater. The Indian music carries a vital message in
it, most of them talks about divinity or a loved one.
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6.2 POPULAR CULTURE

Popular culture is the accumulated store of cultural products such as music,
art, literature, fashion, dance, film, television, and radio that are consumed
primarily by non-elite groups such as the working, lower, and middle class.
There are two opposing sociological arguments in relation to popular culture. One argument is that popular culture is used by the elites to control
those below them because it dulls peoples minds, making them passive
and easy to control. A second argument is just the opposite, that popular
culture is a vehicle for rebellion against the culture of dominant groups.
It is not high culture then it cannot be unique, or difficult. Creators
of popular culture must remain within known boundaries, use common
methods, and common materials, staying away from innovation. The creation, or its method of creation, must not cause its audience to question accepted reality, and must remain on accepted paths of thinking. The audience for popular culture must be large, and the likelihood of the creator
being known to the audience should be minimal. If it is not folk culture then
popular culture must not be communal, or anticipated. Creators of popular
culture must not draw from traditional knowledge nor relate to everyday
experience. The audience must not expect that their experiences will reflect the conventions of what has gone before and served them well in the
past. Popular culture is impersonal.
Clearly popular culture overlaps high and folk culture a good deal.
To prove how confusing classifying items can be let us have a quick look
at Elvis Presley. Immediately, most of us would have no trouble identifying his performance as popular culture, but on second look, his work has
characteristics of both high culture and folk culture. His music was highly
innovative, combining hillbilly country music with the blues, both, at the
time, specimens of folk culture. This was a new combination that certainly
stretched the boundaries, in music, as well as in black and white relations.
Not only was the music disconcerting to parents for its elements of AfricanAmerican music, but also because of his provocative way of dancing, which
was disturbingly sexual in the conservative Fifties. His impact on culture
was enormous. Leonard Bernstein, a respected, well-known American composer and conductor, and therefore a representative of high culture, once
called Elvis Presley the greatest cultural force in the twentieth century,
even over Picasso, because He introduced the beat to everything and he
changed everything music, language, clothes, its a whole new social revolution the Sixties comes from it. Because of him a man like us barely knows
his musical grammar anymore. The work of Elvis Presley leans into the
definition of folk culture by borrowing folk music, and then leans into high
culture by combining them in an innovative way that caused its audience
to question its perceived reality. Through his enormous popularity, he and
his music were made popular culture.
6.2.1 Popular Culture in India

As India celebrated the sixtieth anniversary of its independence, much
praise was lavished on its emergence as a major player on the global stage.
Its economic transformation and geopolitical significance as a nuclear power are matched by its globally resonant cultural resources.
It provides illuminating insights into various aspects of the social, cul-
Key Vocabulary
Emergence: The act of
rising out of a fluid, or
coming forth from envelopment or concealment,
or of rising into view;
sudden upraised or appearance.
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tural, economic and political realities of contemporary globalised India.

Structured thematically and drawing on a broad range of academic disciplines, the book deals with critical issues including:
Film, television and TV soaps
Folk theatre, Mahabharata-Ramayana ,myths, performance, ideology and religious nationalism
Music, dance and fashion
Comics, cartoons, photographs, posters and advertising
Cyber culture and the software industry
Key Vocabulary
Exaggeration: The act of
exaggerating; the act of
doing or representing in
an excessive manner; a
going beyond the bounds
of truth reason, or justice;
a hyperbolical representation; hyperbole; overstatement.
Indian feminisms
Sports and tourism
Food culture
The year 1991 is the turning point in Indias globalization drive. Under the Congress rule in1991, India endorsed the policy of Liberalization,
Privatization, and Globalization (LPG). Though the process of the integration of the Indian economy with the global market has not been all that
encompassing and smooth, it has been seen to be irreversible. Since 1991,
New Delhi has seen five Prime Ministers from different political parties in
15 years. The changes in the basic contours of the political rhetoric have not
caused any severe dent upon the globalization process.
The consumption paradigm goes beyond the Marxist distinction between the two values of a product: use value and exchange value. Use
value or utility is also a matter of culture: every utility is symbolic. The
ideological manipulation of advertising does not manifest itself on the level of commodity fetishism but rather at the level of sign fetishism at the
level of representation. To consume is above all to consume signs. Consumption practices gain their meaning through a system of objects, which
is commonly experienced. Consumption thus appears as a kind of ritual,
which performs culture, and advertising is seen as a ritual of these rituals, which constitutes the process of exaggeration and simplification called
hyper-reutilization. This paradigm is criticized for its conceptualization
of consumption as the decipherment or the performance of pre-established
cultural codes. It rules out multiplicity of willed actions that would define
consumption practices as creative, the whole set of collective orientations
which make them possible in society.
The Cultural Heritage of India is a vibrant mosaic of lively and magnificent colors. Indian Culture encompasses a unique blend of food, fashion,
festivals, dance and music that spellbound the four corners of the world in
its euphoric nature. The diversified but united culture of India has flourished for many centuries and is Indias way of life.
India is a popular destination and boasts a cultural heritage that is
worth exploring. As a tourist you have many choices to explore from cuisine to dances to music. All diverse in nature encompass to form the culture
of India. Very few countries in the world have such an ancient and diverse
culture as Indias. Dating back to over 5000 years old civilization, Indias
culture has been enriched by successive waves of migration which were
absorbed into the Indian way of life. The Indian culture comprises of Indian
music, Indian dance, Indian cuisines, costumes and Indian Festivals.
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6.2.2 Types of Popular Culture in India

Indian Dances
Indian dances are popular all over the world for their unique style and lucid expression portrayed by the artiste. Indian dances have the potential
to recreate the magic of past era as well as represent the present with their
futuristic style (Figure.6.2).
It is believed that classical dance in India originated when the ancient
treatise on dance, Natya Shastra, was compiled. Guided by the elaborate
codes in the Natya Shastra and by mythology, legend and classical literature, Indian classical dance attracts many tourists all across the world. Classical dance forms have rigid rules for presentation. Some of the leading
dance classical dance form are:
Figure 6.2: Different forms of Indian dances.

Bharata Natyam: The term Bharatanatyam today identifies a particular style of dance. Historically, Bharatanatyam is a system of
dance, described in the Natya Shastra, capable of manifesting various forms.
Kathakali: Originated in 17th century, Kathak is a typical dance
drama that comes from Kerala and has its roots in Indian mythology. The artiste performs a well written incidence from the Hindu
epics or scriptures by suing facial expression and specific hand gestures with an elaborate costumes. Kathakali dancers use make up
that takes several hours to apply. Much of the story that accompanies the dance is told by singers accompanied by precussion instruments.
Kathak: Originating from North India, Kathak is derived from the
word story. The dance was initiated by the devotional recitation of
the story tellers or Kathakars who were attached to the temples. It
was essentially performed in the temples, in the praise of the lord.
One can easily see the influence of Mughals on the costume designed for the performer.
Mohini Attam: Dance of Mohini is quite popular in Indian mythology. Mohini according to legends was a very beautiful woman who
attracted people instantly and was an enchantress, thus Mohiniattam is the dance of the enchantress. It is also believed that Lord
Key Vocabulary
Popular Culture: It is
the accumulated store of
cultural products such
as music, art, literature,
fashion, dance, film,
television, and radio that
are consumed primarily
by non-elite groups.
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Vishnu had disguised himself as Mohini with an intention to slay

Bhasmasura and also during the churning of nectar from the ocean.
But the basis of this dance is not seduction alone. Not many know
that it also signifies transformation of Lord Vishnu into a female
form and also the concept of Ardhnareeshwara i.e. male and female
as one. Like many other dance forms, this was also restricted to the
Devadas is. Love and devotion to god is the major theme behind
the dance. Vishnu or Krishna is more often the hero. The spectators could feel his invisible presence when the heroine or her maid
details dreams and ambitions through the circular movements, delicate footsteps and subtle expression
6.3 CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

The term cultural landscape embraces a diversity of manifestations of
the interaction between humankind and its natural environment. Cultural
landscapes often reflect specific techniques of sustainable land-use, considering the characteristics and limits of the natural environment they are established in, and a specific spiritual relation to nature. Protection of cultural
landscapes can contribute to modern techniques of sustainable land-use
and can maintain or enhance natural values in the landscape. The continued existence of traditional forms of land-use supports biological diversity
in many regions of the world. The protection of traditional cultural landscapes is therefore helpful in maintaining biological diversity.
Cultural landscape is unfortunate mainly because its general, everyday usage, stemming from its origins, is rather different from its technical
usage. The origins of the term are relatively recent, traceable to the renaissance, and closely related to landscape painting. From painting, as landscaping the concept became landscape design. This application came to
influence common usage for example, through reference to a beautiful
landscape. The implication is that there is some fundamental difference
between a landscape and, say, a decayed urban area or a roadside strip.
But such usage represents the exact opposite of what a cultural landscape
is. A roadside strip or a decaying urban area are cultural landscapes, as are
recent neologisms such as townscape, streetscape, roofscape, housescape, wirescape, and the like. At issue is how one can understand,
analyze and interpret all such different types of landscapes.
The word landscape often conjures up pastoral images of meadows
dotted with cows and haystacks under a threatening sky, or perhaps a sunny beach scene with waves breaking in the background. Slip one of those
painted images into a frame and it becomes a landscape.
The meaning of landscape has evolved. Where it once referred to an
artist is interpretation of a view, it eventually came to represent the view
itself.
The idea of landscapes as visual representations dominated western
scholarship, to focus on their materiality and phenomenological experience. The term has undergone change in its connotation from attractive
natural scenery to any humanly ordered modification of the natural environment.
Significant landscapes have both sacred and secular throughout South
Asia. Some, like the sacred landscape featuring temples lining the Ganges,
are iconic and recognizable outside the region. Many more, such as the sa-
cred landscape of Braj, a major pilgrimage site in the state of Uttar Pradesh,
or the secular landscapes of Indian cities, villages and homes. Explores the
relationships among nature, culture and built landscapes of these and other
sites by tracing the meanings of these forms as described in the mythology
and literature of India.
The emergence of cultural landscapes as designation of world heritage
and its application to the historic environment in India. It is important to
explore the relevance of this category to the Indian context as traditionally
nature and culture have always been considered inseparable aspects of the
environment in our context as against the colonial/western pre-occupation
with architectural heritage
6.3.1 Type of Cultural Landscapes

Cultural Landscapes Fall into Three Main Categories there are as Following
Clearly defined landscape the most easily identifiable is the clearly
defined landscape designed and created intentionally by man. This
embraces garden and parkland landscapes constructed for aesthetic
reasons which are often associated with religious or other monumental buildings and ensembles.
Organically evolved landscape the second category is the organically evolved landscape. This results from an initial social, economic,
administrative, and/or religious imperative and has developed its
present form by association with and in response to its natural environment. Such landscapes reflect that process of evolution in their
form and component features.
They Fall into Two Sub-categories:
A relict landscape is one in which an evolutionary process came to
an end at some time in the past, either abruptly or over a period.
Its significant distinguishing features are, however, still visible in
material form.
Continuing landscape is one which retains an active social role in
contemporary society closely associated with the traditional way of
life, and in which the evolutionary process is still in progress. At the
same time it exhibits significant material evidence of its evolution
over time.
Associative cultural landscape the final category is the associative
cultural landscape. The inclusion of such landscapes on the world
heritage list is justifiable by virtue of the powerful religious, artistic
or cultural associations of the natural element rather than material
cultural evidence, which may be insignificant or even absent.
6.3.2 Cultural landscapes in India

The consideration of cultural landscapes cross-culturally based on the preceding discussion thus consists essentially of a discussion of the underlying
ordering schemata, ideals, preferences and purposes of different groups,
and how these are given physical expression through the various rule systems guiding systematic choices. Such landscapes may be located in different places or in the same place over. One could also consider different
groups in the same location whether a homogeneous area when each re-
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gion is consistent and pure, as in traditional vernacular, or an area that is

mixed, as today.
The structures and ruins, which form part of this place, are highly significant for their architectural, artistic and historic value. Many of these belong to different periods in the long history of the place. However, the most
significant period is associated with the golden era of hindu civilization
extending from fourteenth to sixteenth century.
However, the deccan sultans who formed a unique alliance of Islamic
forces to take over this prosperous hindu kingdom brought this to a sudden
end in the battle of talikote in 1565.While hampi represents the capital of the
vijayanagara (literally meaning city of victory) empire, its significance as a
landscape with sacred associations extends into our pre-historic past. This
mythological journey continues to imbue the site with religious and cultural value special to the many pilgrims visiting this area. Hampi also exhibits
a typical case of conflict between exceptional cultural value versus development pressures of expanding urban and rural settlements in its vicinity.
Though hampi was nominated as a world heritage site in 1986 it was
promptly placed on the world heritage site in danger in 1999 due to development activities for the convenience of the local populace. Thus this
site truly represents the dilemma of conservation needs versus current demands experienced in most of our eminent sites today. Though hampi was
nominated initially as a group of fourteen monuments, this list was eventually extended to all of the fifty six monuments under the jurisdiction of
the archaeological survey of India. However, the need has been felt of late
to extend this narrow interpretation to ensure adequate protection of the
significance of the entire area. Re-nomination of this site as a cultural landscape is under consideration. This effort is aimed towards the protection of
the landscape with its multiple associations against concentrating only on
the architectural components
6.3.3 Example Cultural Landscape

Hampi as a Cultural Landscape
The natural landscape at Hampi is on one hand universally recognized for
its beauty and on the other hand enriched with symbolism from mythological references (Figure 6.3). The array of huge granite boulders rounded and
seemingly detached from one another are haphazardly arranged to give unending hues of pink, ochre and grey in a landscape that is the result of some
3000 million years of erosion, which began underground but once uplifted
has resulted in this unique landform. The largely granite based landscape
has offered itself as an unending source of building material for centuries.
The landscape is a unique showcase for the cyclic life of a settlement, magnificent structures being fashioned from the local granite rocks that become
ruins assimilating once again into the very same landscape from which they
were fashioned
Hampi is widely referred to as the seat of the Vijayanagara Empire, a
great city that was established here in the mid 14th century. However, the
association of this region as a mythological landscape goes back thousands
of years. While the tungabhadra river forms the central spine, the landscape it flows through Its imbued with religious meaning from different
eras. The site is commonly referred to as pampaksetra, literally the abode
of goddess pampa, daughter of lord brahma, considered the creator of the

universe in hindu mythology. She is also believed to be the consort of lord
shiva, the destroyer in the trinity of hindu gods.
Figure 6.3: Hampi example cultural landscape.
6.4 TYPES OF CULTURE IN INDIA

Unity in diversity, it is not just another phrase or quotation. But, these
words are highly prudent to a country like India that is incredibly rich in
culture and heritage. Few quotations or statements cannot describe the pedestal that India holds in the world map because of its colorful and unique
culture.
With about 800 different languages and 18 officially recognized languages, several world religions, including Hinduism, Islam, Christianity,
Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism and Judaism, various styles
of art, architecture, literature, music and dance, and several lifestyles from
the urban and rural to the tribal, India is a melting pot of cultural diversity.
Indian music spans various traditions, from folk songs and music
which varies from region to region, tribal music, classical and semi-classical traditions and popular music. There are two recognized styles of classical music the hindustani (northern India) style and the carnatic style of
South India. Each also has its dedicated instruments to name just a few,
hindustani music has the sitar, scrod, sur-bahaar, bansuri, shahnai and the
violin while carnatic musicians generally use the veena, venue, nadasvaram, gottuvadyam or the violin as the main melody instrument. Percussion
and other accompanying instruments are equally varied. Vocal traditions
in both classical styles are also different. Broadly speaking, carnatic music
is usually devotional in nature while the hindustani style is secular. Apart
from these traditions, there are various semi-classical styles (such as ghazals and qawwalis) and also a rich vein of popular music typified in songs
from indian films which are generally musicals.
Indian dance has an unbroken tradition of over 2000 years, with
themes drawn from mythology, legends, and classical literature. It also can
be broadly divided into folk/tribal dances which have many regional variations, and the classical dances, which are based on ancient texts and have
rigid rules of presentation. Some of the major classical dance traditions are
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128
bharata natyam, kathak, odissi, manipuri, kuchipudi, mohiniattam, and

kathakali.
Indian literature can date its origins to the oral tradition of the vedas
and the great epics of India, which are still an integral part of daily life.
Poetry, drama, fiction, non-fiction and all other literary styles have a substantial corpus in each of Indias major languages and in quite a few dialects, while the oral tradition also continues through folk songs and plays.
Theatre in India also has ancient historical roots, though classical theatre is
performed very rarely nowadays, having been overtaken by a vibrant tradition of folk theatre (including puppet and shadow theatre) and modern
professional theatre, which draws not only on stories written in various Indian languages, but also on non-Indian theatre from shakespeare to chekov
to andrew lloyd webber, either in english or in translation.
Indian art has its classical and folk traditions which are still vibrantly
alive, and covers the gamut of genres from paintings to sculpture to handicrafts. Indian visual art has also been influenced by developments elsewhere in the world, and contemporary Indian art is steadily developing its
own language in trying to interpret the Indian ethos in as many media as
possible (Figure 6.4).
From the times of maury as, cholas, mughals till to the period of british empire, India has always been famous for its traditions and hospitality.
The warmth in the relations and euphoria in celebrations make the country
stands out distinctively in the clutter. The countrys liveliness and generosity attract a number of tourists. The cuisines, festivals, music, literature, and
theatre everything is special in this land of gods.
It refers to the intellectual development evolved out of the physical and
mental training acquired in the course of the ages in a country.
6.4.1 Different Type Indian Culture

Humanity: The mildness of the Indians has continued till date, despite the aggressiveness of the muslim conquerors and the reforming zeal of the british, the portuguese and the dutch. The indians are
noted for their humanness and calm nature without any harshness
in their principles and ideals.
Tolerance: Gandhijis Satyagraha principle or ahimsa freedom without taking a drop of blood, worked wonders and gave credit to India in the international arena. Swami Vivekananda in his famous
chicago speech on the 11th of September, 1893 spoke of this.
Unity: India is a conglomeration of men and women of various
castes and creed. It is a fusion of old traditional values and the modern principles, thus satisfying all the three generations in the present India. The elite businessman and the common vendor on the
road share the same news and worship the same deity.
Secularism: India is a secular count country as stated in its constitution. There is freedom of worship throughout the length and
breadth of India without any breeches or violations of any others
religious beliefs. The hindus, the muslims, the christians, and the
sikhs in times of calamity and during festivities come openly together to share their thoughts despite their religious affinities. The
catholicity of the Indian culture can be best understood by the fact
that hundreds of hindus visit the velankanni shrine or the nagore
dargah in tamilnadu.
Closely Knit Social System: The Indian social system is mostly based on the Joint family system, but for some of the recently
cropped nuclear families. The families are closely knit with grandfathers, fathers, sons and grandsons sharing the same spirit, tradition
and property.
India is one of the ancient countries comparing to any other country in
the world, which is very rich in its own culture.
India has got the big phenomena of unity in multifarious diversities
and multifarious diversity has got a unity. This means that though the external appearance of the people varies on different cultural forms, the Indian spirit remains the same throughout the country.
The first and foremost thing to talk about culture is the civilization observed from the old stone age to the present age. When we say somebody
is civilized, that civilization either based on his or her literature or on his
or her type of life. Individual regionalistic culture is depicted by the literature. The type of literatures first comes in the tamil literature, then, telegu
and malayalam followed by kannada. These are the foremost languages in
which they have existed without the aid of any other language
There is a born instinct in differentiating the culture of regionalism and
is only possible in the spirit of Indian culture alone which is not available
in any other culture. However, the keralite music can be perfection by a
tamil origin. The tamil origins bharatnatyam can be performed with more
grace in Andhra Pradesh. Thyagabrahmams keerthanas could be sung with
more delicate taste by all these southern regional but the dressing culture,
the food culture and any other culture remains individualistic and they are
akin to that particular state to which they belong.
The culture of gurukulam. Though it has taken a pedigreeal concept
all from guru to guru, it is restricted itself by imparting knowledge to high
spiritual, vedic and ethical only. Some pedigree could not be established in
day to day life. Therefore the gummi, kolattam and the street drama (Therukoothu), ottamthullal of Kerala and the native dancing trends of Andhra
Pradesh, the big drum festivals of Karnataka and the veerasaiva sword
twisting is restricted to the individual states only which has not spread to
the other states.
India, a place of infinite variety, is fascinating with its ancient and complex culture, dazzling contrasts and breathtaking physical beauty. Among
the most remarkable features of India, is the arts and culture in particular. The Indian culture has persisted through the ages precisely for the reasons of antiquity, unity, continuity and the universality of its nature. Thus
within the ambience of Indian culture one can identify Indian Music, Indian Dance, Indian Cinema, Indian Literature, Indian Cuisine, Indian
Fairs, and Festivals and so on.
Indian culture treats guests as god and serves them and takes care of
them as if they are a part and parcel of the family itself. Even though we do
not have anything to eat, the guests are never left hungry and are always
looked after by the members of the family. Respect one another is another
lesson that is taught from the books of Indian culture. Helpful nature is
another striking feature in our Indian culture. Indian culture tells us to multiply and distribute joy and happiness and share sadness and pain. It tells
us that by all this we can develop co-operation and better living amongst
ourselves and subsequently make this world a better place to live in.
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Nowadays the Indian Culture has crossed the geographic boundaries

and has extended globally. Whoever may it be an Indian or a person from
any other country, attracted from the exuberant Indian culture and tradition.
Figure 6.4: Different type of Indian culture.
6.5 CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN INDIA

India culture is known for its rich values, which are produced in the past
thousands of years. Culture is the essential and integral part of any society. Like any developed nation Indians are very proud of their unique and
rich culture. People follow certain moral behaviors, lifestyle and customs
throughout their life it is known as their culture (Figure 6.5).
Culture is the combination of peoples languages, their food, religion,
family values, dressing, behaviors, and it is common thing in different peoples in certain area. If you know the India history then it is clear that Indians always have the unique and very rich cultural values from the world.
History of India has played very important role in the development of India
culture of today. Indian culture has different aspects and each can be identified individually.
India culture is a huge population in India and so much diversity. Still
one thing that is common in these millions of peoples is their culture and
love for their culture. India is the best place in the world to see the different
cultures from modern to ancient and find the similarities in these diversified cultures.
We can see that each Indian city has a different culture values but their
basics are same which creates the larger culture of India. Tourist came here
to know about the history of India and get the detailed knowledge by visiting historical places which are in numbers. India history is one of the most
rich and interesting in world. A lot of history students visit different Indian
cities to get the in depth knowledge about India culture and its history. We
have to visit the different cities to know about the India history and actual cultural values of India. Some of the must visit cities to observe Indian
culture are Rajasthan, Jaipur, Goa, Kerela, Varanasi, Haridwar, Delhi, and
Agra. By visiting these places you can see the diverse India culture and tradition of people. Every place has its own customs, food, dressing, religion,
and art. Tourist can enjoy their vacations in India by relaxing visiting different places and by knowing the culture of Indian people.
Figure 6.5: Unity in diversity cultural diversity in India.
6.5.1 Different Type of Diversity in India

India is a land of diversity in race, region, caste, language, mate, landform,
flora, fauna, and so on. From ancient time till day India has repaintained
this diversity from very ancient time. Mature has shaped the country so.
Rightly this land has been termed as the epitome of the world. The fundamental diversity in India is gleaned from the following.
Geographical Diversity: India is a vast country with great diversity
of physical features. Certain parts in India are so fertile that they are
counted amongst the most fertile regions of the world while other
are so unproductive and barren that hardly anything can be grown
there. The Himalayan ranges which are always covered with snow
are very cold while the deserts of Rajasthan are well known for their
heat. The country also does not get uniform rainfall. There are certain areas like Cherapunji in Assam which get almost 460inches of
rain -fall per year which is considered to be worlds highest record
on the other hand, Sindh and Rajasthan get hardly 3 inches of rainfall per year. This variety in climate has also contributed to a variety
of flora and fauna. In fact, India possesses richest variety of plants
and animals known in the world.
Racial Diversity: India possesses a rich variety of races. In view of
this variety Prof. V.A. Smith says, From the human point of view
India has been often described as an ethnological Dr racial museum
in which numberless races of mankind may be steadied. The vast
population of India consists of the jungles tribe (Hence Bhils, Kols,
Santhals), the Greeks, the Sakas, the Kushanas, the Hunas, the Mongolians, the Arabs, the Turks, the Afghans etc. The physical features
and color of the Indian people also differ from region to region.
While the people of Kashmir are handsome and fair in complexion,
these qualities are missing among the habitants of Assam.
Linguistic Diversity: India not only possesses racial diversity but
also linguistic diversity. It is said that almost 400 languages are spoken in India. Some of the prominent language recognized by the
constitution includes, Assamese Bengali, Gujrati, Hindi, Kannad,
Kashmiri, and Malayalam. Marathi, Or Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi,
Terrill, Telgu, and Urdu. In fact it is commonly believed that in In-
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dia the language changes after every four kooks. There is not only
variety of languages but also variety of scripts in India some of the
popular scripts in ancient times were Pali, Kharosthi Devnagri, etc.
Political Diversity: The diversity in culture, races, language, religion etc. greatly stood in the way of political unity in India. As a
result from the earliest times, India has been divided into several
independent principalities. The rulers of these principalities were
always engaged in wars with each other for supremacy. This disunity and friction was fully exploited by the foreign invaders to bring
India under their subjugation.
The great Indian tradition unites the diverse cultural regions, but within its elastic framework are a myriad of sects and local traditions. Perhaps
by more than anything else, traditional India has been characterized by localism, a fragmentation not simply of cultural linguistic regions but of villages themselves. It is a known fact that over 600,000 India villages kept on
functioning as autonomous republics through centuries.
Culturally diverse and complex, with mainly rural, traditional, and
agrarian population, India now is also a major industrial power experiencing rapid urban growth and rural urban migration. It is a nation undergoing significant political, economic, and social change, while at the same time
struggling to maintain many of its traditions and customs. India today is
unfolding a story of a billion plus people, or more precisely, one sixth of
the worlds population, on a big move as Indias large and complex systems rapidly moving top-down and the country emerge as one of the fastest
growing economies of the world. The shadows of a vibrant consumer society are taking shapes and urban population is exposed to massive change in
life style, consumption habits, and cultural conditioning.
India is probable the only country in the world where people belonging to different religions, castes, and creeds, speaking different languages,
having different cultures, different modes of living, different clothing, different feeding habits, worshiping different gods, and deity live together in
harmony and believe to be the children of one Mother India. They are one
nation at large. They are governed by one central authority, have one prime
minister, one president, one Supreme Court and one army chief. This is
why we say we have unity in diversity.
India philosophy has developed on India soil. It has not been borrowed from anywhere. This has blended the various cultures together.
There are differences in overall conception of gods, and modes of worship.
These changes have been gradual due to interaction of different groups. But
the ultimate aim of achieving salvation and the fear of hell keeps them all
bound together.
Very important characteristic of Indian society is the coexistence of different ethnic groups. These groups formulated inter-group behavior. Hence
there is no mutual interference as also no merging of their identity.
Emotional unity plays its own part. The name of bharat mata brings
us closer and closer together. In spite of different languages and dialects,
sanskrit, the language of vedas, brings us all together because sanskrit is the
mother of all languages.
6.5.2 Features of Indian Culture

We Indians lay emphasis on spirituality, not on material wealth.
Religion has the most important place in India. We believe in karma
and sanskar. Performance of duty is our religion.
Religion tolerance is the unique feature of religions in India. Hence
there is no difficulty in coexistence of follower of different religion.
Hinduism, which forms majority of the population, has the capacity to absorb all good cultures. It has either absorbed the immigrant
cultures or has largely influenced them.
We have a very broad outlook. We preach and follow religion and
spiritualism without ignoring married life and worldly things.
We firmly believe in freedom of thought and freedom of expression
because such freedom enriches the culture which then becomes dynamic.
6.6 EFFECTS OF WESTERN CULTURE IN

INDIA
Civilizations do meet and even merge but never has such an impact been
witnessed as the impact of the west on India. A birdseye view of the Indian
scenario would depict a miniature or a distorted West in India.
The impact has been so great and so deep that, wherever we go, and, as
far as the eye can see, we notice only western modes and we are for a moment set to wonder if we are in India or in some western country.
Impact of cultures is felt elsewhere also and this is bound to be, when
two people or two societies or two countries meet but, neither leaves its
own system wholesale as in India. This is a unique feature in India only,
where the culture of the west has penetrated so deep and far and wide that,
the original Indian culture has got lost somewhere.
To find western impact on India we do not have to go far to seek. Each
and every home, each and every sphere of life has been completely influenced by the west that it is difficult to recognize what is indian in India. Our
food, and food habits, our dresses, our dances, our songs, our music, our
life style are the entire western pattern.
Mounting Western culture degrading India on the whole. Have you
ever seen the pictures of Jatindranath Mukerjee or Chandrasekhar Azad or
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose? Apart from being leading revolutionaries of
the Indian freedom struggle, these three great personalities had something
more in common. Almost in each picture you will find each of them clad
in perfect Indian attire or dhoti-kurta. Do you find the same dress among
Indians still? Unfortunately, it is becoming almost extinct more and more
and the day is not far when it is best position will be in the museum of any
Indian metropolis. What inference can you draw from this lamentable specimen? Western influence is rising in the Indian society by leaps and bounds
and its intensity is rising with the passing of each year almost. There is
hardly any doubt that the entire course is moving contrary to the dreams of
the founding fathers of independent India in August 15, 1947.
They had thought that the country, winning independence after the
freedom struggle of almost two centuries at a stretch, would regain its vigor
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and set up its basis, rooted in its own intrinsic culture, with conviction.
What we are witnessing at the moment is not sad or unfortunate only but
just the opposite also. Within the seven decades of national independence
influences of Indian culture have started to drain almost. Even if there is
any, it is under the greater protection of the western umbrella. Well, you do
not have to go anywhere else a few glimpses of the Indian television scenario or cable televisions are going to be enough. Gone are the days when
the Indian television industry used to speak in favor of national harmony,
secular traditions and unity in diversity.
There are the effects of western culture on India as now days the dressing style is also changed as before the Indians wear dhoti kurta but now
days we are wearing jeans and top. Our parents taught us that whenever
we meet to someone we should say Namaste but now days we say that hey!
hi weather the person is elder or younger than us. Our country is that in
which the trees are also known as god and we find god in the piece of stone
also, but because of the western culture our country is slowly forgetting our
own religion. We should follow all culture to walk with the world but not
so much that we forget our own culture. So according to me there are many
negative effects on our country of western culture
It is good to learn whatever is good anywhere, but, to learn a thing just
because it is of the west only depicts a crumbled and shattered state of the
Indian mind. We must learn to sort out and learn what is good elsewhere
and maintain what is good in us. If we do this we can have the best of all
and that is what on intelligent person or community should be doing else
India has not done it and got lost in the labyrinth of western notions at the
cost of all that was ours.
6.6.1 Type of Effects of Western Culture in India

There are two type of effect on Indian culture of western culture they are
mainly as following.
Positives Effect:
Emphasis on development,
Attention to improved infrastructure,
Improved educational systems,
Sincere efforts to reduce the margin between the poor and the rich,
Sincere efforts to improve lifestyles of the marginalized,
Disadvantaged sectors of society,
Efficiency, management,
Sincere efforts to reduce the plague of India corruption.
Negative Effect:
Decline in moral values,
Unhealthy open-nests to immoral sexuality,
Commercialization of everything,
Materialism the American dream, and other lies,
Acceptance of values that do not translate cross-culturally, clothes,
pre marital sex.
India has been mostly a family oriented society, while America has
been an individual oriented society. Western influence has eroded this important fabric of Indian culture (especially in the cities of India metropolitan
areas)
It is very unfortunate that todays generation has very little knowledge
about their culture, traditions & their roots. This is not their mistake but the
mistake of their parents who does not enlighten their children about their
roots about their rich cultural heritage.
Contradictory to it parents feel proud in giving the western sanskaras
to their children. Children are brought up in this atmosphere. They are thus
kept miles away from Indian culture. There is no harm in giving the knowledge of other cultures and traditions as Indians have made their presence in
every part of world and it is very necessary that we should have knowledge
of their culture, traditions and their language. We should do but to the limit,
which is really needed, and also take care that our new sprouts are well
versed with Indian culture and its values. It is the responsibility of parents
to inherit the same and for this it is very necessary that parents should also
be well versed with Indian culture and traditions.
No doubt the western culture is versatile and has taught to be selfindependent but this does not mean that we will forget our culture at all
and blindly follow it. Since India has the tradition to take good things from
others but this does not mean that we will completely forget our values.
We should feel proud that we are Indian s and we have such a rich cultural
heritage which is very rare and should carry this forward and inherit the
same to our new blooms that are going to be our future

1.
Nepal, Tibet, Bangladesh, and Bhutan, then spreads out again to meet
Burma in area called the ..
(a) Eastern triangle
(b) Western triangle
(c) North triangle
(d) South triangle
2.
Which of following types of local culture present in India?
(a) Griha pravesh
(b) Godh bharna
(c) Indian marriage
(d) All of above.
3.
Consumption thus appears as a kind of ritual, which performs culture,

and advertising is seen as a ritual of these rituals, which constitutes the
process of exaggeration and simplification called
(a) Middle- reutilization
(b) Lower- reutilization
(c) Hyper-reutilization
(d) None of these.
4.
LPG is standing for.

(a) Liberalization privatization and globalization
(b) Liberalization private and globalization
(c) Liberalization privatization and global
(d None of these.
5.
The term .......... embraces a diversity of manifestations of the interaction between humankind and its natural environment.
(a) Local culture
(b) Popular culture
(c) Cultural landscape
(d) None of these.
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136
6.
one of example cultural landscape?
(a) Agra
(b) Vijaynagar

(c) Mathura (d) Hampi
7.
Indian dance has an unbroken tradition of over.years.

(a) 1500 (b) 2000

(c) 2500 (d) 1000
8.
Culture is the combination of peoples languages, their food, religion,

family values, dressing, behaviors and it is common thing in different
peoples in certain area.

(a) True. (b) False.
9.
Which types of diversity found in India?
(a) Geographical diversity
(b) Racial diversity
(c) Linguistic diversity
(d) All of above.
10. What are positive effects of western culture in India?

(a) Emphasis on development
(b) Attention to improved infrastructure
(c) Improved educational systems
(d) All of above.

1. What is local culture? Explain its role in India culture?
2. How many type of local culture present in India and Describe in
detail?
3. What is popular culture? Explain its role in India culture?
4. Explain in detail about Indian dance.
5. What are culture landscapes? Explain its role in India culture?
6. Explain in detail Indian culture with their types.
7. What are the different types of diversity in India?
8. Write note on Unity in diversity?
9. What are the Features of Indian cultures?
10. Explain in detail effect of western culture in India.
ANSWER FOR MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION

1 (a)
2 (d)
3 (c)
4 (a)
5 (c)
6 (d)
7 (b)
8 (a)
9 (d)
10 (d)
Chapter 7
Human Rights
INTRODUCTION
Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language,
or any other status. We are all equally entitled to our human rights without
discrimination (Figure 7.1). These rights are all interrelated, interdependent
and indivisible. Some of the most important characteristics of human rights
are that they:
Are universal, the birthright of all human beings,
Focus on the inherent dignity and equal worth of all human beings,
Are equal, indivisible and interdependent,
Cannot be waived or taken away,
Impose obligations of action and omission, particularly on states and
state actors,
Have been internationally guaranteed,
Are legally protected,
Protect individuals and, to some extent, groups.
Human rights standards have become increasingly well dened in recent years. Codied in international, regional, and national legal systems,
they constitute a set of performance standards against which duty bearers at
all levels of society, but especially organs of the state can be held accountable.
The fullment of commitments under international human rights treaties is
monitored by independent expert committees called treaty bodies, which
also help to clarify the meaning of particular human rights. Their meaning
is also elaborated by individuals and expert bodies appointed by the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights (a Geneva-based body composed of
53 United Nations Member States), known as special procedures, and of
course through regional and national courts and tribunals. There are other
human rights legal systems as well. For example, the International Labor Organization (ILO) conventions and standards specically protect labor rights,
and international humanitarian law applies to armed conicts, overlapping
signicantly with human rights law.
Objectives
After studying this
able to:
Discuss about
human rights
Describe the
history and
generations of
human rights
Explain human struggle
to achieve
human rights
Discuss the
generations of
human rights
Understand
the political
geography of
human rights
138
Key Vocabulary
Inalienable: It is Refer
to rights that belong to
every person and cannot
be taken from a person
under any circumstances.
Figure 7.1: Human rights are universal.

All human rights are equally important. The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights makes it clear that human rights of all kinds economic, political, civil, cultural, and social are of equal validity and importance.
This fact has been re-affirmed repeatedly by the international community,
for example in the 1986 declaration on the right to development, the 1993
Vienna declaration and programmed of action, and the near-universally retied convention on the rights of the child.
Human rights are also indivisible and interdependent (Figure 7.2). The
principle of their indivisibility recognizes that no human right is inherently
inferior to any other. Economic, social, and cultural rights must be respected, protected and realized on an equal footing with civil and political rights.
The principle of their interdependence recognizes the difficulty (and, in
many cases, the impossibility) of realizing any one human right in isolation.
For instance, it is futile to talk of the right to work without a certain minimal
realization of the right to education. Similarly, the right to vote may seem
of little importance to somebody with nothing to eat or in situations where
people are victimized because of their skin color, sex, language or religion.
Taken together, the indivisibility and interdependence principles mean that
efforts should be made to realize all human rights together, allowing for
prioritization as necessary in accordance with human rights principles.
Figure 7.2: Human rights are all interrelated, interdependent,

and indivisible.
Human Rights
139
7.1 HISTORY OF HUMAN RIGHTS

The belief that everyone, by virtue of her or his humanity, is entitled to
certain human rights is fairly new. Its roots, however, lie in earlier tradition
and documents of many cultures; it took the catalyst of World War II to
propel human rights onto the global stage and into the global conscience.
Throughout much of history, people acquired rights and responsibilities through their membership in a group, a family, indigenous nation, religion, class, community, or state. Most societies have had traditions similar
to the golden rule of Do into others as we would have them do into
us. The Hindu Vedas, the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, the Bible, the
Quran (Koran), and the Analects of Confucius are five of the oldest written
sources which address questions of peoples duties, rights, and responsibilities. In addition, the Inca and Aztec codes of conduct and justice and an
Iroquois constitution were native American sources that existed well before
the 18th century. In fact, all societies, whether in oral or written tradition,
have had systems of propriety and justice as well as ways of tending to the
health and welfare of their members.
Originally, people had rights only because of their membership in a
group, such as a family. Then, in 539 BC, Cyrus the great, after conquering
the city of Babylon, did something totally unexpected; he freed all slaves to
return home. Moreover, he declared people should choose their own religion. The Cyrus cylinder, a clay tablet containing his statements, is the first
human rights declaration in history.
The idea of human rights spread quickly to India, Greece, and eventually Rome. The most important advances since then have included:
1215 The Magna Carta: gave people new rights and made the king
subject to the law.
1628 The Petition of Right: set out the rights of the people.
1776 The United States Declaration of Independence: proclaimed
the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.
1789 The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen: a document of France, stating that all citizens are equal under the law.
1948 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: the first document listing the 30 rights to which everyone is entitled.
7.2 UNIVERSALITY
The principle of universality of human rights is the cornerstone of international human rights law. This principle, as first emphasized in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights in 1948, has been reiterated in numerous
international human rights conventions, declarations, and resolutions. The
1993 Vienna World Conference on Human Rights, for example, noted that
it is the duty of States to promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms, regardless of their political, economic, and cultural systems.
Universal human rights are often expressed and guaranteed by law,
in the forms of treaties, customary international law, general principles
and other sources of international law. International human rights law lays
down obligations of governments to act in certain ways or to refrain from
certain acts, in order to promote and protect human rights and fundamen-
Key Vocabulary
Indivisible: It is Refer
to the equal importance
of each human rights
law. A person cannot
be denied a right because someone decides
it is less important or
nonessential.
140
tal freedoms of individuals or groups. On October 24, 1945, in the aftermath

of World War II, the United Nations came into being as an intergovernmental organization, with the purpose of saving future generations from the
devastation of international conflict.
Key Vocabulary
Interdependent: It is complementary framework
of human rights law. For
example, our ability to
participate in our government is directly affected
by our right to express
our self, to get an education, and even to obtain
the necessities of life.
Figure 7.3: United Nations representatives from all regions of the world.
United Nations representatives from all regions of the world formally
adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on December 10, 1948
(Figure 7.3). The charter of the United Nations established six principal
bodies, including the general assembly, the security council, the International Court of Justice, and in relation to human rights, an Economic and
Social Council (ECOSOC). The UN Charter empowered ECOSOC to establish commissions in economic and social fields and for the promotion of
human rights. One of these was the United Nations Human Rights Commission, which, under the chairmanship of Eleanor Roosevelt, saw to the
creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Declaration
was drafted by representatives of all regions of the world and encompassed
all legal traditions. Formally adopted by the United Nations on December
10, 1948, it is the most universal human rights document in existence, delineating the thirty fundamental rights that form the basis for a democratic
society.
After following this historic act, the Assembly called upon all member countries to publicize the text of the declaration and to cause it to be
disseminated, displayed, read, and expounded principally in schools and
other educational institutions, without distinction based on the political status of countries or territories. Today, the Declaration is a living document
that has been accepted as a contract between a government and its people
throughout the world. According to the Guinness Book of World Records,
it is the most translated document in the world.
7.3 CULTURAL STRUGGLES OVER

HUMAN RIGHTS
The history of human rights is the history of human struggles. Yes, people
are born with an entitlement to certain basic rights. But neither the realization nor the enjoyment of these rights is automatic. History tells us how
people have had to fight for the rights due them. The cornerstone in this
struggle has always been political activism and peoples movement national liberation movements, peasants movements, womens movements,
movements for the rights of indigenous people. Often, the burning desire
of people to be free and to enjoy their rights started the struggle. Then,
building on the peoples achievements, the formalization, legalization and
Human Rights
141
institutionalization of those rights came much later. Struggles for human

freedoms have transformed the global landscape. At the beginning of the
20th century a scant 10% of the worlds people lived in independent nations. By its end the great majority lived in freedom, making their own
choices. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 was a breakthrough, ushering in a new erawith the world community taking on realization of human rights as a matter of common concern and a collective
goal of humanity. The global integration of nations and people has been a
second breakthrough as a global movement has entrenched universal human rights in the norms of the worlds diverse cultures. Over the past half
century an international system of human rights has emerged, with a rapid
rise in commitments made to it in the past decade. In 1990 only two conventions, the International Convention on the elimination of all forms of racial Key Vocabulary
discrimination and the convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination. The history of human rights is the history of human struggles. Legal Rights: It is Rights
Yes, people are born with an entitlement to certain basic rights. But neither that are laid down in law
the realization nor the enjoyment of these rights is automatic.
and can be defended and
The centrality of human rights in peoples lives was reiterated in inter- brought before courts of
national conferences in the 1990s. And the 1993 World Conference on hu- law.
man rights gave the human rights movement a renewed impetus by defining a comprehensive international agenda for the universal promotion and
protection of human rights. Advances in human development added to this
progress. In developing countries today, compared with 1970:
A newborn can expect to live 10 years longer.
The infant mortality rate has been cut by more than two-fifths.
Adult illiteracy is down by nearly half, and combined net primary
and secondary enrolment has increased by nearly 50%.
The share of rural people with safe water has risen more than fourfold, from 13% to about 71%. Worldwide, 46 countries accounting
for more than 1 billion people have achieved high human development. Every region of the world has made progress in human
developmentbut the level and the pace of advance have not been
uniform. Sub-Saharan Africas infant mortality rate of 106 per 1,000
live births is more than three times Latin America and the Caribbeans of 32. And South-East Asias adult literacy rate of more than
83% is way ahead of South Asias rate of 54%.
Gross violations of human rights continue, both loud and silent. They
are loud in Rwanda, where a million people died, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with an estimated death toll of 150,000 250,000. Some of todays
grossest violations of human rights are in internal conflicts giving rise to
a conflict between national sovereignty and international intervention. In
a major reversal of past practice, the international community has begun
to intervene. There also are silent violations: about 790 million people not
adequately nourished, 250 million children used as child labor, 1.2 million
women and girls under 18 trafficked for prostitution each year, more than
130 million people living in income poverty in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD countries. The world is often
aware of loud violations, but not necessarily of the silent.
The indivisibility of human rights has been accepted as a principle,
overturning the cold war division of rights into two sets, the civil and political and the economic, social and cultural. Yet a latent tension remains
between some of these rights. And there are other tensions. There is tension
between the universality of human rights and cultural specificity:
142
Between national sovereignty and the international communitys

monitoring of human rights within countries,
Between the indivisibility of human rights and the need to establish
priorities because of resource constraints, between the supremacy of
international laws and that of national laws,
Between international norms and the norms set by regional human
rights systems, and
Between ratifying international treaties and enforcing them nationally.
Key Vocabulary
Political Rights: The
right of people to participate in the political life
of their communities and
society. For example, the
right to vote for their government or run for office.
Many people still see the promotion of human rights for some groups,
women, ethnic minorities, immigrants, and poor people as a threat to their
own values or interests. This divisiveness in values breeds opposition to
human rights for all. Even in times of great prosperity, societies have failed
to ensure a life of dignity for all their members and often displayed indifference or outright hostility to members of other societies.
Serious human deprivations remains, in the developing world 1.2 billion people are poor, about 1 billion adults are illiterate, 1 billion without
safe water and more than 2.4 billion without basic sanitation. In the OECD
countries, even with an average life expectancy of 76 years, more than 10%
of people born today are not expected to survive to age 60 years. And in
some industrialized countries, one person in five is functionally illiterate.
Human beings are the centre of concerns for sustainable development.
They are entitled to health and productive life in harmony with nature.
Rio Declaration, United Nations Conference on environment and
development, 1992. Human rights and fundamental freedoms are
the birth rights of all human beings and should be treated as mutually reinforcing.
Vienna Declaration, World Conference on Human Rights, 1993. The
principles of gender equality and womens right to reproductive
health are vital for human development.
Cairo Declaration, International Conference on population and development, 1994. Eradicating poverty is an ethical, social, political
and economic imperative of mankind.
Copenhagen Declaration, World Summit for Social Development,
1995.
7.4 STRUGGLES FOR HUMAN

FREEDOMS
There have also been setbacks and reversals. Life expectancy rose steadily
in almost all nations in the 1970s and 1980s, only to be slashed by HIV/
AIDS in the 1990s. Every minute, 11 more people are infected. More than
12 million Africans have died of AIDS, and by 2010 the continent will have
40 million orphans. In many African countries life expectancy has fallen by
more than 10 years in the past decade. More than 30 countries accounting
for more than half a billion people today have a per capita income lower
than those two decades ago. The transition in Eastern Europe and the CIS
has reversed some of the big gains in human development. Serious human
development setbacks have also been reported in the East Asian countries,
as a result of the financial crisis in 19971998.
Human Rights
Today, with impressive achievements and a significant unfinished

agenda in human rights and human development, the struggle continues
for realizing and securing human freedoms in seven areas:
Freedom from discriminationfor equality
Freedom from wantfor a decent standard of living
Freedom for the realization of ones human potential
Freedom from fearwith no threats to personal security
Freedom from injustice
Freedom of participation, expression and association
Freedom for decent workwithout exploitation
7.4.1 Freedom from Discrimination for Equality

The universalism of life claims demands that all people treat all others equally, without discrimination. This principle of equality has been the driving
force for human rights. It is also one of the pillars of human development,
which emphasizes equality in opportunity and choices (Figure 7.4).
Figure 7.4 Protestors fighting for human rights in Iraq.
7.4.2 Precursors of 20th Century Human Rights

Documents
Documents asserting individual rights, such the Magna Carta (1215), the
English Bill of Rights (1689), the French Declaration on the Rights of Man
and Citizen (1789), and the US Constitution and Bill of Rights (1791) are
the written precursors to many of todays human rights documents. Yet
many of these documents, when originally translated into policy, excluded
women, people of color, and members of certain social, religious, economic,
and political groups. Nevertheless, oppressed people throughout the world
have drawn on the principles. These documents express to support revolutions that assert the right to self-determination.
Contemporary international human rights law and the establishment
of the United Nations (UN) have important historical antecedents. Efforts
in the 19th century to prohibit the slave trade and to limit the horrors of war
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are prime examples. In 1919, countries established the International Labor

Organization (ILO) to oversee treaties protecting workers with respect to
their rights, including their health and safety. Concern over the protection
of certain minority groups was raised by the League of Nations at the end
of the First World War. However, this organization for international peace
and cooperation, created by the victorious European allies, never achieved
its goals. The League floundered because the United States refused to join
and because the League failed to prevent Japans invasion of China and
Manchuria (1931) and Italys attack on Ethiopia (1935). It finally died with
the onset of the Second World War (1939).
7.5 GENERATIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS

There are three overarching types of human rights norms. They are civil-political, socio-economic, and collective-developmental. The first two, which
represent potential claims of individual persons against the state, are firmly
accepted norms identified in international treaties and conventions. The final type, which represents potential claims of people and groups against
the state, is the most debated and lacks both legal and political recognition.
Each of these types includes two further subtypes.
Civil-political human rights include two subtypes, norms pertaining
to physical and civil security (for example, no torture, slavery, inhumane
treatment, arbitrary arrest; equality before the law) and norms pertaining to
civil-political liberties or empowerments (for example, freedom of thought,
conscience, and religion; freedom of assembly and voluntary association;
political participation in ones society).
Socio-economic human rights similarly include two subtypes, norms
pertaining to the provision of goods meeting social needs (for example, nutrition, shelter, health care, education) and norms pertaining to the provision of goods meeting economic needs (for example, work and fair wages,
an adequate living standard, a social security net).
Finally, collective-developmental human rights also include two subtypes, the self-determination of people (for example, to their political status
and their economic, social, and cultural development) and certain special
rights of ethnic and religious minorities (for example, to the enjoyment of
their own cultures, languages, and religions).
This division of human rights into three generations was introduced in
1979 by Czech jurist Karel Vasak. The three categories align with the three
tenets of the French Revolution are liberty, equality, and fraternity.
First-generation, civil-political rights deal with liberty and participation in political life. They are strongly individualistic and negatively constructed to protect the individual from the state. These rights draw from
those articulates in the United States Bill of Rights and the Declaration of
the Rights of Man and Citizen in the 18th century. Civil-political rights have
been legitimated and given status in international law by articles 3 to 21 of
the universal declaration of human rights and the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
Second-generation, socio-economic human rights guarantee equal
conditions and treatment. They are not rights directly possessed by individuals but constitute positive duties upon the government to respect and
fulfill them. Socio-economic rights began to be recognized by government
after World War II and, like first-generation rights, are embodied in Articles
Human Rights
22 to 27 of the universal declaration. They are also enumerated in the International Covenant on economic, social, and cultural rights.
Third-generation, collective-developmental rights of people and
groups held against their respective states, aligns with the final tenet of
fraternity. They constitute a broad class of rights that have gained acknowledgment in international agreements and treaties but are more contested than the preceding types. They have been expressed largely in documents advancing inspirational soft law, such as the 1992 Rio Declaration
on Environment and Development, and the 1994 draft declaration of Indigenous Peoples Rights.
7.6 BIRTH OF THE UNITED NATIONS

The idea of human rights emerged stronger after World War II. The extermination by Nazi Germany of over six million Jews, Sinti and Romani (gypsies), homosexuals, and persons with disabilities, horrified the world. Trials
were held in Nuremberg and Tokyo after World War II, and officials from
the defeated countries were punished for committing war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity
Governments then committed themselves to establishing the United
Nations, with the primary goal of bolstering international peace and preventing conflict. People wanted to ensure that never again would anyone be
unjustly denied life, freedom, food, shelter, and nationality. The essence of
these emerging human rights principles was captured in President Franklin
Delano Roosevelts 1941 State of the Union Address when he spoke of a
world founded on four essential freedoms: freedom of speech and religion
and freedom from want and fear. The calls came from across the globe for
human rights standards to protect citizens from abuses by their governments, standards against which nations could be held accountable for the
treatment of those living within their borders. These voices played a critical
role in the San Francisco meeting that drafted the in 1945.
World War II had ranged from 1939 to 1945, and as the end drew near,
cities throughout Europe and Asia lay in smoldering ruins. Millions of people were dead millions more were homeless or starving. Russian forces were
closing in on the remnants of German resistance in Germanys bombed-out
capital of Berlin. In the Pacific, US Marines were still battling entrenched
Japanese forces on such islands as Okinawa.
In April 1945, delegates from fifty countries met in San Francisco full of
optimism and hope. The goal of the United Nations Conference on International Organization was to fashion an international body to promote peace
and prevent future wars. The ideals of the organization were stated in the
preamble to its proposed charter, We the peoples of the United Nations
are determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war,
which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind.
The Charter of the new United Nations organization went into effect
on October 24, 1945, a date that is celebrated each year as United Nations
Day (Figure 7.5).
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Figure 7.5: Signing of the United Nations Charter, San Francisco, USA,
1945.
7.7 UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF

HUMAN RIGHTS (1948)
The Universal Declaration of human rights has inspired a number of other human rights laws and treaties throughout the world (Figure 7.6). By
1948, the United Nations new Human Rights Commission had captured the
worlds attention. Under the dynamic chairmanship of Eleanor Roosevelt,
President Franklin Roosevelts widow, a human rights champion in her
own right and the United States delegate to the UN, the Commission set
out to draft the document that became the Universal Declaration of human
rights. Roosevelt, credited with its inspiration, referred to the declaration
as the international Magna Carta for all mankind. On December 10, 1948,
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the 56
members of the United Nations. The vote was unanimous, although eight
nations chose to abstain.
Figure 7.6: The Universal declaration of human rights.
Human Rights
In its preamble and in Article 1, the Declaration unequivocally proclaims the inherent rights of all human beings, Disregard and contempt
for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the
conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings
shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want
has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people. All
human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
The member states of the United Nations pledged to work together to
promote the thirty articles of human rights that, for the first time in history,
had been assembled and codified into a single document. In consequence,
many of these rights, in various forms, are today part of the constitutional
laws of democratic nations.
The UDHR, commonly referred to as the international Magna Carta,
extended the revolution in international law ushered in by the United Nations Charter namely, that how a government treats its own citizens is now
a matter of legitimate international concern, and not simply a domestic issue. It claims that all rights are interdependent and indivisible. Its Preamble
eloquently asserts that:
Recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable
rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world.
The influence of the UDHR has been substantial. Its principles have
been incorporated into the constitutions of most of the more than 185 nations
now in the UN. Although a declaration is not a legally binding document,
the Universal Declaration has achieved the status of customary international law because people regard it as a common standard of achievement for
all people and all nations.
The universal declaration of human rights, which was adopted by the
UN general assembly on 10 December 1948, was the result of the experience
of the Second World War. With the end of that war, and the creation of the
United Nations, the international community vowed never again to allow
atrocities like those of that conflict happen again. World leaders decided
to complement the UN Charter with a road map to guarantee the rights of
every individual everywhere. The document they considered, and which
would later become the universal declaration of human rights, was taken
up at the first session of the general assembly in 1946. The Assembly reviewed this draft declaration on fundamental human rights and freedoms
and transmitted it to the Economic and Social Council for reference to the
Commission on Human Rights for consideration, in its preparation of an
international bill of rights. The Commission, at its first session early in
1947, authorized its members to formulate what it termed a preliminary
draft International Bill of Human Rights. Later the work was taken over
by a formal drafting committee, consisting of members of the commission
from eight states, selected with due regard for geographical distribution.
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Figure 7.7 Children looking at the Universal Declaration

of Human Rights poster
In 1950, on the second anniversary of the adoption of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, students at the UN International Nursery
School in New York viewed a poster of the historic document (Figure 7.7).
After adopting it on December 10, 1948, the UN General Assembly had
called upon all member states to publicize the text of the Declaration and
to cause it to be disseminated, displayed, read and expounded principally
in schools and other educational institutions, without distinction based on
the political status of countries or territories.
The Commission on Human Rights was made up of 18 members from
various political, cultural and religious backgrounds. Eleanor Roosevelt,
widow of American President Franklin D. Roosevelt, chaired the UDHR
drafting committee. With her were Ren Cassin of France, who composed
the first draft of the Declaration, the committee Reporter Charles Malik of
Lebanon, Vice-Chairman Peng Chung Chang of China, and John Humphrey of Canada, Director of the UNs Human Rights Division, who prepared the declarations blueprint. But Mrs. Roosevelt was recognized as the
driving force for the Declarations adoption.
The Commission met for the first time in 1947. In her memoirs, Eleanor
Roosevelt recalled:
Dr. Chang was a pluralist and held forth in charming fashion on the
proposition that there is more than one kind of ultimate reality. The Declaration, he said, should reflect more than simply Werstern ideas and Dr.
Humphrey would have to be eclectic in his approach. His remark, though
addressed to Dr. Humprhey, was really directed at Dr. Malik, from whom
it drew a prompt retort as he expounded at some length the philosophy of
Thomas Aquinas. Dr. Humphrey joined enthusiastically in the discussion,
and I remember that at one point Dr. Chang suggested that the Secretariat
might well spend a few months studying the fundamentals of Confucianism!
The final draft by Cassin was handed to the Commission on Human
Rights, which was being held in Geneva. The draft declaration was sent out
to all UN member States for comments became known as the Geneva draft.
The first draft of the Declaration was proposed in September 1948 with
over 50 Member States participating in the final drafting. By its resolution
217 A (III) of 10 December 1948, the General Assembly, meeting in Paris,
adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights with eight nations abstaining from the vote but none dissenting. Hernan Santa Cruz of Chile,
member of the drafting sub-Committee, wrote:
I perceived clearly that I was participating in a truly significant historic event in which a consensus had been reached as to the supreme value
Human Rights
of the human person, a value that did not originate in the decision of a
worldly power, but rather in the fact of existingwhich gave rise to the
inalienable right to live free from want and oppression and to fully develop
ones personality. In the Great Hallthere was an atmosphere of genuine
solidarity and brotherhood among men and women from all latitudes, the
like of which I have not seen again in any international setting.
The entire text of the UDHR was composed in less than two years. At
a time when the world was divided into Eastern and Western blocks, finding a common ground on what should make the essence of the document
proved to be a colossal task.
7.7.1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Official Document
Article 1: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and
rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should
act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2: Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth
in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race,
color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status.

Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory
to which a person belongs, whether it is independent, trust, nonself-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
Article 3: Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Article 4: No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and
the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5: No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman
or degrading treatment or punishment.
Article 6: Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
Article 7: All are equal before the law and are entitled without any
discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to
equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
Article 8: Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights
granted him by the constitution or by law.
Article 9: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or
exile.
Article 10: Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge
against him.
Article 11: Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be
presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public
trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defense.
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No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any

act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was not committed
nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.
Article 12: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with

his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon
his honor and reputation, does everyone have the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
Article 13: Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state.

Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and
to return to his country.
Article 14: Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.

This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely

arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 15: Everyone has the right to a nationality.

No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied
the right to change his nationality.
Article 16: Men and women of full age, without any limitation due
to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found
a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during
marriage and at its dissolution.

Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of
the intending spouses.
The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and
is entitled to protection by society and the State.
Article 17: Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as
in association with others.

No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
Article 18: Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience

and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or
belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and
in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching,
practice, worship and observance.
Article 19: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through
any media and regardless of frontiers.
Article 20: Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly
and association.

No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
Article 21: Everyone has the right to take part in the government of
his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.

Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
Human Rights
The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections
which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by
secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
Article 22: Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social

security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and
international co-operation and in accordance with the organization
and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural
rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his
personality.
Article 23: Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favorable conditions of work and to protection
against unemployment.

Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for
equal work.
Everyone who works has the right to just and favorable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of
human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of
social protection.
Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.
Article 24: Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with
pay.
Article 25: Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate
for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social
services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment,
sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood
in circumstances beyond his control.
Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy
the same social protection.
Article 26: Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be
free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages Elementary
education shall be compulsory Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be
equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.

Education shall be directed to the full development of the human

personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights
and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups,
and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall
be given to their children.
Article 27: Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural
life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
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Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material
interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production
of which he is the author.
Article 28: Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in

which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be
fully realized.
Article 29: Everyone has duties to the community in which alone
the free and full development of his personality is possible.

In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the
purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and
freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.
These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to

the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 30: Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity
or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights
and freedoms set forth herein.
7.7.2 International Human Rights Law

By 1948, the United Nations new Human Rights Commission had captured
the attention of the world. Under the dynamic chairmanship of Eleanor
Roosevelt, President Franklin Roosevelts widow, a human rights champion in her own right and the United States delegate to the UN the Commission set out to draft the document that became the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights. Roosevelt, credited with its inspiration, referred to the Declaration as the international Magna Carta for all mankind. It was adopted
by the United Nations on December 10, 1948.
In its preamble and in Article 1, the Declaration unequivocally proclaims the inherent rights of all human beings: Disregard and contempt
for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the
conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings
shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want
has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people. All
human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
The Member States of the United Nations pledged to work together to
promote the thirty Articles of human rights that, for the first time in history,
had been assembled and codified into a single document. In consequence,
many of these rights, in various forms, are today part of the constitutional
laws of democratic nations.
7.7.3 The Human Rights Covenants

With the goal of establishing mechanisms for enforcing the UDHR, the UN
Commission on Human Rights proceeded to draft two treaties, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and its optional
Protocol and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (ICESCR). Together with the Universal Declaration, they are commonly referred to as the International Bill of Human Rights. The ICCPR
focuses on such issues as the right to life, freedom of speech, religion, and
Human Rights
voting. The ICESCR focuses on such issues as food, education, health, and
shelter. Both covenants trumpet the extension of rights to all persons and
prohibit discrimination.
As of 1997, over 130 nations have ratified these covenants. The United
States, however, has ratified only the ICCPR, and even that with many reservations, or formal exceptions, to its full compliance.
7.7.4 Subsequent Human Rights Documents

In addition to the covenants in the International Bill of Human Rights, the
United Nations has adopted more than 20 principal treaties further elaborating human rights. These include conventions to prevent and prohibit
specific abuses like torture and genocide and to protect especially vulnerable populations, such as refugees, women, and children. As of 1997 the
United States has ratified only these conventions:
The convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
The convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide
The convention on the Political Rights of Women
The Slavery Convention of 1926
The convention against torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment
In Europe, the Americas, and Africa, regional documents for the protection and promotion of human rights extend the International Bill of Human Rights. For example, African states have created their own Charter
of Human and Peoples Rights (1981), and Muslim states have created the
Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam (1990). The dramatic changes
in Eastern Europe, Africa, and Latin America since 1989 have powerfully demonstrated a surge in demand for respect of human rights. Popular
movements in China, Korea, and other Asian nations reveal a similar commitment to these principles.
7.8 THE POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF

HUMAN RIGHTS
An attempt to define basic human rights was made by the United Nations
General Assembly in 1948 with its Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
The declaration states that the recognition of the inherent dignity and of
the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the
foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. Human rights are
not, however, universally recognized in practice, violations of the rights
and freedoms that Australians take for granted continue to occur across
the globe. These human rights violations include genocide, torture, rape
and imprisonment without trial. Australias government has been criticized
for failing to address, where able, some of these human rights violations.
For example, certain activists have claimed that in past decades Australia
has ignored the violation of human rights in neighboring East Timor. It is
further argued that there remain groups of people within Australia whose
rights have not been respected or whose rights call for protection, such as
Indigenous Australians, some ethnic groups and the disabled.
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Virtually all governments feel ambivalent about political opposition.

They all believe that they know what is best for the country and they generally assume that others who oppose their vision are misguided. In democratic countries, these tendencies are kept well in check by popular pressures within civil society and by the functioning of other institutions such
as the parliament and the courts. But in other countries, and sometimes
even in democracies, the temptation to use improper means to silence opponents is often hard to resist. It is not a very big step to deciding to imprison those opponents, sometimes without any charges at all but more often
on the basis of phone or trumped up charges. The best thing we can do is
to expose these practices and make it politically costly for governments to
imprison people for their political views. We can do that by supporting our
own governments efforts to expose abuses, by supporting the work of nongovernmental groups like Amnesty International, and by working for the
strengthening of international and regional human rights agencies, like the
UN High Commissioner for Human Rights and the regional human rights
commissions and courts in Africa, Europe and Latin America.
Studies have shown that human rights education can contribute
signicantly to social cohesion, integration, and stability, while helping to
promote democracy and social progress by empowering individuals and
groups and pushing governments to fulll their obligations towards people
living under their jurisdiction. Existing research also suggests that rights
education encourages respect for peace and nonviolent conict resolution
and can contribute to positive social transformation by empowering children and youth. Insofar, as human rights education has such a positive
impact, and then it should be considered a true asset and something that
governments around the world should adopt, espouse and implement.
7.9 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF HUMAN

RIGHTS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST
CENTURY
At the dawn of the 21st century the United Nations has become more central to the lives of more people than ever. Through our work in development, peacekeeping, the environment and health, we are helping nations
and communities to build a better, freer, more prosperous future. They
all, however, we have committed ourselves to the idea that no individual
regardless of gender, ethnicity or race shall have his or her human rights
abused or ignored. This idea is enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It is the source of
our greatest inspiration and the impulse for our greatest efforts. Today, we
know more than ever that without respect for the rights of the individual,
no nation, no community, no society can be truly free. Whether it means advancing development, or emphasizing the importance of preventive action,
or intervening, even across state boundaries to stop gross and systematic violations of human rights, the individual has been the focus of our concerns.
The United Nations achievements in the area of human rights over the
last 50 years are rooted in the universal acceptance of those rights enumerated in the Universal Declaration and in the growing abhorrence of practices for which there can be no excuse, in any culture, under any circumstance.
Emerging slowly, but surely, is an international norm against the violent
repression of any group or people that must and will take precedence
Human Rights
over concerns of state sovereignty. Even though we are an organization of

member states, the rights and ideals the United Nations exists to protect
are those of peoples. No government has the right to hide behind national
sovereignty in order to violate the human rights or fundamental freedoms
of its people. Whether a person belongs to the minority or the majority, that
persons human rights and fundamental freedoms are sacred.
Our reflections on these critical questions derive from a variety of challenges that confront us today. From Sierra Leone to the Sudan to Angola to
the Balkans to Cambodia and to Afghanistan and East Timor, there are a
great number of peoples who need more than just words of sympathy from
the international community. They need a real and sustained commitment
to help end their cycles of violence, and launch them on a safe passage to
prosperity. Just as we have learned that the world cannot stand aside when
gross and systematic violations of human rights are taking place, so we
have also learned that intervention must be based on legitimate and universal principles if it is to enjoy the sustained support of the worlds peoples.
Intervention, however, is not just a matter for states. Each one of us
whether as a worker in government, in intergovernmental or nongovernmental organizations, in business, in the media, or simply as a human being
has an obligation to do whatever he or she can to defend the human rights
of our fellow men and women when they are threatened. Each of us has a
duty to halt or, better, to prevent the infliction of suffering. Nothing less is
required if the noble ideals of our United Nations are to become a reality.
7.10 THE ROLE OF NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

Globally the champions of human rights have most often been citizens, not
government officials. In particular, they have played a cardinal role in focusing the international community on human rights issues. For example,
NGO activities surrounding the 1995 United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China, drew unprecedented attention to serious
violations of the human rights of women. NGOs such as Amnesty International, the Antislavery Society, the International Commission of Jurists, the
International Working Group on Indigenous Affairs, Human Rights Watch,
Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights, and Survivors International monitor the actions of governments and pressure them to act according to human rights principles.
Government officials who understand the human rights framework can
also effect far reaching change for freedom. Many United States Presidents
such as Abraham Lincoln, Franklin Roosevelt, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Jimmy Carter have taken strong stands for human rights. In other countries
leaders like Nelson Mandela and Vaclev Havel have brought about great
changes under the banner of human rights.
Human right is an idea whose time has come. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a call to freedom and justice for people throughout
the world. Every day governments that violate the rights of their citizens
are challenged and called to task. Every day human beings worldwide mobilize and confront injustice and inhumanity. Like drops of water falling
on a rock, they wear down the forces of oppression and move the world
closer to achieving the principles expressed in the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights.
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1.
When was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted?
(a) 24 October 1945
(b) 10 December 1948
(c) 5 April 1950
(d) 1 December 1949
2.
Where was the Universal Declaration adopted?
(a) Paris
(b) London
(c) Geneva
(d) New York
3.
How many articles does the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

contain?

(a) 20 (b) 25

(c) 30 (d) 28
4.
How many countries are members of the Commission on Human

Rights?
(a) 53
(b) 34
(c) 25
(d) 47
5.
Which statement about the impact of the AIDS epidemic in both Africa
and Southeast Asia is most accurate?
(a) Life expectancy in both regions is declining.
(b) The availability of low-cost drugs has cured most of those infected.
(c) The introduction of awareness programs has eliminated the threat

of the disease.
(d) Newborn babies and young children have not been affected by the
disease.
6.
Right of equality is described in:
(a) Article 2
(b) Article 4
(c) Article 1
(d) Article 5
7.
The United Nations Commission is based in:
(a) Paris
(b) London
(c) Geneva
(d) New York
8.
Vienna World Conference on Human Rights held in year:
(a) 1948
(b) 1945
(c) 1947
(d) 1993
9.
The United Nations came into being as an intergovernmental organization in the year:
(a) 1948
(b) 1945
(c) 1947
(d) 1993
10. The first Commission on Human Rights was made up of how many
members?

(a) 10 (b) 15

(c) 14
(d) 18
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Human Rights

1. What are human rights?
2. Write some important characteristics of human rights?
3. To whom does the Universal Declaration of Human Rights apply?
4. What is the first human rights declaration adopted by the United
Nations? Who were the key contributors to the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?
5. Why is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights important to
you?
6. Write a short note on Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
7. Explain the role of Non-governmental Organizations with respect
to human rights.
8. Briefly describe the political geography of human rights in the
twenty-first century.
9. Explain the role of United Nations in implementing human rights.
10. Write a note on human rights history.

1(b)
2(a)
3(c)
4(a)
5(a)
6(c)
7(c)
8(d)
9(b)
10(d)
Chapter 8
Resources-and-Development
Objectives
After studying this
able to:
Define land
resources and
their types
Explain wheat
imported crop
and production of India
Discuss rice
imported crop
and production of India
Explain
agricultures
problem and
implements
Define the
role of water
resources
availability
and utilization in irrigation
INTRODUCTION
Natural resources are a deceptively peaceable term that finds widespread application within human geography. It describes products of biological, ecological, or geological processes that satisfy human wants. Examples include
game species, soils, mineral ores, timber, and water. Classical political economy describes the raw materials and productive energies of the non human
world as gifts of nature, and contemporary accounts draw a strong distinction between resources and manufactured goods. Natural resources are not
restricted to direct material inputs to economic life. They include a vast range
of ecosystem services that are not directly consumed by use, but which are
necessary for economic production and the maintenance of life (such as carbon sequestration, flood attenuation, and the maintenance of biodiversity).
Many of these services provide important sink functions by assimilating
wastes produced during the use of environmental goods. In addition, there
are other non-extractive ways in which physical environments and species
can be considered to provide forms of utility for society, recreational amenity, esthetic appreciation, and spiritual inspiration imply the attribution to
the natural world of a complex range of value systems. Natural resources, is
an inclusive category reflecting the different and potentially conflicting ways
in which societies appraise the utility of the bio physical world. Natural resources straddle two distinct epistemological traditions within geography.
An extensive body of applied research on environmental evaluation and the
management of water resources, rangelands, forests, and fisheries exemplifies geographys contributions to a tradition of producing instrumental forms
of knowledge (such as those associated with regional planning). The primary
purpose of knowledge in this managerial tradition is to understand environmental systems in ways that facilitate their management to deliver socially
desirable goals. However, geography also has a robust tradition of critical
inquiry which examines how ideas about nature are integral to the production of social differentiation and domination. And for this critical tradition,
the notion of natural resources is problematic. The distinctions and differentiations enabled by the category resources between productive, valued assets, and unproductive wastes, for example, play a key role in the organization of contemporary society and have their origins in the revolution of socio
natural relations associated with the emergence of capitalism. From a critical
perspective, the designation natural obscures the significant ideological,
political, and economic work that must be done to transform nature into a
resource, as Hudson quipped natural resources are not naturally resourc-
159
es. Geographical research, then, frequently illustrates how the capacity to

claim nature as a resource is structured by access to technology, wealth, and
social power.
Classification
A distinctive vocabulary is available for differentiating the qualities and
properties of a vast range of natural resources. An elementary classification distinguishes between biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) resources
the former includes an enormous diversity of faunal and floral species capable of biological forms of reproduction, the latter includes an array of
productive (water, minerals) and ambient resources (solar radiation), some
of which are groundwater, beach gravels have the capacity for regeneration
by virtue of the physical systems of which they are part. Soil is the most extensive terrestrial resource it is a mixture of biotic and a biotic components.
An equally basic classificatory scheme centers on the spatial extent of the
resource, atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen, for example, occur everywhere
on Earth and, accordingly, are considered ubiquities. Most other resources
are con strained in their geographical range and frequency of occurrence
and are localized to some degree. Localizations often a function of wide
variations in resource quality while aluminum is the second most abundant
metallic element and occurs in clays the world over, it is found in commercial concentrations only in a small number of locations. Another popular
axis of classification centers on the mobility of the resource and its ease of
capture. Land, water power sites, and coal deposits are examples of fixed
resources. Groundwater, oil, game birds, and whales, by contrast, are fugitive resources whose nobilities resist conventional practices of enclosure
and make it difficult to enforce exclusive ownership. The distinction most
commonly drawn, however, is between stock (nonrenewable) and flow (renewable) resources based on the rates at which biophysical materials regenerate (Figure 8.1). Stock resources exist in finite supply since removing
these resources diminishes the physical stock available for future use, all
non renewable resources are exhaustible by definition. Stock resources are
subdivided into those consumed by use (such as fuels) and those which,
once extracted from the environment, may be recycled.
Stock
Folw
Consumed
by use
Theoretically
recoverable
Recyclable
Oil
All
elemental
minerals
Metallic
minerals
Gas
Coal
Flow resources
used to extinction
Critical
zone
Noncritical
Zone
Fish
Solar
energy
Forests
Animals
Tides
Wind
Soil
Waves
Water in
aquifers
Water
Air
Critical zone resources

become stock once
regenerative capacity
is exceeded
Figure 8.1: A basic classification of resources: stock versus. flow source.

Resources that possess significant regenerative capacity are classified
as flow resources or renewable. These may be subdivided according to
whether or not the renewable resource is exhaustible. For so called ambient resources such as solar radiation, wind, or waves use of the resource
Key Vocabulary
Crops: Cultivated plants
or agricultural produce,
such as grain, vegetables,
or fruit.
160
Key Vocabulary
Geographical Conditions: Weather that is
comfortable for good for
crop.
degrades neither the amount of the resource nor its quality, this class of
renewable resources is, therefore, non-exhaustible. Most flow resources,
however, can be exhausted if consumption exceeds the rate of regeneration.
This category of exhaustible renewable includes groundwater, fish, game
species, and soil resources, all of which can be mined to depletion/extinction if the rate of harvesting exceeds biophysical regeneration. Because a
threshold exists beyond which further consumption exceeds the capacity of
the resource to regenerate, exhaustible renewable are also known as critical zone resources. Many contemporary environmental challenges relate
to the failure to manage critical zone resources effectively, and to maintain
rates of extraction and use within the boundaries of the biophysical system.
In practice the distinction between renewable/nonrenewable is a matter of
the timescale one uses to evaluate the regenerative capacities of biological
and/or physical systems. Fossil fuel accumulations are currently being
laid down in depositional settings around the world, yet oil and gas are
considered stock resources because their generation occurs over extremely long timescales (millions of years) and is massively exceeded by the
rate at which the resource is used. Timber, water, soils, and even some
construction materials (sand and gravel) are capable of renewing themselves over more meaningful timescales, say 10 1000 years. For many biotic and a biotic resources, the question of their renew ability is dependent
not only on natural regeneration times but on levels of social investment.
Studies of traditional agriculture, for example, show human labor playing
a vital role in maintaining soil fertility, and contemporary agro industrial
practices invest large energy and financial resources to maintain the utility of the soil resource and offset the effects of nutrient depletion, soil erosion, and soil degradation. Similarly, development of an extensive infrastructure for collecting and recycling aluminum would enable society to
treat this metal more like a flow re-source than a stock. For this reason,
analysts prefer to think of a resource ranges which stretches from those
nonrenewable stock resources which are consumed by use (such as fossil
fuels) to the infinitely renewable ambient resources of solar energy, tidal
power, and wind.
8.1 LAND RESOURCES

Land is an essential natural resource, both for the survival and prosperity of
humanity, and for the maintenance of all terrestrial ecosystems (Figure 8.2).
Over millennia, people have become progressively more expert in exploiting land resources for their own ends. The limits on these resources are finite while human demands on them are not. Increased demand, or pressure
on land resources, shows up as declining crop production, degradation of
land quality and quantity, and competition for land. Attention should now
be focused on the role of humankind as stewards rather than exploiters,
charged with the responsibility of safeguarding the rights of unborn generations and of conserving land as the basis of the global ecosystem.
Figure 8.2: Land resources.
161
Key Vocabulary
Industries: Economic activity concerned with the

Land is not regarded simply in terms of soils and surface topography, but processing of raw materiencompasses such features as underlying superficial deposits, climate and als and manufacture of
water resources, and also the plant and animal communities which have goods in factories.
developed as a result of the interaction of these physical conditions. The
results of human activities, reflected by changes in vegetative cover or by
structures, are also regarded as features of the land. Changing one of the
factors, such as land use, has potential impacts on other factors, such as flora and fauna, soils, surface water distribution and climate. Changes in these
factors can be readily explained by ecosystem dynamics and the importance of their relationships in planning and management of land resources
has become increasingly evident.
Definition of Land
Land and land resources refer to a delineable area of the earths terrestrial surface, encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately
above or below this surface, including those of the near-surface climate,
the soil and terrain forms, the surface hydrology (including shallow lakes,
rivers, marshes and swamps), the near-surface sedimentary layers and associated groundwater and geo hydrological reserve, the plant and animal
populations, the human settlement pattern and physical results of past and
present human activity.
8.2 General Land Use

It is characterized by the arrangements, activities, and inputs by people to
produce, change or maintain a certain land cover type. Land use defined
in this way establishes a direct link between land cover and the actions of
people in their environment.
8.2.1 Land Use Classification

India has a diverse agro-climate, topography and soil types on the basis
of which it has been categorized into various regions. Major part of the
country is rain fed. Rainfall therefore, constitutes an important parameter
in the classification of the country into various regions for the purpose of
planning.
162
8.2.2 Agro-climatic Regions

India has been divided into 15 agro-climatic zones on the basis of climate,
in combination with soil and other factors that affect the agriculture in the
region. This classification originated in 1979 by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) through the National Agricultural Research
Project (NARP).
These are:
Western Himalayan Region,
Eastern Himalayan Region,
Key Vocabulary
Lower Genetic Plains Region,
Land: Land is an essential natural resource,

land resources and land
use.
Upper Genetic Plain Region,
Middle Genetic Plains Region,

Trans Genetic Plains Region,
Eastern Plateau and Hill Region,
Central Plateau and Hill Region,
Western Plateau and Hill Region,
Southern Plateau and Hill Region,
East Coast Plains and Hill Region,
West Coast Plains and Ghat Region,
Gujarat Plains and Ghat Region,
Western Dry Region,
Island Region.
8.2.3 Agro-ecological Regions (AERs) and Subregions (AESRs)

Agro-ecological Regions
The country has also been categorized into 20 agro-ecological Regions on
a 1:4 million scale map, based on physiographic, soils, climate, growing
period, and also taking into accountavailable water capacity of the soil,
etc. The mapping and classification of the various parts of the country for
generation of agro-ecological regions involved the superimposition of four
base maps, namely physiographic, Soils, bioclimatic, and length of growing
period and has been used for resource planning at national level.
Agro-ecological Sub-regions (AESRs)

The agro-ecological regions were subsequently refined to prepare a 60
Agro-Ecological Sub-Regions (AESR) Map for regional level planning using the detailed soil information at subgroup level, physiographic at land
form level, and bioclimatic types and Length of Growing Period (LGP) at 30
day class interval. The AESR map is useful for regional level planning and
resource allocation. The information of length of growing period as well as
agro-ecological zoning supported by moisture availability index can act as
an excellent base for crop modeling and crop suitability evaluation.
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8.2.4 Area under Agricultural Uses

The states of Haryana, Punjab, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh,
Kerala, Karnataka, Gujarat, Bihar, Pondicherry, Delhi, and Union Territories of Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindive Islands (Lakshadweep), cultivate
more than 45% of their reporting area. In some of the states like Haryana
and Punjab, which lie in the fertile Indo-Genetic plains of India, the net area
shown is between 60 and 70% of the corresponding reporting area. Maharashtra has the highest net area sown in the country.
8.3 WHEAT
Wheat is the principal bread cereal of temperate regions. It is most valu- Key Vocabulary
able of all the cereals. Its high gluten content, superior quality grain and
ease of storage make wheat important food stuff. Wheat cultivation is done Wheat: Wheat is the most
throughout the world (Figure 8.3).
important cereal crop of
India.
Figure 8.3: Wheat cultivation.

The origin of wheat is lost in antiquity. It is believed, that it originated
in Asia Minor and the Middle East. From here its cultivation was gradually
spread to various other countries. Cultivation of wheat depends upon the
following geographical and economic factors.
8.3.1 Geographical Conditions of Wheat

Wheat can be grown in a wide range of climatic and soil conditions than
any other crop. Wheat cultivation requires:
A moderate rainfall of about 35-45 cm. An excess of moisture is
harmful for the growth of the crop.
A temperature of at least 10-15 C at the time of growing and 19C
and a bright sunshine at the time of ripening and harvest of the crop.
A long growing season, approximately 100 days free from frost.
A wide variety of soils ranging from heavy clay, clay loam or alluvial to black earths.
Level and gently rolling topography provides adequate drainage
and facilitates use of modern farm technology.
The use of machines, manures and fertilizers, high yielding variety seeds, pesticides, assured means of irrigation, development of
means of transportation, crop rotation, dry farming methods in regions of deficient rainfall where irrigation cannot developed, mar-
164
keting facilities and Government policies, arc some of the other factors which boost wheat production.
Through generations of research and selection, hundreds of varieties have been developed to suit local conditions. Broadly speaking,
wheat is classified according to its season of sowing, as winter wheat and
spring*wheat.
Wheat is the most important cereal crop of India. It is the staple food
crop of the people of north and north-west India. Although, wheat is grown
over a large part of the country yet, the Sutlej-Ganga Plain is the major wheat
producing area of the country. The important states are Punjab, Haryana,
eastern Rajasthan, U.P, M.P, Chhattisgarh, Jarkhand, and Bihar. Wheat is
also grown in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka. Wheat
occupies 26 million hectares of land and produces about 69 million metric
tons of wheat accounting for 8-5% of the worlds total output. Wheat cultivation in India has been favored by a variety of geographical and economic
factors. The climate of these regions characterized by cool winters and availability of winter rains, irrigational facilities, alluvial soils, flat topography,
improvement in methods of production, use of manures and fertilizers are
some of the contributory factors responsible for the cultivation of wheat.
Wheat is a winter crop in India. It is a rabbi crop grown at the end of
the rainy season and harvested in early summers. The use of modern farm
technology has resulted in achieving Green Revolution in the country with
the result that India has become self-sufficient in wheat requirements.
Wheat occupies 17% of the cropped area of the country. The share of
important wheat producing states in the total stock of India is as follows:
8.3.2 Production of India

The state of Uttar Pradesh has the largest acreage under wheat in India 34%
followed by Punjab 21%. Punjab, Haryana, U.P and M.P are wheat surplus
states and thus supply wheat to other states of India. Wheat is the principal
crop of the land used in the North-western section of the country. U.P, Haryana and Punjab are the three major wheat producing states of India and
contribute about 55% wheat of the country. This part of the country including eastern parts of Rajasthan is the Wheat Belt of India. These three states
and the states of Rajasthan, M.P and Bihar produce 90% wheat of India.
U.P is the largest wheat growing state of India. It contributes 34% of
Indias production. Fine alluvial soils, network of canal system, installation
of tube wells and wells, flat topography etc. Attribute to attaining top position in India in respect of wheat production.
8.3.3 Wheat Cultivation is concentrated in:
Ganga-Ghagra Doab,
Ganga-Jamuna Doab.
The two Doabs contribute 75% of states production. Nearly 50 districts
of U.E grow wheat. These are Saharanpur, Meerut, Moradabad, Rampur,
Etawah, Hardoi, and Gonda etc.
Punjab
Punjab has emerged as an important wheat producing state of India. Intro-
duction of modern farm technology, high yielding variety seeds, evolution

of new varieties of wheat by the P.A.U. Ludhiana have resulted in ushering
Green Revolution and boosting crop production in the state.
A network of canal irrigation system, installation of tube wells and
pumping sets for irrigating fields, alluvial soils, enterprising and hardworking nature of Punjabi farmers, use of machines, manures and fertilizers, pesticides, marketing facilities, network of village and state roads etc.
further gave impetus to wheat culture.
The state records highest per acre yield to the tune of 3700 kg ha. The
important wheat producing districts are Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Amritsar,
Ferozepur, Sangrur, Patiala, Bhatinda and others.
Haryana
Physical and economic environments for wheat culture are almost similar
to those in the neighboring state of Punjab. The state ranks third largest
wheat growing state of India accounting for 11% of total production of the
country.
Impacts of green revolution are also there in this state. The main wheat
growing districts are Ambala, Karnal, Jind, Hissar, Rohtak, and Sonepat
etc.
Rajasthan
The state produces 8-5% wheat of India. The construction of Indira Gandhi Canal has changed cropping pattern in favor of wheat cultivation. The
main districts are Ganga Nagar, Bharatpur, and Kota etc.
8.4 RICE
Rice is the staple food for a vast majority of peoples in India particularly
those of southern and north-eastern states.
Rice has been grown since times immemorial. The exact place of its
origin, though not known, yet botanists are of the opinion that rice was first
of all grown in India or China as far back as 3000 BC. The old Indian and
Chinese books have references of rice cultivation in these countries.
8.4.1Geographical and Economic Factors

Rice is a subtropical plant. It finds ideal conditions of growth in the subtropical latitudes of South-eastern Asia. A combination of geographical and
economic factors is required for the cultivation of rice.
The crop requires high temperature and high humidity, with abundance of water during its growth. The plants require a temperature
from 10 to 21C during sowing period and over 37C at the time of
harvest. Of all the environmental factors affecting rice culture, water supply is the most important. It grows best in regions of heavy
rainfall but where rainfall is less, irrigation is essential for the success of the crop.
Rice grows under diverse soil conditions. However, loams with a
high silt and clay content are the best. Rice is also grown in red and
literate soils.
165
166
Since the rice fields are flooded with water as such the flat regions,
the deltas, the flood plains and the coastal plains are best areas for
the cultivation of rice. Rice is also grown on hill-terraces
The tilling of land, preparation of fields, transplantation of paddy
plants, harvesting, husking and thrashing of the paddy are done by
hand as such, availability of cheap labor is an essential factor in rice
culture.
Use of fertilizers, pesticides and high yielding variety seeds result in
higher production. It is very much apt to say that rice needs plenty
of labor, plenty of water, plenty of sun shine and plenty of care and
patience for plenty of production.
Rice is Grown in India in Three Ways
1. Broadcast method
2. Drill method
3. Transplantation method
Broadcast method is adopted in area of scarce labor force and poor
soils. Drill method is used in Peninsular India. The transplantation method
is quite common and is practiced in river deltas and plain areas.
Transplantation method involves in plenty of labor because uprooted
seedlings are planted again in the fields prepared for the purpose.
Rice is classified as Japonica and India. Japonica is a crop of high latitudes. It responds very well to the application of fertilizers, thus it is intensively grown in Japan, Korea, and Formosa etc. The India is a crop of low
latitudes. Japonica variety gives higher yields per acre than India variety.
Rice is also classified as upland or hilly rice and low land and swamp
rice. The lowland rice is a transplanted crop and requires frequent use of
water through irrigation.
90% of world rice is of Lowland type grown in plain fields having embankments. 10% of world rice is upland rice grown on hilly slopes by making terraced fields.
India
Rice is the most important food crop of India. It covers about 31% of total
cropped area. It is the staple food crop of people of south and north-eastern
states. India is the second largest producer of rice in the world. In 2000, India
produced 86 million metric tons of rice, about 20% of world rice (Figure 8.4).
Figure 8.4: Rice cultivation.
Rice is one of the principal crops of the country particularly in the

southern States. About 42 million hectares of land is devoted to rice culture
in this country. Although rice is grown in every state and union territory
of India yet West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Uttar Pradesh, are the most important area.
These states produce more than 80% of rice of the country. Punjab and
Haryana have attained special significance in rice production in India due
to a number of favorable geographic and economic factors.
In India, rice is grown from 8N-25N latitude and from sea level up to
2500 meters. West Bengal leads in rice production. It is followed by Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Orissa. As regards per acre yield, Punjab is the
leader.
Rice cultivation has been favored by a variety of geographical and economic factors. Tropical monsoon climate characterized by high temperature and a long rainy spell is very favorable for rice culture.
In the southern and eastern states, where rainfall is heavy, two or three
rice crops are raised in a year. In the states of Punjab and Haryana development of irrigation has played a vital role in the cultivation of rice. In these
states area under rice has witnessed an upward trend.
The soils of these states are clayey to alluvial, thus very suitable for
rice cultivation. The valleys, flood plains, coastal plains and the deltas are
intensively given to rice cultivation.
Moreover, use of manures and fertilizers, pesticides, high yielding variety seeds, extension of area under rice, adoption of Japanese methods of
rice cultivation, development of irrigation facilities, marketing facilities,
and large market at home are some of the most important factors which
have boosted rice culture in the country.
Regarding rice culture it is generally said that rice crop needs plenty of
water, sunshine, labor, plenty of alluvium and feeds plenty of people.
West Bengal
It is the largest producer of rice in India. Rice occupies over 60% of the
sown area in each district in the state. Uniformly high temperature, frequent floods due to copious rainfall, fertile silt deposits on rice land due
to flooding, help raising three crops a year. Aman (winter) is the most outstanding which give 78% of rice.
It is broadcast crop in lowlands. Aus 20% (autumn) is also a crop of
lowlands. Boro 2% is the least important. It is a crop of depressions and
swampy areas. The methods of cultivation are traditional.
The districts in which rice is grown in the state are Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri, Bankura, Midnapur, Dinajpur, Burdwan, Pargana, and Birbhum.
U.P. and Uttaranchal

These states contribute nearly 12-5% of total rice of India. The acreage accounts for 12% of the country. In these states two regions predominate in rice
culture. One along the terai extending from Dehradun, Pilibhit, Saharanpur
to Deoria, Gonda, Basti, Rae Bareli, Lucknow, Varanasi, and Gorakhpur.
The second rice area is comprised of the slopes (terraces) of the lesser
and middle Himalayas. Methods of farming are poor. Size of land holdings
are also small Per area yield is low.
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168
Andhra Pradesh
It produces 8% rice of India. The Krishna and Godavri deltas and the coastal plain areas of the East and West Godavri, Guntur, Kurnool, Nalgonda,
Anandpur, Nellore,. Vishakhapatnam and Cuddapah are major rice producing districts. Soils, climate and physiography favour rice culture.
Tamil Nadu
This state produces 10% rice of India. North and South Arcot and Thanjavur districts in the kaveri delta account for 65% of the production. Ramanathapuram, Tirchurapalli, Tirunelveli are other rice producing districts.
Punjab
Punjab grows 10% rice of India. The state has emerged as an important rice
producing state on account of extension of irrigation, use of fertilizers, pesticides and increased acreage.
The districts of Patiala, Sangrur, Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Faridkot, Amritsar, and Kapurthala are major producers.
M.P. and Chhattisgarh

Contribute nearly 8% of rice of India. Rice is intensively grown in the valleys of the rivers Tapti, Mahanadi and Narmada. Raipur, Bastar, Raigarh,
Bilaspur, Durg, Jabalpur, Betul, Balaghat, and Sarguja are important rice
growing districts.
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Assam, and Haryana are other important rice growing states of India.
Per acre yield of rice in India is low due to several physical, economic, and technological reasons.
The north-eastern states experience frequent floods thus crop is
damaged.
In some parts of states of West Bengal, Orissa, and Jharkhand
drought affects rice production.
The fields are small.
Methods of cultivation are poor, crude, and backward. These result
in low yield.
Poor and illiterate Indian peasantry can ill afford modern farm inputs, so essential for increasing productivity.
More than 300 varieties of rice have been evolved during the last
two decades, but these are suitable for the areas having assured irrigation facilities, areas as such in most parts of India traditional
varieties like Monaharsali in Assam and Jalmagna in U.P ; Jayshrec
in Bihar; Biraj in West Bengal are being grown. The yield is poor.
8.5 TEA
Tea is an evergreen plant of the Camellia genus. Its scientific name is Camellia Sinensis and it originated in China, Tibet, and Northern India. The
tea plant has thick leaves, dark green in color, and a strong thick stem. The
tea flowers bloom in white or pink and have a delicate fragrance.
There are about 200 different species of the tea plant around the world.
Tea is the worlds most popular beverage next to water, and is consumed in about 80% of US households. True tea comes from the Camellia
sinensis plant. In fine teas, only the top two leaves and bud are hand-picked
to be processed. The production of tea is truly a labor intensive process: up
to 80,000 hand-picked shoots are needed to produce a pound of top quality
tea. There are literally thousands of varieties of teas, but the way a tea is
processed determines its classification.
8.5.1 Growing Conditions for Tea

The tea plant needs a hot, moist climate. It grows in temperatures ranging
from 10 to 30C, in areas with an average yearly rainfall of 2,000 mm. and
at a ground level of between 600-2000 meters above sea level. A carefully
chosen source plant can be used for creating new tea seedlings.
The soft seedlings develop in a nursery for ten months, which protects
them from difficult weather conditions. After they have strengthened, the
tea plants continue to develop in open fields that are sheltered by the shade
of wide trees.
8.5.2 Tea Picking

Tea picking is still conducted in the traditional manner the tea leaves are
handpicked and gathered into wide baskets on the backs of the tea pickers.
The hand picking ensures that only the best leaves of the tea plant are collected and used for producing the tea.
In Asian countries, the tea picking season starts with the beginning
of spring and continues from May until August. In Africa, the tea picking
continues all year long.
The first tea crops of every year are called new tea and it is rich in
flavor and aroma. Only the plants bud and two young leaves are used for
processing the tea. The tea flowers are also picked, dried and added to the
blend to supplement the aroma.
8.5.3 Tea Production

A common myth about tea is the belief that different types of tea, black tea,
white tea, and green tea are produced from different tea plants. In fact, all
types of tea are produced from the same plant and the differences between
them result from the different processing procedures while producing the
tea.
The picked tea leaves are made up of 80% liquid while the tea sold to
the consumers has less than 10% liquids. A crucial phase in the production
processes of every type of tea is the stage in which the leaves are dried.
This stage is necessary for reducing the moisture of the leaves and there by
strengthening and preserving the tea leaf.
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170
8.5.4 Types of Tea

Black Tea
1st drying:The leaves picked from the tea plant are spread out over
mats for vaporization in the sun. Another method for drying the
leaves is by blowing currents of warm air over them. In the drying
phase the leaves lose about 60% of their moisture.
Rolling: The process of rolling the leaves has the purpose of releasing the liquids found in the leaf in order to allow the fermentation
and oxidization of the leaf to begin.
Fermentation: During the leaves fermentation process, the enzymes
within the leaves are bound to the oxygen in the air. This process
causes the leaves to blacken and this is what creates the typical flavor of the tea. The fermentation is conducted by blowing currents of
humid air over the leaves. This stage takes about 3 hours.
2nd drying: An additional drying stage is crucial to stopping the
oxidization process. At the end of this process a long-lasting, stable
product is produced.
Green Tea
1st drying: After the tea picking, the leaves are sun-dried on bamboo trays for a few hours.
Roasting The tea leaves are stir fried in hot roasting pans in order
to vaporize additional moisture. Rolling the leaves are manually
rolled.
2nd drying: The tea leaves are put back into the pans for additional
drying and are also often rolled once more. This is done in order to
give them their final shape.
Green tea production does not include the fermentation stage. Without the oxidization which occurs during the fermentation stage, the
leaves retain their original green color and their delicate flavor.
White Tea
Tea picking: The tea buds are picked before ripening and opening.
Drying: The closed buds are sun-dried.
The process of producing white tea does not include the rolling and
fermentation stages. The delicate leaves are hardly processed at all in order
to preserve the original refreshing taste of the tea plant. White tea is produced in small quantities and is very expensive.
Oolong Tea
The process of producing oolong tea is almost completely identical to that
of black tea, except for a shorter fermentation stage. This makes the flavor
of oolong tea slightly weaker than that of black tea.
Herb and Fruit Infusions

Herb and fruit infusions are comprised of various combinations of natural
plants and fruits and include: blossoms, stems, roots, fruits, herbs and buds.
The infusion mixtures are caffeine and sugar free and are sweetened by the
natural sugars in the fruits.
Rooibos Infusion Red Tea

The rooibos plant was discovered in the 17th century in South Africa by
the local tribes of the Cape Town area. These tribes used the entire rooibos
plant to create a refreshing, aromatic drink with medicinal benefits. When
dried, the leaves take on a red-brown hue which is where the plant gets its
name: rooibos meaning red bush. Similar to the benefits of green tea, the
rooibos plant is also rich in vitamins, minerals and antioxidants which help
prevent numerous chronic diseases. The rooibos infusion also assists the
digestive system and eases heartburn and nausea. The rooibos infusion is
caffeine free as well.
8.5.5 Major Tea Producing States In India

There are three major tea-producing regions in India Assam, Darjeeling,
and Nilgiris. Over the years, India has mainly been known to produce black
tea. However, there is a shift in the trend now as many tea estates have
started producing green, white and oolong teas.
Assam
One of the largest tea producing regions of the world, Assam is known
for growing the original Indian tea. Assam tea gardens feature impeccably
pruned tea bushes covering about 2,16,200 hectares that produce more than
360 million kgs of tea annually. The tea of Assam has a strong pungent taste
that makes it famous the world over. The cropping season in Assam begins
as early as March and extends almost to mid December. Besides, the popular black tea, Assam also produces small quantities of white and green tea.
Darjeeling
One of the most famous teas in the world, Darjeeling tea is grown in the
foothills of the Himalayas at an altitude of 6000 ft above sea level. Considered as one of the best, Darjeeling tea is also referred to as the Champagne
of teas. Tea with a class, Darjeeling tea has a strong character and gentle
disposition making it an all time favorite of tea lovers.
8.6 COFFEE
Also known as the Blue Mountains, Nilgiris are spread across the southwestern tip of India and lies at an altitude of forty five hundred feet. Grown
all the year round, Nilgiri teas are relatively mild and is mellow, light and
clean liquor. Besides, Nilgiri teas are often used in blends.
The coffee tree is a shrub with a straight trunk, which can survive for
about 50 to 70 years. The first flowers appear during the third year, but
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production is only profitable from the fifth year onwards. 18th century botanists classified Coffee as a member of the Rubiaceous family of around
sixty different species of coffee tree, two alone dominate world trade the
Coffee Arabica, or, more simply, Arabica, which represents 75% of production; and the Coffee canephora, which is commonly known by the name of
the most widespread variety Robusta.
8.6.1 Here is a List of the Three Most Well-known

Coffee Plants:
Arabica (from Ethiopia, known from prehistoric times) beans do
best at altitudes of 3,000 to 6,500 feet where the slower growing process concentrates their flavors. They have a much more refined flavor and contain about 1% caffeine by weight. Because of its delicate
nature, it yields only 1 to 1.5 pounds of green coffee per year. This
is the coffee that specialty roasters search for. It accounts for about
75% of the world production. Because the arabica tree is susceptible
to disease, frost, and drought, it requires very careful cultivation
with just the right climatic conditions.
Robusta (from Congo, discovered in 1898) beans come from a high
yield plant that is resistant to disease. It does best at lower elevations and has harsh flavors. It contains about 2% caffeine. It bears
more coffee cherries than the arabica plant. It yields 2 to 3 pounds of
green coffee a year. This plant is used for the lower grades of coffee
that are sold in the market. Although generally not found in gourmet shops, robusta beans are often used in the processing of soluble
(instant) coffees and popular commercial blends.
Liberica (from Western Africa, of no great importance in coffee
trade) is the third recognized commercial variety; it is also hardy
and low-altitude. It is a minor crop of coffee from Africa and is similar to Robusta.
8.6.2 Geographical Conditions for Coffee

Coffee is the second most popular beverage of India. Its cultivation is confined in South India. Favorable geographical conditions for the cultivation,
coffee is grown on the tropical highlands. Coffee is a typical highland crop
of the tropics. It requires temperature between 16C and 28C all the year
round. It is sensitive to cold and frost. Direct sunrays are injurious to the
plant; it is often grown in the shades of other trees. The coffee plant needs
a rainfall ranging between 125 cm and 200 cm. The rainfall should be well
distributed throughout the year. Hilly slopes are suitable for coffee plantation because, the land can be kept free from water logging. In fact, the
mountain slopes at elevations varying from 500 1800 meters in the tropical
highlands are the best for its plantation. The coffee plant needs deep loamy
soil formed from weathered lava. Coffee soils in India belong to red and
later tic soils. They are rich in iron and organic matter. Coffee cultivation
needs plenty of labor for planting, seeding transplanting, plucking the coffee cherries, and processing of coffee in the factory. In India, most of the coffee grown belongs to the Arabic or the Roberta verities. The arabic a variety
is of superior quality.
Temperature
Coffee evolved as a rainforest under storey tree and is poorly adapted to
temperature extremes. Coffee plants favor temperatures between 15C and
25C and as a consequence thrive in elevated tropical areas. Mild temperatures during winter and spring are very important for extending cherry
life, improving the synchronization of maturity, greatly assisting mechanical harvesting and favoring floral initiation and development. Extremes of
heat and cold injure or kill coffee trees. Photosynthesis in coffee is slowed
at temperatures greater than 25C with tree damage at temperatures above
30C. Cherry development is impeded above 30C.
Coffee trees are killed by frost and injured below 3C, while temperatures below 7C restrict growth. Winston and OFarrell (1993) identified
that high temperatures limited coffee production in some areas of North
Queensland. Low yields at South edge Research Station near Mareeba, were
attributed to temperature extremes during periods of rapid plant growth.
Coffee is highly susceptible to frost and even short periods below 0C will
defoliate the tree. Overhead irrigation has been used to protect coffee from
frost on small plantations. To be successful the irrigation system must be
capable of irrigating the whole plantation at one time. This has not been
practicable on the larger farms required for machine-harvesting.
8.7 COTTON
Cotton is an industrial vegetable fiber. The fiber is obtained from the bolls
or opened seed pods of a tropical or sub-tropical bush. Its quality of lightness and cheapness makes it an ideal material for clothing.
The cotton fiber is strong, durable and washable. It is used all over the
world for making clothes, carpets, threads etc (Figure 8.5).
Figure 8.5: Cotton cultivation.

Though cotton had been known to the ancient Egyptians since long
and its cultivation had been done in India and China since times immemorial, the real development of cotton cultivation came up in the wake of
Industrial Revolution in Europe.
The invention of cotton ginning machine and introduction of mechanized spinning and weaving in 1793, gave impetus to cotton textile manufacturing. It caused demand for cotton.
However, the cultivation of cotton came up in the world in a big way
in the beginning of twentieth century and subsequent years on account of
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growing world population, advancements in methods of farming and development of means of transportation. Conditions of Growth
8.7.1 Geographical Conditions for Cotton

Production are:
Equable warm climatic conditions during die growing season, with
temperature reaching 25C in summer.
A minimum period of 180-210 days free from frost.
Dry sunny days at the time of picking.
Deep rich well drained soils, alluvial, basic and black earths are ideal.
It is a robber crop, thus frequent use of manure and fertilizer is required.
Sea breezes arc beneficial for the quality of cotton fiber.
Flat to gently rolling regions are best grounds for cotton culture.
The plant is susceptible to diseases. Use of pesticides and insecticides is essential.
An annual rainfall of 50-100 cms favors cotton growth. In regions of
deficient rainfall, irrigation plays a significant role in cotton cultivation.
Cheap labor to do the work of ploughing, sowing, weeding and
picking is an important factor. Development of means of transportation, well developed cotton textile manufacturing, mechanization of
agriculture and marketing facilities are some of the important geographical and economic factors, which favor cotton cultivation.
8.7.2 Cotton Varieties

On the Basis of Length of Fiber Cotton is Classified as
Short staple cotton. If the length of the fiber is less than 2 5 cm.
Medium staple cotton. The length of the fiber is 2 5 cm to 4 cm.
Long staple cotton. If the length of the fiber is more than 4 cm.
India ranks next only to the U.S.A. in area and next to the U.S.A., CIS
and China in production of cotton. Cotton occupies about 5% of the total
cropped area in the country.
Area under cotton has witnessed a sharp increase with time. It is the
most important fiber crop. It provides raw material to textile industry.
Seeds are used for manufacturing ghee. About two-thirds of Indias area
and production of cotton is contributed by the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Uttar
Pradesh.
The Cultivation of Cotton is Done in Two Major Regions in India
Sutlej Ganga Plain.
Deccan Plateau.
Cotton is a Kharif crop. It requires 6-8 months to mature. Cotton culti-
vation has been favoured by a combination of favourable geographical and

economic factors. The most important factors are excellent climate, fertile
alluvial soils as in case of Sutlej-Ganga plain and black earths (black cotton soils) in Deccan Plateau region, flat topography, introduction of irrigation facilities, improved farming techniques, introduction of new seeds of
high yielding varieties, use of fertilizers, pesticides, demand of cotton in the
country and availability of cheap labor.
Punjab ranks first in cotton production in India. It contributes 20% of
Indias cotton. Most of the cotton grown in India belongs to short staple cotton variety. However, in some parts especially Punjab, cultivation of long
staple cotton is practiced. India exports short staple cotton to some countries.
8.8 JUTE
Jute is the most affordable natural fibers and is second only to cotton in
amount produced and variety of uses. Jute delivers lasting solution to the
universal problem of pollution. Jute is nature friendly because its contents
are cellulose and lignin which are bio degradable. Jute also does not generate toxic gases when burnt. It is a renewable natural fiber which makes no
demand on the worlds scarce energy resources.
Jute is largely used as raw materials for packaging textiles, non-textiles,
construction and agricultural sector. Besides packaging ,wrapping or backing fabrics, jute has variety of usage example ropes/twines, geo textile, decorative fabrics, upholsteries and furnishing fabrics, woven carpets, mats,
webbing, soft luggage, fancy bags, and composite etc.
Jute uses comprise containers for planting young trees which can be
planted directly with the containers without disturbing the roots and land
restoration where jute cloth prevents erosion occurring while natural vegetation become established.
Jute has been cultivated in India for very long time. It was exported
to Europe the first time in 1828. In India the crop is grown over an area of
about 8.9 lakh hectares with total production of about 65 lakh bales of 180
kg each.
Jute is one of the most important cash crops of eastern India. Jute is used
for manufacturing carpets, rugs, tarpaulins, upholstery, ropes and strings.
Jute belongs to the family of Chorchorus. There are two species which are
cultivated in India Chorchorus capsularis or white jute and Chorchorus olitorius or toss jute.
Jute Plant in India

The height of Jute Plant ranges from 2 to 4 metres. Since Chorchorus capsularis is highly adaptable, it covers nearly 75% of the cultivated area. Chorchorus olitorius, which cannot withstand floods, is grown only on uplands.
Jute is an annual type plant. The fiber in the inner bark is soft and strong
and allows good lengths to be drawn out.
8.8.1 Variety
Some of the varieties of jute are released by the Jute Agricultural Research
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Institute, Barrackpore. They proved to be very beneficial for the producers.

This provides them opportunity for better production. Selection of varieties
depends mainly on the following factors:
Method Of Sowing
Crop Rotation
Pest and Disease
Irrigation Facilities
Climatic Conditions
Soil
Jute can be grown on all kind of soils from clay to sandy loam but loamy
alluvial soil suits it most. Jute thrives best in soils with neutral PH between
6.0 7.5. Below or above this PH, yield of crop suffers.
8.8.2 Geographical Conditions for Jute

Jute thrives best under warm and humid climate with temperature ranging
from 24 to 370C, the optimum being around 340C. The most suitable is well
distributed total rainfall of 150 centimeter per year from which 25 centimeter precipitation is between March and May. Alternate period of sunshine
and rainfall is the most beneficial.
The jute plant requires high temperature with a minimum of 270C and
an optimum of about 340C during the period of growth. The relative humidity requirement is also high ranging from 80 to 90 %. During the growing period, the jute plant needs an evenly distributed rainfall of 170 cm to
200 cm.
Sandy and clayey loams are perfectly beneficial for the growth of this
plant. It grows well on the alluvial soil found in the flood plains and deltas
of rivers.
8.9 SUGARCANE
Sugarcane is a tropical plant. It grows most successfully in those areas
where the climate is more or less tropical, but it can grow in sub-tropics too
like in north India. Under warm and humid condition it can continue its
growth, unless terminated by flowering.
Sugarcane is a tropical grass native to Asia where it has been grown
in gardens for over 4,000 years. It is a giant, robust, sugary plant produced
by interbreeding four species of the Saccharum genus. Methods for manufacturing sugar from sugarcane were developed in India about 400 BC.
Christopher Columbus brought the plant to the West Indies, and today
sugarcane is cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical regions throughout the
world. Over 62% of the worlds sugar comes from sugarcane.
Currently, sugarcane is planted on approximately 440,000 acres in
the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA), making it the most extensively
grown row crop in Florida. Production is primarily on land along or near
the southern half of Lake Okeechobee. Most of the production is in Palm
Beach County, but sugarcane is also grown in Hendry, Glades and Martin
counties. 8% of the crop is grown on high organic matter muck soils and
20% is grown on sand. About 50% of the cane sugar produced in the U.S.
comes from Florida, which accounts for about 20% of all sugar consumed
(cane and beet) in the country. The Florida sugar industry employs over
14,000 people has an annual income over $800 million, and a total economic
value (from direct and indirect effects) of over $2 billion.
8.9.1 Geographical Conditions for Sugarcane

Sugarcane is a tropical crop.
It requires warm and humid climate for growth while cool, sunny
and dry climate for ripening.
The temperature requirement is 200C to 260C.
Germination does not take place when temperature goes below
70C.
Both the extremes of temperature is harmful.
Severe cold arrests the growth, while attack of stem borer increases
in hot weather.
It requires more than 1,375 mm annual rainfall when grown as rainfed crop.
Rainfall deficiency produces a fibrous cane, whereas too heavy
rainfall reduces sugar content.
Soil for Sugarcane Cultivation

Sugarcane can be grown on wise range of soils.
But it grows best on well drained, fertile medium to heavy soils.
Soils rich in organic matter and leveled are most suitable.
It is heavy feeder crop so, should not be grown on light soils.
8.9.2 Crop Description and Climate

The present area of sugarcane (Saccarum officinarum) is about 13 million
ha with a total commercial world production of about 1254.8 million ton/
year cane or 55 million ton/year sucrose.
Sugarcane originated in Asia, probably in New Guinea. Most of the
rained and irrigated commercial sugarcane is grown between 35N and
S of the equator. The crop flourishes under a long, warm growing season
with a high incidence of radiation and adequate moisture, followed by a
dry, sunny and fairly cool but frost-free ripening and harvesting period.
Optimum temperature for sprouting (germination) of stem cuttings is
32 to 38C. Optimum growth is achieved with mean daily temperatures
between 22 and 30C. Minimum temperature for active growth is approximately 20C. For ripening, however, relatively lower temperatures in the
range of 20 to 10C are desirable, since this has a noticeable influence on
the reduction of vegetative growth rate and the enrichment of sucrose in
the cane.
A long growing season is essential for high yields. The normal length
of the total growing period varies between 9 months with harvest before
winter frost to 24 months in Hawaii, but it is generally 15 to 16 months.
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Plant (first) crop is normally followed by 2 to 4 ratoon crops, and in certain

cases up to a maximum of 8 crops are taken, each taking about 1 year to
mature. Growth of the stool is slow at first, gradually increasing until the
maximum growth rate is reached after which growth slows down as the
cane begins to ripen and mature. The flowering of sugarcane is controlled
by daylength, but it is also influenced by water and nitrogen supply. Flowering has a progressive deleterious effect on sucrose content. Normally,
therefore, flowering is prevented or non-flowering varieties are used.
Sugarcane does not require a special type of soil. Best soils are those
that are more than 1 m deep but deep rooting to a depth of up to 5 m is possible. The soil should preferably be well-aerated and have a total available
water content of 15% or more. When there is a groundwater table it should
be more than 1.5 to 2.0 m below the surface. The optimum soil pH is about
6.5 but sugarcane will grow in soils with pH in the range of 5 to 8.5
8.10 RUBBER TREES

Rubber trees are tall with straight trunks. Its bark is smooth and usually
gray. The tree normally grows to only 82 feet during cultivation, but in the
wild, it grows up to 130 feet. A perennial tree in nature, the rubber tree lives
for up to 100 years. Perennial literally means through the years, and it
refers to plants that live past two years.
Many plant species produce natural rubber. Considerations of quality
and economics, however, limit the source of natural rubber to one species;
namely Hevea brasiliensis. It is a native of the Amazon basin and introduced from there to countries in the tropical belts of Asia and Africa during
late 19th century. It can be termed as the most far reaching and successful
of introductions in plant history resulting in plantations over 9.3 million
hectares, 95% of it across the globe in Asia.
Hevea brasiliensis, also known as the Para rubber tree after the Brazilian port of Para, is a quick growing, fairly sturdy, perennial tree of a height
of 25 to 30 meters. It has a straight trunk and thick, somewhat soft, light
brownish gray bark. The young plant shows characteristic growth pattern
of alternating period of rapid elongation and consolidated development.
The leaves are trifoliate with long stalks. The tree is deciduous in habit and
winters from December to February in India. Refoliation is quick and copious flowering follows. Flowers are small but appearing in large clusters.
Fruits are three lobed, each holding three seeds, quite like castor seeds in
appearance but much larger in size. The seeds are oil bearing.
The rubber tree may live for a hundred years or even more. But its economic life period in plantations, on general considerations is, only around
32 years, 7 years of immature phase and 25 years of productive phase.
8.10.1 Distribution
Asia provides nearly 95% of the worlds production of natural rubber, with
Thailand as the first producer. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, the areas that provide the best habitat
for rubber tree plantations are the Amazon Basin, Sabah, and Sarawak in
East Malaysia, the Thai-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Kalimantan
in Indonesia, West-Central Africa, and the Southwestern part of Sri Lanka.
Distribution of the total weight of rubber among the parts is roughly
parallel to the distribution of dry weight. The contribution of the root in

terms of rubber quantity, however, is less than in terms of dry weight, because of its low rubber concentration; the contribution of the branch system
is correspondingly greater.
8.10.2 Geographical Conditions for Rubber

Rubber trees grow best in climates that get regular rainfall, annually 79 to
158 inches, with temperatures ranging from 75 to 830F. However, with genetic engineering, rubber trees now grow in areas with rainfall of 59 inches
a year. They can even survive dry seasons up to five months. The rubber
tree grows best with protection from high winds.
The natural home of wild rubber tree (The Havea Brasiliensls) is in the
Amazon Selvas. Hence the hot-wet climate of Malaysia is most suitable for
its growth. The rubber trees need:
A mean temperature of 27C, never falling below 22C.
Heavy rainfall above 200 cm, with no drought.
Deep rich soils with good drainage preferably scrumbly, well-oxidized and acidic in reaction
Adequate supply of labor is an important factor for the collection
and plantation of rubber over large holdings.
8.11 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

AND PROBLEMS
Agricultural implements may be classified broadly into the following categories implements for preparing the seed bed, for cultivation operations,
for harvesting and threshing work, for processing and utilization of agricultural produce, and for lifting water.
8.11.1 Agricultural Implements and Machinery

Though State and Central Governments have paid considerable attention
during the last 20 years to agricultural research, comparatively little has
been done to improve indigenous implements. The Governments of Madras, U.P., and the Punjab have achieved something in this direction and so
have educational institutions and manufacturers, but no definite schemes
were drawn up nor was the work systematically followed up until the Agricultural Engineering Section was added to the Indian Agricultural Research Institute in 1945.
Attention has been hitherto devoted mostly to improvement of the
implements used for processing the produce and lifting water. Improved
sugarcane crushers, the Persian Wheel, and the Revolving Drum illustrate
this tendency. There exists considerable scope for improving the efficiency
of implements used for seed bed preparation, planting cultivation and harvesting operations.
While Dr. Stewart considered that as long as the land is kept free from
weeds it makes little difference to crop yields whether desi implements
or improved implements are used, it is generally accepted that by using
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improved implements a larger area can be covered in the same time, and
the timely performance of agricultural operations results in reduction of
costs as well as better yields. For certain agricultural operations, example
turning under of green manure improved implements are essential. The
need for encouraging research in this field is thus obvious. For this purpose
we recommend that every State should have in its agricultural engineering
section a whole-time officer for conducting research on indigenous tools
and implements. Many of the existing agricultural engineering sections
deal mainly with power drawn machinery, and a special officer is required
to devote exclusive attention to the important subject of indigenous implements. The engineering section at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute
will have to be similarly strengthened with a special officer. The section
so established in the States and Centre should have adequate facilities for
research and trials. Besides conducting research on indigenous implements
the special officer at the Centre will try out imported implements. He will
also co-ordinate the work done in various parts of the country and pass on
the information regarding improved implements to executive agencies. It
will be his responsibility to furnish the results of research to manufacture
for commercial development.
As implements have to be adjusted to crop, soil and climatic conditions, the research problems have to be examined on a regional basis that is
for a group of States. Regional Committees consisting of technical experts,
enlightened farmers, representatives of the State Governments, manufacturers and dealers should therefore be set up by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (I.C.A.R). The Committees should indicate the lines on
which research and development work should proceed. They would also
approve the schemes drawn up by the States and review their progress regularly. The special implement officers at the Indian Agricultural Research
Institute should act as a convener of the regional committees. The I.C.A.R
might also convene an annual conference on implements and machinery to
which nominees of the regional committees, prominent research workers,
and manufacturers should be invited. The programs of research drawn up
by the State and accepted by the regional committees should be accorded a
high priority by the Council which should provide necessary financial assistance. It should also offer technical advice and follow a policy of sponsoring research on implements in all the important States.
Along with research, the difficult task of popularizing improved implements and arranging their supply has to be tackled. This would also
be the responsibility of the special officer to be appointed in every State.
He will have to do this work with the assistance of the extension staff. As
research gets organized in the States and at the Centre, new designs will be
evolved. These designs and models will be supplied to the fabricators for
manufacturing the implements on a commercial scale. It may be desirable
to encourage the establishment of small fabricating units which will provide employment to rural artisans. These could be further developed into
workshop where the manufacture of steel trunks, buckets and other utilities could also be undertaken. It would be advantageous to organize local
fabricators and blacksmiths into co-operatives for undertaking production
of implements. The implements manufactured should be recommended to
cultivators only after careful trial and test by the implements officer of the
State, who should be provided with the necessary equipment for carrying
out tests.
As regards arrangements for distribution the implements can be sup-
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plied direct by the dealer or from the government depots or through the
cooperative societies. Taccavi loans or loan from cooperative societies may
be provided to popularize new implements if their cost. is high.
The facilities for the servicing and repair of implements and tools are
not very satisfactory. The technique of the local blacksmiths and carpenters needs to be improved by organizing a short training course at important centres. Co-operatives of fabricators besides undertaking production
should also provide servicing and repair facilities at reasonable rates. In
addition the machine tractor stations and workshops which are being established by the Central and the State Governments should also have a section for undertaking repairs of indigenous implements. Spare parts needed
for implements should also be stocked by the machine tractor stations and
the co-operatives.
During and since the Second World War cultivators have begun to
use power driven machinery to a greater extent than before. Increased financial assistance under the G.M.F. campaign for the purchase of tractors,
diesel engines, electric motors, has accelerated the process. The rising costs
of labor as well as its scarcity in certain areas are other factors which have
tended in the same direction. The rapid increase in the use of tractors in this
country may be judged from the following Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Use of tractors in this country
No. of Tractors Imported
1949-50
3,318
1950-51
4,930
1951-52
7,400
The use of tractors has distinct-advantages in certain operations such

as, reclamation of waste or weed infested lands, cultivation of lands in
sparsely populated areas where there is a shortage of labor, drainage and
soil conservation operations such as contour bonding, terracing, ridging,
etc. The utility of tractors for reclamation operations has been demonstrated by the Central Tractor Organization which has been working in the Terai areas of U. P. and the kans infested tract of Madhya Pradesh, Madhya
Bharat, and Bhopal. The States have also acquired some experience of this
work during the last five years. The precise extent to which waste and fallow lands can be brought under the plough can be ascertained only after a
detailed survey, but it is believed that out of 98 million acres classified as
cultivable, yet lying waste about 11 million acres can be reclaimed in the
near future. The Plan provides for reclamation of 2-62 million acres. While
the pressure of population is generally heavy in the country as a whole
there are thinly settled areas, particularly in Vindhya Pradesh, Madhya
Bharat, Rajasthan, etc. where labor shortage is an important limiting factor
in the expansion of cultivation. Reclamation by tractors and mechanized
cultivation in such tracts has obvious advantages. Large areas can thus be
developed either as State farms or for settlement of landless laborers on a
co-operative basis.
While tractors can safely be utilized for the purposes, care will have
to be taken to see that their use for general cultivation work in other areas
does not cause unemployment. The small size of holdings, the absence of
avenues of employment other than agriculture, the shortage of fuel-oils and
iron and steel are factors which militate against the use of tractors in this
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country for cultivation on any substantial scale and, by and large, Indian
agriculture will continue to depend upon animal power for a long time to
come. Even though tractors reduce labor costs and facilitates agricultural
operations there is no conclusive evidence that they increase production,
though they are a valuable aid when speed of operations is a relevant factor. It is reported that some of the bigger cultivators have acquired tractors
recently because of a feeling that those who adopt the mechanical means of
cultivation will be accorded special treatment and allowed to retain larger
holdings for personal cultivation in case a ceiling is imposed on existing
holdings. This has led to displacement of tenants. This trend is likely to be
maintained and may even increase unless protected tenancy rights are conferred on those who occupy the land as tenants-at-will and as sub-tenants.
Some of the States have initiated action on these lines.
8.11.2 Agricultural Problems

Agricultures Problems.
Big agriculture projects fell out of favor (large scale irrigation, integrated rural development, agriculture credit, parastatal enterprises).
New style agriculture projects require less money: (CDD, irrigation
rehab, micro-credit, agriculture research and knowledge, soil rehabilitation, land management, land titling)
Agriculture not the priority of Ministers of Finance
Quality problems with agriculture projects, combined with high
cost of preparation
Urban poverty expanding more rapidly than rural.
8.12 WATER RESOURCES-AVAILABILITY

AND UTILIZATION-IRRIGATION
India is pregnant with an affluent and huge variety of natural resources,
including water are regarded as one of the most essential properties. Its
improvement and control largely affects in agricultural output. For a stable
environmental and economic development, management of water resources should be integrated as per the National Water Policy, 2002.
The Indian rivers receive a total average annual flow of 1953 km3 per
year. It is estimated that entire annual usable ground and surface water resources is around 396 km3 and 690 km3. With improvements in standard of
living and growing number of population, demand for water resources has
also increased along with reducing availability of water throughout the nation. Moreover, due to rising pollution levels, the quality of water resources
is also declining. Thus the change in climatic conditions, might affect the
annual rainfall and availability of water.
Figure 8.6: Water resource.
8.12.1 Water Resources Utilization

The total ground water resource, thus computed would be available for
utilization for irrigation, domestic and industrial uses (Figure 8.6). The base
flow in rivers is a regenerated ground water resource and is sometimes
committed for lift irrigation schemes and other surface irrigation works.
It is, therefore, recommended that 15% of total ground water resources be
kept for drinking and industrial purposes, for committed base flow and to
account for the irrecoverable losses. The remaining 85% can be utilized for
irrigation purposes. But wherever the committed base flows, domestic and
industrial uses are more than 15%, the utilizable resources for irrigation
may be considered accordingly.
Irrigation Utilization
Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of
crops. Plants need it continuously during their life and in huge quantities.
It profoundly influences photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation, utilization of mineral nutrients, and cell division besides some other
processes. Both its shortage and excess affect the growth and development
of a plant directly and, consequently, its yield and quality. Rainfall plants
in India, however, rainfall is notoriously capricious, causing floods and
droughts alternately. Its frequency distribution and amount are not in accordance with the needs of the crops. Artificial water supply through irrigation on one occasion, and the removal of excess water through drainage
on another occasion, therefore, becomes imperative, if the crops are to be
raised successfully. Water management in India, thus, comprises irrigation
or drainage or both, depending considerably on the environmental conditions, soil, crops and climate. It is a situation oriented entity.
Surface Irrigation
Water is distributed over and across land by gravity, no mechanical pump
involved.
Localized Irrigation
Water is distributed under low pressure, through a piped network and applied to each plant.
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Drip Irrigation
This type of localized irrigation in which drops of water are delivered at or
near the root of plants. In this type of irrigation, evaporation and runoff are
minimized (Figure 8.7).
Figure 8.7: Drip irrigation.
Sprinkler Irrigation
Water is distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns from a
central location in the field or from sprinklers on moving platforms (Figure
8.8).
Figure 8.8: Sprinkle irrigation.
Center Pivot Irrigation

Water is distributed by a system of sprinklers that move on wheeled towers in a circular pattern. This system is common in flat areas of the United
States.
Lateral Move Irrigation

Water is distributed through a series of pipes, each with a wheel and a set of
sprinklers, which are rotated either by hand or with a purpose-built mechanism. The sprinklers move a certain distance across the field and then need
to have the water hose reconnected for the next distance. This system tends
to be less expensive but requires more labor than others.
Sub-irrigation
Water is distributed across land by raising the water table, through a system of pumping stations, canals, gates, and ditches. This type of irrigation
is most effective in areas with high water tables.
Manual Irrigation
Water is distributed across land through manual labor and watering cans.
This system is very labor intensive.
Domestic Utilization
Traditional Rainwater Harvesting and Conservation
The concept of water conservation/harvesting being practiced since
ages in form of Tanks in the homes, Bawaries in the mohallas, Khadins, Johads, and Tank in every village for storage of the precious water for drinking as well as agriculture purposes will be revived and encouraged. Special
attention to it is being given and the more efforts for continuing the process and mobilization of funds will be made. Possibility of participation of
NGOs and private sector will also be explored and implemented.
Utilization of Treated Waste Water

Uncontrolled wastewater disposal from urban and industrial centers is a
waste of reusable water and also poses a serious health hazard and an environmental nuisance. Plans will be prepared for the utilization of treated
sewage, which is the most reliable source of water, for irrigation of non-edible crops. The recycling of treated water in industries and its treatment to
the desired level so as not to affect quality of water will be ensured through
vigilance, monitoring of water quality and co- ordination with State Pollution Control Board. Special attention will be given to cities and towns where
industrial growth is significant like Pali, Bhilwara, Balotra, Udaipur, and
Kota etc.
Management and Control of Groundwater

To educate the public about situation of groundwater and implications of
continuing such uncontrolled exploitation and need to manage it for its sustainability. A mass awareness and communication program through print /
electronic or any other media
Industrial Utilization
Monitoring of water use in industries is gaining importance due to increasing competition and stringent environment norms. Water is no longer perceived as a free commodity; further, innovative technologies, along with
modification of existing technologies are commercially available to reduce
process water consumption. In general, reduction in industrial wastewater
can be achieved through one or a combination of the following measures:
Process modification or change in raw materials to reduce water
consumption;
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186
Direct reuse of wastewater;

In-plant reuse of reclaimed wastewater;
Use of treated wastewater for non-industrial purposes.
8.13 SCARCITY OF WATER

The word water scarcity describes the relationship between demand for water and its availability. Water scarcity can be determined as both the availability of water and its consumption patterns. There are several factors that
influence the availability and consumption of water. Hence the definition
for the availability and consumption is different in various regions. Because
of these factors water scarcity will vary widely from country to country and
from region to region within a country. Therefore it is little difficult to adopt
a global figure to indicate water scarcity but simply we can say water availability of less than 1000 m3/capita as a water scarcity.
Some of the major reasons behind water scarcity are;
Population growth and Food production (Agriculture)
Increasing construction/ infrastructure development Activities
Massive urbanization and industrialization throughout the country
Climatic change and variability- Depleting of natural resources due
to changing climate conditions (Deforestation etc.)
Lack of implementation of effective water management systems.
8.13.1 Rain Water Harvesting

The term rainwater harvesting is being frequently used these days; however, the concept of water harvesting is not new for India. Water harvesting
techniques had been evolved and developed centuries ago (Figure 8.9).
Ground water resource gets naturally recharged through percolation.
But due to indiscriminate development and rapid urbanization, exposed
surface for soil has been reduced drastically with resultant reduction in percolation of rainwater, there by depleting ground water resource. Rainwater
harvesting is the process of augmenting the natural filtration of rainwater in
to the underground formation by some artificial methods. Conscious collection and storage of rainwater to cater to demands of water, for drinking,
domestic purpose and irrigation is termed as Rainwater Harvesting.
Figure 8.9: Rain water collection in flat roofs.
Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater:

Surface runoff harvesting
Roof top rainwater harvesting
Surface Runoff Harvesting

In urban area rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff could be
caught and used for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.
Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting (RTRWH)

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting,
the roof becomes the catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the
roof of the house/building. It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to
artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and very effective
and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the ground water level
of the area.
8.13.2 Watershed Management

Every body of water (e.g., rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, and estuaries) has a
watershed. The watershed is the area of land that drains or sheds water into
a specific receiving water body, such as a lake or a river. As rainwater or
melted snow runs downhill in the watershed, it collects and transports sediment and other materials and deposits them into the receiving water body.
Watershed management is a term used to describe the process of implementing land use practices and water management practices to protect
and improve the quality of the water and other natural resources within
a watershed by managing the use of those land and water resources in a
comprehensive manner.
What is Watershed Management Planning?

Watershed management planning is a process that results in a plan or a
blueprint of how to best protect and improve the water quality and other
natural resources in a watershed. Very often, watershed boundaries extend
over political boundaries into adjacent municipalities and/or states. That is
why a comprehensive planning process that involves all affected municipalities located in the watershed is essential to successful watershed management.
8.14 MINERAL AND ENERGY

RESOURCES
Mineral are homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable
internal structure.
A particular mineral that will be formed from a certain combination of
elements depends upon the physical and chemical conditions under which
the material forms. This, in turn, results in a wide range of colors, hardness,
crystal forms, luster and density that a particular mineral possesses. Geologists use these properties to classify the minerals (Figure 8.10)
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Minerals in India:
Minerals
Metallic
Ferrous:
Iron Ore
Manganese
Nickel, Cobalt
Non-metallic
Non-ferrous:
Copper, lead,
Tin, Bauxite
Percious:
Gold, silver,
platinum
Energy-Minerals
Mica, salt, potash,

sulphur, granite,
limestone, marble,
sandstone
Coal, petroleum,
natural gas
Figure 8.10: Classification of minerals.
8.14.1 Conventional
Coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock composed
mostly of carbon and hydrocarbons. It is the most abundant fossil fuel produced in the United States.
Coal is a non-renewable energy source because it takes millions of
years to create. The energy in coal comes from the energy stored by plants
that lived hundreds of millions of years ago, when the Earth was partly
covered with swampy forests.
For millions of years, a layer of dead plants at the bottom of the swamps
was covered by layers of water and dirt, trapping the energy of the dead
plants. The heat and pressure from the top layers helped the plant remains
turn into what we today call coal.
Natural Gas
Natural Gas is one of the principle sources of energy for many of our dayto-day needs and activities.
Hydro Electricity
Hydroelectric power must be one of the oldest methods of producing power. No doubt, Jack the Caveman stuck some sturdy leaves on a pole and put
it in a moving stream. The water would spin the pole that crushed grain to
make their delicious, low-fat prehistoric bran muffins. People have used
moving water to help them in their work throughout history, and modern
people make great use of moving water to produce electricity.
8.14.2 Non-conventional Energy Sources

Solar Energy
The sun is the most abundant and unlimited source of energy. The sun
functions as a global source of energy and has tremendous potential. As a
result, solar energy is one of the most important non conventional sources
of energy that are utilized in India. The solar cookers are quite economical
and they have been a remarkable invention. These cookers assist in food
preparation nearly without any expenditure. Additionally, many tiny and
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medium-scale solar power plants have been intended for the countryside
areas in India. Until now, some of the effective usages of solar energy include water heating, food preparation, area heating, removal of salt from
water, and drying of harvest. Furthermore, it has been forecasted that solar
energy will become the future source of energy while fossil fuels, specifically oil and coal, would be completely used up. Solar photovoltaic systems,
solar thermal systems, and solar energy centre are some of the means of
generating solar energy (Figure 8.11).
Figure 8.11: Panels (photo voltaic systems).
Wind Energy
Wind energy is a popular form of non-conventional energy. It is utilized for
drawing water, which is an essential requirement in watering agricultural
lands in the rural areas. In addition, it can be utilized for electricity generation (Figure 8.12). In India, states like Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Orissa, and Maharashtra are regarded as superior areas with respect to this type of energy.
Places that have regular and rapid wind flows are appropriate for this kind
of power generation. Other than windmills, wind farms are there as well.
Figure 8.12: Wind mills.
Biogas
Bio-Fuel also known as Bio-Gas is obtained from sources of waste. By burning waste we obtain bio-gas. This process is called Bio-methanation. The
main problem in this method is the transportation of the bio-gas. Thus this
module will be a great life-saver of non-renewable sources of energy which
needs to be preserved for the future. We look forward to solve this drawback of using bio-gas as a fuel for transportation (Figure 8.13).
190
Figure 8.13: Biogas plant.
Energy Conservation
Air Pre Heaters and Economizer on Boilers Thermo pack, Ovens,
Furnaces - Fuel Saving up to 5%
Fuel Saving Devices - Guaranteed Fuel Saving up to 10%
F.O. Emulsification system mixing of water in F.O. up to 10 % with
emulsifying agent gives complete Combustion of F.O. Resulting F.
O. Saving up to 10%
Conversion of electrical heating to fuel firing (Thermal Heating)
gives saving up to 40%
Heat repellant coating from Inner surfaces of ovens and furnace
gives saving upto 10%
F. O. Conversion systems with proper heating and filtering system,
any HSD or LDO fired burner can be converted to FO. Firing - gives
saving up to 25% in fuel cost.
Thermal Insulation Project We can conduct thermal insulation audit for the heating system and reinsulated the system to avoid Heat
losses - gives saving up to 5%.
Design manufacturing, installation and commissioning of all type of
thermal heating systems with performance guarantee. (Steam, Thermic Fluid, Hot Water, Hot Air)
Solar steam generation plant - for industrial process heating applications.
Industrial food waste bio gas plants. For canteen waste
8.15 INDUSTRIES
This classification that refers to a group of companies that are related in
terms of their primary business activities. In modern economies, there are
dozens of different industry classifications, which are typically grouped
into larger categories called sectors.
Individual companies are generally classified into industries based on
their largest sources of revenue. For example, an automobile manufacturer
might have a small financing division that contributes 10% to overall revenues, but the company will still be universally classified as an auto maker
for attribution purposes.
Medium scale industries include the manufacturing of pesticides, ferti-
lizers, tyres, tubes, footwear, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, wheat products,

steel rolling, fruits and fish canning, cashew nuts, textiles, brewery products.
Types
Primary Industry: Primary industry is concerned with production
of goods with the help of nature. It is a nature-oriented industry,
which requires very little human effort. E.g. Agriculture, farming,
forestry, fishing, horticulture, etc.
Genetic Industry: Genetic industries are engaged in re-production
and multiplication of certain spices of plants and animals with the
object of sale. The main aim is to earn profit from such sale. E.g.
plant nurseries, cattle rearing, poultry, cattle breeding, etc.
Extractive Industry: Extractive industry is concerned with extraction or drawing out goods from the soil, air or water. Generally
products of extractive industries come in raw form and they are
used by manufacturing and construction industries for producing
finished products. E.g. mining industry, coal mineral, oil industry,
iron ore, extraction of timber and rubber from forests, etc.
Manufacturing Industry: Manufacturing industries are engaged
in transforming raw material into finished product with the help
of machines and manpower. The finished goods can be either consumer goods or producer goods. E.g. textiles, chemicals, sugar industry, paper industry, etc.
Construction Industry: Construction industries take up the work
of construction of buildings, bridges, roads, dams, canals, etc. This
industry is different from all other types of industry because in case
of other industries goods can be produced at one place and sold at
another place. But goods produced and sold by constructive industry are erected at one place.
Service Industry: In modern times service sector plays an important
role in the development of the nation and therefore it is named as
service industry. The main industries, which fall under this category, include hotel industry, tourism industry, entertainment industry, etc.
8.16 INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS

Within the SSI sector, an important role is played by the numerous clusters that have been in existence for decades. The SSE clusters in India are
estimated to have a significantly high share in employment generation. It
is estimated that 400 modern SSE and 2000 rural and artisan based clusters
exist in India. These contribute up to 60% of Indias manufactured exports.
A Cluster is generally identified by the product (or product range)
and the place where it is located. A complete industry or a sector (like the
leather sector) cannot be referred to as a Cluster. The process of cluster
development usually consists of the following steps: Selection of a Cluster Development Agent
Diagnostic Study
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192
Preparation of Action Plan for intervention

Approval of the project and release of funds through leveraging
Implementation of Trust Building between Cluster Actors and Cluster Development Agent, and also among Cluster Actors
Monitoring and Evaluation
Self Management Phase
It is on the basis of the availability of the basic raw materials, etc. required for setting up of a particular industry that certain States and districts
are known for a specific group of industries. For example, the knitwear cluster of Ludhiana, Gems and Jewelers clusters of Surat and Mumbai, clusters
of Chennai, Agra and Kolkata for leather and leather products, etc.
Several institutions in India have taken up Cluster Projects besides various government initiatives. UNIDO Cluster Development Program (CDP)
aims to contribute to the overall performance and collective efficiency of
the small and medium enterprise clusters for sustainable development by
assisting selected local communities of firms and associated institutions in
the clusters. This entails the implementation of cluster support initiative in
selected pilot clusters as well as assistance to central and local institutions
in their program of cluster modernization and restructuring.

1.
..has emerged as an important wheat producing state of India.
(a) Punjab
(b) Haryana
(c) Rajasthan
(d) M.P
2.
...........states contribute nearly 12-5% of total rice of India.
(a)Tamil Nadu
(b) Andhra Pradesh
(c) U.P. and Uttaranchal
(d) Punjab
3.
.........is the major raw material for biogas.
(a) Plant leaves
(b) Cow dung
(c)Mud
(d) Grass
4.
Asia provides nearly 95% of the worlds production of natural ..
(a) Rubber
(b) Tea
(c) Wheat
(d) Jute.
5.
The is the most abundant and unlimited source of energy.
(a) Jupitor
(b) Moon
(c) Mars
(d) Sun
6.
The invention of cotton ginning machine and introduction of mechanized spinning and weaving in
(a) 1973
(b)1975
(c) 1970
(d) 1971
7.
In which of the following states is black soil found?
(a) Jammu and Kashmir
(b) Gujarat
(c) Rajasthan
(d) Jharkhand
8.
Which one of the following is the main cause of land degradation in

Punjab
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(a) Intensive cultivation
(b) Deforestation
(c) Over irrigation
(d) Overgrazing
9.
Which state is the largest producer of rice in India?
(a) Jammu and Kashmir
(b) Gujarat
(c) West Bengal
(d) Jharkhand
10. Which one of the following types of resources is iron ore?

(a)Renewable
(b) Biotic
(c)Flow
(d)Non-renewable

1. Name three states having black soil and the crop which is mainly
grown in it.
2. What are biotic and biotic resources? Give some examples.
3. Explain land use pattern in India and why has the land under forest
not increased much from 1960-61?
4. How have technical and economic development led to more consumption of resources?
5. Classify minerals into two groups on the basis of chemical and
physical properties and give one example of mineral of each group.
Mention any two features of the three mineral belts of India.
6. Which is most popular crop in India and explain?
7. Explain about rice and their types.
8. Explain about tea and their types.
9. Explain about Jute and their variety.
10. What is rain water harvesting and types?

1 (a)
2 (c)
3 (b)
4 (a)
5 (d)
6 (a)
7 (b)
8 (a)
9 (c)
10 (d)
Chapter 9
Transport, Communication,
and Trade
Objectives
After studying this
able to:
Explain about
modes of
transportation and their
types
Describe
about of roads
and their
types
Understand
about of communication
Explain about
of pipelines
and their
types, and
importance
INTRODUCTION
Transport is a service or facility for the carriage of persons and goods from
one place to the other using humans, animals and different kinds of vehicles.
Such movements take place over land, water and air. Roads and railways
form part of land transport; while shipping and waterways and airways are
the other two modes. Pipelines carry materials like petroleum, natural gas,
and ores in liquidities form. Moreover, transportation is an organized service
industry created to satisfy the basic needs of society. It includes transport
arteries, vehicles to carry people and goods, and the organization to maintain
arteries, and to handle loading, unloading and delivery. Every nation has developed various kinds of transportation for defense purposes. Assured and
speedy transportation, along with efficient communication, promote cooperation and unity among scattered peoples.
9.1 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

The principal modes of world transportation, as already mentioned are land,
water, air, and pipelines. These are used for inter-regional and intra-regional transport, and each one (except pipelines) carries both passengers and
freight. The significance of a mode depends on the type of goods and services
to be transported, costs of transport and the mode available. International
movement of goods is handled by ocean freighters. Road transport is cheaper
and faster over short distances and for door to door services. Railways are
most suited for large volumes of bulky materials over long distances within a
country. High-value, light and perishable goods are best moved by airways.
In a well-managed transport system, these various modes complement each
other.
9.1.1 Land Transport

Most of the movement of goods and services takes place over land. In early days, humans themselves were carriers. We have seen that a bride being carried on a palanquin (palki/doli) by four persons (Kahars in north
India). Later animals were used as beasts of burden. Have we seen mules,
horses and camels, carrying loads of cargo in rural areas? With the invention
of the wheel, the use of carts and wagons became important. The revolution in transport came about only after the invention of the steam engine in
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the eighteenth century. Perhaps the first public railway line was opened
in 1825 between Stockton and Darlington in northern England and then
onwards, railways became the most popular and fastest form of transport
in the nineteenth century. It opened up continental interiors for commercial
grain farming, mining and manufacturing in U.S.A. The invention of the
internal combustion engine revolutionized road transport in terms of road
quality and vehicles (motor cars and trucks) plying over them. Among the
newer developments in land transportation are pipelines, ropeways and
cableways. Liquids like mineral oil, water, sludge and sewers are transported by pipelines. The great freight carriers are the railways, ocean vessels, barges, boats and motor trucks and pipelines. In general, the old and
elementary forms like the human porter, pack animal, cart or wagon are the
most expensive means of transportation and large freighters are the cheap- Key Vocabulary
est. They are important in supplementing modern channels and carriers
which penetrate the interiors in large countries. In the densely populated Communications: The
districts of India and China, overland transport still takes place by human imparting or exchanging
porters or carts drawn or pushed by humans.
of information or news.
9.1.2 Roads
Road transport is the most economical for short distances compared to
railways (Figure.9.1). Freight transport by road is gaining importance because it offers door-to-door service. But unmetalled roads, though simple
in construction, are not effective and serviceable for all seasons. During the
rainy season these become unmotorable and even the metalled ones are seriously handicapped during heavy rains and floods. In such conditions, the
high embankment of rail-tracks and the efficient maintenance of railway
transport service is an effective solution. But the rail kilo metrage being
small cannot serve the needs of vast and developing countries at a low cost.
Roads, therefore, play a vital role in a nations trade and commerce and for
promoting tourism. The quality of the roads varies greatly between developed and developing countries because road construction and maintenance
require heavy expenditure. In developed countries good quality roads are
universal and provide long-distance links in the form of motorways, autobahns (Germany), and inter state highways for speedy movement. Lorries, of increasing size and power to carry heavy loads, are common. But
unfortunately, the worlds road system is not well developed. The worlds
total motor able road length is only about 15 million km, of which North
America accounts for 33%. The highest road density and the highest number of vehicles are registered in this continent compared to Western Europe.
Figure 9.1: Roads.
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9.1.3 HIGHWAYS
Key Vocabulary
International Trade: It
is exchange of capital,
goods, and services
across international borders or territories.
Highways are metallic roads connecting distant places. They are constructed in a manner for unobstructed vehicular movement (Figur.9.2).
As such these are 80 meter wide, with separate traffic lanes, bridges, flyovers and dual carriageways to facilitate uninterrupted traffic flow. In developed countries, every city and port town is linked through highways
In North America; highway density is high, about 0.65 km per sq km.
Every place is within 20 km distance from a highway. Cities located on
the pacific coast (west) are well-connected with those of the Atlantic Coast
(east). Likewise, the cities of Canada in the north are linked with those of
Mexico in the south. The Trans- Canadian highway links Vancouver in
British Columbia (west coast) to St. Johns City in Newfoundland (east
coast) and the Alaskan highway links Edmonton (Canada) to Anchorage
(Alaska). The Pan-American Highway, a large portion of which has been
constructed, will connect the countries of South America, Central America and U.S.A. Canada. The Trans- continental stuart highway connects
Darwin (north coast) and Melbourne via Tennant Creek and Alice springs
in Australia. Europe has a large number of vehicles and a well-developed
highway network. But highways face a lot of competition from railways
and waterways. In Russia, a dense highway network is developed in the
industrialized region west of the Urals with Moscow as the hub. The important Moscow Vladivostok highway serves the region to the east. Due
to the vast geographical area, highways in Russia are not as important as
railways.
Figure 9.2: Highways.
9.1.4 Border Roads

Roads laid along international boundaries are called border roads (Figure.9.3). They play an important role in integrating people in remote
areas with major cities and providing defense. Almost all countries
have such roads to transport goods to border villages and military
camps.
Figure.9.3: Border road.
9.2 RAILWAYS
Railways are a mode of land transport for bulky goods and passengers over
long distances (Figure.9.4). The railway gauges vary in different countries
and are roughly classified as broad (more than 1.5 m), standard (1.44 m),
meter gauge (1 m) and smaller gauges. The standard gauge is used in the
U.K. Commuter trains are very popular in U.K., U.S.A, Japan, and India.
These carry millions of passengers daily to and from in the city. There are
about 13 lakh km of railways open for traffic in the world. Europe has one
of the most dense rail networks in the world. There are about 4, 40,000 km
of railways, most of which is double or multiple-tracked. Belgium has the
highest density of 1 km of railway for every 6.5 sq km area. The industrial
regions exhibit some of the highest densities in the world. The important
rail heads are London, Paris, Brussels, Milan, Berlin, and Warsaw. Passenger transport is more important than freight in many of these countries.
Underground railways are important in London and Paris. Channel Tunnel, operated by Euro Tunnel Group through England, connects London
with Paris. Trans-continental railway lines have now lost their importance
to quicker and more flexible transport systems of airways and roadways. In
Russia, railways account for about 90% of the countrys total transport with
a very dense network west of the Urals. Moscow is the most important rail
head with major lines radiating to different parts of the countrys vast geographical area. Underground railways and commuter trains are also important in Moscow. North America has one of the most extensive rail networks
accounting for nearly 40% of the worlds total. In contrast to many European countries, the railways are used more for long-distance bulky freight like
ores, grains, timber and machinery than for passengers. The most dense rail
network is found in the highly industrialized and urbanized region of East
Central U.S.A. and adjoining Canada. In Canada, railways are in the public
sector and distributed all over the sparsely populated areas. The transcontinental railways carry the bulk of wheat and coal tonnage. Australia has
about 40,000 km of railways, of which 25%are found in New South Wales
alone. The west-east Australian National Railway line runs across the country from Perth to Sydney. New Zealands railways are mainly in the North
Island to serve the farming areas. In South America, the rail network is
the most dense in two regions, namely, the Pampas of Argentina and the
coffee growing region of Brazil which together account for 40%of South
Americas total route length. Only Chile, among the remaining countries
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Key Vocabulary
Television: It is a telecommunication medium for
transmitting and receiving moving image.
198
Key Vocabulary
Transportation: The
process of shipping or
moving an item from
point A to point B.
has a considerable route length linking coastal centers with the mining sites
in the interior. Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela have short
single-track rail-lines from ports to the interior with no inter-connecting
links. There is only one trans-continental rail route linking Buenos Aires
(Argentina) with Valparaiso (Chile) across the Andes Mountains through
the Uspallatta Pass located at a height of 3,900 m. In Asia, rail network is the
most dense in the thickly populated areas of Japan, China and India. Other
countries have relatively few rail routes. West Asia is the least developed in
rail facilities because of vast deserts and sparsely populated regions. Africa
continent, despite being the second largest, has only 40,000 km of railways
with South Africa alone accounting for 18,000 km due to the concentration
of gold, diamond and copper mining activities.
The Important Routes of the Continent are:
The Benguela railway through Angola to Katanga-Zambia Copper
Belt;
The Tanzania railway from the Zambian Copper Belt to Dar-es-Salaam on the coast;
The railway through Botswana and Zimbabwe linking the landlocked states to the South African network; and
The Blue Train from Cape Town to Pretoria in the Republic of South
Africa. Elsewhere, as in Algeria, Senegal, Nigeria, Kenya and Ethiopia, railway lines connect port cities to interior centers but do not
form a good network with other countries.
Figure 9.4: Railways.
9.2.1 Types of railways

Conventional Railway
Mostly outdoors using diesel, electric or steam locomotives. It supports
passenger and freight trains.
Subway
A form of public transportation, usually used below ground on isolated
track. (Can only support passengers)
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Monorail
A train suspended from a single rail usually high the ground. Usually supporting only passengers.
Maglev
The same as a conventional railway but elevated a few feet from the ground.
It floats a few centimeters from its track because of magnetic levitation.
9.3 WATER TRANSPORT

One of the great advantages of water transportation is that it does not require route construction. The oceans are linked with each other and are
negotiable with ships of various sizes. All that is needed is to provide port
facilities at the two ends. It is much cheaper because the friction of water is
far less than that of land. The energy cost of water transportation is lower.
Water transport is divided into ocean routes and inland waterways (Figure.9.5).
Figure 9.5: Water transport.
Importance of Water Transportation

There are many different reasons why water transportation is very important. For example, water transportation transports 20% of Americas coal.
That is enough to produce 10% of yearly electricity in the U.S! Also, it carries 60% of U.S grain exports. Today is tugboat and barge industry moves
800 million tons of raw materials each year! Waterway transportation is the
most money made mode of commercial freight transportation. This is because of the enormous capacity of the barge. For example an average barge
is 15 times greater than one ril car and 60 times greater than a trailer truck.
People have used water transportation to explore, settle, and trade with
foreign countries. Ships have carried food, clothing, and many other objects
from other places. Did we know that each year ships move nearly 125 million tons of liquids? So, a lot of our lives depend on water transportation.
Need for Water Transportation

We have water transportation because it is the safest mode of commercial
freight transportation. Also, it has the least number of accidents of any
Key Vocabulary
Waterways: It plays
many important roles for
recreation, education and
the environment.
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mode. Also we have water transportation because since it is so safe, many

objects are shipped on it. In conclusion, water transportation is very safe.
9.3.1 Inland Waterways
Key Vocabulary
Paleolithic Age: Second
part of the Stone Age
beginning about 75,000 to
500,000 years BC and lasting until the end of the
last ice age about 8,500
years BC.
Inland waterways refer to using inland water bodies like rivers, canals,
backwaters, creeks, etc for transporting goods and people from one place to
another. India has a long historical tradition of using such waterways. Ganga, Brahmaputra, Indus, Yamuna, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri,
Narmada, and Tapi etc. were the main arteries of the countrys transport
system giving birth to a number of inland river ports and jetties. The decline
of river transport began with the construction of the railways during the
middle of the 19th century.
Later on the development of roads adversely affected the prospects of
such transport. The diversion of river water irrigation canals made many
of these rivers unsuitable for navigation, So much so that today its share is
only 1% in the countrys transport system.
India is a land of many long and perennial rivers. But water transport
is not very popular in the country. This is mainly due to seasonal concentration of rainfall, fluctuating river regime, devastating floods during rainy
season, shifting river courses (in the Northern Plains) making it difficult to
construct permanent jetty or wharf, diversion of large quantity of river water into irrigation canals so as to reduce the depth of water in the river and
making it unsuitable for steamers and mechanized boats, heavy silting and
formation of sandbars, undulating topography in hilly and plateau regions
leading to the formation of a number of rapids, and formation of delta and
diversion channels making the mouth narrower for the entry of ships and
big boats.
The country has about 14,500 km of navigable waterways which comprises rivers, canals, back-waters, creeks, etc. Of this total length only a
length of 3,700 km of major rivers is navigable by mechanized crafts but the
length actually utilized is only 2,000 km. As regards canals, out of 4,300 km
of navigation canals, only 900 km is suitable for navigation by mechanized
crafts. About 160 lakh tonnes of cargo is annually moved by Indian Wjjter
Transport.
The most important waterways of the country are the Ganga Bhagirathi Hugli, the Brahmaputra river, the Barak river, the delta and lower
courses of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna river, the lower courses
of the Narmada and Tapi, the Zuari and Mandovi rivers in Goa, the Kali,
Shravati and Netravati in Karnataka.
The backwaters and lagoons in Kerala and the Buckingham Canal of
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Uttar Pradesh has the highest length of
navigable inland waterways (2,441 km or 17.01%) of the country followed
by West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Kerala and Bihar.
9.3.2 Canals
The Buckingham Canal (412.8 km) is an important navigation canal in
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. It runs parallel to the eastern coast joining all the coastal districts from Guntur to South Arcot. It is 315 km long
north of Chennai and 100 km south of it. Its northern part connects the
Kommamur Canal of the Krishna delta, while the southern part terminates
in Marakkanupi backwaters. The construction of the Vijayawada-Chennai
rail line has adversely affected the canal traffic. It is now mainly used for
the transport of salt and fire wood to Chennai city.
Similarly Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal (116.8 km), Son Canal (326.4 km),
Orissa Canal (272 km), Medinipur Canal (459.2 km), Damodar Canal (136
km) and West Coast Canal (connecting major ports along the western coast)
are also used for inland navigation. Some of the irrigation canals of Uttar
Pradesh and Punjab are also utilized for local transport.
9.4 AIR TRANSPORT

Air transport is the fastest means of transportation, but it is very costly (Figure 9.6). Being fast, it is preferred by passengers for long-distance travel.
Valuable cargo can be moved rapidly on a world-wide scale. It is often the
only means to reach inaccessible areas. Air transport has brought about a
connectivity revolution in the world. The frictions created by mountainous
snow fields or inhospitable desert terrains have been overcome. The accessibility has increased. In the Himalayan region, the routes are often obstructed due to landslides, avalanches or heavy snow fall. At such times, air
travel is the only alternative to reach a place. Airways also have great strategicimportance. The air strikes by U.S. and British forces in Iraq bear testimony to this fact. The airways network is expanding very fast. The manufacturing of aircrafts and their operations require elaborate infrastructure
like hangars, landing, fuelling, and maintenance facilities for the aircrafts.
The construction of airports is also very expensive and has developed more
in highly industrialized countries where there is a large volume of traffic.
At present no place in the world is more than 35 hours away. This startling
fact has been made possible due to people who build and fly airplanes.
Travel by air can now be measured by hours and minutes instead of years
and months. Frequent air services are available to many parts of the world.
Although, U.K. pioneered the use of commercial jet transport, U.S.A. developed largely post-War international civil aviation. Today, more than 250
commercial airlines offer regular services to different parts of the world.
Recent developments can change the future course of air transport. Supersonic aircraft cover the distance between London and New York within
three and a half hours.
Figure 9.6: Air transport.
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9.4.1 Hot Air Balloons

The first successful type of air transportation that carried humans was the
hot air balloon. The Montgolfier brothers developed the idea of designing
a large bag or balloon that held hot air in the late 1700s. Passengers and the
heat source were placed in a gondola or wicker basket underneath the balloon. Since hot air rises, the balloon flew according to the direction of the
wind. By cooling the balloons temperature, the passengers safely floated
back to earth. Todays hot air balloons use almost the exact same technology, however, they are able to design the balloons into nearly any shape
imaginable (Figure.9.7).
Figure 9.7: Hot air balloons
9.4.2 Blimps
An offshoot of the hot air balloon is the blimp. Blimps have been around
since the end of the 19th century and were first used as scouting tools by
various militaries. The technology has developed into a convenient and
cost-effective way to travel and advertise products. To float, blimps use hot
air and large fans attached to the gondola underneath. They can be deflated
for storage or transportation and inflated cheaply when service is needed.
Arguably, the Goodyear Blimp is the most famous of this mode of transportation, seen at sporting games and events around the world (Figure 9.8).
Figure 9.8: Blimps.
9.4.3 Zeppelins
Zeppelins were built in the early 20th century, based on designs by Count
Ferdinand von Zeppelin. Visually, zeppelins appear very much like blimps
(Figure 9.9). However, they differ on two key points: zeppelins have a metal
skeleton with a rigid covering, and they are filled with hydrogen. These
two elements made zeppelins much larger than blimps and capable of sustaining long-distance flights. During World War I, they were introduced as
the first flying machine to practice bombing runs. Through the successive
decades, zeppelins were used in the first commercial airline service, ferrying passengers from Germany to the Americas. Unfortunately, the zeppelin
industry was destroyed by the public outcry from the 1937 Hindenburg
disaster, when a zeppelin exploded over New Jersey, killing 35 people.
Figure 9.9: Zeppelins.
9.4.4 Airplanes
The fixed-wing aircraft is the most popular form of air transportation available. According to FlightAware, a flight tracking organization, there are
49,315 commercial flights around the world each day that use fixed-wing
aircraft. Nearly, 1.1 billion people are flown each year. Fixed-wing aircraft are distinguishable from other types of air transportation in that they
achieve lift through forward motion. A long runway is needed for the vehicles to achieve enough velocity to become airborne. Airplanes use a propeller or jet engine to power the aircraft, and the wings act as a stabilizer for
keeping the vehicle in the air (Figure 9.10).
The first design for functional fixed-wing aircraft dates back to the
1800s. Most of these designs were models that were not large enough to hold
passengers. The first official sustained flight was performed by the Wright
Brothers on Dec. 17, 1903. Over the next decade, advances in the technology continued. World War I became the first full-scale testing ground for
fixed-wing aircraft. Thousands of planes were built for the purpose of spying, bombing and fighting. By the time the war ended, aviation had become
a science. Following the war, larger passenger planes were produced, and
ultimately, the jet engine was designed, making way for one of the fastest modes of transportation in the world. Airplanes are used by militaries
and civilian agencies around the world. They have been incorporated with
luxurious facilities in the case of passenger planes and extensive weapons
systems for military use.
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Figure 9.10: Airplanes.
9.4.5 Helicopters
With the success of the fixed-wing aircraft, engineers and technicians looked
for a way to make the general principles of airplanes, sustained and fast
flight, more efficient. The goal was to develop a flying vehicle that could
take off from a sitting position and carry people to another location. This invention is the helicopter. Helicopters are propelled using horizontal rotors
consisting of two or more blades (Figure 9.11). These blades rotate around
the top of the machine, and achieve lift, pulling the body of the helicopter along. Designs for the helicopter had been conceived as far back as the
1480s, with Leonard da Vinci. However, it was not until the early 1900s that
individuals created working models. The post-war era saw the birth of the
helicopter industry. However, most models can only carry four to six people, limiting its commercial use. The primary applications for helicopters
are in the military, law enforcement, medical, news or fire control sectors.
Figure 9.11: Helicopter.
9.4.6 Rockets
Perhaps the most advanced form of air transportation comes in the form of
rockets. Rockets use thrust obtained via the chemical reaction of a fluid that
is ejected at high velocities from the vehicle. The force from the explosion
within the vehicles combustion chamber forces gases out of the tail of the
rocket, pushing the vehicle to extremely high speeds. The principle is based
on inertia, in that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Rockets have been used at least since the 13th century for small-scale military
applications and recreational displays. However, the first full-scale imple-
mentation was during World War II with Germanys V-2 rockets and various rocket-powered aircraft (Figure 9.12). The post-war era saw the rocket
implemented as a mode of transportation that allowed for suborbital and
orbital flights in the upper atmosphere. These vehicles are used for both
public and private enterprises.
Figure 9.12: Rocket.
9.5 PIPELINES
Pipelines are used extensively to transport liquids and gases such as water, petroleum and natural gas for an uninterrupted flow. Water supplied
through pipelines is familiar to all. Cooking gas or LPG is supplied through
pipelines in many parts of the world. Pipelines can also be used to transport
liquidities coal. In New Zealand, milk is being supplied through pipelines
from farms to factories.
Why Pipelines are Needed?

Pipelines are the safest and most efficient means of transporting large quantities of crude oil and natural gas over land (Figure 9.13).
How we are so sure pipelines are the most efficient way to transport
crude oil and natural gas over land?
Each and every day, CEPA companies transport enough crude oil and
petroleum products to fill 15,000 tanker truck loads and 4,200 rail cars.
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Figure 9.13: Pipelines.
History of Pipelines
Canada has a proud history of pipeline construction and operation dating
back to 1853 when a 25 kilometer cast-iron pipe moving natural gas to Trois
Rivieres, QC was completed. It was probably the longest pipeline in the
world at the time. In 1862, Canada would complete one of the worlds first
oil pipelines, from the Petrolia oilfield in Petrolia, ON to Sarnia, ON.
By 1947, only three oil pipelines moved products to market in Canada.
One transported oil from Turner Valley, AB to Calgary. Second moved imported crude from coastal Maine to Montreal, QC while a third brought
American mid-continent oil into Ontario.
With the discovery of an abundant supply of crude oil and natural gas
in the west, Canadas oil and gas industry began expanding its vast pipeline network in the 1950s. This expansion contributed significantly to the
development of domestic and international markets, while propelling the
Canadian economy forward.
Types of Pipelines
Gathering Lines
These lines travel short distances gathering products from wells and move
then to oil batteries or natural gas processing facilities.
Feeder Lines
Feeder lines move products from batteries, processing facilities and storage
tanks in the field to the long-distance haulers of the pipeline industry, the
transmission pipelines.
Transmission Pipelines
Transmission lines are the energy-highways, transporting oil and natural
gas within a province and across provincial or international boundaries.
Distribution Pipelines
Local distribution companies (LDCs) operate natural gas distribution lines.
9.6 COMMUNICATIONS
Human beings have used different methods long-distance communications
of which the telegraph and the telephone were important. The telegraph
was instrumental in the colonization of the American West. During the
early and mid-twentieth century, the American Telegraph and Telephone
Company (AT&T) enjoyed a monopoly over U.S.A.s telephone industry. In
fact, the telephone became a critical factor in the urbanization of America.
Firms centralized their functioning at city headquarters and located their
branch offices in smaller towns. Even today, the telephone is the most commonly used mode. In developing countries, the use of cell phones, made
possible by satellites, is important for rural connectivity. Today there is a
phenomenal pace of development. The first major breakthrough is the use
of optic fiber cables (OFC). Faced with mounting competition, telephone
companies all over the world soon upgraded their copper cable systems to
include optic fiber cables. These allow large quantities of data to be transmitted rapidly, securely, and are virtually error-free. With the digitization
of information in the 1990s, telecommunication slowly merged with computers to form integrated networks termed as Internet.
9.7 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Today Internet is the largest electronic network on the planet connecting
about 1,000 million people in more than 100 countries. Communication
through satellites emerged as a new area in communication technology
since the 1970s after U.S.A. and former U.S.S.R. pioneered space research
(Figure 9.14). Artificial satellites, now, are successfully deployed in the
earths orbit to connect even the remote corners of the globe with limited
onsite verification. These have rendered the unit cost and time of communication invariant in terms of distance. This means it costs the same to communicate over 500 km as it does over 5,000 km via satellite India has also
made great strides in satellite development. Aryabhatt was launched on 19
April 1979, Bhaskar-I in 1979 and Rohini in 1980. On 18 June 1981, APPLE
(Arian Passenger Payload Experiment) was launched through Arian rocket.
Bhaskar, Challenger and INSAT I-B have made long distance communication, television and radio very effective. Today weather forecasting through
television is a boon.
Figure 9.14: Satellite communication.
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9.8 CYBER SPACE INTERNETS

Cyberspace is the world of electronic computerized space. It is encompassed
by the Internet such as the World Wide Web (www).In simple words, it
is the electronic digital world for communicating or accessing information
over computer networks without physical movement of the sender and the
receiver. It is also referred to as the Internet. Cyberspace exists everywhere.
It may be in an office, sailing boat, flying plane and virtually anywhere. The
speed at which this electronic network as spread is unprecedented in human history. There were less than 50 million Internet users in 1995, about
400 million in 2000 A.D. and over one billion in 2005. The next billion users
are to be added by 2010. In the last five years there has been a shift among
global users from U.S.A. to the developing countries. The percentage share
of U.S.A. has dropped from66 in 1995 to only 25 in 2005. Now the majority
of the worlds users are in U.S.A., U.K., Germany, Japan, China and India.
As billions use the Internet each year, cyberspace will expand the contemporary economic and social space of humans through the-mail, e-commerce, e-learning and e-governance. Internet together with fax, television
and radio will be accessible to more and more people cutting across place
and time. It is these modern communication systems, more than transportation that has made the concept of global village a reality.
The Creation of the Internet and the Development of Cyberspace

The Internet is not a physical or tangible entity, but rather a giant network
which interconnects innumerable smaller groups of linked computer networks. It is thus a network of networks. This is best understood if one considers what a linked group of computers-referred to here as a network is,
and what it does. Small networks are now ubiquitous (and are often called
local area networks). For example, in many United States Courthouses,
computers are linked to each other for the purpose of e exchanging files and
messages (and to share equipment such as printers). These are networks.
Some networks are closed networks, not linked to other computers
or networks. Many networks, however, are connected to other networks,
which are in turn connected to other networks in a manner which permits
each computer in any network to communicate with computers on any other network in the system. This global Web of linked networks and computers is referred to as the Internet.
The nature of the Internet is such that it is very difficult, if not impossible, to determine its size at a given moment. It is indisputable, however,
that the Internet has experienced extraordinary growth in recent years. In
1981, fewer than 300 computers were linked to the Internet, and by 1989,
the number stood at fewer than 90,000 computers. By 1993, over 1,000,000
computers were linked. Today, over 9,400,000 host computers worldwide,
of which approximately 60% located within the United States, are estimated
to be linked to the Internet. This count does not include the personal computers people use to access the Internet using modems. In all, reasonable
estimates are that as many as 40 million people around the world can and
do access the enormously flexible communication Internet medium. That is
expected to grow to 200 million Internet users by the year 1999.
Some of the computers and computer networks that make up the Internet are owned by governmental and public institutions, some are owned
by non-profit organizations, and some are privately owned. The resulting whole is a decentralized, global medium of communications or cyberspace that links people, institutions, corporations, and governments
around the world. The Internet is an international system. This communications medium allows any of the literally tens of millions of people with
access to the Internet to exchange information. These communications can
occur almost instantaneously, and can be directed either to specific individuals, to a broader group of people interested in a particular subject, or to
the world as a whole.
The Internet had its origins in 1969 as an experimental project of the
Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA), and was called ARPANET.
This network linked computers and computer networks owned by the military, defense contractors, and university laboratories conducting defenserelated research. The network later allowed researchers across the country
to access directly and to use extremely powerful supercomputers located
at a few key universities and laboratories. As it evolved far beyond its research origins in the United States to encompass universities, corporations,
and people around the world, the ARPANET came to be called the DARPA Internet, and finally just the Internet.
From its inception, the network was designed to be a decentralized,
self maintaining series of redundant links between computers and computer networks, capable of rapidly transmitting communications without
direct human involvement or control, and with the automatic ability to reroute communications if one or more individual links were damaged or
otherwise unavailable. Among other goals, this redundant system of linked
computers was designed to allow vital research and communications to
continue even if portions of the network were damaged, say, in a war.
To achieve this resilient nationwide (and ultimately global) communications medium, the ARPANET encouraged the creation of multiple links
to and from each computer (or computer network) on the network. Thus,
a computer located in Washington, D.C., might be linked (usually using
dedicated telephone lines) to other computers in neighboring states or on
the Eastern seaboard. Each of those computers could in turn be linked to
other computers, which themselves would be linked to other computers.
A communication sent over this redundant series of linked computers
could travel any of a number of routes to its destination. Thus, a message
sent from a computer in Washington, D.C., to a computer in Palo Alto, California, might first be sent to a computer in Philadelphia, and then be forwarded to a computer in Pittsburgh, and then to Chicago, Denver, and Salt
Lake City, before finally reaching Palo Alto. If the message could not travel
along that path (because of military attack, simple technical malfunction, or
other reason), the message would automatically (without human intervention or even knowledge) be re-routed, perhaps, from Washington, D.C. to
Richmond, and then to Atlanta, New Orleans, Dallas, Albuquerque, Los
Angeles, and finally to Palo Alto. This type of transmission, and re-routing,
would likely occur in a matter of seconds.
Messages between computers on the Internet do not necessarily travel
entirely along the same path. The Internet uses packet switching communication protocols that allow individual messages to be subdivided into
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smaller packets that are then sent independently to the destination, and
are then automatically reassembled by the receiving computer. While all
packets of a given message often travel along the same path to the destination, if computers along the route become overloaded, then packets can be
re-routed to less loaded computers.
At the same time that ARPANET was maturing (it subsequently ceased
to exist), similar networks developed to link universities, research facilities,
businesses, and individuals around the world. These other formal or loose
networks included BITNET, CS NET, FIDONET, and USENET. Eventually, each of these networks (many of which overlapped) were themselves
linked together, allowing users of any computers linked to any one of the
networks to transmit communications to users of computers on other networks. It is this series of linked networks (themselves linking computers
and computer networks) that is today commonly known as the Internet.
No single entity academic, corporate, governmental, or non-profit
administers the Internet. It exists and functions as a result of the fact that
hundreds of thousands of separate operators of computers and computer
networks independently decided t o use common data transfer protocols to
exchange communications and information with other computers (which
in turn exchange communications and information with still other computers). There is no centralized storage location, control point, or communications channel for the Internet, and it would not be technically feasible for a
single entity to control all of the information conveyed on the Internet.
9.9 RADIO
Radio is one of the best means of communication today (Figure 9.15). Radio
broadcasting has enabled distant communication. Today, there are a vast
number of radio stations around the globe broadcasting by means of transmission. If we do not have much info about radio broadcast and would like
to gather detail information on this subject then you have just landed at the
right place.
Today, the process of broadcasting is not complicated at all since all
the essential equipments are easily available. Radio broadcast or broadcasting is just an audio form of communication. In this internet age, now we
also have internet radio broadcast. Internet distributed radio, has made live
radio broadcast bit out of space. Yet there are stations that broadcast on
shortwave bandwidth using AM technology reaching good distances. Bad
weather conditions can affect radio broadcasting or radio broadcast live.
Satellite communication relays information of the earth and from space.
The internet has truly revolutionized the global communication system.
Technically, radio is a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum so-called
because electromagnetic waves are driven across space at the speed of light
by electric and magnetic forces. Gamma rays, x-rays, ultra-violet, visible
light, and infra-red are also parts of the same spectrum. They all travel at
the identical speed but have different properties and uses, depending on
their frequency or wavelength.
If equipment generating radio frequency energy (a transmitter) is connected to an antenna (or aerial) the energy is radiated in the form of radio
waves. Some of the radiated energy can then be collected by another antenna which, when coupled to a radio receiver, enables a link to be made
between the transmitter and receiver. Adding information to the radio car-
rier wave enables messages to be transmitted. These messages may take the
form of television programs, voice messages, data or other forms of radio
communication. Radio is an immensely versatile medium.
Figure 9.15: Radio.
History of Radio Broadcast

According to the radio broadcast history, Charles Herrold was the person
who began broadcasting in California in the year 1909 and was sustaining
audio by the next year. Herrolds station ultimately became KCBS. In Netherlands, PCGG also began broadcasting on November 6, 1919. Looking at
the history of radio broadcast, Dr. Frank Conrad started broadcasting from
his Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania garage with the call letters KDKA. However, KDKAs first commercial advertise was drafted from Saxonburg, Butler
County, PA on November 2, 1920.
Later on, the equipment was transferred to the top of an office make
up in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania and bought by Westinghouse. On 2nd November 1920, KDKA of Pittsburgh, started broadcasting as the first licensed
commercial radio station. However, it didnt air until years later. In the
history of radio broadcast, the first advertise was actually broadcast, 1920
as a result of U.s Presidential election. The Montreal station that became
CFCF began program asseverations on May 20, 1920. Moreover, the Detroit
station that became WWJ also began program averment on August 20, 1920;
even so neither held a license at the time.
In the history of radio broadcast, Radio Argentina also started scheduled on regular basis from the Teatro Coliseo in Buenos Aires on August
27, 1920, producing its priority claim. However, during mid 1990s, internet
based radio became practicable. This new medium does not require any
licensing and stations could advertise from anywhere in the world without
the deficits for through the sky transmitters. Moreover, WMBR, the MIT
student radio station, developed the MIT List of Radio Stations in the mid
1990s. In 2000, this list became separate from MIT and adopted the name
Radio Locator. This briefly reveals the history behind radio broadcast.
9.10 TELEVISION
Television is a telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving
moving images that can be monochrome or colored, with or without accom-
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panying sound (Figure 9.16).

In 1926 John Logie Baird demonstrated television in London. This was
an amazing breakthrough in technology, but it was many years before ordinary people could afford to have a television set in their home.
In 1936 the BBC transmitted the first high-definition television service
from Alexandra Palace in London. It allowed 50,000 viewers in the southeast England to watch the coronation of King George VI at Westminster
Abbey. Televisions were small their screens were around 9 inches (about 23
cm). The picture was grainy and transmission was easily lost. Passing cars
even interfered with the picture.
Even at the beginning of the 1950s, television was only enjoyed by people with money to spare. By the 1970s virtually every home in Britain had
a television.
1954 Commercial television arrived
1964 BBC 2 arrived
1967 Color TV
Figure 9.16:Television.
9.10.1 Direct View Tube

It is also known as direct view, a tube television is the closest thing to the
one baby boomers watched when they were kids. The picture device is a
cathode ray tube, which is a specialized vacuum tube. All science aside,
CRTs come in all shapes and sizes up to about 40-inches. They feature a
good picture from all angles, the best black level, and are significantly lower
in price than other TVs. Despite their bulky and heavy build, tube televisions are long-lasting and acclaimed for retaining a good picture throughout its lifespan, which can be decades.
9.10.2 Digital Light Processing (DLP)

Digital Light Processing was invented in 1987 by Texas Instruments. It is
named for its ability to process light digitally with the aid of an optical semiconductor called a Digital Micro mirror Device or DMD chip. The DMD
chip is comprised of over one million mirrors. The size of each mirror is less
than 1/5 the width of a human hair. Currently, over fifty manufacturers
produce at least one model of a DLP television. DLPs come in rear and
front projection. They are not susceptible to burn-in, but some people do
notice a glitch called Rainbow Effect.
9.10.3 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Whether it is flat panel or rear projection, there are a ton of choices on the
market for LCD or Liquid Crystal Display televisions. Flat panel displays
are by far the most popular LCD television because of their thin, light
weight construction, which is convenient for people who want to use their
LCD as a TV and computer monitor. LCDs are not susceptible to burn-in.
LCDs with slow response times can show a ghosting effect, while other
LCDs can have a screen door effect. This is why it is important to see the
LCD monitor before buying to see if the screen meets your needs.
9.10.4 Plasma Display Panels (PDP)

Plasma is the type of television most associated with high end home electronics. This is mainly because they get a lot of marketing that tells us plasma has the best picture money can buy. All plasma televisions come in a flat
panel variety. Most are sized in the 40-49 range. They are competitively
priced against LCD flat panel televisions, and feature a stunning picture
that puts you in the middle of the action. Plasmas weigh more than LCDs,
but nothing additional supports could not handle. They are susceptible to
burn-in, but despite rumors to the contrary, the gases that power the picture cannot be refilled. While they are too young to accurately measure,
plasma televisions should last anywhere from 10-20 years.
9.11 INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Trade means the voluntary exchange of goods and services (Figure 9.17).
Two parties are required to trade. One person sells and the other purchases.
In certain places, people barter their goods. For both the parties trade is mutually beneficial. Trade may be conducted at two levels: international and
national. International trade is the exchange of goods and services among
countries across national boundaries (Figure 9.18). Countries need to trade
to obtain commodities, they cannot produce themselves or they can purchase elsewhere at a lower price. The initial form of trade in primitive societies was the barter system, where direct exchange of goods took place. In
this system if you were a potter and were in need of a plumber, we would
have to look for a plumber who would be in need of pots and we could
exchange your pots for his plumbing service.
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Figure 9.17: International trade.
Figure 9.18: International trade.
9.12 CHANGING PATTERN OF INDIAS

During the 1950s, India and China, like many other developing countries,
chose the import substitution strategy for industrial development. The
strategy involved insulation from the world economy and industrialization under the aegis of state enterprises. Subsequently, there has been a
paradigm shift from import substitution to outward orientation in many
of the developing countries, including India and China. China started the
trade liberalization process in a major way in 1978. Indias liberalization initiatives during the 1980s focused primarily on internal deregulation rather
than on trade liberalization. The most pronounced overhaul of Indias trade
policy regime occurred during the early 1990s in response to a severe balance of payment crisis. The rationale behind trade liberalization suggests
that greater competition would induce the production units to improve
productivity, which is instrumental for accelerating the overall economic
growth. Since firms respond to the world market signals, the commodity
structure of the countrys trade would undergo changes in accordance with
the changing patterns of specialization. The conventional wisdom, based
on the Heckscher-Ohlin-Samualson (H-O-S) model, is that trade liberalization would induce reallocation of productive resources from the import
competing industries to those industries where the country has comparative advantages. Therefore, while both exports and imports are expected to
grow faster, trade liberalization invariably involves some adjustment costs
as some of the domestic industries may go out of business.
9.13 FOREIGN TRADE

Foreign trade is nothing but trade between the different countries of the
world. It is also called as International trade, External trade or Inter-Regional trade. It consists of imports, exports and entre pot. The inflow of
goods in a country is called import trade whereas outflow of goods from a
country is called export trade. Many times goods are imported for the purpose of re-export after some processing operations. This is called entre pot
trade. Foreign trade basically takes place for mutual satisfaction of wants
and utilities of resources.
9.13.1 Types of Foreign Trade

Import Trade: Import trade refers to purchase of goods by one
country from another country or inflow of goods and services from
foreign country to home country.
Export Trade: Export trade refers to the sale of goods by one country to another country or outflow of goods from home country to
foreign country.
Entre Pot Trade: Entre pot trade is also known as Re-export. It refers
to purchase of goods from one country and then selling them to
another country after some processing operations.
9.13.2 Need and Importance of Foreign Trade

There are some basic needs and importance of foreign trades descried.
Division of Labor and Specialization

Foreign trade leads to division of labor and specialization at the world level.
Some countries have abundant natural resources. They should export raw
materials and import finished goods from countries which are advanced in
skilled manpower. This gives benefits to all the countries and there by leading to division of labor and specialization.
Optimum Allocation and Utilization of Resources

Due to specialization, unproductive lines can be eliminated and wastage of
resources avoided. In other words, resources are channelized for the production of only those goods which would give highest returns. Thus there
is rational allocation and utilization of resources at the international level
due to foreign trade.
Equality of Prices
Prices can be stabilized by foreign trade. It helps to keep the demand and
supply position stable, which in turn stabilizes the prices, making allowances for transport and other marketing expenses.
Availability of Multiple Choices
Foreign trade helps in providing a better choice to the consumers. It helps
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216
in making available new varieties to consumers all over the world.
Ensures Quality and Standard Goods

Foreign trade is highly competitive. To maintain and increase the demand
for goods, the exporting countries have to keep up the quality of goods.
Thus quality and standardized goods are produced.
Raises Standard of Living of the People

Imports can facilitate standard of living of the people. This is because people can have a choice of new and better varieties of goods and services.
By consuming new and better varieties of goods, people can improve their
standard of living.

1.
Aryabhatt was launched on..........
(a) 19 April 1975
(b) 7 Jun 1979
(c) 8 June 1981
(d) 18 Jun 1980
2.
In . John Logie Baird demonstrated television in London.

(a) 1982 (b) 1926

(c) 1981 (d) 1980
3.
Who has one of the most extensive rail networks accounting for nearly
40%of the worlds total?

(a) India (b) North America

(c) China
(d) UK
4.
The big inch pipeline transports
(a) milk
(b) liquid petroleum gas

(c) water (d) petroleum
5.
How many trans-continental rail routes are there?

(a) 3 (b) 8

(c) 1 (d) 2
6.
The Buckingham Canal (km) is an important navigation canal

in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

(a) 412.6 (b) 412.7

(c) 412.9 (d) 412.8
7.
By..only three oil pipelines moved products to market in Canada.

(a) 1948 (b) 1947

(c) 1946 (d) 1945
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8.
Roads laid along international boundaries are called.roads.

(a) Border (b) Highways

(c) Banals
(d) All of these.
9.
China started the trade liberalization process in a major way in..

(a) 1978 (b) 1976

(c) 1975 (d) 1979
10. In . the BBC transmitted the first high-definition television service from Alexandra Palace in London.

(a) 1936 (b) 1937

(c) 1934 (d) 1933
9.15 REVIEW QUESTION

1. Distinguish between transport and communication.
2. Describe various types of roads.
3. Why is transport a necessity?
4. Why is railway so important today?
5. Name two Inland waterways of India.
6. Explain on for foreign trade and their types.
7. Explain in detail the significance of transport and communication
services.
8. What are the advantages of water transport?
9. What is the importance of communication and their types?
10. How imports plain in air transport?
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1 (a) 2(b) 3(b) 4(d) 5(c)
6 (d)
7(b)
8 (a)
9 (a)
10 (c)
Chapter 10
Geographical Perspective on
Selected Issues and Problems
Objectives
After studying this
able to:
Describe environmental
pollution
Explain about
urban-waste
disposal
Understand
the urbanization
Define the
rural-urban
migration
Explain about
slums and
their problems
Describe land
degradation
INTRODUCTION
Over the last three decades there has been increasing global concern over the
public health impacts attributed to environmental pollution, in particular,
the global burden of disease. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that about a quarter of the diseases facing mankind today occurs due
to prolonged exposure to environmental pollution. Most of these environment-related diseases are however not easily detected and may be acquired
during childhood and manifested later in adulthood.
Improper management of solid waste is one of the main causes of environmental pollution and degradation in many cities, especially in developing
countries. Many of these cities lack solid waste regulations and proper disposal facilities, including for harmful waste. Such waste may be infectious,
toxic or radioactive.
Municipal waste dumping sites are designated places set aside for waste
disposal. Depending on a citys level of waste management, such waste may
be dumped in an uncontrolled manner, segregated for recycling purposes,
or simply burnt, Nylon is non-biodegradable west. Poor waste management
poses a great challenge to the well-being of city residents, particularly those
living adjacent the dumpsites due to the potential of the waste to pollute water, food sources, land, air and vegetation. The poor disposal and handling of
waste thus leads to environmental degradation, destruction of the ecosystem
and poses great risks to public health.
10.1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

There are two types of the cause of pollution, natural and man-made. Natural
pollution occurs naturally and would not cause excessive harm to our lives
due to its regeneration ability. While the man-made pollution is caused by
human activities, and hard to gets rid of. The backbones of man-made pollution are human population and technology. Naturally human needs contact to the environment, we get resources from nature. This is for the sake
of living. By the increase of human population, the contact is getting more
intensive, because needs are increasing. And by the findings and development of new technologies, human can apply them to get the resources. And
it is common that new technologies would bring their respective side effects
besides their advantages.
Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems
219
Small population with any level of technology would not have to exploit the nature overwhelmingly. But big population with any level of technology will surely exploit the nature more, and even overwhelmingly, this
is all for the needs of the people.
Pollution is a growing pain. Pollution is not a problem that came suddenly from the sky; it is our fault and has been a part of our life through
many years. We must be wise in managing our resources, and take positive action towards preventing any forms of pollution to the environment.
Make the world a better place to live (Figure 10.1).
Key Vocabulary
Environmental Pollution:
The introduction of different harmful pollutants
into certain environment
that make this environment unhealthy to live in.
Figure 10.1: Different types of pollutions.

There are six types of pollution namely air, water, noise, land, radioactive, and thermal.
1. Air Pollution
2. Water Pollution
3. Land Pollution
4. Noise Pollution
5. Radioactive Pollution
6. Thermal Pollution
10.1.1 Air Pollution

Smog hanging over cities is the most familiar and obvious form of air pollution. But there are different kinds of pollutionsome visible, some invisiblethat contribute to global warming. Generally any substance that
people introduce into the atmosphere that has damaging effects on living
things and the environment is considered air pollution.
Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is the main pollutant that is warming Earth. Though living things emit carbon dioxide when they breathe,
carbon dioxide is widely considered to be a pollutant when associated with
cars, planes, power plants, and other human activities that involve the
burning of fossil fuels such as gasoline and natural gas (Figure 10.2). In the
past 150 years, such activities have pumped enough carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere to raise its levels higher than they have been for hundreds of
thousands of years.
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Other greenhouse gases include methanewhich comes from such

sources as swamps and gas emitted by livestockand chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), which were used in refrigerants and aerosol propellants until they
were banned because of their deteriorating effect on Earths ozone layer.
Key Vocabulary
Another pollutant associated with climate change is sulfur dioxide,

a component of smog. Sulfur dioxide and closely related chemicals are
known primarily as a cause of acid rain. But they also reflect light when
released in the atmosphere, which keeps sunlight out and causes Earth to
cool. Volcanic eruptions can spew massive amounts of sulfur dioxide into
the atmosphere, sometimes causing cooling that lasts for years. In fact, volcanoes used to be the main source of atmospheric sulfur dioxide; today
people are.
Land Degradation:
Reduction or loss of
the biological or economic productivity and
complexity of rain fed
cropland.
Figure 10.2: Factories releasing harmful gases in atmosphere.

Industrialized countries have worked to reduce levels of sulfur dioxide, smog, and smoke in order to improve peoples health. But a result, not
predicted until recently, is that the lower sulfur dioxide levels may actually
make global warming worse. Just as sulfur dioxide from volcanoes can cool
the planet by blocking sunlight, cutting the amount of the compound in the
atmosphere lets more sunlight through, warming the Earth. This effect is
exaggerated when elevated levels of other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap the additional heat.
Most people agree that to curb global warming, a variety of measures
need to be taken. On a personal level, driving and flying less, recycling, and
conservation reduces a persons carbon footprintthe amount of carbon
dioxide a person is responsible for putting into the atmosphere.
On a larger scale, governments are taking measures to limit emissions
of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. One way is through the
Kyoto Protocol, an agreement between countries that they will cut back on
carbon dioxide emissions. Another method is to put taxes on carbon emissions or higher taxes on gasoline, so that people and companies will have
greater incentives to conserve energy and pollute less.
10.1.2 Water Pollution

Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due to
the addition of large amounts of materials to the water (Figure 10.3). The
sources of water pollution are categorized as being a point source or a nonsource point of pollution. Point sources of pollution occur when the pollut-
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ing substance is emitted directly into the waterway. A pipe spewing toxic
chemicals directly into a river is an example. A non-point source occurs
when there is runoff of pollutants into a waterway, for instance when fertilizer from a field is carried into a stream by surface runoff.
Key Vocabulary
Recycle: The meaning
of recycle is reuse and
reduce.
Figure 10.3: Water pollution.
Types of Water Pollution

Toxic Substance
A toxic substance is a chemical pollutant that is not a naturally occurring
substance in aquatic ecosystems. The greatest contributors to toxic pollution are herbicides, pesticides and industrial compounds (Figure 10.4).
Figure 10.4: Harmful chemicals liberated in water bodies.
Organic Substance
Organic pollution occurs when an excess of organic matter, such as manure
or sewage, enters the water (Figure 10.5). When organic matter increases in
a pond, the number of decomposers will increase. These decomposers grow
rapidly and use a great deal of oxygen during their growth. This leads to a
depletion of oxygen as the decomposition process occurs. A lack of oxygen
can kill aquatic organisms. As the aquatic organisms die, they are broken
down by decomposers which lead to further depletion of the oxygen levels.
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Key Vocabulary
Urbanization: Urbanization can be defined as
the rapid and massive
growth of, and migration
to, large cities.
Figure 10.5: Organic matters in water bodies.

A type of organic pollution can occur when inorganic pollutants such as
nitrogen and phosphates accumulate in aquatic ecosystems. High levels of
these nutrients cause an overgrowth of plants and algae. As the plants and
algae die, they become organic material in the water. The enormous decay
of this plant matter, in turn, lowers the oxygen level. The process of rapid
plant growth followed by increased activity by decomposers and a depletion of the oxygen level is called eutrophication.
Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution can occur when water is used as a coolant near a power
or industrial plant and then is returned to the aquatic environment at a
higher temperature than it was originally. Thermal pollution can lead to a
decrease in the dissolved oxygen level in the water while also increasing
the biological demand of aquatic organisms for oxygen (Figure 10.6).
Figure 10.6: Thermal pollution.
Ecological Pollution
Ecological pollution takes place when chemical pollution, organic pollution
or thermal pollution is caused by nature rather than by human activity (Figure 10.7). An example of ecological pollution would be an increased rate of
siltation of a waterway after a landslide which would increase the amount
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of sediments in runoff water. Another example would be when a large animal, such as a deer, drowns in a flood and a large amount of organic material is added to the water as a result. Major geological events such as a
volcano eruption might also be sources of ecological pollution.
Key Vocabulary
Figure 10.7: Fishes died because of water pollution.
10.1.3 Land Pollution

The deposition of solid or liquid waste materials on land or underground
in a manner that can contaminate the soil and groundwater, threaten public
health, and cause unsightly conditions and nuisances (Figure 10.8).
Figure 10.8: Waste dumped on land.

The waste materials that cause land pollution are broadly classified
as municipal solid waste construction and demolition waste or debris, and
hazardous waste. Include nonhazardous garbage, rubbish, and trash from
homes, institutions (e.g., schools), commercial establishments, and industrial facilities. Garbage contains moist and decomposable (biodegradable)
food wastes (e.g., meat and vegetable scraps); rubbish comprises mostly
dry materials such as paper, glass, textiles, and plastic objects; and trash includes bulky waste materials and objects that are not collected routinely for
disposal (e.g., discarded mattresses, appliances, pieces of furniture). C&D
waste (or debris) includes wood and metal objects, wallboard, concrete rubble, asphalt, and other inert materials produced when structures are built,
renovated, or demolished. Hazardous wastes include harmful and danger-
Waste: The things which

are useless for us are
called waste.
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ous substances generated primarily as liquids but also as solids, sludges,

or gases by various chemical manufacturing companies, petroleum refineries, paper mills, smelters, machine shops, dry cleaners, automobile repair
shops, and many other industries or commercial facilities. In addition to
improper disposal of MSW, C&D waste, and hazardous waste, contaminated effluent from subsurface sewage disposal (e.g., from septic tanks) can
also be a cause of land pollution.
10.1.4 Noise Pollution

Noise is actually a Latin word which gives the meaning Seasickness More
commonly it can be stated as the sensation of annoyance, disgust or discomfort.
Figure 10.9: Noise pollution affects hearing ability.

It is not very easy to define the noise pollution definition. Essentially
noise pollution is the kind of pollution that is caused by several different
audio sources that is causing the feel of irritation, distraction to our living
environment (Figure 10.9). This not pollution is not only disturbing the environment but it also produces harm to our mankind.
Noise pollution causes and Noise Pollution Effects

In our day to day life noise pollution is increasing rapidly and it becomes to
grow as one of the serious threats in some areas. Noise pollution becomes
a stress full one to so many animals it also creating many problems in prey
relation / predator and detection. It also leads to several different reproduction issues. Very serious noises can In fact deduce the usable habitats of
some sound-sensible creatures; finally it results in the depletion of rare species. For example noise pollution created by the man kind actually putting a
full stop for so many sea animals. Specifically the ones whose sense of hearing is very sharp like whales and dolphins. All Scientists have agreed the
fact that so many dolphins and whales are committing the massive suicides
just reaching sea shore by observing the wrong signals.
Noise pollution effects are giving so many negative impacts on the human health. Exposure to the too much noise of noise will lead to aggression,
hearing loss, stress, sleep disturbance so much more psychological issues.
Researchers have shown that so many people who can afford a new home
have started to buy homes in areas where the noise disturbance is very low.
Now think about the one who cannot afford a new home. Let us reduce the
noise pollution by preventing the Noise pollution causes.
Hearing Issues
Exposure to the harm full noise can cause damages to our most important
organs of our body, i.e., the ear. The Hearing impairment happened because of noise pollution may be a temporary one or permanent one. Whenever the sound levels goes above 70 dB marks which become a noise to our
ears. If the noise level crosses over the 80 decibels which will produce many
harm full effects to our ear. When our ear is exposed to a sound that goes
over the 100 decibels for certain period of time, it will cause irreparable
damage to the ear and will also lead to all time permanent hearing loss.
Cognitive function
If your ears are regularly exposed to some loud noise you will lose the
reading, understanding and learning ability. You will also lose the Problem
solving abilities and may get the short term memory lose because of the
often exposure to the noise. This Noise pollution will also give a raise to the
level of error and will decrease your productivity in office. Research shows
that the children who are studying in the noisy environment are showing
very poor cognitive function.
Cardiovascular Problems
Our noisy environments are one of the main sources for the heart issues. Researchers have revealed that high level of sounds can give a dramatic raise
to the blood pressure. It also increase the heart beat rate. This is proved by
analyzing the heart beta of children who are staying and learning the noisy
environment. It is very high when compare to the children who are living
in the reduced noisy environment.
Apart from this noise pollution can cause sleep disturbances and may
produce mental problems.
10.1.5 Radioactive Pollution

Radioactive pollution, like any other kind of pollution, is the release of
something unwanted into the environment and, in this case, the unwanted
thing is radioactive material. Radioactive pollution can be a very dangerous thing because radiation mutates DNA, causing abnormal growth and
possibly cancer, and this radiation remains in the atmosphere for years,
slowly diminishing over time. There are many causes of radioactive pollution, which can significantly harm the environment. There are techniques
used to manage this pollution, however, we are far from keeping our planet
clean of radioactive pollution (Figure 10.10).
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Figure 10.10: Radioactive waste liberated in environment.
10.1.6 Effects of Radioactive Pollution on human

beings
The effects of radioactive pollution or exposure to nuclear radiations were
first reported in early 20th century when people working in uranium mines
suffered from skin burn and cancer. The effects vary from organism to organism and from level of radioactivity of nuclear isotopes. The radiations
destroy the cells in human body and causes cancer.
Radioactive particles form ions when it reacts with biological molecules. These ions then form free radicals which slowly and steadily start
destroying proteins, membranes, and nucleic acids. A longer exposure to
radioactive radiations can damage the DNA cells that results in cancer, genetic defects for the generations to come and even death.
10.1.7 Thermal Pollution

The broadest definition of thermal pollution is the degradation of water
quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. Thermal
pollution is usually associated with increases of water temperatures in a
stream, lake, or ocean due to the discharge of heated water from industrial
processes, such as the generation of electricity. Increases in ambient water temperature also occur in streams where shading vegetation along the
banks is removed or where sediments have made the water more turbid.
Both of these effects allow more energy from the sun to be absorbed by
the water and thereby increase its temperature. There are also situations
in which the effects of colder-than-normal water temperatures may be observed. For example, the discharge of cold bottom water from deep-water
reservoirs behind large dams has changed the downstream biological communities in systems such as the Colorado River.
Effects of Thermal Pollution

There are several effects of thermal pollution
Sudden and periodic increase in temperature producing a thermal
effect
Changed dissolved oxygen
Distribution of organisms among major and minor communities

Death of steno hermic animals
Changes to reproductive powers and increased susceptibility to disease
Production of heat shock proteins for thermo tolerance
Changes in migration time and pattern may be affected
Bio indicators are the first to show the effects
Decrease in productivity of the water body
Economic and environmental damage
10.2 URBAN WASTE

The growth of the worlds population, increasing urbanization, rising
standards of living, and rapid developments in technology have all contributed to an increase in both the amount and the variety of solid wastes generated by industrial, domestic and other activities. The problems of dealing
with greater volumes of often more dangerous waste materials are particularly acute in developing countries where these changes have not been met
by improvements in waste-management technologies. Even domestic solid
waste has become a health hazard in many developing countries as a result
of careless handling and a failure to organize appropriate solid waste collection schemes.
Definition of Waste
In general, one can say that waste is useless, unwanted or discarded material resulting from agricultural, commercial, communal and industrial activities. Waste includes solids, liquids and gases.
10.2.1 Types of Waste

Municipal Wastes
Municipal wastes are composed of wastes generated by households and
wastes of similar character from shops, market and offices, open areas, and
treatment plant sites and each of these sources of municipal waste (Figure
10.11).
Figure 10.11: Municipal waste causing land pollution.
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Industrial Wastes
Industrial process wastes include a very wide range of materials and the actual composition of industrial wastes in a country will depend on the nature
of the industrial base. Wastes may occur as relatively pure substances or as
complex mixtures of varying composition and in varying physicochemical
states (Figure 10.12). Examples of the materials which may be found under
this heading are general factory rubbish, organic wastes from food processing, acids, alkalis, metallic sludges and tarry residues. The most important
feature of industrial wastes is that a significant proportion is regarded as
hazardous or potentially toxic, thus requiring special handling, treatment
and disposal.
Figure 10.12: Industrial waste.
Agricultural Wastes
Agricultural wastes, which may include horticultural and forestry wastes,
comprise crop residues, animal manure, diseased carcasses, unwanted
agrochemicals and empty containers. Their composition will depend on
the system of agriculture (Figure 10.13). Estimates of agricultural waste a
risings are rare, but they are generally thought of as contributing a significant proportion of the total waste matter in the developed world. Since
1960, as a result of huge rises in productivity, there have been corresponding increases in the volumes of crop residues and animal manure requiring
disposal. There is likely to be a significant increase in agricultural wastes
globally if developing countries continue to intensify farming systems.
Figure 10.13: Agricultural wastes dumped on land.
10.3 URBAN-WASTE DISPOSALS

Waste disposal is the act of taking items that no longer have value to be
destroyed, waste disposal is the process of collecting and removing waste
and relocating it to a place where it will sit or be recycled. Part of waste disposal is determining if materials have any inherent value that can be used
for composting or recycling. Segmenting these materials to be redirected is
part of conservation efforts to lessen landfill.
10.3.1 Waste Management

These are consists of waste prevention, reuse, material recycling, composting, energy recovery and final disposal. Today, unlike in historical periods,
this covers a very wide variety of materials, activities, industrial sectors and
actors. A typical feature of the current reality is too often the lack of involvement and feeling of responsibility of the generator of waste for its fate. For
example, in the Western World, too few households are concerned by their
municipal solid waste beyond the regular and barely noticed visit of the
garbage truck. The same holds true for some companies. It is therefore essential, for an efficient waste management, to develop and maintain a sense
of responsibility and a good common understanding of the materials and
operations involved over the whole range of actors concerned.
10.3.2 Recycled Waste

Recycling involves the collection of used and discarded materials processing these materials and making them into new products (Figure 10.14). It
reduces the amount of waste that is thrown into the community dustbins
thereby making the environment cleaner and the air fresher to breathe.
Figure 10.14: Recycling of wastes

Surveys carried out by Government and non-government agencies in the
country have all recognized the importance of recycling wastes. However,
the methodology for safe recycling of waste has not been standardized.
Studies have revealed that 7% -15% of the waste is recycled. If recycling is
done in a proper manner, it will solve the problems of waste or garbage. At
the community level, a large number of NGOs (Non Governmental Organizations) and private sector enterprises have taken an initiative in segregation and recycling of waste (EXNORA International in Chennai recycles a
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230
large part of the waste that is collected). It is being used for composting,
making pellets to be used in gasifies, Animal dung is biodegradable west
which is useful for biogas etc.
10.3.3 Advantages of Recycling

Leads to less utilization of raw materials.
Reduces environmental impacts arising from waste treatment and
disposal.
Makes the surroundings cleaner and healthier.
Saves on landfill space.
Saves money.
Reduces the amount of energy required to manufacture new products.
10.3.4 Defining Consumption

Consumption typically refers to the selection, purchase use, maintenance,
repair, and disposal of goods and services. Under capitalism, consumption
is primarily oriented around the consumption of. Commodities are objects
or services which have a use value (or function) and an exchange value (in
that they are exchangeable for money or for other goods through barter).
Capitalism is associated with the commodification of more and more aspects of social life. Virtually, every human activity in western, and increasingly nonwestern societies, relies on or has commodities associated with it,
including marriage, birth, death, and war. Most recently, genes, embryos,
and knowledge have all gained status as commodities. Yet, despite the
growing trend toward commodification and consumption maintains a significant independence from capitalist relations; it takes place at a different
time and place from commodity production, and it offers ways of decommodifying objects produced and exchanged as commodities in other sites.
As Andrew Sayer puts it, Objects which begin their life as commodities
do not necessarily remain commodities at all moments in their existence.
Consumption overlaps and is connected to other spheres of economic activity. Marx, for example, illustrates that the moment of production is simultaneously an act of consumption in that it involves the consumption
of labor power and other commodity inputs. Similarly, the production of
labor power entails the consumption of food and other commodities and is
therefore also an act of consumption.
At the same time, the work of consumption is an act of production. In
consuming food, for example, the human being actively produces the physical body. Commodities not only perform a useful function in the reproduction of the human being, but also hold particular associations or meanings for users. As such, commodities hold value within a system of other
objects and have a sign value. Discussions of consumption such as those
forwarded by Jean Baudrillard, stress the disconnection between use values
and sign values in the contemporary or postmodern era, and the growing
importance of sign values relative to use values. Suggests that the Baudrillard surface of the commodity has become detached from the commodity;
this simulation of commodities has become its own reality or hyper reality. For Baudrillard consumption of signs of commodities has become more
important than the consumption of commodities themselves. However, the

primacy of sign values is widely contested in the literature on consumption,
with many theorists maintaining that use values remain pivotally important in practices of consumption. The consumption of goods and services is
bound up in rituals and social relationships, including relations of inclusion
and exclusion. Material goods are not only things, but rather they convey
meanings of class, gender, and style. Consumption plays a role in the production of identities, and in the maintenance of individual narratives of the
self. Most significant in this regard is the work of Pierre Bourdieu. In his
book Distinction, Bourdieu illustrates how consumption choices are tied
to status rivalry and class, and signify position in a social field. However,
consumption is not a wholly individualistic and self indulgent act. There
are a variety of motives for consumption, ranging from selfish, egoistic
ones to benevolent and altruistic aims. Consumption can be tied to external imperatives such as the pursuit of status, but it is also practiced for its
own sake and in light of internal motivations. Recent studies demonstrate
how consumption is often pursued with the interests, needs, and advice of
others in mind, and in the context of relationships of caring and love. Anthropologist Daniel Miller has made a particularly important contribution
to the field of consumption studies by highlighting the social and moral
dimensions of shopping, much of which is directed toward family members
and friends. Thus, rather than being a momentary and individual act of
purchase, consumption is a social process whereby people relate to artifacts
in complex ways, transforming the meanings of commodities dramatically
as they incorporate them into their lives.
10.3.5 Specializing Consumption

Drawing on these theoretical insights, geographers have added a distinctly
spatial dimension to the study of consumption. They have explored different scales of consumption from the global to the local. Operating at
the global scale, much work has been devoted toward an understanding of
the globalization of commodity culture. Here, there has been an attempt to
understand global flows of commodities such as McDonalds hamburgers,
Coca Cola beverages, and GAP clothing. For many commentators, the diffusion of these brands leads to a process of cultural and economic homogenization, often referred to as a Mc Donaldization of culture. However,
geographers have been much more cautious and critical of such overarching claims. Dispelling many of the myths of globalization, they have been
quick to cite the resilience of local cultures in a transnationallizing world,
foregrounding the production of new forms of local culture and new meanings of the local. Research has illustrated how goods assume different
meanings in different places, and has illuminated the difficulties of forging global markets. As one example, global companies are often forced to
customize their brands to appeal to local markets, repudiating generalized
claims regarding the emergence of global brands. Landscapes of consumption, and the power relations that characterize them, have also been an important focus of attention. This work has become all the more critical in the
early twenty first century, as landscapes of consumption have become more
ubiquitous and cities themselves have come to resemble theme parks and
shopping malls, with their carefully designed streets capes, and privately
maintained security forces. More and more, urban economic development
agendas focus on marketing the city as a site of entertainment, consumption, and culture, in order to attract tourists, talent, and investment. Ge-
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ographical work traces the control exercised in the layout and design of
shopping malls, department stores, high streets, and festival marketplaces.
Much of this literature has explored the construction of gendered and class
based identities in these spectacular sites, but also acknowledges the pleasure and autonomy that women, youths, and seniors derive in these quasi
public spaces. In recent years, there has been an increased focus on the embeddedness of commodities within more mundane spaces such as the second hand store or car boot sale. Geographers such as Nicky Gregson and
Louise Crewe have drawn attention to the need for ethnographic research
on what people actually do with their purchases, on how they transform
commodities through repair, restoration, and alteration, and on the ways in
which they use, reuse, and dispose of goods. The home has also assumed
greater importance due in part to the expansion of e commerce and home
shopping. While geographers have long been interested in the consumption of housing itself as an example of a positional well, they are beginning
to explore the dynamics of consumption within the space of the home. The
home affords an interesting opportunity to examine the relationship between people and goods because it is a space of both individual and collective consumption, where the goods purchased and the meanings assigned
to them are negotiated between household members. Finally, geographers
have also explored how consumer discourses map the body including its
size, shape, health, and sexual attractiveness. Discourses shape the bodys
spatiality, comportment, and motility and define its possibilities and limitations. Practices of discipline, surveillance, and self restraint form an important part of everyday life. Food consumption, in particular, illustrates the
intimate connection between consumption and the body. In the case of food,
the commodity is ingested and quite literally becomes part of the body. The
corporeal nature of food consumption is illustrated in the growing concern
over food safety and quality, and the heightened sense of public mistrust
of scientific and government knowledge and regulations governing food.
Food consumption patterns have long term consequences for health and
mortality; inequalities in access to food based on class and geography have
become an urgent concern for researchers. Consumption incorporates a series of practices located in particular places, but it also serves to connect
consumers with actors in other sites and locales. As Andrew Sayer notes,
consumption encompasses a range of social and material relationships between the producer and consumer, between the purchaser and consumer,
between a consumer and other consumers (joint consumers or third parties), and between consumers and other individuals who may have claims
to the same resources. Consumption also entails a relationship between
the consumer and the natural environment. A single act of purchase may
have different impacts in terms of these various relationships and sites. It
remains important to unravel the complex geographies of consumption.
Geographers have been at the forefront of a group of scholars calling for
work which traces the entire trajectory of a product from its conception
and design, through its production, retailing, and final consumption. This
is referred to as a vertical approach to consumption because it highlights
the uniqueness of individual commodities which are characterized by a distinct temporality and spatiality. This specificity has implications for chain
dynamics and power relations as well as consumption practices, ethics, and
politics. Such an approach differs from a horizontal analysis of consumption emphasizing the broader characteristics of consumption in a particular
place or gendered and ethnic dimensions of consumption.
10.3.6 Theorizing Consumption

Given its significance in everyday life, it is perhaps surprising that until
recently, geographers and social the orists have tended to ignore consumption, focusing instead on the realm of production. When consumption did
enter the equation, as in the Frankfurt School, it was generally condemned
as a realm of uniformity, falsity, and meaninglessness. Writing in the 1940s,
such as Adorno and Horkheimer describe how consumption practices are
increasingly dictated through the machinery of capitalist cultural industries, promoting a homogenized and materialistic American culture. For
the most part, consumers are conceptualized as passive dupes, seduced by
the schemes of retailers, marketers, and advertisers, and politically pacified
through the consumption of useless objects and mass entertainment. For
these thinkers, the dominance of consumption diminishes the possibility
for freedom and individuality. The meanings and pleasures of consumption and the subjectivities they mobilize are seen as fundamentally comprised and inauthentic. These early discussions of consumption focused
overwhelmingly on the negative dimensions of consumption, and are underpinned by an entrenched belief in the monolithic and determining nature of capitalist transformation. Ironically, thinkers on the right (such as
F. R. Leavis) have historically been prone to a similar tone when writing of
mass consumption. Concern is expressed, for example, regarding the loss of
community and tradition, and the rise of hedonism.
10.4 URBANIZATION
The worlds cities are growing because people are moving from rural areas
in search of jobs, opportunities to improve their lives and create a better
future for their children. This is the first time in human history that the majority of the worlds population lives in urban areas. Cities, large and small,
are at the heart of a fast changing global economy they are a cause of, and
a response to world economic growth. City populations are growing faster
than city infrastructure can adapt. Many urban areas are growing because
their rural hinterlands are depressed, which forces impoverished rural people to move to the cities in search of work. These newcomers often end up
not finding the opportunities they are looking for, so they become part of
the urban poor. Upon arrival to the city, they often encounter (Figure 10.15).
Figure 10.15: Fast increasing urbanization.
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234
10.4.1 Problems of Urbanization

Urban problems are many. Drug addiction, crime, juvenile delinquency,
begging, alcoholism, corruption and unemployment are a few of them.
Housing and Slums

Housing people in the city or abolishing houseless is a serious problem.
Government, industrialists, capitalists, entrepreneurs, contractors and
landlords have not been able to keep pace with the housing needs of poor
and the middle class people.
Figure 10.16: Slum areas.
Crowding
Crowding (density of population) and peoples apathy to other person
problems is another problem growing out of city life. Some homes are so
over-crowded that five to six persons live in one room. Some neighborhoods are extremely over crowded. Overcrowding has very deleterious effects. It encourages deviant behaviors, spreads diseases and creates conditions for mental illness, alcoholism and riots (Figure 10.17). One effect of se
urban living is peoples apathy and indifference. City dwellers do not to get
involved in other s affairs.
Figure 10.17: Overcrowded markets.
Water Supply and Drainage

We have reached a stage where no has water supply round the clock. In-
ternational supply results in a vacuum being created in empty water lines

which often suck in pollutants through leaking joints. Most towns and cities
which normally get good rain every year, have been undergoing the agony
of acute water shortage in the last two three years.
There is drainage in the towns which are not fully severed. Because of
the non-existence of a drainage system large pools of stagnant water can be
seen in every city even in summer months.
Transportation and Traffic

The transportation and traffic picture in all Indian cities is unhappy. A majority of the people use buses and tempos, while a few use rail as transit
system. The increasing number of scooters, motor cycle, mopeds and cars
make the traffic problem worse. They pollute the air with smoke and noise.
Power Shortage
There is also power shortage. The use of electricity has increased in the
towns and there has also increase of new industries and the expansion of
old industries has also increased. So there is power shortage in most of the
cities. They remain dependent on neighboring states. So the conflict over
supply of power between two states has created sever crisis for the people
in the city.
Pollution
Our cities and towns are major pollution of the environment. Most of the
cities discharge their sewage and wastage materials to the rivers. Urban
industry pollutes the atmosphere by smoke and toxic gases from its chimneys.
10.5 RURAL-URBAN MIGRATIONS

Rural development initiatives across the developing world are designed to
improve community well-being and livelihoods. However they may also
have unforeseen consequences, in some cases placing further demands on
stretched public services. We use data from a longitudinal study of five
Ethiopian villages to investigate the impact of a recent rural development
initiative, installing village-level water taps, on rural to urban migration of
young adults. The research has identified that tap stands dramatically reduced child mortality, but were also associated with increased fertility. We
demonstrate that the installation of taps is associated with increased ruralurban migration of young adults (1530 years) over a 15 year period (15.5%
migrate out, n = 1912 from 1280 rural households). Young adults with access to this rural development intervention had three times the relative risk
of migrating to urban centers compared to those without the development.
We also identify that family dynamics, specifically sibling competition for
limited household resources (e.g. food, heritable land and marriage opportunities), are key to understanding the timing of out-migration. Birth of a
younger sibling doubled the odds of out-migration and starting married
life reduced it. Rural out-migration appears to be a response to increasing
rural resource scarcity, principally competition for agricultural land. Strategies for livelihood diversification include education and off-farm casual
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236
wage-labor. However, jobs and services are limited in urban centers, few
migrants send large cash remittances back to their families, and most return
to their villages within one year without advanced qualifications. One benefit for returning migrants may be through enhanced social prestige and
mate-acquisition on return to rural areas. These findings have wide implications for current understanding of the processes which initiate rural-tourban migration and transitions to low fertility, as well as for the design
and implementation of development intervention across the rural and urban developing world (Figure 10.18).
All levels of education, many different places for
shopping, a huge variety of job opportunities, a
large variety of entertainment
Step-wise migration
Primate City
City
Town
Village
Farm
All levels of schools, malls for shopping, good

job prospects, a good range of entertainment
A few Primary Schools, a few shops, limited employment, limited

entertainment.
There may be a primary school, one or two shops, no employment other than rural, and
virtually no entertainment other than local communtiy events.
No school, no shops, no employment other than the farm, no entertainment.
Figure 10.18: Chart showing mirgration steps.
10.5.1 Migration Strategy

Resource diversification is a key motivator for out-migration in this landlimited rural population. We found that most young migrants moved out
in search of either high school education or off-farm employment opportunities in neighboring urban centers. These towns, however, like many others in Ethiopia, currently struggle to provide the jobs, housing and services
to support the growing demand. Most of the young adults in our study
returned to their villages within a year of migrating out.
Focus group revealed that local opinion on the benefits of out-migration was divided. On one hand, there is optimism that migration will bring
new livelihood opportunities; presenting an attractive alternative to diversify income in the face of land shortages. One villager reported If my children were not educated, they would live with me. But I do not have enough
farming land, so I would have had a tough problem. Thanks to migration
[for education] I am free from the problem. On the other, there is a growing understanding of financial hardships and other risks associated with
urban living, including theft, exploitation and STDs. Stories of unsuccessful
migration are commonly reported in the village
Only 13% of young migrants reported migrating out in search of employment. Male migrants sought casual construction work and females,
jobs in domestic service, mainly in small nearby towns.
The majority of rural to urban migration that they were migrating in
search of high school qualifications are unavailable locally. Despite urban
education incurring significant costs in terms of money (for accommodation, food and stationery) and time spent away from productive agricultural activities, the demand for advanced school qualifications has recently
increased. Educated individuals, particularly males, achieve elevated social status and greater success in securing high status marriages when they
return to the village, reflected in large marriage payments. At marriage,
high school educated males command twice the bride price (from their
kin) and receive triple the dowry (from their in-laws) compared with their
less educated peers (Gibson, in prep). While few-off farm or skilled job opportunities exist in rural areas, urban education is becoming an important
signal of status in a society where inequalities in material wealth (land and
cattle) are relatively small due to the leveling effects of 30 years of land
redistribution and periodic crop failure. More broadly, education is understood as being important for human development, as it is associated with
better health, economic growth and prosperity.
Young female rural-urban migration is currently relatively uncommon
(only 12.1% females migrated out), due to their domestic responsibilities,
most notably caring for younger siblings. We predict, however, that levels
of female out-migration will increase in the future, due to the growing opportunities for income generation as domestic servants, particularly in the
Middle East and Sudan [36]. Young migrant females in our sample made
equal financial contributions to rural households compared with migrant
males, but considerably more than their female peers who remained in unpaid domestic work in the villages (of whom< 3% contribute financially to
the household). Short-term urban employment may become an attractive
alternative to unpaid rural domestic work, offering some young women
the chance to gain an income, status and autonomy when they return to
the village (e.g. choice of marriage partners and bargaining power within
marriage). Furthermore, a growing trend towards smaller family sizes may
reduce the child-care labor demands on womens time.
10.6 SLUMS
A dirty, unhygienic cluster of impoverished shanties with long lines of
people crowding around a solitary municipal water tap, bowling babies
literally left on street corners to fend for themselves and endless cries and
found voices emanating from various corners (Figure 10.19).
Most of them are engaged in eking out their daily lives, always below
the poverty line, by working as construction labors, domestic helps, rag
pickers and chhotus in neighborhood dhabas.
Perpetual flow of people from villages to cities creates many socioeconomic problems. The density of population of cities rises and civic
amenities fall short of needs. Law and order situation deteriorates. Prices
of essential commodities rise. Housing situation becomes acute and rents
become high. New entrants start living on pavements and thatched huts.
That way slum come up, at times, adjacent to or right in the middle of posh
colonies.
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238
Figure 10.19: Slums.

Migration of the poor to cities creates slums. Cultivable land in villages is
limited. And it is not enough to support the landless laborers in the village.
Instead of starving in villages, they along with their women folk move on to
cities in search of employment. While men work as unskilled works, their
women get work in households. They build jhuggies that later become a
cluster of huts.
Landless laborers are also attracted to cities as these have many factories where mill hands are needed. Later, these factory workers call their
relatives and friends from their villages. Thus cities start expanding haphazardly.
Spread of education in villages is also responsible for migration of rural people to urban areas. Once a person in a village crosses the matriculation level, the agricultural profession does not interest him. He is on the
lookout for an office job and hence the migration.
City life has its own charm. We have sprawling bungalows, multistory
buildings, clubs, cinemas, theatres and other places of entertainment and
employment. Villagers start enjoying city life. They send money to their
parents and elders regularly. At times they get lost in the hustle and bustle
of city life.
The slums in the capital and metro cities are getting larger and largerwith more migrants coming in, basic amenities like electricity, potable water, toilets may be lacking in slums and there is no drainage. Heaps of garbage is found here and there. Hygienic conditions are not there-thus slum
dweller fall easy prey to diseases like cholera, malaria, jaundice. During the
rainy season, it is real hell for slum dwellers.
Government is conscious of the deplorable conditions in which slum
dwellers live. Basic necessities have to be provided to more than one corer
slum dweller in different urban areas in the country. This scheme is part of
the minimum needs programmer. The National Council for Applied Economic Research has been given the task of assessing the impact of slums
improvement on the lives of slum dwellers.
The main difficulty faced by government is that the slum dwellers that
are provided alternative accommodation sell away these at fancy prices
and are back to form new slums wherever possible.
The best way to deal with the problem of slums in cities would be to
stop migration of landless laborer form rural to urban areas by providing
employment avenues in villages. Different labor intensive industries can
be started in villages. Small scale industries, with loan facilities, can be established for educated rural youth. Better living facilities are provided so
that city life no longer holds charm. The migration ceased, there will be no
reason for slum to come up.
10.6.1 Problems of Slums.

People residing in slums face many problems like improper sanitation, unhygienic environmental conditions, social, economic, health, educational
and cultural problems and many more. The basic problems inherent in
slums are Health hazards
Lack of basic amenities like safe drinking water, proper housing,
drainage and excreta disposal services, make slum population vulnerable
to infections. These further compromise the nutrition requirements of those
living in slums.
It is projected that more than half of the Indian population will live in
urban areas by 2020 and nearly one third of this urban population will be
slum dwellers. The ongoing process of rapid urbanization has deleterious
repercussions on health and nutrition, especially for children. Malnutrition
in young children has long-term negative effects on physical and cognitive
development. The major causes of childhood malnutrition in slum population are inappropriate child feeding practices, infections, improper food
security and suboptimal childcare besides poor availability and inadequate
utilization of health care services. Addressing nutritional problems of urban poor is essential for overall development of the country.
Lack of Sanitary Conditions

Poor sanitary conditions and poor quality of water lead to illnesses like diarrhea and other water borne diseases, affecting the life expectancy of slum
dwellers (Figure 10.20). According to a recent case study, water and sanitation diseases are responsible for 60% of environmental health. Among
water borne diseases, diarrhea disproportionately affects children under
the age of five. Poor health among children adversely affects the attendance
rate at schools.
Figure 10.20: Poor quality of water is available in many cities and villages.
In dense, overcrowded urban conditions it is often difficult for people
to find space to build latrines. Many have to defecate in the open or share
whatever limited facilities are available which tend to offer no privacy,
safety or hygiene.
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240
Because of human waste and refuse collecting in stagnant pools spread

disease and contaminate water sources. The problem is made worse during
the rainy season when rubbish and excrement are washed into cramped
living areas.
In these conditions it is virtually impossible to remain healthy and
clean. Diseases spread rapidly among the crowded conditions and the little
money that slum dwellers earn often has to be spent on medicines to help
the sick recover.
Often these settlements are unofficial and so, without any legal tenure,
the people living there are not entitled to get connections to basic facilities
like water and sanitation. These settlements are also vulnerable to demolition as governments reclaim the illegally occupied land for other usages.
Social Problems
The slum environment is the perfect breeding ground for a wide range of
social problems. High unemployment often causes men to stay around the
home growing increasingly frustrated with their pathetic situation and the
worsening poverty.
Cramped conditions mean that there is nowhere to go when tensions
rise, a factor that regularly leads to domestic violence. Sometimes the situation goes to the other extreme, where people abandon their homes, lured
by the prospect of oblivion through alcohol or drug abuse. Once people
develop such problems the prospects of finding work diminish. They fall
deeper into poverty and the cycle continues.
Child Labor
Many children in the slums start work at a very early age with no prospect
of getting any education (Figure 10.21). They make money by rag picking
(trawling through rubbish dumps to retrieve anything that can be sold),
selling newspapers in traffic jams, peddling drugs or begging. They are at
risk of exploitation as well as all the health problems that accompany their
lifestyles. Incest and abuse can occur and child marriages are still encouraged in some areas.
Figure 10.21: Child labor.
Internal and External Corruption

Some people manage to achieve a high status within slums and establish
themselves as slumlords. They are often allies of certain politicians and gain
control of sizeable chunks of the community land. By renting out the land,
they make huge financial gains while everyone living in the slum struggles
to survive on their meager earnings. The slumlords form elaborate links
with local politicians, government officials and the police, and slum dwellers become dependent on them for the smallest of amenities. They have
little empathy with the slum residents and exploit them by charging highly
inflated prices for illegal electricity and water supplies or for constructing
huts.
The men do not like to see the women becoming more powerful
through forming womens groups as one of their main concerns is keeping
the slum dwellers helpless and under their control.
The sheer volume of people living in slums causes them to be obvious targets for politicians wanting to increase their% age of the vote. Slum
inhabitants are often promised all kinds of support and improvements in
return for political allegiance, but their trust is regularly abused.
Gender Inequality
Female babies in the slums of India can face discrimination and poor treatment from their very first moments, if they are given a chance of life at all;
although gender specific abortion is illegal in India, it is still practiced in
some places.
Male children are seen as a blessing and indulged in many areas of
Indian society. Children born into the deprived and harsh environment of
the slums may not be as fortunate, but male babies are still given better
treatment than the girls. Boys tend to be healthier as they are given better
food in greater quantities, and they are also more likely to be sent to school.
In contrast, girls are seen as a drain on precious resources as they will
one day get married and their contribution towards the family will end. To
make up for this, they are forced to work from an early age and any ambitions regarding schooling or future careers are discouraged.
With that kind of start in life, it is difficult for women within the slums
to find a voice. They are used to getting little support from their embers and
are not usually considered worth consulting on family matters.
10.7 LAND DEGRADATION

Land degradation is a human induced or natural process which negatively
affects the land to function effectively within an ecosystem, by accepting,
storing and recycling water, energy, and nutrients.
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242
Figure 10.22: Desertification.

Desertification is land degradation occurring in the arid, semiarid and
dry sub humid areas of the world (Figure 10.22). These susceptible dry
lands cover 40% of the earths surface and put at risk more than 1 billion
people who are dependent on these lands for survival.
Land degradation cancels out gains advanced by improved crop yields
and reduced population growth.
The causes of land degradation are mainly anthropogenic and mainly
agriculture related.
10.7.1 The Effects of Land Degradation

In the Philippines, for example, it is estimated that soil erosion carries away
a volume of soil equivalent to one meter deep over 200 000 hectares every
year. In India, some 144 million hectares of land are affected by either wind
or water erosion. In Pakistan, 8.1 million hectares of land have been lost to
wind erosion and 7.4 million hectares to water erosion.
Deforestation is also widespread. During the 1980s, an estimated four million hectares of forest were lost each year in Asia and the Pacific. The destruction of the forests is mainly a result of clearance for agriculture. The
search for fuel wood, as well as the growing frequency and severity of forest and bush fires, are also taking their toll. In Nepal, excessive fuel wood
harvesting and cutting for fodder have severely degraded forests - some
40% of buffalo feed and 25% of the feed for cows is traditionally provided
by the leaves of trees. In India, which supports 15% of the worlds cattle and
46% of the worlds buffalo, upland forests have been severely overgrazed.
Deforestation has led to a severe shortage of fuel wood and building
materials in many areas. Crop residues and animal manure, which were returned to the soil to add valuable nutrients, are having to he burnt for fuel.
The regions grasslands are also being destroyed - a matter of great
economic importance since grazing is the largest land use in Asia. Grasslands are under attack from over-intensive grazing and from the incursion
of marginal agriculture which often fails and then leaves a residue of degraded land. In a converse of logic, as grazing areas decrease, livestock
numbers often increase. Grazing areas are often located at the source of
important catchment areas, influencing downstream agricultural and settlement so the cost of their deterioration is high.
The problem of the vanishing grasslands is particularly serious in

countries where grazing lands are used communally, but livestock are private property. It is virtually impossible to stop overgrazing in areas where
grazing rights are not defined. No nation in the region has an effective plan
of action to meet this challenge.
Land degradation is also altering hydrological conditions where vegetative cover is removed, the soil surface is exposed to the impact of raindrops which causes a sealing of the soil surface. Less rain then infiltrates
the soil. Runoff increases, stream flows fluctuate more than before, flooding becomes more frequent and extensive, and streams and springs become
ephemeral. These conditions encourage erosion; as a result, sediment loads
in rivers are increasing, dams are filling with silt, hydro-electric schemes are
being damaged, navigable waterways are being blocked and water quality
is deteriorating. In several parts of India, the potential life of reservoirs has
been more than halved by sedimentation rates that are ten times higher
shall those assumed by the designers.
10.7.2 The Causes of Land Degradation

There are six major causes of land degradation in the region: deforestation,
shortage of land due to increased populations, poor land use, insecure land
tenure, inappropriate land management practices and poverty.
This situation is particularly serious in Asia and the Pacific because
most good agricultural land has already been opened up. Indeed, the region
as a whole may already have passed the safe limits for agricultural expansion. The region had only about 0.14 hectares of arable and permanently
cropped land per head of population in 1990, compared to about 0.4 hectares in the rest of the world. Outside Asia and the Pacific, agricultural expansion has more or less kept pace with population growth since the early
1960s. The fact that it has not kept pace with population growth in Asia and
the Pacific is the regions principal cause of land degradation.
In Latin America, for example, land in use per person was 0.44 hectares
in 1990, and is expected to decrease to about 0.35 hectares in 2010, with
reserves remaining. In South Asia, with virtually no reserves of land with
crop production potential, the land in use per person will fall from 0.17 hectares in 1990 to some 0.12 hectares in 2010. The vicious circle produced by
limited land and a rising population.
This pressure on the land has three main effects:
Extensive farming systems, which were traditionally in harmony
with the environment since only low productivity was demanded
of them, have become inappropriate;
Increasing numbers of the rural population are being forced to farm
marginal and unsuitable land, which shell becomes quickly degraded; and
More people move to urban areas, adding to congestion, pollution
and often removing yet more prime agricultural land from production.
10.7.3 Land, Population, and Degradation

The two most important driving forces of land degradation in Asia and
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244
the Pacific are limited land resources and population increase. The result
is small farms, low production per person and increasing landlessness. A
consequence of land shortage is poverty.
Land shortage and poverty, taken together, lead to non-sustainable
land management practices, the direct causes of degradation. Poor farmers
are led to clear forest, cultivate steep slopes without conservation, overgraze rangelands and make unbalanced fertilizer applications.
Land degradation then leads to reduced productivity: a lower response to the same inputs or, where farmers possess the resources, a need
for higher inputs to maintain crop yields and farm incomes. This has the
effect of increasing land shortage still further, thus completing the cycle.
Substantial efforts have been made by individual farmers, national
governments and international agencies to counteract the cycle of poverty
and land degradation by research and development of improved technology. Much success has been achieved, as in the spread of high-yielding
crop varieties and use of fertilizers in the green revolution.
This effort may be nullified if it is not accompanied by a reduction in
population growth rates. Governments of the region, as well as international agencies, recognize the need to limit increases in population. There
is also a growing awareness that population questions cannot be treated in
isolation, but must be linked with sustainable land development. As FAO
has put it, A lack of control over resources; population growth; a lack of
alternative avenues of livelihood: and inequity are all contributing to the
degradation of the regions resources. In turn, environmental degradation
perpetuates poverty, as the poorest attempt to survive on a diminishing
resource base.

1.
Animal dung is ............ waste.
(a) Biodegradable
(b) Non-biodegradable
(c) Hazardous
(d) Toxic
2.
Which of the following is non-biodegradable?
(a) Animal bones
(b) Nylon
(c) Tea leaves
(d) Wool
3.
Name the process in which a harmful chemical enters the food chain
and gets concentrated at each level in the food chain.
(a) Concentration
(b) Biomagnifications
(c) Expansion
(d) Pollution
4.
Which of the following is biodegradable?
(a) Iron nails
(b) Plastic mugs
(c) leather belts
(d) Silver foil
5. One of the best solutions to get rid of non-biodegradable wastes

is...............

(a) Burning
(b) Dumping
(c) Burying
(d) Recycling
6.
Where are the majority of slums found?
245
(a) Around the outer edges of cities
(b) In the centre of cities
(c) In rural areas
(d) All of these.
7.
The hearing impairment happens because of .
(a) Noise pollution
(b) Air pollution
(c) Water pollution
(d) Land pollution
8. In which of the following locations is thermal pollution the biggest

problem?

(a) Soil (b) Groundwater

(c)
Air (d) Surface water
9.
The ten Oceans cover about ____ of the earths surface.

(a) 50% (b) 60%

(c) 70% (d) 80%
10. Inorganic pollutant:

(a) Sewage (b) Manure

(c) phosphate (d) Ash

1. What are noise pollution and their effect?
2. What is radioactive pollution?
3. What are the effects of radioactive pollution?
4. What is meaning of slum and their problems?
5. Explain about urban west and their types.
6. Why increasing ratio of rural urban migration and their effect on
city.
7. Write the short note:
(a) Thermal pollution
(b)
Ecological Pollution
8. What are the land degradation and their cause?

9. Explain about consumption with example
10. Why west management is important and explains about recycle of
west?
ANSWERS FOR MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION

1 (a)
2 (a)
3 (b)
4 (c)
5 (d)
6 (a)
7 (a)
8 (b)
9 (c)
10 (c)

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