SUPERB Final Report

SUPERB
Seismic Unseating Prevention Elements for Retrofitting of Bridges
Final
Report
PTDC/ECM/117618/2010
Authors:
Corneliu Cismasiu (IR)
Filipe Amarante dos Santos
Alfredo Campos Costa
Paulo Candeias
Lus Guerreiro
February, 2016
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
Dissemination of Knowledge ................................................................................................ 2
Advanced Training ............................................................................................................... 3
Publications .......................................................................................................................... 4
Seismic Unseating Prevention ................................................................................................. 6
Topic introduction ................................................................................................................. 6
Research team ..................................................................................................................... 6
Objectives and work planning .............................................................................................. 7
Dynamic characterization of footbridges ............................................................................... 10
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 10
Experimental campaign ..................................................................................................... 10
Numerical modeling of footbridges ........................................................................................ 26
Finite element updating ...................................................................................................... 26
Implementation of the finite element updating procedure .................................................. 27
FE updating of the PP3141 numerical model .................................................................... 28
Updated FE models ........................................................................................................... 32
Case studies .......................................................................................................................... 35
Numerical simulations using the AEM ............................................................................... 35
Numerical simulations using the FEM ................................................................................ 44
Experimental program ........................................................................................................... 48
Shear behavior of the connection between girder and pile ............................................... 48
Characterization of the superelastic elements ................................................................... 57
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 59
References ............................................................................................................................ 61
Introduction
Page 01
Introduction
Nowadays, it is generally accepted that, for a modern transportation system to be reliable, the
design process must ensure an acceptable earthquake risk for the bridge infrastructures. In
the case of existing structures, unacceptable seismic safety conditions must be clearly
identified and promptly corrected. Past earthquakes have demonstrated that the damage
induced in bridges can assume a multitude of different forms, depending, among others, on
factors like the ground motion itself, conditions depending on the building site, the adopted
bridge structural solution and its specific detailing provisions. Unseating of the bridge
superstructure at in-span hinges, or at simple supports, is one of the most severe forms of
seismic damage, leading to eventual collapse. This type of failure is either due to shaking or
to differential support movement associated with ground motion. The problem of unseating is
generally associated with inadequate seat lengths or restraint and it is worsened by skewed,
curved, or complex bridge configurations. In order to reduce the seismic response of bridge
structures, they can be provided with special restraining devices called seismic links.
According to EC8, these connection devices may be responsible for the partial or full
transmission of the design seismic action, provided that dynamic shock effects are mitigated
and taken into account in the design. They are designed to ensure the structural integrity of
the bridge and avoid unseating under extreme seismic displacements, while allowing the nonseismic displacements of the bridge to develop without transmitting significant loads. While
the new design strategies contemplated in EC8 aim to mitigate potential unseating problems
in new bridges, there are still many existing bridges susceptible to span unseating, due either
to the lack of adequate seismic detailing, like the shorter seats usually associated with old
constructions, either to potential stronger shaking than the one considered in the original
design. These structures require seismic retrofitting and several solutions are currently used,
namely steel restrainer cables, metallic dampers and seat extenders. In order to overcome
some of the limitations presented by these devices, and taking advantage of recent advances
in Material Science, the use of new materials has been proposed in the literature. Among
them, the shape memory alloys (SMAs), a class of metallic alloys exhibiting two important
properties: the shape-memory effect, which allows the material to recover its original
geometry during heating, even after severe deformation, and the superelasticity, which
enables the material to withstand large cyclic deformations, without residual strains, while
dissipating energy. The main objective of this project is to study a seismic retrofitting solution
for existing bridges in Portugal, using seismic links built up of superelastic NiTi SMA restrainer
cables to reduce the decks response and therefore the risk of span unseating during
earthquakes. Several activities are planned to be executed during the project. First, taking
Introduction
Page 02
advantage of the information stored in the EP's archives, a database was be created and
populated with relevant data regarding the dynamic characteristics of existing footbridges
located in the Southern part of Portugal, a region with significant seismic activity. This
database supported the definition of several typical footbridge structural models that were
analyzed numerically in order to assess their seismic vulnerability. If needed, the structures
were equipped with superelastic NiTi SMA restrainers and analyzed again to assess the
effectiveness of this type of retrofitting. Finally, taking advantage of the exquisite facilities
available at LNEC, a large scale experimental test program was implemented aiming to
confirm the feasibility of the application of SMAs on bridge structures retrofitting. To establish
the supporting conditions necessary to guarantee the accomplishment of all project goals, the
research team is composed by specialists with large expertise in seismic analysis of structures
(IST, LNEC, FCT), bridges maintenance, retrofitting and rehabilitation (EP), numerical
modelling of complex SMA constitutive models (FCT). Professor Reginald DesRoches from
the Georgia Institute of Technology, well known researcher in Earthquake Engineering, design
and analysis of bridge structures and structural applications of smart materials, Professor lex
Barbat from Polytechnic University of Catalonia, prestigious researcher in seismic vulnerability
and risk assessment and Professor Jason P. McCormick from the University of Michigan,
experimented researcher in large-scale tests aiming to reduce the seismic vulnerability of
structures through innovative systems, including shape-memory alloys, contributed with their
knowledge to the successful conclusion of the project by acting as external consultants. The
expertise gained during the project help training young post-graduate researchers and ensure
the longevity of the achievements of this research, and also constitute a pool of knowledge for
all involved partners and the bridge community at large.
Dissemination of Knowledge
Organization of conferences and workshops

1. 15the World Conferences on Earthquake Engineering (15WCEE), Lisbon,
September 24-28, 2012. One of the team members, Professor Lus Guerreiro,
act as the Secretary General of the Local Organization Committee.
2. Workshop: Dynamic Performance Assessment & Rehabilitation of Structures
(October 31, 2014). This workshop, organized by the team members of the
project had as main speakers Professor Alex H. Barbat (External consultant
- UPC, ICNME Barcelona), Engineer Alfredo Campos Costa (Team member
- LNEC), Engineer Carlos Filipe Sanches Pimentel (Special guest - EP),
Professor Jason McCormick (External consultant - University of Michigan),
Professor lvaro Alberto de Matos Ferreira da Cunha (Special guest - FEUP),
Introduction
Page 03
Professor Lus Manuel Coelho Guerreiro (Team member - IST) and Professor
Filipe Pimentel Amarante dos Santos (Team member FCT-UNL).
Reports
1. "Relatrio
N1
projeto
PTDC/ECM/117618/2010:
Ensaios
de
Caracterizao Dinmica de Passagens Superiores de Pees", P. Saldanha,

F.P.Amarante dos Santos, C. Cismasiu, M.A. Gonalves da Silva.
UNIC/FCT/UNL, 2012. (http://sites.fct.unl.pt/superb/pages/relatorio)
2. "Relatrio N2 - projeto PTDC/ECM/117618/2010: Modelao em Elementos
Finitos e Anlise do Comportamento Dinmico da Passagem Superior de
Pees 3141. Implementao de elementos de reforo compostos por ligas
com memria de forma. P. Saldanha, F.P.Amarante dos Santos, C.
Cismasiu,
M.A.
Gonalves
da
Silva.
UNIC/FCT/UNL,
2013.
(http://sites.fct.unl.pt/superb/pages/relatorio)
3. "Relatrio N3 - projeto PTDC/ECM/117618/2010: Anlise No Linear do
Comportamento Ssmico da Passagem Superior de Pees 2787", L.
Rodrigues, V. Bernardo, C. Cismasiu, FPl Amarante dos Santos.
UNIC/FCT/UNL, 2014. (http://sites.fct.unl.pt/superb/pages/relatorio)
4. Relatrio N4 - projeto PTDC/ECM/117618/2010: Anlise preliminar das
simulaes na mesa ssmica do LNEC. Andr Emanuel Bicho Loureno de
Oliveira,
Vasco
Miguel
Serrano
Bernardo.
FCT/UNL,
2014.
(http://sites.fct.unl.pt/superb/pages/relatorio)
5. Relatrio bolsa Maio-Julho 2014. Andr Emanuel Bicho Loureno de Oliveira.
FCT/UNL, 2014. (http://sites.fct.unl.pt/superb/pages/relatorio)
Advanced Training
MSc Thesis
1. Krus, Tiago de Carvalho Almeida Palma. (2012), Anlise dinmica e controlo
passivo de vibraes de uma ponte pedonal, MSc Thesis, Faculdade de
Cincias e Tecnologia (http://run.unl.pt//handle/10362/8875)
2. Valentim, Nilton Leonardo. (2012), Anlise do comportamento dinmico em
pontes pedonais, MSc Thesis, Faculdade de Cincias e Tecnologia
(http://run.unl.pt//handle/10362/8580)
3. Fernandes, Joo Filipe Figueira. (2012), Soluo de controlo passivo de um
passadio pedonal pr-fabricado, submetido a aces ssmicas, MSc Thesis,
Faculdade de Cincias e Tecnologia (http://run.unl.pt//handle/10362/7787)
Introduction
Page 04
4. Ferreira, Ana Cludia Narciso. (2013), Identificao modal e actualizao de

modelos de elementos finitos, MSc Thesis, Faculdade de Cincias e
Tecnologia (http://run.unl.pt/handle/10362/11225)
5. Rodrigues, Ana Isabel Malveiro (2013), Modelao e anlise no-linear do
comportamento dinmico de um passadio pedonal, MSc Thesis, Faculdade
de Cincias e Tecnologia (http://run.unl.pt/handle/10362/12193)
Short stays
1. Short stay (March 4-22, 2013) of one team member (Pedro Manuel Saldanha
Santos) to Georgia Institute of Technology - Civil & Environmental
Engineering under the supervision of Professor Reginald DesRoches, one of
the project external consultants.
Participation in conferences
1. Second European Conference on Earthquake Engineering and Seismology
(2ECEES),
Istambul,
Turkey,
August
24-29,
2014
(http://www.2eceesistanbul.org/)
2. 6th
International
Conference
on
Bridge
Maintenance,
Safety
and
Management (IABMAS 2012), Stresa, Lake Maggiore, Italy, July 8-12, 2012
(http://www.iabmas2012.org/)
3. 4. Congresso Nacional sobre Segurana e Conservao de Pontes
(ASCP2015), Lisbon, Portugal, July 25-26, 2015 (http://ascp2015.ascp.pt/)
4. 5s Jornadas Portuguesas de Engenharia de Estruturas, o Encontro Nacional
de Beto Estrutural 2014 e o 9 Congresso Nacional de Sismologia e
Engenharia Ssmica (JPEE2014), Lisbon, Portugal, November 26-28, 2014
(http://jpee2014.lnec.pt/)
5. 3. Congresso Nacional sobre Segurana e Conservao de Pontes
(ASCP2013), Porto, June 26-28, 2013 (http://ascp2013.ascp.pt/)
Publications
Papers in international journals

1. Amarante dos Santos, F. P., Cismaiu, C. and Pamies Teixeira, J. (2013),
Semi-active vibration control device based on superelastic NiTi wires. Struct.
Control Health Monit., 20: 890902. doi: 10.1002/stc.1500
Introduction
Page 05
2. Cismaiu, C., Narciso, A., and Amarante dos Santos, F. (2014).

"Experimental Dynamic Characterization and Finite-Element Updating of a
Footbridge Structure." J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 10.1061/(ASCE)CF.19435509.0000615, 04014116.
Comunications in international meetings

1. Cismasiu, C., and Amarante F. P. dos Santos. "Towards a semi-active
vibration control solution based on superelastic shape memory alloys." 15th
WCEE. Lisbon, Portugal 2012
2. Amarante dos Santos, F. P., and C. Cismasiu. "Bridge Hinge-Restrainers
Built up of NITI Superelastic Shape-Memory Alloys." New Trends in Smart
Technologies. Eds. Christian Boller, and Hartmut Janocha. Saarbrcken:
Fraunhofer Verlag, 2013. 195-203.
3. Cismasiu, Corneliu, and Filipe Pimentel Amarante dos Santos. "Shape
Memory
Alloys
in
Structural
Vibration
Control.
Research
at
UNIC/DEC/FCT/UNL." International Conference "Tradition and Innovation".

60 Years of Civil Engineering Higher Education in Transilvania. Cluj-Napoca,
Romania: UTCN, 2013.
4. Cismasiu, Corneliu, Filipe Amarante P. dos Santos, and Ana I. M. Rodrigues.
"Experimental and FE updating techniques for the unseating vulnerability
assessment of a footbridge structure." The 4th International Conference on
Dynamics, Vibration and Control. Shanghai, China: Shanghai Institute of
Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, 2014.
Comunications in national meetings

1. Bernardo, Vasco, Andr Oliveira, Filipe Amarante dos Santos, and Corneliu
Cismasiu Vulnerabilidade e reforo ssmico de uma passagem superior
pedonal pr-fabricada. 5as Jornadas Portuguesas de Engenharia de
Estruturas. Lisboa, 2014.
Seismic Unseating Prevention
Page 06

Topic introduction
Structural continuity is of utmost importance in order to guarantee an adequate seismic
behavior for bridge decks. In fact, well-designed monolithic structures have also the added
advantage of lower maintenance costs since joints and bearings represent some of the major
maintenance problems on bridges today. If structures are not continuous and monolithic, they
must be tied together at deck joints, supports and abutments, preventing them from pulling
apart and collapsing during an earthquake. The research of restraining solutions for seismic
linkage in existing footbridges, aims to mitigate their vulnerability to span unseating, by
controlling the corresponding deck displacements during an earthquake event. The traditional
approach for this type of restraining systems usually relies on the use of steel cables, which,
if designed to remain elastic, lack the ability to dissipate energy and are responsible for the
transmission of large seismic forces to other structural components. After yielding, these
elements tend to accumulate plastic deformations in repeated loading cycles that can also
result in unseating. Several other devices have been presented in the past decades as
unseating prevention devices for bridges, namely in the form of fluid-viscous dampers and
metallic dampers [AN07]. Although these devices are able to dissipate energy, they lack the
capacity for re-centering, which is a very important asset in order to control hinge opening in
bridges during seismic actions [DE04a, DE04b]. The installation of external hinge extenders
prevents the supported section of the superstructure from dropping off from its support but
has no effect on controlling the deck displacements, which may lead to structural damage in
other important components. Several authors have studied the retrofit and rehabilitation of
bridges using an alternative solution for bridge hinge restrainers, built up of superelastic (SE)
cables and bars [DE02, DE03].
Research team
The FCT-UNL research team has been developing active work in the superelastic field over
the last years, mainly addressing the numerical simulation of structures with SE elements
subjected to dynamic excitations [CI08, SA10]. Novel SE restraining devices for seismic
hazard mitigation has also been proposed by this team [CI10] and successfully simulated,
allowing the accumulation of a solid background in modelling the complex superelastic
behavior. LNEC has long tradition of interaction with medium and large research teams,
participating and coordinating several projects or networks research activities, funded by
National organizations or by the European Commission. Presently the Earthquake
Engineering Research Division of LNEC (NESDE) conducts earthquake engineering
Page 07

research, from laboratory experiments and field testing, structural monitoring and analytical
modeling of structures, to seismic hazard and risk analysis. LNEC is from the beginning a
component of the European Large Scale Facilities, offering Transnational Access, with its 3D
Shaking Table (LNEC-3G) operating since 1996. Furthermore LNEC has been in charge of
drafting the Portuguese regulations for seismic design and holds from the beginning the
Permanent Secretariat of CEN/TC250/SC8, the CEN Subcommittee for Eurocode 8. The
responsible for the research team of LNEC contributing to this project, the Head of NESDE,
with a long experience in earthquake engineering, has been involved in many research cooperations [CA04, CO05, FA05, FA08, FA08a], at National and European level, having acted
frequently as leader of research groups; is Technical Secretary of CEN/TC250/SC8, member
of the Portuguese Committee for the Implementation of Eurocodes and Vice-President of the
Portuguese Association for Earthquake Engineering. The team expertise in seismic analysis
of bridges was ensured by the presence of a very experienced researcher and IST professor.
In the last decade his research was focused in Earthquake Engineering and the seismic
behavior and structural control of bridges [GU97, VI00, BR00, GU03]. Besides a valuable
personal experience in the field, his contribution to the international dissemination of the
research developed in this project was essential, as, together with another team member of
the project, were part of the organizing committee of the 15th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering that took place in Lisbon in September of 2012 (www.15wcee.org).
In order to establish the supporting conditions necessary to guarantee the accomplishment of
the project goals, the research team was assisted by one of the most prestigious world
specialists in design and analysis of bridge structures and structural applications of smart
materials, Professor Reginald DesRoches from Georgia Institute of Technology, who acted
as external consultant. In his previous research, he has broadly studied the efficacy of SE
based seismic damping devices [DE03a, AN05, AN07], aimed to concentrate energy
dissipation in specific bridge locations. To guarantee that the research related to the project
activities is strongly anchored in the Portuguese reality, the team members counted with an
important institutional partner, the EP Roads of Portugal. This public limited company is the
concessionaire of the Portuguese National Road Network and, as responsible for the
maintenance and rehabilitation of the existing bridges, detains in its archives exclusive
information of crucial importance for the project.
Objectives and work planning

Bridges are important lifeline projects and therefore, their collapse during a disaster such as
an earthquake will cause significant casualties and properties losses. The moderate-to-strong
earthquakes occurred in the past two decades showed that one of the most common type of
failure in bridges is unseating. For example, during the 1971 San Francisco earthquake, this
Page 08
type of failure was observed in many damaged bridges and as a consequence, the California
Department of Transportation started a highly active retrofitting campaign [AN07]. Although
the seismic hazard of the Portuguese territory is moderate and despite the new design
strategies, like the ones contemplated in EN 1998 EC8, aiming to mitigate the potential
unseating problems in new structures, there are still many existing bridges with high seismic
vulnerability, susceptible to span unseating, due either to the lack of adequate seismic
detailing, like the shorter seats usually associated with ancient constructions, either to
potential stronger shaking than the one considered in the original design. One mention that,
the Portuguese National Road Network includes more than 6000 bridges and/or viaducts
under the direct or indirect management of EP Roads of Portugal. Among them, 206 have
been already retrofitted within a national campaign that started in 2001, and other 101 required
emergency interventions. According to the partial results of the ongoing national inspection
program, 306 more bridges and/or viaducts are expected to be intervened by 2015. The main
objective of this project is to study the effectiveness of a relatively new seismic retrofitting
solution for existing footbridges in Portugal, based on seismic links built up of superelastic NiTi
SMA restrainer cables, aiming to reduce the decks response and consequently, the risk of
span unseating during earthquakes. In order to ensure the needed expertise that guarantee
the fulfilling of the proposed objective, four of the top prominent Portuguese institutions in
areas like seismic analysis of structures, bridges maintenance, retrofitting and rehabilitation
and numerical modelling of complex SMA constitutive models, namely FCT/UNL, IST, LNEC
and EP, joined forces and create a highly qualified research team. The activities that planned
to be executed during the project were divided in four main tasks:
Task 1 Dynamic characterization of footbridges. The objective of this first task, planned to
be executed in parallel with Task 2 in the first year of the project, is to develop a database with
relevant information regarding the dynamic characteristics of several footbridges existing in
the Southern part of Portugal, as well as their existing unseating prevention devices, if any.
The activities in this task were of utmost importance as allowed to adapt the research to the
Portuguese reality and therefore preparing the project outputs for the immediate
implementation in real life.
Task 2 - Numerical modelling of footbridges. The activities in this task, planned to be executed
in parallel with the first task during the first year of the project, being a natural continuation of
the work initiated at FCT/UNL in 2006 [CI08, SA10], reflected the strategy of developing
numerical models able to perform MDOF dynamic non-linear analysis of structures including
superelastic restrainers. The resulting models were used in the later part of the research to
analyze the performance of a superelastic retrofitting system when implemented in typical
footbridge structures and to prepare the experimental program.
Page 09
Task 3 Case studies. Using the outputs resulting from the first two tasks, the activities in this
task, were planned to be executed during the second year of the project, yielding FE models
of typical footbridges existing in Portugal. Using these FE models, the team members
associated to this task have simulated the presence of superelastic NiTi SMA restrainers and
analyze their seismic response to assess their effectiveness. These numerical tests allowed
to identity, among the great variety of existing footbridges in Portugal, potential targets for this
type of seismic retrofitting.
Task 4 - Experimental program. Taking advantage of the exquisite facilities available at LNEC,
a series of large scale experimental test were conducted in this last stage of the project, aiming
to validate the conclusions resulting from the numerical simulations performed during Task 3.
As already reported in the literature [TY07a, TY07b], experimental tests on NiTi coupon
specimens provide only limited information in terms of the full-scale behavior. Therefore, these
full-scale tests, using relevant earthquake-type loading, are essential for the full understanding
of the effectiveness of superelastic NiTi restrainers retrofitting in real life bridge structures.
Page 10
Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Introduction
It is well known that lifelines interruption as a result of natural disasters can have major
economic and social impacts, leading to much higher losses than the value of damage to the
infrastructure itself. Therefore, although the footbridges are not usually considered as critical
lifeline structures, their collapse during a disaster such as an earthquake can be critical, as it
might cause severe lifelines interruption, like the examples illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Lifeline interruption due to footbridges collapse
Despite the new design strategies, like the ones contemplated in Eurocode 8, the Portuguese
National Road Network includes many footbridges with high seismic vulnerability, susceptible
to span unseating, due either to the lack of adequate seismic detailing, like the shorter seats
usually associated with ancient constructions, either to potential stronger shaking than the one
considered in the original design. In order to guarantee successful structural interventions, the
numerical models to be used in the design stages of their retrofitting solutions must be
validated using experimental measurements on the existing structures.
In 2012, within the SUPERB research project, an experimental campaign has been launched,
collecting relevant dynamic records of 17 footbridges located in the Southern part of Portugal,
a region with significant seismic activity. Subsequent application of experimental modal
identification techniques has enabled the accurate identification of their structural properties
and provide reliable data to support calibration, updating and validation of the corresponding
numerical models.
Experimental campaign
The basic principles in experimental modal analysis and its evolution from input-output to
output-only identification techniques have been presented by many authors, as for example,
Ljung [LJ99], Cunha and Caetano [CU05, CU06], Ibsen and Liingaard [IB06] or Haritos
[HA10]. Nowadays, the output-only modal testing and identification is becoming a widespread
Page 11

tool for solving a broad range of engineering problems. Its main advantages and limitations
are extensively discussed by Brincker and his co-workers in [BRI00, BRI03, BRI07]. A
literature review reveals many applications of output-only modal identification techniques to
Civil Engineering structures in general [CU05, CU06, PE01, BRI01, AR02, TA02, EL04, GE06,
BR07, JU08, BE08, RE08, SA09, FO12] and footbridges in particular [CA04a, GA05, ZI06,
ZI07, CR09, LA11].
Based on the expertise reported in the consulted literature, between May and July, 2012, an
experimental campaign has been designed and carried out on 17 typical pedestrian crossing
in the Faro district in the Southern part of Portugal, see Figure 2.
Figure 2: Location of the studied footbridges
Among them, as illustrated in Figure 3, several pedestrian crossing are located in a particularly
sensitive area, close to the Faro airport and railways station, 3 hospitals, 2 fire departments,
a large shopping center, a large university and several schools.
The structures are simply supported footbridges with the main span between 26 and 34 m and
a vertical clearance between 5.2 to 5.6 m, composed of two I-shaped prestressed girders with
1.20 m height, connected by an inferior deck slab. The deck slab, which is built up of a 0.06
m precast slab and a cast-in-place concrete topping with 0.06 m, is supported by the bottom
flanges of the main girders, as illustrated in Figure 4(a). The connection of the main girders to
the piles, see Figure 4(b), is materialized by a set of two steel dowels, with a diameter of 20
Page 12

mm each, and an elastomeric bearing. The girders have vertical ducts in order to
accommodate the dowels, which are filled with a non-shrink grout.
Figure 3: Footbridges located in a particularly sensitive area
The main piles, as shown in Figure 4(c), are precast reinforced concrete elements, with a
variable rectangular cross-section, ranging from 0.600.50m2 to 1.000.50m2, with superficial
precast foundations. The access to the bridges is materialized by a set of lateral precast
reinforced concrete ramps and/or stairs, which are mainly built up of ribbed slabs supported
by prestressed corbels, rigidly connected to the columns.
Figure 4: Typical design details of the footbridges
During the ambient vibration tests (AVT), the velocity response was acquired using three
MR2002-CE vibration monitoring systems from SYSCOM, each consisting of one MS2003+
triaxial velocity sensor and one vibration recorder, see Figure 5. The MR2002-CE is equipped
Page 13

with a digital signal processor to filter the signals coming from the sensor. Using its default
filter algorithm, the signal is cut-off at 80% of Nyquist frequency, meaning that a data
acquisition sampling-rate of 100 samples per second, value that was used in these tests,
allows the identification of frequencies as high as 40 Hz. To ensure synchronized data
acquisition, the MR2002 clock is automatically updated using a GPS receiver.
Figure 5: SYSCOM MR2002-CE vibration monitoring systems equipped with MS2003+ triaxial
velocity sensors
Preliminary SAP2000 finite element models, built based on the structural drawings, were used
to provide estimates for the expected modal characteristics of the structures. These results
were used to decide the data acquisition sampling-rate, the reference channel locations and
the configurations of the roving sensors. As only 3 triaxial vibration monitoring systems were
available, one was kept in the same location, the mid-span of the footbridge, to guarantee 3
reference channels. The remaining roving sensors were used in several setups in order to
cover all defined grid points, see an example in Figure 6. For each setup, ambient vibration
data were acquired for 15 minutes.
Page 14
Figure 6: Grid points defined for the AVT measurements of a footbridge
Images captured during the experimental campaign are available on the project webpage
(http://sites.fct.unl.pt/superb/). For illustration purposes, several images captures during the
AVT recordings on several pedestrian crossings are given in the following figures.
Figure 7: AVT on PP3141
Page 15
Figure 8: AVT on 2723
Page 16
Page 17
Page 18
Subsequent data processing using the Enhanced Frequency Domain Decomposition (EFDD)
and the Unweighted Principal Component version of the Stochastic Subspace Identification
(SSI-UPC) algorithms, both implemented in the operational modal analysis software
ARTeMIS, yields the estimates for the modal properties of the footbridge.
The EFDD [BRI00, BRI01a, BRI01b, GA06] is a non-parametric method developed in the
frequency domain, which estimates the modal parameters directly from signal processing
calculations. It is an extension of the Frequency Domain Decomposition (FDD), algorithm that
estimates the Eigen-modes, in the condition of a white noise input and a lightly damped
structure, by performing a singular value decomposition of the systems spectral density
spectra, to obtain power spectral densities of a set of several single-degrees-of-freedom
systems, each corresponding to an individual mode. The EFDD is a technique that allows the
estimation not only of the mode shapes and their frequencies but also of the corresponding
damping ratios.
The Stochastic Subspace Identification (SSI) techniques [VA96, AN--, BRI06] is a parametric
method developed in the time domain, that uses weighted time series data resulting from the
output-only measurements, to identify a stochastic state space model that describes the linear
vibrations of the structure. The Unweighted Principal Component (UPC), an algorithm that
works best with data having modes with comparable energy level, is the simplest version, as
no weighting is performed at all. For each set-up, a set of models with different parameters
are identified and a stabilization diagram is established, discriminating between stable,
unstable and noise modes.
Page 19
Table 1: Experimental modal properties of PP3141
Mode
Longitudinal
Lateral
1st Vertical
1st Torsional
2nd Torsional
2nd Vertical
EFDD
Frequency (Hz)
Damping (%)
1.933
1.081
2.522
0.856
3.016
0.597
5.203
0.583
8.176
1.197
11.220
0.410
SSI-UPC
Frequency (Hz)
Damping (%)
1.929
1.230
2.515
0.807
3.013
1.590
5.197
0.874
8.371
2.486
11.220
0.727
As an example, the identified modal properties of PP3141 are resumed in Table 2. The
singular values of the spectral density matrices obtained using the EFDD algorithm, on all test
setups, are presented in Figure 18(a). The corresponding stabilization diagrams, in the case
of the application of the SSI-UPC algorithm, as well as the correlation between EFDD and
SSI-UPC, are shown in Figures 18(b) and (c), respectively.
Page 20
Figure 18: PP3141 Results of the Operational Modal Analysis (OMA)
The entries in the Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC) matrix, presented in Figure 18(c), indicate
a good correlation between identified modes using the two algorithms at stake. However, one
must note two particular aspects.
The first one, is related to the slight drift that can be observed in the entry associated with the
first mode, indicating some problems in the convergence of the two algorithms for this
particular vibration mode. Analyzing the processed data presented in Figure 4(a) and (b), one
can clearly observe two closed picks near 1.9 Hz, the source of this convergence problem.
Their presence is explained by the existence of signals associated with the longitudinal
response of the footbridge having a non-stationary amplitude during the recording period. This
can be verified in Figure 19, where one of the recorded data sets is presented for three
orthogonal directions.
Page 21
Figure 19: Velocity time history for one MR2002 SYSCOM station
One can see that, for the case of Channel X, corresponding to the longitudinal direction, two
zones with different mean amplitudes can be identified. The data associated with the larger
amplitudes generate a lower frequency while the data associated with the lower amplitudes
generate a slightly larger frequency, corresponding to the two picks near 1.9 Hz, identified in
Figure 18(a) and (b).
The second aspect worth to be mentioned here is the fact that some of the frequencies
identified by the SSI-UPC algorithm, were not detected using the EFDD technique. It was
verified by the finite element simulations that the vibration modes associated with these
frequencies are mainly related to the access ramps and therefore, the corresponding
vibrations transmitted to the main deck are only residual. This explains the difficulty of the
EFDD algorithm in detecting these frequencies.
All the relevant dynamic characteristics obtained during the identification campaign were
collected in a modular, flexible and easily expandable web-oriented database, specially
created within the activities of this task, using MySQL management system and PHP scripting
language.
A resume of the 17 pedestrian crossing location, main span and identified principal
frequencies is given in Table 2.
Table 2: Experimental campaign Ambient Vibration Tests, May July, 2012
CC.STB-IC32.001+187.PP.3779.0#0.0
IC32 at km 1,187 - PSP
Span: 29.57m
Natural frequencies (Hz):
L 2.973; T 3.662; V 3.503
Page 22
EP.FAR-125-10 (EN).000+420.PP.3141.0#0.0
EN125-10 at km 0+420 - PSP
Span: 29.00m
Natural Frequencies (Hz):
L 1.943; T 2.527; V 3.017
EP.FAR-125-10 (EN).001+250.PP.3149.0#0.0
EN125-10 at km 1+250 - PSP
Span: 33.60m
L 1.854; T 2.574; V 2.175
EP.FAR-125-10 (EN).001+750.PP.3152.0#0.0
EN125-10 at km 1+750 - PSP
Span: 30.60m
L 1.671; T 2.261; V 2.454
EP.FAR-125-10 (EN).002+600.PP.3164.0#0.0
EN125-10 at km 2+600 - PSP
Span: 26.00m
L 2.365; T 2.762; V 3.494
Page 23
EP.FAR-270 (ER).044+100.PP.3082.0#0.0
ER 270 at km 44+100 - PSP
Span: 29.80m
L 9.725; T 4.364; V 4.111
EP.FAR-IC 1.703+073.PP.3886.0#0.0
IC1 at km 703+073 - PSP
Span: 22.50m
L 1.998; T 3.292; V 4.469
EP.FAR-IC 4.000+100.PP.2793.0#0.0
IC4 (EN125-4) at km 0+100 - PSP
Span: 27.50m
L 3.313; T 3.094; V 3.327
EP.FAR-IC 4.002+500.PP.2854.0#0.0
IC4 (EN125-4) at km 2+500 - PSP
Span: 25.80m
L 3.440; T 3.426; V 3.495
Page 24
EP.FAR-IC 4.097+700.PP.2730.0#0.0
IC4 (EN125-4) at km 97+700 - PSP
Span: 22.20m
L 2.307; T 3.669; V 5.121
EP.FAR-IC 4.098+050.PP.2723.0#0.0
IC4 (EN125-4) at km 98+050 - PSP
Span: 22.50m
L 2.185; T 4.009; V 3.296
EP.FAR-IC 4.098+480.PP.2719.0#0.0
IC4 (EN125-4) at km 98+480 - PSP
Span: 28.50m
L 2,034; T 2.934; V 3,068
EP.FAR-IC 4.098+850.PP.2816.0#0.0
IC4 (EN125-4) at km 98+850 - PSP
Spans: 12.30m; 22.00m; 10.50m
L 2.305; T 2.594; V 4.551
Page 25
EP.FAR-IC 4.099+250.PP.2697.0#0.0
IC4 (EN125-4) at km 99+250 - PSP
Span: 28.50m
L 1.805; T 2.267; V 3.013
EP.FAR-IC 4.100+400.PP.2787.0#0.0
IC4 (EN125-4) at km 100+400 - PSP
Spans: 16.70m; 24.70m; 16.70m
L 1.794; T 2.058; V 2.594
EP.FAR-IC 4.101+050.PP.2757.0#0.0
IC4 (EN125-4) at km 101+050 - PSP
Spans: 25.80m; 17.90m
L 2.295; T 2.301; V 2.828
EP.FAR-IC 4.102+150.PP.6136.0#0.0
IC4 (EN125-4) at km 102+150 - PSP
Span: 32.95m
L 1.610; T 1.734; V 1.851
Numerical modeling of footbridges
Page 26

Finite element updating
Once identified the modal properties of the analyzed footbridges, these results are used to
update and validate the finite element models to be used, in a later stage, to check if the
structure is satisfying the actual building codes and, in the case it does not, to design
retrofitting solutions.
A general description of the finite element modal updating procedure applied to structural
dynamic problems can be found in [AS71, MO35, EW00, JA05, RE10]. Several practical
applications are reported in the literature, related, for example, to bridges [EL04, 39, GE06],
grandstands [SA09] and footbridges [CA04a, ZI06, BA09]. The procedure is usually performed
by comparing the numerical with the experimental natural frequencies and mode shapes.
When significant discrepancies are found, one seeks to correct inaccurate parameters, , in
the finite element model, in order to improve the agreement between the numerical estimates
and the experimental results.
(1)
From a practical point of view, one has to solve an optimization problem, in which the optimal
values of the parameters are obtained by minimizing an objective function, J(). The objective
function considered in the present project, is computed based on the identified modal
parameters of the N observed modes. The first term in equation (1) represents the difference
between the measured i, and the computed bar(i), frequency of the i-th mode, while the
second term, based on the modal assurance criterion [AL03], represents the difference
between the measured i, and the computed bar(i), mode shape components of the i-th
mode. Note that, when the estimated and the identified modes are alike, the objective function
tends to zero.
When implementing equation (1), one must note, however, that while the mode shapes
resulting from the FE analysis are usually real, the identified modes are complex, as a result
of the non-proportional damping in the system. For lightly damped structures, the damping
effects can be neglected and a set of real modes could be extracted and used to compare
with the numerical estimations. Several algorithms that can be used to convert the complex
mode shapes into real ones are available in the literature, as, for example in [IB83, NI84,
Page 27

ZH87, ZH87a, IM93]. The approach used in the present paper, appointed as the best strategy
for extracting real modes from complex ones [IM93, AH95], assumes that the optimum real
mode shape corresponding to a complex one, is the one which has maximum correlation with
this mode. It is proved [AH95] that the most correlated real vector with a complex mode shape
is the real part of the complex mode, when rotated so that the norm of its real part is
maximized. In [AH95] it is shown that the corresponding rotating angle , can be readily
computed from equation (2), where R and I are the real and imaginary part of the complex
mode shape, respectively.
(2)
Using the solution of equation (2), which maximizes the real part of the complex mode shape,
one can finally compute the real part of the rotated mode, which is given by R cos + I sin.
Applying this procedure for all identified complex mode shapes, one obtains real measured
mode shapes, that are used for comparison with those obtained using the finite element model
and in the definition of the objective function given in equation (1).
Implementation of the finite element updating procedure

Although is common practice to perform the finite element updating manually, procedure
adopted also during the present project for the most of the FE models, a numerical framework
was designed and implemented, combining an optimization routine based on the NLPQL
algorithm presented by Schittkowski [SC86], with SAP2000, the general purpose finite
element program, to allow for the automatic performing of the finite element updating
procedure, when this computational program is used.
To run the finite element updating, the numerical model must be defined using a set of
physically meaningful parameters related to constants associated with a certain degree of
uncertainty, as for example material properties like the Youngs modulus, Poisson ratio or
mass density/distribution, physical dimensions of the structural elements or boundary
conditions and connections between components, which are seldom understood with
certainty. A previous sensitivity analysis might help the user to decide, among these
parameters, which are the best to be used in the optimization process.
Page 28

FE updating of the PP3141 numerical model
As an example, the complete FE updating procedure applied to PP3141 is given next.
Preliminary SAP2000 tridimensional finite element parametric models were defined, based on
the structural drawings of the footbridge. While the deck was modeled using variable crosssection four-node quadrilateral shell elements with six degrees of freedom per node, all the
other structural elements, namely the piles and the access ramps, were modeled using 3D
frame elements. The resulting finite element model is presented in Figure 6.
Figure 20: PP3141 - SAP2000 FE model
The original design indicates that a C35/45 class concrete was used for the prestressed
elements of the deck and a C25/30 class concrete was used in all the remaining structural
elements. The values of the Youngs modulus used in the finite element model were chosen
accordingly to the general material prescriptions for these two concrete classes, i.e., 34 and
31 GPa, respectively. The same Poisson ratio of 0.2 and volumetric weight of 25 kN/m 3 were
considered for all structural elements. The connections between the deck and the piles, and
between the access ramps and the main structure of the footbridge, are simulated using linear
link elements. Their stiffness was computed taking into account the neoprene elastomeric
laminated bearings and the existing steel dowel connectors. The structure is assumed to be
clamped on a rigid foundation.
Page 29
Figure 21: Modal Assurance Criterion - correlation between EFDD and SAP2000
Although this model was used to provide estimates for the expected modal characteristics of
the structure, essential to prepare the experimental campaign, one can readily see from the
values presented in Figure 21, that the finite element estimates for the modal properties of the
footbridges are not consistent with the identified values. According to the MAC matrix, the
second and the third modes of the main deck shift places in the numerical model. The other
modes are not very accurate (the values on the main diagonal of the MAC matrix are drifted
away from the unity) and there is an important error in the frequency values, with a maximum
error of about 17% for the lateral mode.
If this finite element model is to be used predictively in a later stage, for untested loading
conditions or modified structural configurations, a previous finite element updating is required.
Sensitivity analysis
The aim of the model updating is to modify the values of some, physically meaningful,
parameters in order to obtain a better agreement between the numerical results and the
experimental data. These parameters are usually chosen among geometric and material
constants, boundary conditions and inter-elements connections, which are not known with
certainty. Before starting the finite element updating procedure, and in order to improve its
performance, a set of numerical simulations are usually performed, as to understand the
sensitivity of the finite element results to changes in these parameters.
The first parameter considered uncertain for the structure at stake, was the bending stiffness
of the main girders. As expected, a sensitivity analysis considering the variation of this
parameter alone proves that it directly affects the first two vertical vibration modes of the deck.
The best values for the corresponding frequencies were obtained when the bending stiffness
of the main girders was increased by 24%, as shown in Table 3 (note that in the preliminary
FE model, the contribution of the rebars to the global stiffness of the RC elements was not
taken into account).
Page 30
Table 3: Sensitivity to bending stiffness of the main girders
Mode
1st Vertical
2nd Vertical
Experimental
(Hz)
3.016
11.220
Preliminary FE model
Error (%)
(Hz)
2.785
7.66
10.348
7.78
Updated FE model
Error (%)
(Hz)
3.020
0.13
11.225
0.04
As no geotechnical data were available, another uncertainty is related with the boundary
conditions to be used in the FE model, to simulate the ground connections of the piles and the
access ramps. The piles were considered connected to a rigid foundation by different springs
in different directions, being their stiffness the parameters to be optimized. All the access
ramps were considered simply supported on the ground. As expected, a sensitivity analysis
proves that these boundary conditions massively affects the longitudinal and the lateral
vibration modes, while have practically no influence on the vertical modes of the deck. The
best values obtained for the corresponding frequencies are reported in Table 4.
Table 4: Sensitivity to ground connections
Mode
Longitudinal
Lateral
Experimental
(Hz)
1.933
2.522
Error (%)
(Hz)
1.800
6.88
2.949
16.93
Updated FE model
Error (%)
(Hz)
1.919
0.73
2.452
2.77
Automatic finite element updating

Completed the sensitivity tests, an automatic finite element updating was performed using the
implemented algorithm, using the six identified vibration modes of the main deck. The bending
stiffness of the main girder, the spring connections between the piles and the rigid foundations
and the stiffness of the neoprene elastomeric laminated bearings (including the steel dowel
connectors) between the main girders and the piles were considered simultaneously, as
optimization parameters. The best values obtained during the sensitivity tests were
considered as initial approximations and a 10% variation was allowed for all these
parameters.
A comparison between the FE numerical estimates for the main frequencies of the deck and
the corresponding experimental values is presented in Table 5. One can readily see that while
the estimates produced using the preliminary FE model have an average error of about 11%,
the updated FE model produce much better estimates, reducing the average error to about
3%.
Page 31
Table 5: Comparison between the experimental and the updated FE frequencies
Mode
Longitudinal
Lateral
1st Vertical
1st Torsional
2nd Torsional
2nd Vertical
Experimental
(Hz)
1.933
2.522
3.016
5.203
8.176
11.22
Error (%)
(Hz)
1.800
6.88
2.949
16.93
2.785
7.66
5.881
13.02
7.094
13.24
10.348
7.77
Updated FE model
Error (%)
(Hz)
1.915
0.93
2.419
4.08
3.029
0.44
5.286
1.58
7.154
12.50
11.266
0.40
In what concerns the corresponding vibration modes, the MAC matrix presented in Figure 22,
indicates that, except for the two torsional modes, the updated finite element estimates are
now consistent with the identified values.
Figure 22: MAC - correlation between experimental and the optimized FE model
The graphical representation of the six, identified (ARTeMIS) and estimated (Updated
SAP2000 FE model), vibration modes of the deck is presented in Figure 23.
To conclude, one must recall that the FE predictions, based on models developed using
existing design data, are often disbelieved when they are in conflict with experimental results.
In such cases, FE updating techniques are available to correct the FE model based on
dynamic response records of the real structure.
The first six vibration modes of the PP3141 footbridge were identified using ambient vibration
tests and compared with their estimates from a preliminary SAP2000 FE model. Important
errors were revealed, both in the natural frequencies and the corresponding mode shapes.
A manual sensitivity analysis of several meaningful but uncertain parameters, such as the
bending stiffness of the main girders of the deck, the boundary conditions used to simulate
the ground connections of the piles and the stiffness of the neoprene bearings between the
main girders and the piles, allows to reduce the initial errors and to enable an automatically
update of the FE model, using the implemented algorithm.
Page 32

This automatic procedure further improves the FE estimates for the modal properties of the
structure, leading to values which present a very good correlation with the experimental
measurements. Taking also into account that all parameters changes were within physically
acceptable limits, one may conclude that the updating process was successful.
Figure 23: PP3141 - Principal vibration modes of the main deck
Updated FE models
Numerical models of three representative footbridge structures having one (PP3141), two
(2757) and three (2787) spans were developed in a series of computational programs
(SAP2000, OpenSees, SeismoStruct and ELS).
Page 33

Some of the optimized numerical models, resulting from the finite element updating, are
presented in Tables 4 to 8.
Table 4: PP3141 OpenSees updated numerical model
3D numerical model
MAC
Table 5: PP3141 SeismoStruct updated numerical model
3D numerical model
MAC
Table 6: PP3141 ELS updated numerical model
3D numerical model
MAC
Page 34

3D numerical model
MAC
3D numerical model
MAC
Case studies
Page 35
Case studies
A statistical analysis of the database created in Task 1 allowed to identify the typical dynamic
characteristics of the footbridges under analysis. Representative one (PP3141), two (PP2757)
and three (PP2787) span footbridges were chosen and their calibrated numerical models used
to test their seismic vulnerability in different seismic scenarios. When necessarily, the
presence of superelastic NiTi SMA restrainers was simulated as well, in order to assess the
effectiveness of this type of seismic retrofitting.
Numerical simulations using the AEM

Complex modeling of the representative footbridges, including the dowel connection, was
performed using the Applied Element Method [ME99, ME00a, ME00b, ME00c, ME01, ME02]
based computational program, Extreme Loading for Structures (ELS).
Based on the design drawings, the structural elements were accurately modeled, as illustrated
in Figures 24 to 28.
A500 steel
Y1860 steel
Figure 24: Main girders rebar arrangement
Case studies
Page 36
(b) Rebar
(a) Geometry
Figure 25: Deck slab
(a) Geometry
(b) Rebar
Figure 26: Main piles
(c) Complete model
Case studies
Page 37
(c) Geometry
(b) Rebar
Figure 27: Piles of the access ramps/stairs
(a) Complete model
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Page 38
232
Figure 28: Connection between the main girders and the piles using two 20mm steel dowels and a
neoprene bearing pad
The dowel connection is of extremely importance as to prevent the unseating of the deck and
to ensure the global structural stability. Therefore, its modeling must be performed as accurate
as possible. In this phase of the project, the maximum shear force that can be transmitted by
this connection was estimated through a pushover analysis and compared with the design
codes requirements.
Case studies
Page 39
Figure 29: Numerical estimates for the pushover analysis
Table 5: Maximum shear force for the dowels
Dowels 20
Maximum dowel shear force (kN)
* dowel effect included
MC2010*
56.19
BS8110
94.20
The results, illustrated in Figure 29 and Table 5, were promising and encouraged the use of
these numerical models in further analysis. However, one must note that these values were
updated in a later stage of the project, when the results of the large scale experimental tests
were available.
Final numerical models
The final numerical models, obtained after performing a manual updating procedure, were in
good agreement with the identified modal parameters, as illustrated by the MAC matrices
presented in Tables 6.
The configurations and the natural frequencies of the principal vibration modes of the three
footbridges, as resulted from the numerical simulations, are illustrated in Tables 7 to 9.
Case studies
Page 40
Table 6: MAC for the final ELS models
PP3141 (one span)
PP2757 (two spans)
PP2787 (three spans)
Table 7: PP3141 - Modal configuration of the principal vibration modes
1.901 Hz
2.620 Hz
3.044 Hz
Case studies
Page 41
2.243 Hz
2.358 Hz
3.935 Hz
7.666 Hz
1.803 Hz
1.962 Hz
4.037 Hz
8.073 Hz
Case studies
Page 42
Collapse mechanism for high values of PGA
The three calibrated numerical models were used next to check eventual unseating
vulnerability of the footbridges when subjected to the design earthquake. The performed
non-linear analysis proved that all structures are safe in what respect the unseating and
integrity of principal structural elements.
Further analysis aimed to check the collapse mechanism in the case of stronger seismic
excitation. This type, the footbridges were subjected to a PGA of 0.6g, roughly two times the
design earthquake. The Figures 30 to 32 illustrate that, although the structures collapsed, the
failure was not caused by unseating.
Figure 30: Collapse mechanism of the one span PP3141 footbridge
Figure 31: Collapse mechanism of the two span PP2757 footbridge
Case studies
Page 43
Figure 32: Collapse mechanism of the three span PP2787 footbridge
Collapse mechanism for cascading aftershocks scenario

To check the potential of the cumulative damage and of the cumulative relative displacements
between the deck and the piles to initiate the unseating and therefore, the collapse of the
structures, another scenario was considered. This time, a design earthquake with a PGA value
of 0.3g was considered as a main shock, together with a 0.2g foreshock and a 0.2g aftershock.
The results of the numerical simulations show that, is such a scenario, all three structures are
susceptible to unseating. A high probability of occurrence of this failure mechanism is
expected for multi-span footbridges, which are associated with inadequate seat lengths. An
example is illustrated in Figures 33. In such cases, the implementation of a strengthening
solution is considered mandatory.
Case studies
Page 44
Figure 33: Unseating mechanism of the three span PP2787 footbridge
Numerical simulations using the FEM

To assess the effectiveness of an eventual retrofitting solution comprising superelastic NiTi
SMA restrainers, further numerical simulations were performed using OpenSees computing
program due to its ability to include in the analysis superelastic elements.
The structural vulnerability of the retrofitted footbridges was compared with the structural
vulnerability of the original structures. Moreover, a comparison was made to enhance the
better performances of the superelastic solution when compared with the classical steel
connectors. This comparison is illustrated in Figures 34 to 36 for the one span footbridge
(PP3141), structure that is known to be less sensitive to this scenario. Even in this case, the
effectiveness of the superelastic solution is clearly emphasized.
Page 45
Case studies
Figure 34: Seismic response of the original footbridge structure
Figure 35: Seismic response of the retrofitted structure - 4 STEEL rods (0.4m, 10mm)
Case studies
Page 46
Figure 36: Seismic response of the retrofitted structure - 4 SMA rods (0.4m, 11mm)
Conclusions
The estimates of the performed numerical simulations must be confirmed, in a later stage,
using the results obtained during the large scale experimental campaign. However, several
conclusions can be drawn.
In what respect the original footbridge structure:
It presents no unseating vulnerability for the design earthquake;
The plastic deformation are concentrated at the dowels connection;
However, the connection has no recentring capabilities;
The structure is highly vulnerable to unseating in the case of cascading aftershocks.
In the case of the structure retrofitted structure with steel rods:
Small part of the plastic deformation is distributed to the piles;
Large energy dissipation concentrated in the seismic links;
However, the connection has no recentring capabilities;
The structure presents moderate unseating vulnerability in case of cascading

aftershocks.
In the case of the structure retrofitted structure with SMA rods:
Only a small part of the plastic deformation is distributed to the piles;
Case studies
Page 47
Moderate energy dissipation in the seismic links;
The
connection
has
recentring
capabilities
avoiding
cumulative
displacements;
The structure is safe in a scenario of cascading aftershocks.
relative
Experimental program
Page 48
Shear behavior of the connection between girder and pile
Experimental setup
The main objective of the proposed experimental tests was to analyse the shear behaviour of
the connection between the deck main girders and the piles, when subjected to monotonic
and cyclic shear loads. The connection is built up of two 20 mm steel dowels and a neoprene
bearing pad.
The prototype, designed to be representative of a typical footbridge connection, consisted on
a short girder supported on a reinforced concrete seating, with 10 mm thickness neoprene
pads and the corresponding dowels. The reinforced concrete prototype was rigidly connected
to the seismic table using steel supporting apparatus. The girders were actuated longitudinally
by the table itself, using an additional metallic strut which was supported on a reaction wall. In
Figure 24 is presented a general scheme of the experimental prototype, with its main
components.
Load
cell
Metallic
strut
Small girder
RC seating
Steel supporting
apparatus
Reaction wall
Seismic Table
Figure 37: General scheme of the experimental prototype
For the girders, an inferior reinforcement of 512 was adopted, with a transversal
reinforcement of 8//0.10m, as shown in Figure 38. For the seating, both superior and inferior
reinforcements of #12//0.10m were adopted. The connection between the girder and its
Page 49
seating is materialized by two steel dowels with 20 mm, which are placed inside two circular
ducts filled with a high resistance mortar.
Figure 38: Reinforcement detailing for the concrete elements
Construction of the prototype

The construction of the prototypes was performed during August, 2015 in the facilities of the
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics Division (NESDE) of LNEC. Figures 38 to
43 illustrate some of the key phases of the construction process.
Figure 38: Floor leveling structure and bottom formwork
Page 50
Figure 39: Vertical formwork and shoring
Figure 40: Positioning of the negative molds
Page 51
Figure 41: Positioning of the rebar
Page 52
Figure 42: Concreting process
Figure 43: Concrete release
Figure 44: Prototype ready to be tested on the NESDE seismic table
Page 53
Monotonic loading
The monotonic loading consisted in a quasi-static test during which the displacements were
imposed to the seating through the seismic table. The velocity of the imposed displacements
was sufficiently low to prevent the occurrence of inertia forces and the associated dynamic
effects. The direction of the loading remained constant during the whole test. The resulted
force-displacement diagram is presented in Figure 45. During this test, the maximum shear
force in the connection was 142.12 kN, which is consistent with the values given by the design
(kN)
force
Shear
[kN]
Force
codes (EC2 and MC10). For the case of the EC2, the relative error was about 9%.
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Displacement
[mm]
Displacement
(mm)
Figure 45: Force-displacement diagram obtained during the monotonic test
One can see through the obtained force-displacement diagram that the connection is
characterized by a high ductility. For the imposed level of displacements, failure occurs both
in the concrete of the girder and of the seating, see Figure 46 (a) e (b), as well as in the dowels
themselves, see Figure 46 (d). The degradation of the neoprene pad is shown in Figure 46(c).
One can see that a significant degradation of the bearing pad occurred during the test, with a
complete tearing of this element in an alignment defined by the dowels.
Page 54
(a) Concrete failing in the girder
(b) Concrete failure in the seating
(c) Degradation of the neoprene pad
(d) Failure of the dowels
Figure 46: Degradation of the prototype after the monotonic test
Page 55
Cyclic loading
To understand and characterize the connection cumulative damage and the corresponding
stiffness loss, typical for earthquake scenarios, quasi-static cyclic displacements of growing
Displacements (m)
amplitude were imposed to an identical prototype. The load history is presented in Figure 47.
Time (s)
Figure 47: Time history of the imposed displacements
The structural response of the prototype connection is presented in Figure 48, being
characterized by hysteretic cycles where one can see the increased degradation both in terms
Shear force (kN)
of stiffness and resistance.
Displacement (mm)
Figure 48: Force-displacement diagram obtained during the cyclic test
Page 56
In this test it was observed that the resistance of the connection decreased for growing levels
of displacements, with the number of applied cycles. The results are not quite symmetrical
with a slight higher resistance associated with the push direction. Regarding the degradation
observed during the experimental test, and illustrated in Figure 49, the girder presented some
cracks, while the seating suffered a significant concrete failure, similar to the one occurred in
the monotonic test.
(a) Girder with little

degradation
(b) Failure of the concrete in

the seating
(c) Cracks on the girder
Figure 49: General state of the prototype after the cyclic test
During the cyclic tests, the dowels were essentially mobilized in flexion, with their failure
occurring for a displacement of approximately 40 mm. One of the dowels has failed in two
distinct places, associated with the formation of two plastic hinges, see Figure 50. The
distance between these hinges was about 70 mm.
Figure 50: Failure of the dowel associated with the formation of two plastic hinges
The results of the cyclic tests clearly illustrate the presence of cumulative damage in the
connection, with evident consequences in the seismic structural vulnerability of the footbridge
as a whole. Therefore, the numerical models that are used to assess their non-linear dynamic
response to earthquakes, must be calibrated with results obtained through experimental
cyclic/dynamic tests.
Page 57
The ability of the numerical models used during the project to simulate the footbridges
responses to replicate these experimental curves was successfully proven, as illustrated in
Figure 51.
Figure 51: Dowel hysteretic cycle - Experimental and simulated cyclic tests
Characterization of the superelastic elements

Cyclic uniaxial tensile tests were conducted on a Zwick-Roell Z50 tensile testing machine to
characterize the superelastic properties of the 1.6 mm diameter NiTi wires provided by Memry
Inc. Twenty consecutive uniaxial tensile cycles, with a speed of 0.3%/s and a maximum strain
of 5% were performed on the specimens, tested as received.
The machines gripping jaws during testing, the extensometers used to measure the sample
strains and the wire sample itself are illustrated in Figure 52.
Page 58
Figure 52: Zwick-Roell Z50 gripping jaws, extensometers and wire sample
The tensile tests in the superelastic specimens showed a cumulative degradation in terms of
accumulated residual strains, and a decrease on the critical stress to induce martensite. As
illustrated in Figure 53, this degradation eventually stabilized, leading to a forward
transformation plateau of about 400 MPa.
Figure 53: Stress-strain diagram of the superelastic wires
The stress-strain experimental diagram can and will be used to calibrate the superelastic
material constitutive model to be used in the numerical simulation of retrofitted footbridges
subjected to seismic loading.
Conclusions
Page 59
Conclusions
Analyzing the outputs of the activities performed during the project and despite some inherent
difficulties related to the budget execution, all the proposed scientific objectives of the project
were fulfilled. The main achievements of the SUPERB project are highlighted below:
As a result of an extensive and successful experimental campaign of modal

identification from ambient vibration responses, a web-oriented database was
created, collecting relevant structural and dynamic characteristics of 17 footbridges in
the Southern part of Portugal. Besides of major importance for the current project, the
database can support future research initiatives in this area, as it is public available
(http://sites.fct.unl.pt/superb).
A high-performance computational program was developed, allowing the non-linear

dynamical analysis of MDOF systems comprising SMA elements. The rate dependent
constitutive model used to simulate the behavior of the superelastic elements
guarantees accurate results of the numerical simulations for an extensive range of
forcing frequencies, yielding a numerical tool that can help the civil engineers to
understand the complex seismic response of structures containing superelastic kernel
elements.
Complex non-linear dynamical analysis using SAP2000 (www.csiportugal.com),

OpenSees (opensees.berkeley.edu), SeismoStruct ( www.seismosoft.com) e ELS
(www.extremeloading.com) performed on statistically relevant footbridges subjected
to significant ground motions, selected as to cover a meaningful range of peak ground
accelerations, duration and frequency content for Portugal, reveal no unseating
vulnerability of these structures for the design seismic action. However, this is only
true if the dowels are in a good state of conservation and when pre and after-shocks
are not considered in the analysis. In such cases, especially in the case of multi-span
structures, cumulative damage lead to larger relative displacements between the deck
and the pile and unseating can occur. In such a scenario, superelastic retrofitting
devices proved, numerically, to be extremely effective.
The results of the large scale seismic experimental program allow to completely
characterize the complex failure mechanism of the dowel connection between the
deck and the piles for cyclic loading. The outputs of this experimental program,
together with cyclic experimental tests on samples of shape-memory alloy wires
allowed to calibrate the numerical models in order to increase the confidence in the
numerical estimates.
Related to training and dissemination actions one recall the participation of team
members in the organization of the 15the World Conferences on Earthquake
Conclusions
Page 60
Engineering (2012) and the Workshop: Dynamic Performance Assessment &

Rehabilitation of Structures (2014), the short stay of one team member at Georgia
Institute of Technology and participation of several team members in international and
national conferences related to the main topics of the project (ASCP-2015, 2ECEES,
ICDVC-2014, JPEE-2014, ASCP-2013, WCEE-2012, IABMAS-2012).
Related to publication, the activities related to the project yielded 2 papers in

international journals, 4 communications in international meetings, 1 communication
in a national meeting, 5 reports and 5 MSc thesis.
References
Page 61
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SUPERB

Seismic Unseating Prevention Elements for Retrofitting of Bridges

Organization of conferences and workshops

Caracterizao Dinmica de Passagens Superiores de Pees", P. Saldanha,

4. Ferreira, Ana Cludia Narciso. (2013), Identificao modal e actualizao de

Papers in international journals

2. Cismaiu, C., Narciso, A., and Amarante dos Santos, F. (2014).

Comunications in international meetings

UNIC/DEC/FCT/UNL." International Conference "Tradition and Innovation".

Comunications in national meetings

Seismic Unseating Prevention

Seismic Unseating Prevention

Seismic Unseating Prevention

Objectives and work planning

Seismic Unseating Prevention

Seismic Unseating Prevention

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Figure 1: Lifeline interruption due to footbridges collapse

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Figure 2: Location of the studied footbridges

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Figure 3: Footbridges located in a particularly sensitive area

Figure 4: Typical design details of the footbridges

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Figure 6: Grid points defined for the AVT measurements of a footbridge

Figure 7: AVT on PP3141

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Figure 8: AVT on 2723

Figure 9: AVT on PP2793

Figure 10: AVT on PP2854

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Figure 11: AVT on PP3149

Figure 12: AVT on PP3152

Figure 13: AVT on PP3886

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Figure 14: AVT on PP3082

Figure 15: AVT on PP2757

Figure 16: AVT on PP2787

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Figure 17: AVT on PP2816

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Table 1: Experimental modal properties of PP3141

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Figure 18: PP3141 Results of the Operational Modal Analysis (OMA)

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Dynamic characterization of footbridges

Numerical modeling of footbridges

Numerical modeling of footbridges

Numerical modeling of footbridges

Implementation of the finite element updating procedure

Numerical modeling of footbridges

Figure 20: PP3141 - SAP2000 FE model

Numerical modeling of footbridges

Numerical modeling of footbridges

Table 3: Sensitivity to bending stiffness of the main girders

Automatic finite element updating

Numerical modeling of footbridges

Table 5: Comparison between the experimental and the updated FE frequencies

Numerical modeling of footbridges