The Rise of Responsible Entrepreneurs: Do Younger Entrepreneurs have a

Greater Commitment to Social Entrepreneurship? A Study of Young

Entrepreneurs in India

Abstract
Social entrepreneurship is a subject which has attracted growing interest as it becomes
increasingly apparent that current rates of global consumption are driving social disparity. At
a broad level, social entrepreneurship refers to entrepreneurial activity which is driven by
social conscience, and social entrepreneurs are considered to be those who use their
entrepreneurial skills and talents to promote socially positive and beneficial ventures. The
concept of social entrepreneurship is relatively well-established in prosperous Western
societies, but appears to have a much lesser profile in developing economies. This study
focuses on the experience of young entrepreneurs in urban India to understand whether they
have a greater commitment to social entrepreneurship, and if so why this is the case and what
drives their motivations. Using a qualitative approach based on in-depth interviews with ten
entrepreneurs, the study concludes that young entrepreneurs in urban India do appear to have
a higher level of commitment to social entrepreneurial ventures, but the motivations and
drivers of their attitudes are complex and do not necessarily represent a direct correlation to
age. Instead it appears that other motivating factors such as increased levels of education and
access to information as well as gradually changing social beliefs contribute to the increase in
social entrepreneurship. The recommendations of the study focus on the need for further
investigation and research in this area to understand this complex interplay of motivations
with greater clarity and depth.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract

1.0 Introduction (Chapter 1)

1.1 Social Entrepreneurship
1.2 Research Aims and Objectives
1.3 Entrepreneurship in Urban India
1.4 Dissertation Structure

4
5
7
7

2.0 Literature Review (Chapter 2)

2.1 Introduction and Definition
2.2 Dimensions of Social Entrepreneurship
2.2.1 Pure Social Motivation
2.2.2 Hybrid Social and Profit Motivation
2.3 Young Entrepreneurs
2.4 Community and Cultural Input
2.5 Raising Social Funding
2.6 Social Entrepreneurship in India
2.7 Summary

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3.0 Methodology (Chapter 3)

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Design
3.2.1 Research Philosophy and Approach
3.2.2 Research Strategy and Data Collection
3.2.3 Research Population and Sampling
3.2.4 Data Analysis
3.2.5 Ethical Considerations and Limitations
3.3 Summary

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27
28

4.0 Results, Analysis, and Critical Discussion (Chapter 4)

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Data Analysis and Results
4.2.1 Type of Venture
4.2.2 Socio-Cultural Conditions
4.2.3 Overcoming Challenges
4.2.4 Lessons for Success
4.3 Critical Discussion
4.3.1 Convergence with the Literature
4.3.2 Divergences from the Literature

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40
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4.4 Summary

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5.0 Conclusions, Recommendations, and Limitations (Chapter 5Page | 3)

5.1 Conclusions
5.2 Recommendations
5.3 Limitations

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52

6.0 References

53

7.0 Appendices

62

7.1 Informed Consent and Interview Questions

7.2 Raw Data (Interview Summaries)

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63

List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Social Enterprise by Sector
Figure 3.1: The Research Process Onion

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Social Entrepreneurship

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Barreto (2013) asserts that social entrepreneurship is becoming increasingly prevalent in

developing economies as a result of increasing recognition of societal disparity. Numerous
scientific studies illustrate that human consumption is exceeding supply of sustainable
resources, and there is a widening gap between rich and poor in society meaning that those in
the lower income brackets are finding it increasingly difficult to make ends meet (Musterd
and Ostendorf, 2013). Moreover, individuals who find themselves in disadvantaged
circumstances either through illness or unfortunate circumstances are increasingly reliant
upon charities and not-for-profit organisations which help such individuals to rebuild their
lives. Society the world over recognises the need for those in more fortunate position is to
look after others who have lesser resources or poor circumstances, however there are many
different ways of helping people to work or earn their way out of difficult circumstances
rather than simply handing out charity (DiMaggio and Garip, 2012). Accordingly, the focus
of this study is the prevalence of social entrepreneurship in a rapidly developing economy,
India.
As multiculturalism and globalisation has taken hold, more social entrepreneurs are sharing
their ideas and visions with others around the globe, stimulating opportunities for social
entrepreneurship, and illustrating how it can be put to good use in contemporary society. In
particular, Elkington and Hartigan (2013) indicate that young entrepreneurs appear to have an
enhanced social conscience, feeling that they have a responsibility to help others less
fortunate than themselves. This is a noble desire, but there is uncertainty as to whether these
research findings apply on a global basis, which forms the motivation for this research. That
is, to investigate whether younger entrepreneurs in urban India have a greater commitment to
social entrepreneurship.

It is hoped that by investigating the prevalence of social

entrepreneurship amongst young entrepreneurs in India, and specifically those in urban areas,
it will be possible to further extend the research of Elkington and Hartigan (2013) and thus
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identify lessons and experiences which can be transferred to other similar developing
economies.

1.2 Research Aims and Objectives

Specifically, the aim of this research study is to investigate the extent to which young
entrepreneurs in urban areas of India have an awareness of social entrepreneurship. Building
upon the research of Elkington and Hartigan (2013) which suggests that increasingly it is
younger entrepreneurs who have what appears to be a high level of social conscience, it is
interesting to assess whether the same can be said of young entrepreneurs in urban areas of a
developing economy such as India. Research by Ernst & Young (EY, 2013) reveals that as a
nation, India has a notable proportion of entrepreneurial ventures which are calculated to
contribute some 22.4% of GDP. However, research by Metha (2013) indicates that as a
country India has a less than exemplary record of social conscience or social behaviour, with
particular issues being noted in respect of environmental damage and pollution, and also illtreatment of employees. With scientific reports indicating that human consumption for scarce
resources will rapidly outstrip supply, it is important to identify whether entrepreneurs in
India have an awareness of the need for social responsibility, especially as consumer demand
and population growth in India are set to multiply rapidly in the foreseeable future (Ghani et
al., 2012). If young entrepreneurs in urban India do not have enhanced levels of social
awareness then this may well have long-term adverse implications for business behaviour of
social need, therefore the research represents a valuable investigation into human behaviour
within cultural norms. Accordingly, the objectives of the research are as follows:

1.3 Entrepreneurship in Urban India

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Urban India has been identified as the focal point of this research because of the high
prevalence of socially disadvantaged people in highly populated urban areas (Ghani et al.,
2012). Although life in rural India can also be particularly challenging, individuals in urban
areas often find themselves in equally difficult circumstances (Jeffrey and Young, 2012).
Moreover, the well-established social hierarchy or caste system means that it is often
extremely difficult for individuals to experience social mobility compared to those in Western
society where capitalism is strongly encouraged. As one of the most populous countries in
the world, identifying opportunities for social improvement leading to a reduction in social
inequality and improved health and welfare is important from a social and humanitarian
perspective. Moreover, research into the social intricacies of urban India appears to be an area
which has benefited from limited academic research. Thus this study brings together two
distinct aspects, social entrepreneurship and research into the behaviour of entrepreneurs in
urban India in order to identify how, if at all, social entrepreneurship functions in this context.

1.3 Dissertation Structure

The dissertation is divided into five chapters, each of which addresses a distinct aspect in the
structure of the research. Chapter 1 has presented the contextual background, explaining the
focus upon young social entrepreneurs in urban India, and also setting out the aim of the
research and the objectives which will be applied to achieve this. Chapter 2 presents a
literature review which offers a critique of contemporaneous literature and theory in the field
of social entrepreneurship, and the influence of extrinsic elements such as the age of the
entrepreneur and their cultural context. Chapter 3 describes the methodology utilised in this
study, which is that of semi-structured interviews subjected to thematic content analysis.
Chapter 4 presents the results, with interpretation and discussion of the findings in light of the

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literature review and noted gaps in the literature. Finally, chapter 5 concludes the research
and presents recommendations developed from the findings and analysis.

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction and Definition
Social entrepreneurship is a concept that has attracted increased interest in recent years,
particularly in light of the growing awareness of the environmental and ecological damage
caused by human activity on the planet, and also the backlash against capitalist activity which
is largely credited with causing the global recession (Bornstein, 2007; Mueller et al., 2013).
Social entrepreneurship is not a novel concept and there has long been a belief that local
communities and societies should work collaboratively to help and support one another and
aid those who are less fortunate. However, advances in technology have caused accelerated
growth in certain areas of society leaving other areas far behind, and thus varied and hybrid
interpretations and theories of social entrepreneurship have emerged (Williams and Nadin,
2012). This chapter critically considers the growth and development of social
entrepreneurship through the prism of these theories, taking into account extraneous factors
which exert considerable influence over the existence and utilisation of social
entrepreneurship in local communities.
desire to use innovation to address a societal problem, and thus no element of profit or wealth
should be involved, but instead the characteristics of entrepreneurship such as striving to
improve the contemporary situation. To further complicate the issue, social entrepreneurship
can exist in any size of business from a micro venture with one employee, through to a
multinational organisation which deploys its considerable resources in order to improve local
community activity and relations (Barreto, 2013). Moreover, a number of social
entrepreneurial ventures are also intertwined with localised ideological preferences and
beliefs which help to galvanise community spirit and involvement (Dacin et al., 2011).
Despite these contradictions in the definitions and interpretations, there is an umbrella
acceptance of the fact that social entrepreneurship relates to individuals or organisations

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striving to improve societal opportunities and situations for the benefit of all in the local
community (Mueller et al., 2013). Thus, it is with this broad understanding in mind that the
remainder of the chapter considers the alternative dimensions of social entrepreneurship and
the extraneous factors such as culture, community, age of the entrepreneur, and funding, all of
which influence the activities and success of social entrepreneurial ventures.
2.2 Dimensions of Social Entrepreneurship
financial terms (Barreto, 2013).

In contrast, hybrid social and profit motivated

entrepreneurial ventures are driven by societal need, but operate according to the principles of
business management and at least strive to reach a point of breakeven if not profitability for
reinvestment (Trivedi, 2010). Both types of social entrepreneurial venture can be evidenced
in both micro businesses and large organisations (Cukier et al., 2011), however unless an
individual or organisation is extremely wealthy, pure social motivation is unlikely to be
sustainable in the long-term as every organisation must have some form of funding or
resource to function.
2.2.1 Pure Social Motivation
Santos (2012) argues that the greater proportion of social entrepreneurial ventures begin life
as being purely motivated by the desire to improve social situations or problems.
Entrepreneurial ventures by their very definition strive to meet societal need in some way,
whether this is through addressing social hardship or providing a new product or service that
the marketplace. Social ventures typically utilise innovative solutions to meet societal need
(Miller et al., 2012), and social motivation for entrepreneurial ventures spans a wide remit of
human needs ranging from helping local communities to establish themselves via provision
of resources, through to helping those who are socially disadvantaged or disabled and who
cannot work for themselves. Pure social motivation is often bound up in ideological ideals

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such as a deep-rooted sense of community and a social belief that those with greater wealth or
resources than they require should help those less fortunate than themselves (Santos, 2012).
This tenant is identified in many cultures and is not limited to India, but instead can be
identified in many community settings as the motivating factor or driver which prompts
development of a social entrepreneurial venture (Dorado and Ventresca, 2013). Within India,
examples have included charitable foundations to help rural communities establish
economically viable farming activity so that they can grow or build their way out of poverty
(Mehta, 2013). Micro finance opportunities are becoming increasingly prevalent in India and
these too have their foundations in pure social motivation (Verma, 2009; Shanti, 2014).
However, London (2010) argues that whilst the original ideals of many social ventures are
often purely philanthropic in their motivations, over time they become more profit focused.
Dacin et al., (2010) consider that this is a natural consequence of organisational growth,
regardless of whether or not an organisation is characterised as not-for-profit or profitmaking, because as an organisation grows it requires additional resource and administration
which must inevitably be funded or supported in some way. Even if this is entirely through
the work of volunteers, raising awareness of philanthropic ventures requires resource and
experience as well as funding, and so London (2010) believes that over time, many ventures
which began life
eving their philanthropic aims and functioning at least at break-even in financial terms are
generally more successful in their aims. Zeyen et al., (2014) believe that this explains the
steady increase in hybrid social/profitable entrepreneurial ventures which pay a proportion of
their fundraising to highly experienced corporate individuals to help ensure that the social
venture is run as efficiently as possible and meets or exceeds its aims and objectives. Zeyen
et al., (2014) indicate that such ventures can be found within both large organisations which
donate a proportion of their resources and finance to local community projects, and also
entrepreneurial ventures which are established from scratch by social entrepreneurs.
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Horgan (2013) also believes that hybrid altruistic ventures which draw upon the experience of
seasoned entrepreneurs or at least young entrepreneurs who have backing and support, are
better positioned to succeed in the longer term. They are able to examine social issues in a
wider context, and treat the causes rather than the symptoms. To illustrate, a small local
socially responsible venture may only have the resources to focus on addressing the end
result of long-term poverty, for example provision of food banks or equipment. However, a
more business focused social venture can utilise organisational knowledge and resources to
take a broader perspective and consider the chain of events which may have led to the social
deprivation in the first place. Ideally, adopting a broader perspective and addressing the cause
helps to eradicate a wider remit of symptoms in terms of social inequality, hence this is a
more desirable situation (Mohiuddin et al., 2014). Of course this is not always possible and
depends upon the specifics of social circumstance. However, longitudinal research by
Granados et al., (2011) suggests that adopting a more business-like approach in social
ventures helps to ensure their success and longevity, and also achievement of their aims. This
does of course raise the question of measuring success, which is not always straightforward,
however Horgan (2013) believes that a hybrid approach to social entrepreneurship which
acknowledges the equal importance of social improvement and profit generation, (without
adverse consequences), is much more effective in the longer term.
2.3 Young Entrepreneurs
, and fewer social pressures or responsibilities (Young, 2012). To illustrate, many older
entrepreneurs or business people often have familial or social responsibilities and are thus
considerably more risk averse. In part, Elkington and Hartigan (2013) believe that these
factors explain the steady increase in younger entrepreneurs. Zhao et al., (2011) suggest that
cultural factors play a part, and these will be discussed in more depth below, however certain

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societies and cultures promote entrepreneurial activity more than others and perversely,
entrepreneurial activity is more common in capitalist cultures which are blamed for the rise in
social inequality (Granados et al., 2011). It is unclear whether young entrepreneurs in these
regions are striving to redress what they perceive as social imbalance, or whether growing up
in an environment where entrepreneurial activity is common inspires them to achieve their
own goals. This paradox remains largely unexplained, although it is attributed to the rise of
younger entrepreneurs.
Technology is also considered to play a role in the rise of young entrepreneurs, as the Internet
and the availability of affordable technology means that access to news and data is easier than
ever before (Welter, 2011). As a result young entrepreneurs are able to identify opportunities
for social growth in other parts of the world, and apply this in a social venture. Technology
also plays a role in funding for social ventures particularly as crowd funding and microfinance have become increasingly common. Therefore, Thornton et al., (2011) suggest that
radical development and disruptive innovation in the form of technological growth is a major
contributory factor to the rise of young social entrepreneurs. Finally, Hitt et al., (2011)
considers that there is a subset of young entrepreneurs who have been helped as part of
previous social ventures. UK examples include charities such as the Princes Trust which help
young disadvantaged people to establish their own micro-businesses, and this model has been
replicated around the world albeit tailored to meet local social needs and requirements. Hitt
et al., (2011) explain that helping disadvantaged or troubled young people to establish their
own small ventures often gives them a sense of purpose which is far more effective than any
penal sentence, and it is also been proven to be an effective form of social redress. Thus
Welter (2011) consider that these background factors also have influence over the existence
and growth of social entrepreneurial ventures. There appears to be a gap in assessing whether
the first generation of such young entrepreneurs then go on to help others in a similar fashion,

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which would lend weight to the argument that establishing socially responsible ventures has a
positive cascade effect. To a certain extent this will be explored in this research, although the
lack of prior study in this area means that only tentative investigation can be offered.

2.4 Community and Cultural Input

Stephan and Uhlaner (2010) believe an area of social entrepreneurship which is under
investigated is establishing extent to which community or cultural factors influence the
behaviour of entrepreneurs. Although there is a broad understanding of the term social
entrepreneurship as discussed in the opening sections of this chapter, the extent to which
extrinsic factors influence the creation, existence, and success of social entrepreneurial
ventures is less thoroughly understood. Particularly in the case of young entrepreneurs who,
from the perspective of much older, seasoned entrepreneurs are facing a sizeable uphill
challenge as they attempt to establish and grow and entrepreneurial venture. Initial research
by Meek et al., (2010) indicates that sociocultural settings appear to demonstrate a correlation
between the existence of social ventures and their growth, although they sound a note of
caution
entrepreneurs feel that it fits with their social or personal ideology and thus they are more
committed to their social cause.

What is unclear at this juncture is whether cultural

preferences exert an overall influence, for example comparing western ideologies to eastern
ideologies. Mirabella and Young (2012) re-emphasise the need for caution in identifying
potentially unwarranted correlation in this regard, as they believe that although there appears
to be a preponderance of social ventures stemming from western ideologies, this could simply
be the fact that eastern cultural preferences have philanthropic activity far more deeply
embedded in their basic beliefs, as such it would be more difficult to distinguish whether or
not the socially entrepreneurial venture is novel, or simply an extension of wider community

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activity. However, it is an issue which merits further investigation in order to understand the
drivers of social entrepreneurship in different sociocultural settings.
2.5 Raising Social Funding
One issue which is worthy of note in respect of social ventures relates to the improved ability
to raise funding thanks to technology. Although the concept of micro-finance has existed for
some time (Varma, 2009), the rapid growth and spread of the Internet has in many respects
enhanced the opportunities for social ventures as it is now possible for organisations to
approach potential donors from around the world. The growth of micro-finance has
demonstrated a strong appetite for supporting philanthropic ventures (Lumpkin et al., 2013),
although in recent years there have been some concerns as regards some of the activities of
micro-finance firms which remain unregulated (Khavul et al., 2013). Furthermore, they are
more closely aligned with the hybrid social/profit driven model of entrepreneurship as microfinance does attract a basic rate of interest and capital should be repaid. However, the
emergence of more socially inspired funding forms such as crowd funding indicate that there
is social demand to support philanthropic ventures (Becker, 2013). In brief, crowd funding is
a platform for many hundreds or thousands of individuals to donate small sums of money to
either business or philanthropic ventures, usually in the acceptance that their capital will not
be returned (Steele, 2013). This demonstrates the appetite for supporting social ventures and
indeed business ventures provided that they appeal to the ideals of the individual who is
Figure 2.1 below presents data on the growth of social enterprise in India, examining both
revenue and years in operation. It illustrates that over the last two years in particular there has
been a sharp growth in the number of entrepreneurial ventures. It is important to interpret the
data in context and acknowledge that not only do a number of social ventures founder in their
first few years, this can in part also be explained by increased awareness in social
entrepreneurship and access to funding. However even taking account of the natural attrition
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of some small enterprises and the distorting effects of increased numbers of social
enterprises, it can still be noted that there is increased growth and opportunity for social
enterprises and growth. Moreover, collectively social enterprises can be considered to
account for nearly 5% of India's GDP. Given that these are very small and micro businesses,
this represents a considerable achievement.

Figure 2.1: Social Enterprise by Sector (Source: ADB, 2012:8)

2.7 Summary
This chapter has presented the contemporary themes and discussions relating to social
entrepreneurship, and acknowledged the inherent tensions within the subject area. For
example, the lack of a clear or widely understood definition, uncertainty as regards the
principal drivers of social entrepreneurial ventures, lack of clarity in respect of the influence
of extraneous factors, and the blurred line between purely social and profitable
entrepreneurial activity. What emerges from the discussions is that all these factors appear to
play a role in the existence and growth of younger social entrepreneurs, but at this time it is
difficult to precisely elucidate which factors are the most influential and why. Accordingly,
chapter 3 which follows incorporates these areas of uncertainty within the research
methodology in an effort to provide clarity on these points.

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3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Silverman (2010) indicates that a research methodology should be developed in order to meet
the aim and objectives of the research study, and should therefore incorporate appropriate
data collection and analysis methods. Saunders et al., (2012) further indicate that there are a
number of alternative research approaches which can be adopted and in order to build up an
appropriate research methodology it is helpful to make reference to a model known as "The
Research Process Onion" as shown in Figure 3.1 below.

Figure 3.1: The Research Process Onion (Source: Saunders et al, 2012:123)
By following the structure set out in this framework this ensures that any research
methodology incorporates the necessary elements in the correct order, giving rise to a robust
and reliable methodological structure which will support the research study (Zigmund et al.,
2012). Accordingly, this framework is applied throughout the remainder of this chapter.
3.2 Research Design
3.2.1 Research Philosophy and Approach
This research adopts an interpretivist philosophy supported with inductive logic. Babbie
(2012) explains that for research which relies upon primary, qualitative data in a social
scientist setting, an interpretivist philosophy is the most suitable as this accommodates the
varied nature of human behaviour which alters according to circumstance. As circumstances
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almost inevitably influence individual human responses, it is important to utilise a philosophy

which embraces this fact and thus allows the data to be analysed in a meaningful way
(Zigmund et al., 2012). This has a special relevance for examining the subject of social
entrepreneurship, as different sets of circumstances will cause people to respond in different
ways, and the purpose of social entrepreneurship is to embrace the differences experienced by
people in order to help them overcome these challenges and rebuild their lives. Therefore,
adoption of an interpretivist stance helps considerably in laying the groundwork for
subsequent data analysis and interpretation. Furthermore, Bryman and Bell (2011) indicate
that it is usually preferable to partner an interpretivist paradigm with inductive logic, as often
it is necessary to induce findings and analysis from the data.
grounded theory which may also have been considered suitable, it was determined that
ethnography would facilitate the broadest remit of research in the most cost-effective and
appropriate manner. In brief, case study research was discounted as a possible strategy
because it attracts the risk of excessive levels of introversion by focusing on one very specific
set of circumstances within the case study organisation (Yin, 2009). Similarly, grounded
theory was discounted because there is a relatively limited research pertaining to social
entrepreneurship in urban India as it stands, and thus adopting a grounded theory perspective
would add little in the way of insight (Saunders et al., 2012). However, applying ethnography
in order to gather primary data from a range of research participants was considered ideal in
the circumstances.
Understandably, ethnography does attract some concerns, not least of which the possibility of
inadvertent researcher bias and influence, especially as the researcher gathers more data over
time and thus may be in a position to inadvertently influence research participants as a result
of their broad knowledge (Bryman and Bell, 2011). Therefore in order to prevent this risk the
data collection method of semi-structured interview ensured that the researcher would not

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deviate considerably from the research focus or inadvertently attempt to influence

participants. Bryman and Bell (2011) further explain that semi-structured interviews offer an
ideal balance between unstructured interviews which can be a high risk approach to data
collection unless the researcher is highly skilled in interviewing individuals and extracting
data, and the concerns of highly structured interviews which in a social science assessing can
lead to the emission of crucial contextual data. Furthermore, from a pragmatic perspective,
the adoption of semi-structured interviews means that subsequent data analysis is
considerably more straightforward as the data itself can be considered as partially coded
(Saunders et al., 2012).

3.2.3 Research Population and Sampling

In this study, the semi-structured interviews took place during May/June 2014 at times to suit
the individual research participants. The participants were selected on a purposive
convenience basis because they were known to be social entrepreneurs, and were therefore
approached directly to establish whether they would be willing to participate in the research
on a voluntary basis. To a certain extent a measure of snowball sampling also occurred as
during the course of some interviews and exchanges future potential research participants
were also identified as subsequently contacted. Given that there are relatively limited
academic studies which have already explored the existence of social entrepreneurship and its
functionality within urban India, other methods of population sampling would have been too
resource intensive relative to the timescales and personal resources available to the researcher
(Creswell, 2013).
In total 10 individual participants were included in the study, each of whom is involved in a
different form of social entrepreneurship spanning many different causes and social needs.
This was interesting because although not formally analysed as part of this research it

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indicated that potentially individuals who display characteristics of social entrepreneurship

share a set of common ideals with like-minded individuals who have applied their own strong
sense of personal justice in a different entrepreneurial setting. Although not examined in any
depth in the course of this research, it is considered that the population sampling approach
may have exerted some influence on the overall results as there appears to be some
commonality in this regard.
3.2.4 Data Analysis
Saunders et al., (2012) advocate the adoption of a four stage approach for content analysis
when analysing purely quantitative data gathered via semi-structured interviews. Although
Bryman and Bell (2011) observe that this particular data collection approach has the benefit
of providing partial pre-coding, Saunders et al., (2012) caution against the risks associated
with this, particularly the concern that some key elements or relationships may be
inadvertently overlooked because of the perception that the data is already partially sorted.
Therefore in order to extract maximum value and insight from the primary data it is
preferable to adopt a multistage approach. Furthermore, Fisher (2010) indicates that as part of
an ethnographic strategy, it is important to analyse the data from multiple viewpoints as this
is the cornerstone of this research principal. Once the data was analysed it was then possible
to segregate it into distinct themes, which helped to highlight particular issues from the
perspective of the social entrepreneurs themselves. This process included identifying key
terms, concepts or phrases which occurred repeatedly during the course of the interviews, key
excerpts from which are illustrated in the discussion and analysis process which follows.
Henceforth a multistage content analysis was applied and duly gave rise to a number of
discrete themes which are presented analysed in the following chapter.
is vital when seeking to elucidate contextual and perceptive insight (Denscombe, 2010). Thus
research participants were advised that their participation was entirely voluntary, that they
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were free to withdraw from the research without the need to offer a reason, and nor did they
have to answer any questions if they did not wish to do so. Ultimately every research
participant was happy to progress with the interview to its conclusion, and thus there was no
need of any withdrawal from the research. The summary of the interviews is contained
within Appendix 2.
Silverman (2010) also indicates that every research method has its limitations, and this
research is no exception. Although every possible effort was made to avoid limitations and
develop a robust and rigorous research methodology, the principal limitations of this
particular methodology are derived from the population sampling method, which could
potentially lead to biased conclusions because of the narrow population sample. Furthermore,
the relatively small population may not be representative and thus it is quite probable that
further research would be required on a broader scale. However in every other aspect, the
research methodology is considered to be sound, giving rise to the collection of valuable and
insightful data for this research. It is also important to acknowledge that during the course of
the primary data collection it was necessary to conduct a proportion of the interviews in local
Indian dialects which were then translated back to English. Although this is relatively
common practice when conducting cross-cultural research such as this, it is necessary to
acknowledge that there can occasionally be some changes with translation, especially if a
particular sentiment or concept does not exist in another culture. For these reasons every
effort was made to ensure that the translation was as accurate as possible and simple language
was used where appropriate in order to ensure that any risk of incorrect translation was
limited (Bryman and Bell, 2011).

3.3 Summary

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As discussed in this chapter, the decision was made to apply ethnographic principles leading
to the collection of quantitative data in the form of 10 semi-structured interviews with social
entrepreneurs based in urban India. This chapter has explained how the research participants
were identified and how the data was collected from them using an established data collection
method. Although this has noted limitations, the mitigating factors have been described
during the course of this chapter. Accordingly, chapter 4 which follows sets out the coded and
analysed primary data and supporting discussion and interpretation.

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4.0 RESULTS, ANALYSIS, AND CRITICAL DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the output of the semi-structured interviews and the subsequent
thematic analysis. As will be recalled for the previous chapter, 10 semi-structured interviews
were conducted with social entrepreneurs in urban India, and they were asked a series of
questions concerning their entrepreneurial venture, their positive and negative experiences of
their
4.2 Data Analysis and Results
4.2.1 Type of Venture
Dacin et al., (2010) posited in the literature that many entrepreneurs share a number of
characteristics regardless of the type of venture which they operate, and they perceive that the
same can be said of social entrepreneurial ventures regardless of the cause or group of
individuals that they seek to help. In order to test this assertion, the research participants were
asked to explain the type of venture that they operate, not only to assess whether there is
indeed a breadth of different social entrepreneurial ventures, but also to accustom the
interviewees to the interview process. Overall it was noted that every social entrepreneurial
venture sought to assist a local cause, although as some were more established than others,
they had expanded their idea to different regions. It appears that this was always an organic
process as volunteers had become involved in the venture and shared ideas and enthusiasm in
different locations. However, the local need for social assistance was apparent in all
instances, and it also appears that by focusing the commitment of the social entrepreneurial
venture in a closely defined social or geographical area this assisted with generating support
momentum for the social cause.
who had been injured or so forth. Thus it could be argued that Dacin et al., (2010) were at
least partially correct in their assertion that social entrepreneurs share a common theme or
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bond in that they were all personally and strongly motivated to act on the basis of observing
or experiencing social injustice.
However, given that vast swathes of the urban Indian population observe social injustice on a
daily basis (Metha, 2013), it is therefore necessary to identify why some individuals act and
become social entrepreneurs, and why others look the other way. This leads to the discussion
of socio-cultural conditions. Taking data from the detail of the interviews, participants
indicated that they had strong personal desires to overcome the challenges they face on a
daily basis. For example, Participant 2 explained that they wanted to help "stop pollution to
[sic] the local environment" after several family members have fallen ill as a result of toxic
chemical dumping. Similarly, Participant 6 explained that they wanted a "better life for their
children" after they had fought themselves to obtain a basic education which enabled them to
find a better job. All of the research participants were motivated by a desire to improve their
circumstances, and more importantly the circumstances of those around them.
4.2.2 Socio-Cultural Conditions

Both Warren (2011) and Mirabella and Young (2012) consider that socio-cultural conditions
are a significant influencing factor when ascertaining whether or not individuals establish
social entrepreneurial ventures. Firstly, the obvious, that some countries experience greater
social deprivation than others, and thus there is greater need. Paradoxically, where there is
greater need in countries there is often a lack of resource availability, meaning that there is a
lesser degree of social entrepreneurship. This would imply that there is a need for resources,
both tangible and intangible, such as finance, access to information or knowledge regarding
establishing an entrepreneurial venture, and a willingness to commit time. This is closely
linked to the idea of enthusiasm for social entrepreneurial ventures. When asked directly
whether they thought their cultural background had influenced their decision to establish

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social entrepreneurial venture, seven of the interviewees indicated that they felt it had, citing
motivational examples such as parents and family members, or inspirational leaders such as
gurus. Drawing from the interviews, Participant 5 explained that they wanted to improve
the lives of their children, meaning that they wanted their families to have an education to
equip them with the skills needed to acquire a good job. Similarly Participant 3 wanted to
help children with disabilities, who would often find themselves as social outcasts.
Participant 3 explained that this is both culturally and socially, in other words, disabled
children are almost entirely the responsibility of their families because they are unlikely to
provide much in the way of economic contribution to the household, hence by helping young
children in these difficult circumstances they could envisage an independent life for
themselves (Participant 3).
It is important to reiterate that in India there is a stronger commitment to personal religious
beliefs then is perhaps evidenced in some Western countries (Jeffrey and Young, 2012), and
thus this is challenging to disentangle in an objective sense. It is common for people to be
inspired by religious and spiritual leaders, and this was noted throughout interviews.
However, before conclusions are reached as regards the influence of religion it is interesting
to observe that the common desire to do good was prevalent throughout all of the
interviews.
Building upon this theme, discussions as regards socio-cultural conditions were also
influenced by personal circumstances. Four of the entrepreneurs had studied overseas and had
identified ideas and concepts which could be brought back to their home region and used to
improve the lives of others. They considered this to be a major trigger in establishing their
respective ventures. However, it is also interesting to draw upon the research of Thornton et
al., (2011) when discussing innovation and creativity, as they noted that for many urban
Indians it is necessary to be creative on a daily basis in order to survive, and this was also
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noted by three of the entrepreneurs who had themselves witnessed parents or family members
who had an entrepreneurial spirit. The social entrepreneurs in question then went on to apply
this for themselves because they believed that it was important to do the right thing given that
they had access to resources and the time to use them. As an impartial observation, an
overview of the types of social venture launched in urban India compared to rural India
indicates that in urban areas there is a strong propensity towards assisting those who are
disadvantaged through illness or disability as compared to rural areas (Mehta, 2013).
Although this may seem callous to Western sensitivities, arguably was interpreted by many as
a practical solution to survival of the fittest. This subtle differentiation was noted in the
discussions with Participant 6 explaining that they had worked in both urban and rural areas
and found that in rural areas there is a much stronger sense of community even though the
communities are physically and geographically disbursed. This is a point worthy of further
investigation in ongoing research.
4.2.3 Overcoming Challenges
Solanki (2011) observes that for many lower caste Indians, the need to overcome challenges
occurs on a daily basis, and so too must social entrepreneurs overcome challenges when
establishing and maintaining their social ventures. Whilst business theory can be loosely
applied to the growth and sustainability of social entrepreneurial ventures viz, once the
venture is established it is much easier to enlist support and raise ongoing awareness,
charities and social ventures rely very heavily on volunteer support and commitment, and
often wealthy benefactors who are entirely free to withdraw their support at any time. Whilst
in business shareholders are often locked into helping organisations through share or bond
ownership, and similarly employees are committed via employment contracts, the same
certainly cannot be said of volunteer organisations run as a social enterprise (Elkington and
Hartigan, 2013). This helps to explain the growing prevalence of hybrid social
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entrepreneurial ventures which adhere to social principles, but draw heavily upon best
practice in business in order to establish and grow.
Specific examples of challenges amongst the entrepreneurs in this study included strong
resistance to their work by certain societal groups, which can be attributed to socio-cultural
conditions and social belief as regards ill and disadvantaged individuals. Participant 3 noted
in particular that their facilities had been attacked and sabotaged on more than one occasion,
which either has the effect of demoralising volunteers, or strengthening their resolve to
demonstrate that there is a very obvious need for the service and support that they provide.
Participant 7 explained that maintaining finance is difficult as it often requires overcoming
social stigma. The caste system is deeply embedded, and treating people as social outcasts is
common when they do not adhere to societal norms. When a social entrepreneurial venture
attempts to bridge these gaps, for example helping domestic animals which are never
considered as pets in quite the same way as in Western society, then this creates further layers
of difficulty. Participant 7 further explain that maintaining motivation amongst volunteers
can be very hard, especially if there are continued and repeated attacks because of their
involvement with the venture. This view was shared by Participant 2 who explained that
when she launched her venture to help other women she experienced a large amount of
resistance because it was felt that women should not have societal independence in a
particular local area. However she said that she was motivated by her own resolve, and the
fact that in the past people and helped her so she felt a social obligation to share this help.
4.2.4 Lessons for Success
All of the social entrepreneurs who participated in this study shared the view that a very high
level of commitment to the social cause was imperative for driving through the growth of
their venture. As noted above, for all of the entrepreneurs themselves, their initial motivation
stemmed from personal involvement and commitment such as experiences of a close friend
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or family member. They further noted that this level of commitment and motivation was
imperative when their own organisations came under attack, which was surprisingly
common, especially when the social ventures were perceived to be challenging established
societal cultural norms. Again it is necessary to reiterate that what might be considered
distasteful in Western cultures such as a high degree of societal intolerance, and long-standing
cultural beliefs and superstitions often influence societal judgement, and overcoming these
intangible barriers is very important. This is where the age of social entrepreneurs became an
influencing factor.
Again is noted that early stage in the interview four of the interviewees had been educated
overseas, and with their exposure to other cultures had identified opportunities for improving
the lives of those in the local community. Until relatively recently, it was largely uncommon
for notable numbers of Indian children to be educated overseas as the cost was simply
prohibitive (Jeffrey and Young, 2012). However as social mobility has increased, greater
numbers of younger Indians are temporarily moving abroad to study, and bringing back ideas
and perceptions which can be adopted and adapted for local need. The key here is adaptation
in order to meet local societal need as the entrepreneurs were acutely aware of overcoming
the entrenched barriers of sociocultural beliefs and superstitions. However, the young
entrepreneurs were highly committed and motivated, and also felt that their age and broader
societal view as a result of being brought up in a more permissive society had helped them to
identify the need for social ventures, and maintain enthusiasm and commitment towards the
social venture regardless of difficult social circumstances. Thus it can be indicated that there
is merit in the assertions of Dacin et al., (2010) that young entrepreneurs are often more
committed to a social cause.
Linking together the ideas of age and lessons for success in social realism in urban India, it
would seem that there is a very least cause for tentative belief that there is a linkage in some

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degree. Certainly further deep analysis is necessary, but both Participant 2 and Participant
9 indicated that they felt they had benefited from working and studying overseas as it had
broaden their perceptions and enabled them to identify opportunities for social improvement
within their own culture. Interestingly, there was strong commitment to the idea that existing
culture should be maintained, in the sense of noble sociocultural ideals, but as elucidated by
Participant 5, "some cultural ideas have become twisted". He went on to explain that he felt
that some social beliefs become gradually misinterpreted over time, when original
suggestions by spiritual leaders was that those in a more fortunate position should help
others. He felt that this should be a long-standing and widespread social commitment which
has relevance in any strata of society. Thus lessons for success can be summarised as the
youth and enthusiasm of social entrepreneurs, their openness to other ideas and suggestions,
and a willingness to persevere and communicate with those in the local community to
overcome superstition and social barriers. Similarly, Participant 1 felt that it was wrong of
the Indian society to overlook the needs of those who are less fortunate", and he was
specifically referring to disadvantaged children who are the core of his social enterprise. He
also explained that he felt "a strong sense of loyalty" to the area in which he was born and
brought up even though it was not particularly salubrious, it was his home and he felt that
now he was in better circumstances it was his responsibility to help others.
4.3 Critical Discussion
4.3.1 Convergence with the Literature
Overall it is noted that there is a considerable degree of convergence with the literature,
particularly in the ideas of hybrid social profit motivated ventures. Where historically,
Lepoutre et al., (2013) and Clarkin (2014) observe that pure socially motivated ventures were
the main source of social entrepreneurialism with wealthy individuals feeling a personal
commitment to society. Increasingly younger more business minded entrepreneurs have
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identified the need to balance social entrepreneurialism with some semblance of profitability
in order to maintain the sustainability of the venture. Interestingly, within urban India it was
noted in the interviews that some interviewees raised the issue of lesser levels of social
commitment because there is an overall lesser level of wealth, and a focus on individuals
surviving on their own rather than as a result of charity. The result is a high degree of social
superstition and cultural barriers which inhibit the growth of social entrepreneurial ventures,
and this was noted throughout the discussions (Jeffery and Young, 2012; Mehta, 2013).
Culturally, this is considered to be one of the major barriers to social entrepreneurial ventures
in urban India, and thus supports the work of Solanki (2011). Again it was noted in the
excerpts in the interviews were both Participant 7 and Participant 8 pointed out that
surprisingly, in urban areas there is a lesser degree of social entrepreneurship than in rural
areas, where there is a stronger sense of local community. This can be attributed to the needs
of the group to survive in hostile conditions, and may well explain why there is a greater
degree of resistance to social entrepreneurialism in certain urban areas.

Similarly, the

strength and longevity of the caste system also explains why seeking to establish social
mobility via social entrepreneurialism is often unwelcome as it threatens societal hierarchy
and structure.
There is also evidence to support the assertion of Dacin et al., (2010) and to a lesser extent
Warren (2011) that younger entrepreneurs have a greater degree of social awareness, and this
is attributed to the increased social mobility and globalisation meaning that more individuals
study overseas and have the opportunity to experience different cultural backgrounds and
ideas. These are brought back to India and applied in an adapted fashion in order to suit
specific need and circumstance. Therefore it is suggested that there is support for this
argument, although it is not as simplistic as simply asserting that younger people have a
stronger social conscience as it is evident that numerous factors influence the way in which

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social entrepreneurship is evidenced and enacted. In particular, it would appear that many
young social entrepreneurs in India have experienced some form entrepreneurship within
their immediate social or familial group, for example parents or relatives have displayed a
social conscience or managed a business, and thus this illustrates the complex nature of
motivation for establishing a social entrepreneurial venture. However it is noted that there is
complete consistency amongst all the social entrepreneurs incorporated in the study, insofar
as all of them share a common and driving personal relief that helping others or
disadvantaged groups is a strong personal commitment which drives the venture in spite of
setbacks, which is in accordance with the assertions of Barreto (2013).
With regard to the scope of conceptual theory, it can be asserted that there is a relatively high
level of convergence with prevailing theory which serves to support the belief that growth
and commitment to social enterprise is beneficial to society in urban India, both to
individuals and indeed Indian society as a whole. Considering the statistics presented by the
ADB (2012) and also the work of Horgan (2013), it is noted that commitment to social
enterprise is increasing, and this is having a direct and positive effect at multiple levels of
society. As an expansion of this it can also be suggested that the increased level of education
in India is helping to improve economic prospects and also increase social compassion
leading to well-educated individuals acting upon their social beliefs and social conscience
and creating ventures to help others. In the long-term it is considered that this approach is
likely to be highly beneficial. Furthermore, although it takes many years for culture to evolve,
the evidence in discussions presented here would suggest that young entrepreneurs have a
stronger commitment to social entrepreneurship and this appears to be a positive
development.
4.3.2 Divergences from the Literature

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It was also noted that there were a number of interesting divergences from the literature in
respect of the motivations of the social entrepreneurs, and their reasons for establishing and
maintaining their social entrepreneurial ventures. In particular, it was noted that there was a
high degree of sensitivity amongst the social entrepreneurs to prevailing sociocultural norms
and established preferences. This was not widely referred to in the literature, but became
apparent throughout the interviews that the social entrepreneurs in urban India were much
more attuned to balancing what could be considered as competing needs to accommodate
local cultural beliefs and superstitions. This emerged from the interviews as it became
apparent that the strength and resilience of the caste system often underpins social belief
meaning that individuals are disadvantaged in some way are often rejected by local
communities. It requires an individual with extraordinary vision and self-belief to challenge
these are well established and entrenched social norms, which would indicate that young
social entrepreneurs in urban India have in many respects a much greater level of personal
belief. This is one possible explanation for why there appears to be a growth in social
entrepreneurial ventures in urban India when he challenges well established social norms.
A second possible explanation may be the evolution of globalisation and the fact that
increasingly, younger people from India are broadening their education and experience by
learning and working overseas. The result is that they are more tolerant of social norms, and
can identify ideas and suggestions for improving social life and social mobility. This crossfertilisation of ideas as a direct consequence of globalisation could be a further explanation
for the prevalence of young social entrepreneurs in urban India. Similarly the explosion of
technology and its rapid acceleration over the last 20 years has helped to spread ideas much
more quickly than would have been possible for previous generations (Verma, 2009). Thus
potentially other explanations might include the fact that social entrepreneurialism has always
existed, albeit in different forms and grounded in social and spiritual belief. Comparison of

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different social entrepreneurial ventures and societal norms indicates a widespread belief that
those in more fortunate positions have a moral obligation to help those less fortunate, and
invariably this is a driver of social entrepreneurial ventures, but interestingly it is not widely
noted in the literature. Thus this is an area which merits further investigation.
It was also interesting to observe that whilst academics felt that technology had greatly
improved opportunities for social funding (Mueller et al., 2013), this was not a theme which
was widely discussed amongst the social entrepreneurs themselves. Indeed it was barely
mentioned, potentially suggesting that there is a danger of Western presumption and ideals
overriding the interpretation of the activities of social entrepreneurs. It must always be
remembered that deep-rooted cultural beliefs are difficult to define and quantify, although
quite clearly the impact upon the existence of social entrepreneurial ventures in urban India,
and their success. For example, in Western society there is a much greater level of support for
helping disadvantaged individuals, as evidenced by the very high levels of charitable
donations; There is a presumption that the same level of social support does not exist in urban
India, but a more realistic interpretation is probably that it is simply not recorded, as emerged
from the discussions with the social entrepreneurs who observe that family ties are often
much stronger and this accounts for higher level of support. Where in the West people would
look externally for support because of weaker familial ties, in India there is a strong
presumption that the family will look after ill or socially disadvantaged family members.
This social presumption potentially masks the level of support which is simply displayed in a
different way. This is not openly discussed in the literature, and thus is another issue which
merits further investigation.
4.4 Summary
This chapter has presented the primary data from the ten semi-structured interviews, and
illustrated the similarities and differences in the primary data and prevailing literature. It can
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indeed be suggested that younger entrepreneurs do appear to have a high level of social
conscience leading to the establishment of a greater number of social entrepreneurial
ventures. However disentangling the motivations and drivers of this and the prevalence of
social entrepreneurial ventures in urban India can lead to potentially misleading conclusions,
that is to say that the current generation of young social entrepreneurs have greater social
conscience. Arguably this is not the case, and in fact extrinsic factors such as the proliferation
of technology have helped to accelerate this trend which has always been present in Indian
society, albeit on a smaller and more muted scale. Instead, globalisation and technology have
helped to defuse ideas leading to what appears to be a greater prevalence of social ventures
when in fact small-scale social conscience has always been present. It is however, clear that
cultural backgrounds serve to influence the motivation of social entrepreneurs. Accordingly,
the final chapter which follows discusses this issue, as it crystallises the conclusions and
recommendations for both entrepreneurs and further research.

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5.0 CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND LIMITATIONS

5.1 Conclusions
This dissertation has focused on the role and commitment of young entrepreneurs in urban
India and their awareness and motivations towards social entrepreneurship. Extant literature
in this area suggests that young entrepreneurs appear to have a higher level of social
conscience than their older counterparts (Elkington and Hartigan, 2013), and hence the aim of
this research was to identify the extent to which this suggestion holds true in urban India
amongst young entrepreneurs. The distinction from existing studies is derived from the focus
on a specific geographical location and its associated cultural influences, and also the use of
entrepreneurs who are typically considered to be more cause driven than older citizens who
often focus more on immediate family responsibilities (Dacin et al., 2010). The rapid growth
of the economy and population in India, and in urban areas of India in particular have made it
an interesting area of study. Practitioner research by Ernst & Young (EY, 2013) demonstrates
that there is a high level of entrepreneurship within India, which also contributed to its
selection as the area of focus for this particular research. This was further supported by the
apparently lesser level of social conscience evidenced within India (Metha, 2013), and this
study sought to establish whether prevailing assumptions and interpretations of Indian
entrepreneurial culture were de facto accurate.

Furthermore, if the population of India

continues to expand at the current rate, then it is important to identify how India can make
better use of natural resources and support less fortunate members of society otherwise, it
seems almost inevitable that there will be a growing social divide which may potentially
result in social harm (Ghani et al., 2012).
To address this research aim, a number of research objectives were presented in chapter 1.
These included a critical examination of theory and literature relating to social
entrepreneurship; an assessment of whether the age of entrepreneurs had any impact or

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influence upon the attitudes towards social entrepreneurship; to assess whether cultural or
geographic factors exerted any influence over the existence or extent of social
entrepreneurship; and finally, to test these objectives via the collection and analysis of
primary data amongst young entrepreneurs in urban India. The research objectives were
broadly aligned with the structure of the research study, with chapter 1 presenting the context
and background of the research, chapter 2 examining the extant theory and literature, and
chapter 3 presenting the practical detail of the research methodology. Chapter 4 set out the
key excerpts from the primary data collection which comprised interviews with ten research
participants. Chapter 4 also contained the critical analysis and discussion of the primary data
in light of contemporary thought and theory. The findings revealed that generally, younger
entrepreneurs do appear to have a higher level of social conscience and stronger attitudes
towards social entrepreneurship. However, it is not necessarily a simple or direct correlation
because of the influence of a number of extraneous factors such as national culture, growing
social awareness, increased access to information, and increased levels of education. These
factors were all discussed within the course of the interviews, and collectively it would
appear that there is a steadily increasing level of social awareness and social conscience
amongst younger entrepreneurs. Often the social entrepreneurs in question had experienced
first-hand the hardships associated with a society that has a different approach towards social
conscience, and thus they felt a stronger desire to help.
The discussions also revealed both convergence and divergence with contemporary theory
and literature, again indicating that intangible factors such as culture and increased access to
information leading to changing social habits were influencing behaviour of young
entrepreneurs in urban India. Summarising the similarities, Lepoutre et al., (2013) and
Clarkin (2014) suggested that young entrepreneurs in India had increased awareness of
balancing sustainability and profit in order to support future generations and make better use

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of resources.

Research by both Ernst and Young (E&Y, 2013) and Metha (2013) has

consistently demonstrated that India has a relatively poor record of environmental

consideration, but this is slowly changing on the basis of increased awareness and access to
information. It is also noted in the analysis that long-standing cultural beliefs and
superstitions often inform social decision-making and attitudes of local cultures and societies.
Changing deeply embedded attitudes is extremely difficult and requires both time and
patience. Thus it could easily be the case that older entrepreneurs within India have long been
aware of the long-term implications of purely profit driven enterprise, but have struggled
against overwhelming cultural beliefs which hinder any form of change.

However, as

increasing numbers of young Indians gain greater levels of education both within India and
abroad, this helps to broaden horizons and disseminate knowledge, leading to a greater
degree of openness and discussion with regard to socially motivated ventures. It must also be
acknowledged that societal hierarchies are deeply embedded within India, and the notion of
social mobility is less widely accepted as compared to Western society (Santos, 2012; Shanti,
2014). Hence in part this may also explain the apparent reticence to engage in social
entrepreneurial ventures. Such barriers can be overcome with support from increased
knowledge and information sharing.
Warren (2011) and Barreto (2013) indicated that other factors can also influence the extent to
which young entrepreneurs in urban India adopt a socially responsible approach. They
include the extent to which young entrepreneurs have been exposed to other entrepreneurial
ventures, both through family and friends, and also as a result of increasing social mobility,
which is partially attributed to increased information and awareness. Barreto (2013) indicates
that the relationship between previous experience and contemporary social responsibility is
neither direct nor straightforward, and many complex and personal motivations can inform
individual decision-making. However, there does appear to be a broad general trend of

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increased social awareness with the most common or frequent indicator being that of
increased information and education. In essence, by making people aware of the long-term
adverse effects of irresponsible behaviour, this does appear to be directly and positively
influencing societal attitudes amongst young entrepreneurs. However, it is also noted that
such young entrepreneurs adapt their knowledge and experiences according to personal need
and individual circumstance, which further complicates and confuses the matter of social
conscience. Thus this challenge gives rise to the noted divergences from the literature as
discussed below.
The divergences from the literature largely focused upon the existence of prevailing cultural
and societal norms which create barriers to social entrepreneurship in the academic sense.
However, it is certainly not the case that there is a lack of compassion, but instead a different
approach to helping and supporting others in local social groups. This appears to be an underresearched area which is not widely understood by those outside of the immediate cultural
reach, and could suggest that there is widespread misunderstanding as regards interpretation
of social entrepreneurship, and indeed the well-meaning attempts of Westerners to provide
social help and support for those in less wealthy countries (Warren, 2011). Moreover, the
deeply established social norms and hierarchy prevalent throughout India create a particularly
challenging barrier to overcome, and again this is not widely discussed in the literature,
although it was an emergent theme from the interviews. Thus the conclusion drawn from the
experiences of young social entrepreneurs, set against the context of cultural norms, is that
increased social commitment as a result of wider awareness is a factor which directly
contributes to the rise of social entrepreneurship. Verma (2009) particularly noted this when
discussing possible explanations for social entrepreneurship in emerging economies, and
considers that differing values and interpretations accounted for much of the apparent
disparity in perception. Thus Verma (2009) concluded that alternative perspectives and

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established understanding of Eastern and Western theoretical frameworks contribute to the

divergence in belief systems. In simple terms, having a greater tolerance for alternative
perspectives would help a great deal in establishing an increased number of social
entrepreneurial ventures within India which are better suited to the needs of the local
population.
Finally, Mueller et al., (2013) indicated that improvements in technology and access to both
information and finance had helped to fuel the recent growth of social partnership within
India, but that there was still some way to go before widespread access to help and support
common to many Western societies would be found in urban India. They concurred with
previous discussions which focus on differing cultural and social beliefs, but also posit that
high degree of under-reporting has contributed to misunderstandings as regards the existence
of social entrepreneurship. They pointed to everyday acts of social kindness which are
prevalent in Indian society, and thus assert that it would be unfair to argue that there is no
social entrepreneurship within India, instead it is simply presented in a different form which
does not lend itself to existing theoretical models. Thus they conclude that researching the
problem from a different direction would provide much greater insight and information. In
particular, the much greater strength of familial ties which are evidenced within Indian
communities (Shanti, 2014). Mueller et al., (2013) suggest that by researching social norms
and small-scale social entrepreneurship from this perspective, this will help to illustrate the
lessons which can be taken from this setting and expanded into other areas of research and
practical assistance.
Taking all of these discussions into account, and considering both the practical evidence and
theoretical discussions it is concluded that younger entrepreneurs within India do appear to
have a higher level of social conscience and social awareness, which in turn informs attitudes
towards social entrepreneurial ventures. However, the caveat to this is that there is no direct

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correlation or relationship, and there appear to be a number of factors which influence the
existence of social entrepreneurial ventures in urban environments. Thus it is strongly
recommended that further research and investigation is conducted in order to identify how
best to capture and codify the knowledge pertaining to social entrepreneurship in urban India,
and then share it with those in the local community and the wider academic community in
order to raise awareness and increase engagement. Young social entrepreneurs in India are
keen to help and support others, and it is evident that there is no lack of compassion amongst
these individuals. However differing perspectives give rise to different interpretations of
social entrepreneurship within the context of urban India, which appear to cloud the issue of
whether or not younger social entrepreneurs have a greater social conscience. Thus whilst the
overall conclusion of this study is a tentative "yes", young entrepreneurs do appear to have a
high level of social awareness, the problem is far from fully investigated or indeed resolved.
Hence the recommendations suggested below comprise practical and theoretical suggestions
for ongoing research and support.
5.2 Recommendations
The recommendations arising from the research focus on a combination of practical steps and
areas of further academic research to obtain greater knowledge and insight in this area. It is
noted from this research study that a number of considerable gaps remain in knowledge and
understanding in respect of attitudes towards social entrepreneurship in India, and in
particular within urban areas of India which are highly populated and constitute a significant
consumption of resources, as well is being concentrated areas of social deprivation which
would benefit from increased help and support. The recommendations accept that a single
study will not be sufficient to resolve the problems which exist on a wholesale basis, however
by continuing to research and investigate the issues associated with establishing social
entrepreneurial ventures within urban India, it will hopefully be possible to create greater

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awareness and understanding from all perspectives. Accordingly, the recommendations are
presented below:

1. Firstly, raising awareness of the benefits of social awareness and social

entrepreneurship in urban areas of India. It is clear that one of the prevailing
issues is confusion over cultural norms and social understanding, leading to
presumptions of behaviour which may be flawed in their interpretation. Thus instead
of prescribing behaviours and solutions, the first step should be to help increase
awareness and knowledge to further tolerance and understanding in this area. The
repeating theme throughout the literature and the primary data was that of entrenched
social and cultural norms which serve as a barrier to establishing formalised social
support. By understanding the reasons for these social and cultural norms it will be
easier to raise awareness of the need to establish social ventures.

2. Secondly, increasing access to information amongst young entrepreneurs in India

would be beneficial. Increased education and access to information and knowledge
have been found to be major drivers of social entrepreneurship in urban India. Thus
by continuing to increased access to education and knowledge, it is hoped that this
would help to further the existence of social ventures and thus generate momentum
for ongoing social entrepreneurial activity.

Moreover, research by financial

institutions also suggests that increasing access to funding for social ventures, and
crucially providing nascent entrepreneurs with the necessary information to build a
viable business, is imperative if social benches are to survive and thrive in difficult
circumstances.

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3. Thirdly, wider investigation of social entrepreneurship within India and urban

India would be recommended to investigate the extent social entrepreneurship.
One of the limitations of this study is that it is adopted a purposive sampling approach
and captured the opinions of a relatively small research population. To add depth to
this novel area of research it will be necessary to conduct further study. Longitudinal
statistical analysis may be beneficial in order to help understand the motivations
behind establishing social entrepreneur of ventures in greater depth, and also to
appreciate what they would require in terms of support and resources to help them
continue to grow. Although there is clearly scope for expansion in this area, many
business ventures fail for lack of knowledge and experience, which is why addressing
these issues at the outset would be sensible.

Potentially this should be the

responsibility of the lending institutions, not only to help the entrepreneurial ventures,
but also from a pragmatic perspective to reduce their own risk in the form of defaults
on loans.

4. Fourthly, creation of a broader research framework is recommended to

encompass the challenging aspect of extant social and cultural norms. These are
found to inform attitudes and perspectives towards social entrepreneurship to a much
greater degree than had been previously considered. Therefore reviewing the literature
and conducting a meta-analysis would be recommended to increase theoretical
understanding.

Arguably these should also be linked back to the previous

recommendations to help understand how best to approach this challenging issue of

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providing information and support to emerging entrepreneurs, without deliberately

seeking to disrupt long-established sociocultural patterns.

5.3 Limitations
It is accepted that this is a small-scale study which suffers from known weaknesses in the
methodology, specifically the small population size and convenience and purposive sampling
approach. However, it provides invaluable insight into socio-cultural norms and attitudes
towards social entrepreneurship in emerging economies. It would appear that radical social
change prompted by increased education technology in India has accelerated the process of
social entrepreneurship, and this study has contributed in some small way to the body of
knowledge in this field. By continuing to investigate the relationship between cultural norms
and social entrepreneurship it is hoped to further knowledge and understanding in this area.

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6.0 REFERENCES

Asia Development Bank (ADB) (2012) India Social Enterprise: Landscape Report [online]
available at http://www.sankalpforum.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/india-socialenterprise-landscape-report.pdf retrieved 8th July 2014.
7.2 Raw Data (Interview Summaries)

Participant 1: operates a small local charity helping disadvantaged children in the immediate
area. Motivated to start the business after seeing extended family members in difficulties.
Most significant problems have focused around challenges with acceptance in the local
community, and overcoming social barriers. These have been overcome by working with the
local community and helping them to help themselves. Inspired by family members to pursue
this career path, and despite the challenges have enjoyed every moment of establishing this
business.
Participant 2: the business has a focus on helping stop pollution in the local environment
after it was discovered that a local factory was dumping toxic chemicals which were polluting
the only source of drinking water in the area. Both major challenges which were largely a
result of the company denied liability and then pursuing legal action, but by working together
it was possible to overcome the problems and raise awareness creating a voice amongst the
local community and demonstrating that they could fight back against large corporations who
cause harm.
Participant 3: small venture helping disabled children (those born with disabilities) who
often face great difficulty in later life as they are able to work and earn in the same way as
everybody else. Business is very much locally based, as there is little in the way of funding,
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but by raising support and through volunteers and bringing together people with different
experiences this has helped parents of these children from very poor families who could not
afford to help themselves. TA lot of the challenges have been cultural because of the nature
disability suffered by these children and local beliefs about causes of disability. Some efforts
have been made to raise awareness overseas to attract greater funding because of the
experience of the entrepreneur as they studied overseas.
Participant 4: helping animals (specifically cats and dogs) which are feral in the area.
Establishing a neutering programme to help curb the problem and try and find homes for
these animals rather than see them suffer with injuries or being run over. Different cultural
attitudes towards domestic animals in India mean that this is being a difficult process (they
are not pets in the same way that they are treated in Western society), and it has been hard to
raise awareness. Entirely socially motivated for a love of animals and not wanting to see
other creatures suffer.
Participant 5: helping local children to get a better education in the slum areas of India.
Illiteracy rates are extremely high and inevitably if parents are ill then children must go to
work at a very young age. The charity helps to provide funding so that children can study and
obtain an education. Also provides books and equipment so that children can study at school.
Social stigma around children attending school when some consider that there is no realistic
prospect of them ever obtaining education, and frequently children miss school in order to
help their parents earn money.
Participant 6: charity helping to teach children basic numeracy and literacy. Charities been
established in urban and rural areas and works on the principle that if children have to help
their families and money and can only attend school sporadically, then it is a better idea to try
and teach them the basics of reading and writing which they can work on in their own time,

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rather than forcing them to attend school. Many of the problems focus on the social and class
divides, especially concerned with educating girls to an equal standard with boys.
Participant 7: helping children who have been injured and suffered life changing injuries
when their parents cannot afford proper medical care. Providing physiotherapy and other
medical treatment if possible to help children overcome the difficulties of their injuries and
try and lead a fulfilling life where they are able to earn and make a living for themselves, as
well as look after themselves.
Participant 8: small local charity helping children who have lost their parents to illness or
accident and had no local relatives. Provide basic food and shelter for these children and help
them to try and learn the necessary skills for life, rather than turning to crime to make money.
Entirely socially motivated after seeing the disparity in living standards between children
who have a good start in life and those who must struggle to survive.
Participant 9: another small charity helping animals (mainly donkeys and other working
animals), which have been overused and abused by their owners. The animals rescued and
restored to health, and if possible new homes sought for that although this is not always
feasible. Much of the fundraising focuses on attracting enough money to feed and provide
veterinary care for these animals which are often badly beaten and maltreated. As a great
deal of social stigma around this, as animals are treated as equipment and forced to carry very
heavy loads in hot temperatures.
Participant 10: helping children from disadvantaged backgrounds who are either blind or
deaf. These are quite common problems in slum areas which are run at perhaps suffered
infection or virus as a very small child and a left permanently disabled as a result. The charity
helps to teach these children how to survive and look after themselves.

Charity was

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established social motivation after the founding member of the charity was educated overseas
and identified a basic preventative care could help to avert some of the problems.

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