Chapter 10

What are the two main classes of wood? What is the main use of each class?
State the names of two tree species of each class.
Endogenous not generally used for engineering applications (eg. Palm
trees)
Exogenous produces softwood and hardwood (deciduous and conifers),
used for furniture and decorative veneers and for construction

What is the difference between earlywood and latewood? Describe each.

Earlywood is produced by rapid growth during the spring while
latewood from summer growth. Latewood consists of dense, dark, and thickwalled cells producing a stronger structure than the earlwood.

A simple lab test for specific gravity, G, on two samples of lumber indicate that
sample A has G = 0.4 and sample B has G = 0.5 Based on this informa-tion
alone, which wood sample would you choose as a structural member for your
construction project? Briefly explain why.
I would choose sample B because higher specific gravity indicates
more cellulose and a denser piece of lumber. Therefore, this specimen would
probably make a stronger, stiffer structural member.

Discuss the anisotropic nature of wood. How does this phenomenon affect the
performance of wood?
An anisotropic material means it has different and unique properties in
each direction longitudinal, parallel to the grain and tangential. This nature
affects the physical and mechanical properties of the wood such as shrinkage,
stiffness and strength.

Briefly describe the chemical composition of wood.

Wood is composed of cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, extractives and
ash-producing minerlas. 50 percent of the wood substance is made up of
cellulose and consists of the sugar, glucose. Lignin accounts for 23% - 33% of
softwood and 16% - 25% of hardwood by weight and is basically the glue that
holkds the tubular cells together. Hemicellulose is 20% - 30% of hardwood and
15% - 20% of softwood and it is a polymeric unit made from sugar molecules.
The extractives compose of 5% - 30% of the wood substance in which tannins
and other polyphenolics, coloring matters, essential oils, fats, resins, waxes,
gums, starches and simple metabolic intermediates are included. Ash-forming
materials account for 0.1% - 3% of the wood materials and include calcium,
potassium, phosphate and silica.

The moisture content of wood test was performed according to ASTM D4442
procedure and produced the following data:
Weight of specimen in the green condition = 317.5 g
Weight of oven-dry specimen = 203.9 g
Calculate the moisture content of the given wood.

Moisture content =
7

317.5203.9
x 100 = 55.7 %
203.9

What is the fiber saturation point? What is the effect of the fiber saturation
point on the shrinkage of wood in the different directions? How does this
phenomenon affect the properties of lumber?
The fiber saturation point is the level of saturation wherein the cell
walls are completely saturated but no free water exists in the cell cavities. It
causes the wood to have warping, checking, splitting, and structural
performance problems. It is also the reason that the sawing pattern of boards
affects the amount of distortion when subjected to changes in moisture.

A stud had dimensions of 38 mm * 89 mm * 2.438 m and a moisture content

of 150% when it was prepared. After seasoning, the moisture content was
reduced to 7%. If the tangential, radial, and longitudinal directions of the
grains are on the same order as the dimensions indicated above, what are the
dimensions of the seasoned stud if the moisture-shrinkage relation follows
Figure 10.5?
According to Figure 10.5 the FSP = 28. The changes in
dimensions are due to the reduction of moisture below the FSP.
From Figure 10.5 the percentage of shrinkage due the changes of moisture
from 28% to 7% are as follows: tangential = 6 %, radial = 3.1 %, and
longitudinal = 0.23 %. The new dimensions will be:
Tangential = 38 x (1 - 0.06) = 35.7 mm
Radial = 89 x (1 - 0.031) = 86.2 mm
Longitudinal = 2.438 x (1 - 0.002) = 2.433 m

A wood pole with a diameter of 1 inch has a moisture content of 5%. The fiber
saturation point (FSP) for this wood is 30%. The wood shrinks or swells 1% in
the radial direction for every 5% change in moisture content below FSP.
a What would be the percent change in the woods diameter if the woods
moisture is increased to 55%?
b Would the wood swell or shrink?
c What would be the new diameter?
a. No dimension change occurs above FSP.
Percent change in the wood diameter = (1/5) x (30 - 5) = 5.0%
b
c

Swell

New diameter = 1.050 in

10 A glulam beam with a manufactured depth of 12 in. at 14% moisture content.

Assuming common values for estimating dimensional changes, compute the
new depth of the beam if the moisture content is increased to 35%?
Assume a 30% FSP. The change of moisture content from 14% to 35% causes
swelling. Swell does not occur above the FSP. Assume a 1% swelling per 5%

increase in moisture content below the FSP.

Increase in depth = (30-14) / 5 = 3.2%
New depth = 12 x 1.032 = 12.384 in.
11 Wood is cut at sawmills into a variety of products, with different sizes and
shapes for engineering applications. What are these products?

Dimension lumber
Heavy timber
Round stock
Engineered wood
Specialty items like lattice, handrails, spindles, radius edge decking,
turned posts, etc.

12 Construction lumber can be cut from the tree using one of two methods or a
combination of them. Name these two methods and show a sketch of each.
What is the main advantage of each method?

Plainsawn

less in thickness, less

drying

rapid and economic, shrinks and swells

susceptible to collapse in

Quartersawn maximizes the amount of vertical-sawn cuts, shrinks and

swells less in width, does not allow liquids to pass through readily
in some species and holds paint better in some species
13 Why are the actual dimensions of lumber different from the nominal
dimensions? Explain.

14 What are the factors considered in grading lumber?

Quality
Strength
Durability
workability

15 State five different imperfections that may be found in lumber, and briefly

define them.

Shakes lengthwise separations in the wood occurring between annual

rings and develop prior to cutting the lumber and due to heavy winds
Wane bark or other soft material left on the edge of the board or
absence of material
Sap streak heavy accumulation of sap in the fibers of the wood
Pitch pockets well-defined openings between annual rings that contain
free resin
Splits lengthwise separations of the wood caused by either
mishandling or seasoning

16 Draw a graph to show the typical stressstrain curve for wood. On the graph,
show the modulus of elasticity. State three different factors that affect this
relationship.

Modulus
of

The different factors that affect the relationship are type of specie, and
variation in moisture content and specific gravity.
17 Compute the modulus of elasticity of the wood species whose stressstrain
relation is shown in Figure 10.12, using both the SI and English units. Compare the results with the typical values shown in Table 1.1 in Chapter 1 and
comment about the results.
E = / = 20 / (0.00225) = 8,889MPa
E = / = 2.9 / (0.00225) = 1,289 ksi
18 What is the typical load duration used in designing wood structures? If a wood
beam is designed for use at a one-week event only, should the designer
increase or decrease the allowable fiber stress relative to the allowable stress
used for normal applications? How much increase or decrease?
The typical load duration used in designing wood structures is 10 years.
For a one-week event, the designer should increase the allowable fiber stress.
According to Fig. 10.13, the designer should increase the allowable fiber stress
by 25%.
19 To evaluate the mechanical properties of wood, structural-size specimens or
small, clear specimens can be tested. Which technique is more important?

Why? What is the most common test used in each technique?

Testing of structural-size members is more important than testing
small, clear specimens since the design values are more applicable to the
actual size members. The bending test is more commonly used than the
other tests.
20 A center-point bending test was performed on a 2 * 4 wood lumber according
to ASTM D198 procedure with a span of 4 ft and the 4 in. side is positioned
vertically. If the maximum load was 240 kips and the corresponding deflection
at the mid-span was 2.4 inches, calculate the modulus of rupture and the
apparent modulus of elasticity. See Experiment No. 29 for equations.
The actual dimensions of the 2 x 4 lumber is 1.5" x 3.5".
Max bending moment = M = (240/2) x (16/2)
= 960.0 in kips Moment of inertia = I = (1.5 x
3.53) / 12 = 5.36 in.4
c = d/2 = 1.75 in
Modulus of rupture =

Mc
I

960 x 1.75
5.36

= 313.4 ksi

Apparent modulus of elasticity =

PL
3
4 bh

3.5
4 (1.5)( 3)(2.4)
240 (163)

= 1.59

x 106 psi
21 A 4 * 4 wood lumber was subjected to bending with a span of 5 ft until fail-ure
by applying a load in the middle of its span. The load and the deflection in the
middle of the span were recorded as shown in Table P10.21.
a
b
c

Using a computer spreadsheet program, plot

relationship.
Plot the proportional limit on the graph.
Calculate the modulus of rupture (flexure strength).

the

loaddeflection

Table P10.21
Load (lb)
Deflectio
n (in)

0
0

97
134.
1

195

341

730

204.3 265.5 328.5

1350

1898

363.6

393.3

a. The actual dimensions of the 4 x 4 lumber is

3.5" x 3.5". The load versus deflection is shown
below.

2301
412.
2

2956
451.
8

3479

3990

4440

483.3

522.9

554.4

5000
4500
4000
3500
,Load lb

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0

100

200

300
400
Deflection, 0.001
in

500

600

b By inspection, extend the straight line backward until it meets the x-axis and
this will be the new origin. The proportional limit is at a load of 3479 lb and a
deflection of 0.483 in.
c

Max bending moment = M = (3479/2) x (60/2) = 52,

185 in lb
Moment of inertia = I = (3.5 x 3.53) / 12 = 12.51 in.4
c = d/2 = 1.75 in
Modulus of rupture =

Mc
I

52,185 x 1.75
12.51

= 7,300 psi

22 A wood specimen was subjected to bending until failure by applying a load in

the middle of its span. The specimen has a cross section of 1 in. * 1 in. (actual
dimensions) and a span of 14 in. between the simple supports. The load and
the deflection in the middle of the span were recorded as shown in Table
P10.22.
a

Using a computer spreadsheet program, plot the loaddeflection

relationship.
b Plot the proportional limit on the graph.
c Calculate the modulus of rupture (flexure strength).
Table P10.22
Load (lb)
Deflectio
n (in)
400

0
0

8
0.14
9

16
0.22
7

28
0.29
5

60
0.36
5

111

156

198

243

286

0.404

0.437

0.468

0.502

0.537

328
0.58
1

365
0.61
6

300
lbLoad,

200
100
0
0

100

200
300
400
500
600
700 (Deflection,0.001in)
By inspection, extend the straight line backward until it meets the x-axis and
this will be the new origin. The proportional limit is at a load of 280 lb and a
deflection of 0.52 in.
Max bending moment = M = (365/2) x (14/2) =
1,277.5 in lb
Moment of inertia = I = (1 x 1 3) / 12 = 0.08333 in.4
c = d/2 = 0.5 in
Modulus of rupture =

Mc
I

1,277.5 x 0.5
0.08333

= 7,665 psi

22 A wood specimen having a square cross section of 2 in. * 2 in. (actual dimensions) was tested in bending by applying a load at the middle of the span,
where the span between the simple supports was 28 in. The deflection under
the load was measured at different load levels as shown in Table P10.23.
a Using a computer spreadsheet program plot the loaddeflection relationship.
b Plot the proportional limit on the graph.
c Calculate the modulus of rupture (flexure strength).
d Does the modulus of rupture computed in (c) truly represent the extreme
fiber
stresses in the
specimen? Table
Comment on the
P10.23
assumptions
used
to
compute
the
-3
Deflection
(10
modulus of
rupture and the
Load (lb)
in.)
actual
response of the
0
0
wood
specimen.
100
27.9
200
55.6
300
83.2
400
111.2
500
140.0
600
166.7
700
194.3
800
222.2
900
250.1
1000
275.4
1100
314.8
1200
359.5
1300
405.0
1400
468.6 (failure)

Load,

lb

a The load versus deflection is shown below.

160
0
140
0
120
0
100
0
800
600
400
200
0
0

b
c

100

300

400

500

Deflection, 0.001 in.

By inspection, the proportional limit is at a load of 1,000 lb and a deflection
of 0.275 in.
Bending moment at failure = M = 700 x 14 = 9,800 in.lb
Moment of inertia = I = (2 x 2 3) / 12 = 1.333 in.4
c = d/2 = 1 in
Modulus of rupture =

200

Mc
I

9,800 x 1
1.333

= 7,300 psi

The modulus of rupture computed does not truly represent the extreme fiber
stresses in the specimen because the assumptions used in the derivation of
the equation consider that the material is elastic, homogeneous, and
isotropic. These assumptions are not exactly satisfied.

24 A wood specimen was prepared with actual dimensions of 1 in. * 1 in. * 6 in.
and grain parallel to its length. Displacement was measured over a 4 inch
gauge length. The specimen was subjected to compression parallel to the
grain to failure. The loaddeformation results are as shown in Table P10.24.

Table P10.24
Load
(lb)
Deflecti
on (in)
a
b
c

10

87

530

1705

2864

3790

4606

5338

5116

4468

0.01
2

0.06
8

0.16
4

0.18
0

0.20
8

0.23
6

0.26
8

0.30
0

0.32
4

0.36
0

0.38
4

Using a computer spreadsheet program, plot the stressstrain relationship.

Calculate the modulus of elasticity.
What is the failure stress?

psiStress,

6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12 Strain, in./in.

b The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress-stain line. The first part of the
curve includes an experimental error probably due to the lack of full contact
between the machine head and the specimen. Therefore, ignore the first portion
of the curve and draw the best fit straight line up to the maximum stress. The
modulus of elasticity is the slope of the line as shown on the figure below:

6000
y = 132951x - 5274.2
5000
4000

433
1
0.41
3

Stress,psi

3000
2000
1000
0
0.00

0.02

0.04
0.06
Strain, in./in.

E = / = 132, 951psi
c. Failure stress = 5,338 psi

0.08

0.10