9.

1 Mixtures and Solutions

Liquid solutions, colloids, and heterogeneous

mixtures can be distinguished in several ways.

Heterogeneous mixture: A nonuniform mixture

that has regions of different composition.
Homogeneous mixture: A uniform mixture that has
the same composition throughout.
Solution A homogeneous mixture that contains
particles the size of a typical ion or small molecule.
Colloid A homogeneous mixture that contains
particles in the range 2500 nm diameter.

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9.2 The Solution Process

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Dissolution of an NaCl crystal in water. Polar water

molecules surround individual ions pulling them from
the crystal surface into solution. Oxygen atoms point
to (+) ions and hydrogen atoms point to (-) ions.

A good rule of thumb for predicting solubility is that

like dissolves like. Substances with similar
intermolecular forces form solutions and substances
with different intermolecular forces do not.

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9.3 Solid Hydrates

Some ionic compounds attract water strongly enough to
hold onto water molecules even when crystalline,
forming what are called solid hydrates.
Plaster of Paris, CaSO41/2H2O, is a solid hydrate. The
formula indicates that for every 2 formula units of
calcium sulfate in the crystal there is also one water.
Still other ionic compounds attract water so strongly
that they pull water vapor from humid air to become
hydrated. Compounds that show this behavior, such as
calcium chloride are called hygroscopic and are often
used as drying agents.
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9.4 Solubility

9.5 The Effect of Temperature on

Solubility

Hydrogen bonding between water and ethanol,

between water alone, and ethanol alone is so similar
that the two liquids are miscible, or mutually soluble
in all proportions.
Most substances reach the limit of a saturated
solution: A solution that contains the maximum
amount of dissolved solute at equilibrium.
Solubility: The maximum amount of a substance
that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a
specified temperature.

Temperature often has a dramatic effect on

solubility.
The effect of temperature is different for every
substance, however, and is usually unpredictable.
Solids that are more soluble at high temperature than
at low temperature can sometimes form what are
called supersaturated solutions, which contain
even more solute than a saturated solution.
Such a solution is unstable and precipitation can
occur dramatically when a tiny seed crystal is added.

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9.6 The Effect of Pressure on

Solubility: Henrys Law

Solubility of some (a)

solids and (b) gases, in
water as a function of
temperature.
Most solid substances
become more soluble as
temperature rises.
The solubility of gases
decreases as temperature
rises.

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Henrys law: The solubility of a gas is directly

proportional to its partial pressure. If T is constant,
C Pgas , or C/Pgas = k , or C1/P1 = C2/P2 .

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9.7 Units of Concentration

Solute: A substance dissolved in a liquid.
Solvent: The liquid in which a substance is dissolved.
Solution: The combination of solute and solvent.
A very useful means of expressing concentration in the
laboratory is molarity (M), the number of moles of
solute dissolved per liter of solution.

Molarity (M) =
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Moles of solute
Liters of solution

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Weight/Volume Percent Concentration [(w/v)%]

Mathematically, (w/v)% concentration is found by
taking the number of grams of solute per milliliters of
solution and multiplying by 100.
Volume/Volume Percent Concentration [(v/v)%]
Mathematically (v/v)% is determined from the
volume of solute (usually in mL) per milliliter of
solution multiplied by 100.

(w/v)% concentration =
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Mass of solute (g)

Volume of solution (mL)
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x 100
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Parts per Million (ppm) and Parts per Billion

(ppb): When concentrations are very small, as often
occurs in dealing with trace amount of pollutants or
contaminants, parts per million (ppm) or parts per
billion (ppb) units are used.

ppm =

ppb =

Mass of solute (g)

Mass of solution (g)
Mass of solute (g)
Mass of solution (g)

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x 106 or

x 109 or

Volume of solute (mL)

Volume of solution (mL)
Volume of solute (mL)
Volume of solution (mL)

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x 106

x 109
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9.8 Dilution

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The following equation is very useful in calculating

final concentration of a solution after dilution.

M2 V1 =M2V2
M1 and V1 refers to the initial concentration and
volume of the solution and M2 and V2 refers to the
final concentration and volume of the solution.
The final concentration will be equal to the product
of the initial concentration and the dilution factor.

M2 = M1 (V1/V2).

Dilution: Lowering concentration by adding

additional solvent.
Dilution factor: The ratio of the initial and final
solution volumes (V1/V2).
In the dilution process, the amount of solute
remains constant, only the volume is increased.
Moles of solute = M1V1 = M2V2 = constant
Dilution equations can be generalized to other
concentration units, C1V1 = C2V2
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To prepare 100 mL of a specific solution, the solute

is measured out and dissolved in just enough solvent
to give a final volume of 100 mL.
If the solute were dissolved in 100 mL of solvent, the
final volume of the solution will likely be a bit larger
or smaller than 100 mL.

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9.9 Ions in Solution: Electrolytes

9.10 Electrolytes in Body Fluids:

Equivalents and Milliequivalents

Electrolyte: A substance that produces ions and

therefore conducts electricity when dissolved in
water.
Strong electrolyte: A substance that ionizes
completely when dissolved in water.
Weak electrolyte: A substance that is only partly
ionized in water.
Nonelectrolyte: A substance that does not produce
ions when dissolved in water.
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What happens if NaCl and KBr are dissolved in the

same solution? The cations and anions are all mixed
together so an identical solution could just as well be
made from KCl and NaBr. We can only speak of
having a solution with four different ions in it.
A similar situation exists for blood and other body
fluids, which contain many different anions and
cations. Since they are all mixed together, it is
difficult to talk about specific ionic compounds.
Instead, we are interested only in individual ions and
in the total numbers of positive and negative charges.
We need a new term, equivalents of ions.
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Molar mass of ion (g)

Number of charges on ion

1 milliequivalent (mEq) = 0.001 equivalent (Eq)

1 Eq = 1000 mEq
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9.11 Properties of Solutions

One equivalent (Eq) of an ion is an amount equal

to the molar mass of the ion divided by the number
of its charges:

One equivalent of ion =

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The properties of solutions are similar in many

respects to those of pure solvents, but there are
some important differences.
The properties of a solution that depend on the
concentration of a dissolved solute but not on its
identity are known as colligative properties.
Vapor pressures are lower, boiling points are higher
and freezing points are lower in solutions than they
are in a pure solvent.
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For each mole of solute particles added the boiling

point of 1 kg of water is raised by 0.51C. 1 mol of a
molecular substance like glucose raises the boiling
point of 1 kg of water from 100.0C to 100.51C. The
addition of 1 mol of NaCl per kilogram of water raises
the boiling point by 2 * 0.51C = 1.02C because the
solution contains 2 mol of solute particles.
For each mole of solute particles, the freezing point of
1 kg of water is lowered by 1.86C. 1 mol of antifreeze
per kilogram of water lowers the freezing point from
0.00C to - 1.86C and 1 mol of NaCl (2 mol of
particles) per kilogram lowers the freezing point from
0.00 C to -3.72C.
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A mixture of salt and ice is

used to provide the low
temperatures needed to
make old-fashioned handcranked ice cream.
Daniel Fahrenheit did not
choose 32 degrees as the
freezing point of water, he
chose 0 degrees to be the
lowest temperature he
could reach in his lab by
mixing ice, water and salt.
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A close-up plot of vapor pressure versus temperature

for pure water (red curve) and for a 1.0 M NaCl
solution (green curve). Pure water boils at 100.0C,
but the solution does not boil until 101.0C.

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9.12 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis: The passage of solvent through a
semipermeable membrane separating two solutions
of different concentration.
Osmotic pressure: The amount of external pressure
applied to the more concentrated solution to halt the
passage of solvent molecules across a
semipermeable membrane.

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 Osmolarity (osmol): The sum of the molarities of

all dissolved particles in a solution.
Isotonic: Having the same osmolarity.
Hypotonic: Having an osmolarity less than the
surrounding blood plasma or cells.
Hypertonic Having an osmolarity greater than the
surrounding blood plasma or cells.

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In (a) an isotonic solution, 0.30

osmol, the blood cells are normal in
appearance.
The cells in (b) a hypotonic solution
are swollen because of water gain,
and may burst, a process called
hemolysis.
Those in (c) a hypertonic solution
are shriveled because of water loss,
this process is called crenation.

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