Subnetting,Supernetting, VLSM & CIDR

WHAT - IP Address
Unique32or128bitBinary,usedto
identifyasystemonaNetworkorInternet.

NetworkPortion

Host
Portion

CLASSFULL ADDRESSING

IPaddressspaceisdividedintofiveclasses:A,
B,C,D,andE.

Network and Host IDs

EachIPaddressisdividedintotwoparts
Networkpart,definedbynetid identifiesanetwork
Hostpart,definedbyhostid identifiesahostwithinanetwork

Class A Address
0NET

HOST

HOST

HOST

Network Bits = 7
No.of Networks = 27 1 = 127
Host Bits = 24
No.of Host/NW = 224 2 = 16 Million
Range :
0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255

Class B Address
10

NET

NET

HOST

HOST

Network Bits = 14
No.of Networks = 214 1 = 16,383
Host Bits = 16
No.of Host/NW = 216 2 = 65,234
Range :
128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255

Class C Address
110 NET

NET

NET

HOST

Network Bits = 21
No.of Networks = 221 1 = 2 Million
Host Bits = 8
No.of Host/NW = 28 2 = 254
Range :
192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255

Special Purpose IP Addresses

Private IP Address
Default NW Address
Broadcast Address
Loopback Address

Private IP Addresses
Private addresses are not recognized globally
Private address often used together with NAT techniques

Other Special Addresses

There are several addresses within each class

that are reserved for such special purposes as
broadcast.

Direct Broadcast

Direct broadcast sends a message to all the hosts within a specific network.
Direct broadcast address consists of network id followed by all 1s.

Limited Broadcast
Limited broadcast sends a message to all the hosts within THIS network.
Limited broadcast address consists of all 1s.

This Host on This network

The network address that consists of all 0s indicates this host on this network.
Used at the bootstrap time when host does not know its IP address.
This address is used as a source address in limited broadcast message to determine its IP
address.
Can only be used as a source address.

Specific Host on This

network

The network address that consists of all 0s for netid and specific value for
hostid is destined to a specific host on THIS network
Used a host to send a message to another host on same network.
This address can only be used as destination
Usually class A addresses

Loopback Address

IP address with first byte value of 127 is used for the loopback address.
Packets with such destination address never leave the machine

Loopback can be used only as destination address

Loopback is class A address which reduces the number of class A
addresses by 1 block

Loopback address can be used for

Testing IP software,

Sending a message between

client and server programs located
on the same machine, etc

SUBNETTING
&
NETMASKS

SUBNETTING

WHAT
Subnetting is dividing a network into several smaller parts
(subnets), each having its own sub-network address.
Traditional Internet uses two-level address hierarchy: netids
and hostids
Subnetting provides another, third, level of hierarchy.

NetworkPortion Subnet
Portion

Host
Portion

SUBNETTING

WHY
More EFFICIENT & STRUCTURED utilization
of IP Address
9In subnets we use Subnet Mask or NetMask

SUBNET MASK OR NETMASK

WHAT
A Bit stream of Contiguous ONES & ZEROS

WHY
Its used to determine network part of the address
for a given IP address.

SUBNET MASK OR NETMASK

TYPES
Natural / Default Network Mask

Custom / Subnet Mask

Creating Subnets Using Masks

WEEXTENDTHENETWORKPORTIONINTOHOST
Maskisa32bitnumberthatconsistsof
Consecutive1sindicatingbitsthatbelongtothenetworkpartofaddressfollowed
by
Consecutive0sindicatingbitsthatdonotbelongtonetworkpartoftheaddress

Bit-wise AND operation

between the IP address and mask
results in the network part of the
address

Subnet Masks
Subnet masks operate the same way as default masks.
Unlike default classful masks, subnet masks are required to
identifying the subnetwork.

SUPERNETTING

SUPERNETTING

Supernetting is combining several small networks (e.g. of class

C) into a big one to create a large range of addresses.

Supernetting
In supernetting, the first address of the supernet and the
supernet mask define the range of addresses.
CIDR notation is applicable to
suppernetting as well.
For example:
201.12.192.3/21
Shows that address belongs to
supernet of class C networks with
mask
255.255.248.0
Since 248 = 11111000, 8 class C
networks were combined together
to create a supernet.

VLSM
Variable Length Subnet Mask

VLSM - Purpose

ToincreaseusabilityofSubnets
Usingclassicalsubnettingthesubnetsareof
samesize
UsingVLSMthesubnetscanbeofVARIABLE
SIZE

VLSM

Eg:aClassC,NWneedtobedividedinto
110,45,50Hosts?
AvailableOptions1:
NaturalNWMask ClassCis255.255.255.0
Whichwillprovidenothinbut254hostsunder1NW

VLSM
Eg:aClassC,NWneedtobedividedinto 110,45,50
Hosts?

AvailableOptions2:
TheSubnetMaskoftheform255.255.255.X
X (in Binary)

Noof Subnets

NoofHosts

10000000

128

128

11000000

192

64

11100000

224

32

11110000

240

16

16

11111000

248

32

11111100

252

64

VLSM -option
Eg:aClassC,NWneedtobedividedinto110,45,50Hosts?

>HierarchicalSubnetting

ARP ARPCache
Package

Encapsulation of ARP
packet

HardwareType
Hardware
Length

Protocol
Length

ProtocolType
Operation

SenderHardwareaddress
SenderProtocoladdress
TargetHardwareaddress
TargetProtocoladdress

ARP PacketFormat

HardwareType
Hardware
Length

ProtocolType

ProtocolLength
SenderHardwareaddress
SenderProtocoladdress
TargetHardwareaddress
TargetProtocoladdress

Operation

Proxy ARP

ARP Package

ARP Package

CacheTable
Queues
OutputModule
InputModule
CacheControlModule

ARP Cache Table

STATE

Res
Pen
Free

H/W
Type

Protcol
Type

H/W
Protcol
Length Length

I/F
Q
Attempt TO
Num Num

H/W
Addr

Protcl
Addr

ICMP
InternetControl
MessageProtocol

Why ICMP

WhatitDoes

LackofError
Control
IPDeficiencies
Lackof
Assistance
Mechanisms

I
C
M
P

ErrorReporting

QueryMessages

ICMP

TYPES OF MESSAGES
MESSAGE FORMAT
ERROR REPORTING MSG
QUERY MSG

ICMP PACKAGE

ICMP Encapsulation

ICMP Encapsulation

ARPReply/Request

ICMP

TYPES OF MESSAGES
MESSAGE FORMAT
ERROR REPORTING MSG
QUERY MSG

ICMP PACKAGE

ICMP

TYPES OF MESSAGES

ICMPMESSAGETYPES

ICMP

MESSAGE FORMAT
ERROR REPORTING MSG
QUERY MSG

General format of ICMP messages

Category

Type

Message

Error
Reporting
Messages

DestinationUnreachable

SourceQuench

11

TimeExceed

12

ParameterProblem

Redirection

8/0

EchoReq /Rep

13/14

TimestampReq /Rep

Query
Messages

ICMP

MESSAGE FORMAT
ERROR REPORTING MSG
QUERY MSG

ErrorReportingMessages
ICMPalwaysreportserrormessagestotheoriginalsource
1.NoICMPerrormessageforadatagramcarryinganICMPerror
message.
2.NoICMPerrormessageforafragmenteddatagramthatisnot
thefirstfragment.
3.NoICMPerrormessageforadatagramhavingamulticast
address.
4.NoICMPerrormessageforadatagramwithaspecialaddress
suchas127.0.0.0or0.0.0.0.

ErrorreportingmessageTypes

DestinationUnreachable

CODE0:NetworkUnreachable
CODE1:Hostunreachable
CODE2:ProtocolUnreachable
CODE3: PortUnreachable
CODE4:Fragmentationisrequired,butDF(donotFrag)isenabled
CODE5:Sourceroutingenabled,butcouldntaccomplish
CODE6: DestN/Wisunknown
CODE7: DestHostisunknown
CODE8: SourceHostIsolated
CODE9:DestN/WisadministrativelyProhibited
CODE10:DestHostisadministrativelyProhibited

CODE11:NetworkUnreachableforaspecifiedtypeofservice
CODE12:HostUnreachableforaspecifiedtypeofservice
CODE13:Communicationadministrativelyprohibited
(administrativefilteringpreventspacketfrombeingforwarded)
CODE14:Hostprecedenceviolation(permissiondeniedforthecombinationof
hostornetworkandport)
CODE15:Precedencecutoffineffect
(precedenceofdatagramisbelowthelevelsetbythenetwork
administrators)

CODE11:NetworkUnreachableforaspecifiedtypeofservice
CODE12:HostUnreachableforaspecifiedtypeofservice
CODE13:Communicationadministrativelyprohibited
(administrativefilteringpreventspacketfrombeingforwarded)
CODE14:Hostprecedenceviolation(permissiondeniedforthecombinationof
hostornetworkandport)
CODE15:Precedencecutoffineffect
(precedenceofdatagramisbelowthelevelsetbythenetwork
administrators)

ErrorreportingmessageTypes

SourceQuench

SourceQuench

Asourcequenchmessageinformsthesource
thatadatagramhasbeendiscardeddueto
congestioninarouterorthedestinationhost.
Thesourcemustslowdownthesendingof
datagramsuntilthecongestionisrelieved.
Onesourcequenchmessageissentforeach
datagramthatisdiscardedduetocongestion.

ErrorreportingmessageTypes

TimeExceeded

TimeExceeded

Whenever a router decrements a datagram

with a timetolive value to zero, it discards
the datagram and sends a timeexceeded
message to the original source.
When the final destination does not receive all
of the fragments in a set time, it discards the
received fragments and sends a time
exceeded message to the original source.

ErrorreportingmessageTypes

Parameterproblemmessage

Code0:ErroronHeader(Valueofpointer
pointstothebytewithproblem)
Code1:Optionsmissing

ErrorreportingmessageTypes

RedirectionMessage

RedirectionConcept

QuerymessageTypes

EchoRequestReplyMessage

EchoRequestReply
An echorequest message can be sent by a host or router.
An echoreply message is sent by the host or router
which receives an echorequest message.
Echorequest and echoreply messages can be used by
network managers to check the operation of the IP
protocol.
Echorequest and echoreply messages can test the
reachability of a host. This is usually done by invoking the
ping command.

TimestampRequestReply
Message

TimestampRequestReply
Message
Timestamprequestandtimestampreplymessages
canbeusedtocalculatetheroundtriptimebetween
asourceandadestinationmachineeveniftheir
clocksarenotsynchronized.
Thetimestamprequestandtimestampreply
messagescanbeusedtosynchronizetwoclocksin
twomachinesiftheexactonewaytimedurationis
known.

Checksum
In ICMP the checksum is calculated over the entire
message (header and data).

Lets have an example of checksum calculation for a simple echo

request message. We randomly chose the identifier to be 1 and the
sequence number to be 9. The message is divided into 16bit (2
byte) words. The words are added together and the sum is
complemented. Now the sender can put this value in the checksum
field.

DEBUGGINGTOOLS
Ping
Traceroute

PING

The ping program to test the server fhda.edu. The result

is shown below

$ ping fhda.edu
PING fhda.edu (153.18.8.1) 56 (84) bytes of data.
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=0 ttl=62 time=1.91 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=1 ttl=62 time=2.04 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=2 ttl=62 time=1.90 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=3 ttl=62 time=1.97 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=4 ttl=62 time=1.93 ms

PING

64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=5 ttl=62 time=2.00 ms

64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=6 ttl=62 time=1.94 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=7 ttl=62 time=1.94 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=8 ttl=62 time=1.97 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=9 ttl=62 time=1.89 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=10 ttl=62 time=1.98
ms
--- fhda.edu ping statistics --11 packets transmitted, 11 received, 0% packet loss, time 10103ms
rtt min/avg/max = 1.899/1.955/2.041 ms

Traceroute

We use the traceroute program to find the route from the

computer voyager.deanza.edu to the server fhda.edu :
$ traceroute fhda.edu
traceroute to fhda.edu (153.18.8.1), 30 hops max, 38 byte packets
1 Dcore.fhda.edu (153.18.31.254) 0.995 ms 0.899 ms 0.878 ms
2 Dbackup.fhda.edu (153.18.251.4) 1.039 ms 1.064 ms 1.083 ms
3 tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1) 1.797 ms 1.642 ms 1.757 ms

ICMPPACKAGE

SLIP&POINTTOPOINTPROTOCOL

SerialLineIPProtocol
SLIP - SLIP is a standard protocol for point-topoint serial connections, using TCP/IP.
SLIP was a predecessor of PPP.
PROBLEM WITH SLIP PROTOCOL

No Error detection.
It supports only IP.
It is not possible to dynamically assign the address during the set up.
Slip does not provide any Authentication.
It is not approved internet standard.

POINTTOPOINTPROTOCOL
PPP provides routertorouter and hosttonetwork
connections over synchronous and asynchronous
circuits.
9 SERVICESPROVIDEDBYPPP:
ThePPPprotocolcanoperateoverafullduplexpointtopoint
transmissionlinkaswellasoverasynchronouslinks.
ThePPPwasanimprovementovertheSLIP.

PPP TRANSITIONSTATES
1.DEAD:Itmeansthatthelinkisnotbeingused.
2.ESTBLISHING:Whenoneoftheendmachinestarts
thecommunication,theconnectiongoesintothe
establishingstate.
3.AUTHENATICATING:Theusersendstheauthenticate
requestpacket&includestheusername&password.
4.NETWORKING:Theexchangeofusercontrolanddata
packetscanstarted.
5.TERMINATING:Theuserssendstheterminatethe
link.Withthereceptionoftheterminate.

PPP STACK
PPPisadatalinkprotocol.Butitusesstackofother
protocolsinordertoestablishthelink,toauthenticate
theusersandtocarrythenetworklayerdata.
1.LinkControlProtocol(LCP).
2.AuthenticatingProtocols.
3.NetworkControlProtocols(NCP).

PPPStack

PPP STACK
FLAG:ThePPPframealwaysbegins&EndswiththeBoundary 01111110
ADDRESS:SincePPPisusedforapointtopointconnection,itusesthe
broadcastaddressusedinmostLANtoavoidadatalinkaddressinthe
protocol.
CONTROL:Thisfieldusesthevalue11000000toshowthattheframedoesnot
containanysequencenumbersandItsIndependent
PROTOCOL:Itdefineswhattypeofdataisbeingcarriedinthedatafield
DATAFIELD:Itcarriestheuserdataorotherinformation.
FCS:TheFrameCheckSequenceissimplya2or4byteCRCusedforerror
detection