Guide To Research in Music Education

A
Guide to Research
in Music Education
Second Edition
ROGER P. PHELPS
The Scarecrow Press, Inc.

Metuchen, N.J., & London
1980
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The first edition of A Guide to Research in Music Education was published by Wm. C. Brown Cornpany in 1969.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Phelps, Roger P
A guide to research in music education.
Includes index.
1. Music-Instmction and study. I. Title.
MTl.P.5 1980
780' .7
80-12107
ISBN 0-8108-1303-3
Copyright @ 1980 by Roger P. Phelps

Manufactured in the United States of America
This book is lovingly dedicated

to my wife, Mildred, and to
our sons, Roger and Homer
This textbook is a practical guide to the basic concepts and techniques of research methodology as they apply specifically to
music education. The increased demand for postbaccalaureate
and advanced graduate instruction has led many graduate schools
to add courses in research methodology in music education. Yet
because there is no general agreement on the meaning of
"music-education research, " these courses have varied in content
both qualitatively and quantitatively. The object of this book is to
present a concise, practical, and logical approach to the fundamental principles and methods of research that music educators
can readily understand and apply. Because of their usual preoccupation with the development and maintenance of performing
skills, these educators are often unfarniliar with the philosophical
and pragmatic connotations of research. The concepts and techV
niques described in this treatise are those that researchers in vanous disciplines have used successfully.
Largely an outgrowth of this writer's experience in teaching
graduate students in music-education and general-education research methodology classes, this book is designed for Courses in
the fundamentals of music-education research, for thesis seminars, and for independent researchers in music education or the
arts and humanities. It undoubtedly will be most useful to students in either a master's- or a doctoral-degree program, but the
postdoctoral researcher will also find it of value, and the adviser
will be able to use it for reference purposes.
At present there are several excellent publications on educational research, but their utility to music education has often been
less than satisfactory to music-research tyros. It was at the urging
of several of his students, who expressed the conviction that a
book was needed to concentrate specifically on problems peculiar
to music-education research, that the writer prepared the first
edition of A Guide to Research in Music Education. The everchanging field of research created a demand for a revision of the
book.
The content and bibliography for each chapter have now been
updated. Reflective thinking, originally included in the second
chapter, has been moved to the first, where the scientific method
is discussed. The third chapter contains hypothetical statements
relating to various components of a research design, with a discussion of why some are better than others. A section on oral
history has been added to the chapter on historical research. I
have expanded and largely rewritten the chapter on experimental
research, incorporating the material on statistics that was separate
in the first edition. Discussion of ethnographic research and reCent doctoral studies make the chapter on descriptive research
more current. The chapter on philosophical inquiry has been expanded and largely rewritten to include philosophical Systems and
philosophical analysis. The former chapter on analytical research,
dea]ing with musical analysis, has been replaced by one on

aestheti~inquiry, which includes the analytic process of aesthetic
inquiry and aesthetic methods. A unique feature, found in no
other textbook, is the chapter on writing the research report.
Various footnotes are listed as they would appear in five of the
most frequently used style manuals. The decrease in funding has
nece~~itated
considerable changes in the treatment of funding,
arid some representative postdoctoral research is included in the
final chapter.
This treatise can be especially useful when the pnnciples and
methods it discusses are translated into the formulation of an
acceptable research design, with its adequate implementation, and
subsequent dissemination of the research findings. This is the
central theme of the book and its principal reason for being.
The writer is especially indebted to, and grateful for, the constructive criticism provided by his wife, Mildred Wade Phelps,
Professor of Music at The King's College, Briarcliff Manor, New
York who rvad the entire manuscript. Gratitude for contributions
of the following are also noted with appreciation: Mrs. Ruth
Hilton, Music Librarian, New York University, for her criticism
and suggestions to strengthen Chapter 4; Dean Arnold Spinner,
Director of Educational Research and Field Studies, New York
University, for his comments and assistance with Chapter 11; and
music researchers who graciously provided information for Chapter 12. The wnter also is grateful to the many publishers, noted
throughout the book who granted permission to quote from their
~ublications.Finally, a debt of gratitude is due students in my
research classes at New York University and Duquesne University for their suggestions to strengthen Chapter 3.
Roger P. Phelps
Baldwin, New York
August 1, 1979
vii
Steps in the Formulation of a Research

Problem
3,
4.
~rganizingthe Research Proposal
61
The Research Design

Format for Nontraditional Doctorates
Deficiencies in Research Designs
65
81
82
Obtaining Resource Materials

Efficient Library Use
Library Card Catalog
Suggestions for Note Taking
Obtaining Items from Other Libraries
Photocopying Materials
Reference Materials for Music
5.
Contents
1.
Research
Selection of a Topic
Categories of Music-Education Research
The Research Climate
Research Concepts
The Scientific Method
Reflective Thinking
2.
Formulating the Problem

Sources of Information
Vulnerability of Music-Education Research
~ ~ i t iConsiderations
al
in the Selection of a Research
Problem
...
Vlll
Historical Research: A Chronicle of the Past

Purposes of Historical Research
Historical Research Procedures
Source Materials
Selection of Topic
Oral History
Historical Research Data Gathering
Extemal Criticism or Authenticity
Intemal Criticism or Credibility
The Setting for Research in Music Education
6.
48
Experimental Research: Purview of the Future

hrpose of Experimental Research
Kinds of Experimental Research
Concepts of Experimental Research
Testing Hypotheses
Selection of Subjects
The Pilot Study
90
91
92
101
104
105
107
121
122
124
125
127
128
130
138
143
150
156
158
161
163
164
166
170
Other Sources of Subsidization for Research in

Music
Preparation of the Research Proposal for
Funding
Designs for Conducting Experimental Research

Factorial Designs
Ex Post Facro Research
Basic Statistical Concepts
7.
Descriptive Research: An Account of the Present
8.
9.
Notes
Index
Philosophical Inquiry: Rational Quest for Truth

Metaphysics
Science Versus Philosophy
Purposes of Philosophical Research
Philosophical Systems
Philosophical Analysis
Techniques of Philosophical Inquiry
Aesthetic Inquiry: A Search for Beauty

Reflective Thinking in Aesthetics
The Analytic Process of Aesthetic Inquiry
Aesthetic Methods
Approaches to Aesthetic Inquiry
10. Writing the Research Report

Format
Mechanics
Style
11. Funding for Research in Music and Music

Education
Federally Supported Research
Foundation Support for Research
323
12. Music-Education Research: Today and Tomorrow 330

Postdoctoral Research
Signs on the Honzon for Music-Education Research
Purposes of Descriptive Research

The Disparity of Descriptive Research
Kinds of Descriptive Research
Ethnographic Research
Tools of Descriptive Research
322
Figures
Delimitation of a Research Topic
Format for a Research Design
Deficiencies Reported in Research Designs
Library Catalog Card
Random-Numbers Table
2 X 2 Factorial Design
Normal Probability Curve
Positively Skewed Curve
Negatively Skewed Curve
Rank-Order Correlation of Scores Obtained
on Music Tests
Omnibus Request for Information
Likert-Type Scale
Plato's 'Divided Line " Process
Ecker and Kaelin Levels of Discourse
Dissertation Title Page
L
33 1
337
1. The Setting for Research

in Music Education
The nse and fall of civilization is a chronicle of humanity's
attempt to find solutions to problems. Human beings have not
always been concerned with a formalized plan to seek their way
out of a dilemma, as is frequently the case today; rather, they have
often relied on the process of trial and error. Some of the greatest
discovenes of the world have been the result of serendipity. The
word "serendipity" is derived from the account of the Three
Princes of Serendip, as told by the eighteenth-century British
novelist Horace Walpole. As they sailed the Indian Ocean, these
princes of Serendip (now known as Sri Lanka) were continually
finding thngs they did not expect. Examples of discovery by
serendipity include that marvelous antibiotic penicillin, discovered by Alexander Fleming quite by accident. X-rays, which are
Research in Music Education
The Setting for Research
so widely used today, were revealed in much the Same way to

Wilhelm Roentgen. The telephone is generally accepted as having been discovered by chance when Alexander Graham Bell was
experimenting with a device to enable his deaf wife to hear better.
To approach serendipity from a hypothetical viewpoint, Sir Arthur Sullivan's fanciful "discovery" of The Lost Chord would
have been the result of serendipity had the traditional bases of
music theory not been so well established already that a "new"
chord was an impossibility.
Any significant research findings, except those that result from
serendipity, are usually based on careful and deliberate planning,
followed by precise execution of the plan, and then unbiased
critique of the results. Frequently this cycle is repeated several
times before significant results are achieved. Problems have
always confronted humanity and will continue to challenge its
ingenuity in the future. The continuum is endless, because as
answers to questions emerge through experimen'tai and philosophical procedures, new and additional challenges arise as we move
up the ladder of progress. Only when our hunger to improve our lot
in life is satisfied will our quest for knowledge be fulfilled.
The human race by instinct is committed to change, since without it survival is not possible for long. The Same is true in the
animal realm. Witness the demise of the large prehistoric brontosaurus and the renowned dodo. Their disappearance from the
face of the earth has been attributed to an inability to adjust to
environmental changes. As a possible explanation of this evolutionary process, Charles Darwin engendered the principle of
"survival of the fittest" in his Origin of Species, a publication
that has continued to arouse controversy since it first appeared in
1859. Since Homo sapiens is regarded as the most intelligent of
all creatures, it is not u~easonabieto expect that it will continue
seeking to perpetuate itself by finding answers to its perplexities
in an intelligent and rational way, something that many fauna
apparently have been unable to do.
'
The process of metamorphosis has extended to the tools and

devices we use not only for our survival but also for our enjoyrnent. For instance, even a cursory glance at a music-history
textbook will reveal names of many instniments that are no
langer in use: ancient Greek cithara, the medieval shawm, and the
ophicleide of the last century, to cite a few. Reasons for their
obsolescence are beyond the scope of this book, but in common
with the brontosaurus and the dodo they evidently outlived their
u s e f u l n e ~ ~It. might be added, parenthetically, that the current
disuse of these instruments, however, is no reason for failure to
]eam about them. Any Person well read in music, as in any discipline, is expected to know about significant developments and
events pertinent to the field. A knowledge of the past is essential
if one is fully to understand the present. A music educator may
acquire this information through research into many sources.
The word "research" is used more loosely in this instance than it
will be throughout the remainder of this book. Even in this illustration, however, it does imply a "seeking of information," although not necessarily in depth.
The quest for solutions to problems, as already suggested, may
be called research in the proper sense of the word. The sequence
seemingly is endless, because change brings with it new riddles
that often defy immediate resolution. Modification, then, is frequently attended by some organized type of research to cope with
the problem that has arisen. Some solutions to problems obviously result from procedures that are less formally organized,
because, as Kelley avers, research actually is a process of evolutim.' In the realm of music, Johann C. Denner's clumsy
ejghteenth-century clarinet of five keys would be repugnant to the
contemporary clarinetist, who performs on an instrument containing up to twenty keys and seven rings. One has to wonder
~ ~ e t h the
e r cithara, shawm, or ophicleide likewise might have
been modified and improved to keep Pace with changing aesthetic
arid musical concepts. But this conjecture hardly seems appro-
Research in Music Education 4

priate: the record is clear. Obsolescence or usefulness are both the
result of change, but for different reasons, many of which will
never be known. It should be noted, however, that research may
hasten either one or the other. From a practical standpoint, research is concemed with utility, although from a historical
perspective, obsolescence would provide appropriate topics for
study .
Research
The term "research" has many meanings, some rather general
and others more specific. Hopkins states that research is "stnictured inquiry that: 1. Utilizes acceptable scientific methodology
to solve problems; 2. creates new generally applicable knowledge. "* It is this writer's contention that resgarch is a carefully
organized procedure that can result in the discovery of new
knowledge, the substantiation of previously held concepts, or the
rejection of tenets that have been widely acclaimed. Drew reports
that research "is a systematic way of asking questions, a systematic method of enquiry. "3 Engelhart also presents a definition of
educational research that is applicable to music education;
namely, the identification of generalizations that enable educators
to determine what is necessary to do for the education of children
and adult^.^ Madsen and Madsen point out that research is not
only a "way of thinking" and a "state of mind," but also a way
to "think rationally and objectively concerning the aspects of life
that can be studied scientifically.
Sound research consists of organization, execution, and dissemination, in logical sequence. Research obviously cannot be
conducted properly without a good plan of operation. On the
other hand, even a well-organized prospectus may not be implemented effectively, resulting in insufficient data. Both organization and execution must be of the highest caliber. In scientific
research dissemination is almost universally a concomitant aspect

of a project. Sometimes this is not the case, unfortunately, in
research in education and in the humanities. If research in music

education is to be worthy of the name, the results should be solid
enough to be shared with members of the profession.
It hardly seems necessary to mention that the investigator is
cmcial to the success of all research. The investigator must be
both critical and inquisitive, as well as be able to determine what
type of research is most feasible for him or her to implement, as
Barzun and Graff so clearly point out.6
To the musician, largely trained in nonverbal skills, the idea of
undertaking research may seem foreign. Music teachers often fail
to follow the logic of a researcher and thus neglect to take advantage of research that can provide practical answers to problems.
Yet the increasing demand on the part of state departments of
education for a minimum of a master's degree as the requisite for
permanent certification has resulted in a phenomenal growth in
graduate programs in music education all over the nation. While
some master's-degree programs are organized to allow the student automatically to cany extra course work in lieu of a written
project, there are others that mandate some type of creative endeavor (composition, arrangement, thesis, recital, or field project)
as partial fulfillment of degree requirements. The option of either
extra course work or a project exists in some master's-degree
curricula, a discretionary arrangement that has some advantages.
n e experience of this writer in advising students at both the
master's and doctoral levels, however, suggests that graduate
schools should consider the feasibility of making some type of
culminating written requirement mandatory for all master's matriculants. Not only can the students expand their knowledge and
receive intellectual stimulation, but they will have had some practical research experience should they eventually pursue their doctorates.
The demand for academic standing above the baccalaureate
degree began in the 1920s. Until the advent of World War I1 the
master's degree generally was considered to be adequate for
music teachers, even on the college or university level. In the past
thirty years, however, the pressure on college and university
music teachers by administrators has caused a rethinking of
graduate music education, with the result that many beginning
postbaccalaureate students now anticipate that a master's degree
may only be a transitional step to a terminal degree. An aspirant
for a teaching position at the college or university level now can
hardly hope to rise above the rank of assistant professor without
an earned doctorate except in a few isolated situations. A byproduct of this coercion has been the demand for doctorates with
emphases different from those the traditional Ph.D. and Ed.D.
have presented. Several colleges and universities in the United
States now offer the D.M.A. (Doctor of Musical Arts) and the
Mus.D. (Doctor of Music). A recent development is the D.A.
(Doctor of Arts), a more flexible, interdisciplinary, and individually oriented program of studies that enables a student to relate
music to other arts more effectively than can either the traditional
Ph.D. or Ed.D. The end product of the D.A. is a research paper
that is usually more product- or process-oriented than other doctorates. For example, one of this writer's D.A. candidates has
been examining the metallurgical properties of mouthpieces and
lead pipes of some brass instruments, using sophisticated
electron-scanning microscopes in an engineering laboratory.
There has been considerable criticism, much of it justified, of
the so-called "nontraditional doctorate, " which is interpreted to
be other than the Ph.D. or Ed.D. Although the D.A. is a new
degree, it should not be placed in the Same class as the nontraditional doctorate. The D.A. programs with which this writer is
familiar, unlike some of the nontraditional doctorates, screen candidates carefully, have certain residency requirements, and maintain high academic standards.'
Since all earned doctorates at present are based upon the acceptance of some type of "creative" project, students in music edu-
cation as well as other disciplines find themselves faced with the

reality of engaging in research. Many times selection of an acceptable topic becomes an unnecessarily long and tedious process, a process that might be shortened considerably if the student
were to use reflective thinking to help locate and develop a meaningful and interesting topic. The necessity for researchers to do
their own thinking is emphasized by Koefod, who also observes
that an excellent research report is the hallmark of this kind of
investigator.'
Selection of a Topic
Fortunately, many students give considerable thought to potential projects prior to enrollment in a graduate program. Others
depend upon expediency, mandate, suggestions from an adviser,
or some other extrinsic factor in choosing a topic. Such ambivalence can hardly result in anything more than inferior productivity. Researchers should choose a topic for investigation in
which they have an intense interest, one to which they may lay
claim as "their own. " It is inconceivable that anyone would
become involved in a research topic in which he or she is neither
totally engrossed nor in general agreement philosophically.
School administrators recognize that personnel perform most
efficiently in the areas where they are most competent and
interested. In the interest of educational efficiency, good administrative practice dictates that such predilections be honored
wherever possible through appropriate assignments. Why should
involvement in research operate under a different procedure? As if
in reply, Kelley notes that the conduct of worthwhile research is
not easy, and he also deplores those who dismiss its importance
too l i g h t l ~The
. ~ selection of an appropriate topic is very signifiCant for the researcher, and it will be treated more comprehenin the next two chapters.
While most graduate students pursue research in music educa-
tion for pragmatic reasons, a gratifying trend is evident in the

ever-increasing number of postdoctoral research titles. Govemment, philanthropic agencies, or foundations have supported
many of these projects. Unfortunately, much of the money allocated by these agencies in the past has dried up, especially for the
arts. These projects were subsidized, moreover, only after a very
careful review of the research procedures proposed. The experience received in developing and pursuing a graduate project
ought to make it easier to prepare an acceptable proposal for
funding from agencies and organizations that still support research in the arts. On the other hand, it would not be accurate to
infer that all research plans that are rejected for funding are deficient in organization. Many excellent proposals have not been
subsidized and will not be unless more monies become available
in the future.
The quality of research in music education, like that of education in general, has been Open to question in many quarters. Some
of this criticism is justified. Sometimes a research study consists
of a superficial treatment of some insipid topic that the busy
music educator did not really find pertinent. Actually, there are
innumerable significant problems in music education that need to
be solved. Might it not be more useful to concentrate first on
those that are of immediate concern and practical value to the
profession? When realistic solutions have been found to these,
then some attention may be given to those areas that are of less
import to music educators. Realistically, it must be admitted that
some of the most crucial areas do not lend themselves to easy and
quick solutions. The time schedule of a researcher and financial
subsidization are frequently both limiting factors. Since times
change, as indicated earlier, some solutions may neither be found
nor needed for certain perplexities. One might ask, why engage in
research if it will not be beneficial or if the results will be inconclusive? Significant research rarely results when answers to problems are obtained in haste. In addition, such findings may even be
erroneous or impractical note Borg and Gall.lo
A factor that has affected both the quality and kind of research
conducted in music education is the dichotomy to which this
writer called attention in 196011:on the one hand, there are those
educators who feel that music is a practice or skill and as such
does not lend itself readily to research techniques. This group is
opposed by those who recognize that music can and does properly
adapt itself to the recognized criteria for research but who feel
that it has not been conducted in as much depth as desirable. The
recent encouraging increase in research projects undertaken by
musicians and music educators suggests that at last the climate for
research activity has changed. Even a casual glance at titles of
some of the research completed in music will substantiate this
optimistic observation. A recent listing of research sponsored by
the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare reveals
that investigators in music have taken many directions.12
As music researchers have become better trained there has
been a tendency to overemphasize behavioral approaches to research. Many answers can best be obtained with experimental
procedures; however, some questions can better be answered by
using other methodologies, as this writer points out in a recent
article.13 The careful structuring of research projects in music
education, regardless of methodology used, should be accompanied by a subsequent meticulous implementation of the research plan to bring about valid and objective results that, when
disseminated, will be meaningful and practical to members of the
Profession.
Categories of Music-Education Research

Most research studies in music education fall under one of the
following categories: historical, experimental, descriptive,
~ h i l o s o ~ h i c aor
l , aesthetic. A purview of any Standard textbook
ln educational research will likely include a discussion of the first
t h e e types. Philosophical inquiry (or research) will be contained
10
in a few, but many educational researchers either deny its existence as a separate kind of research or suggest that its use is so
extremely limited as to be hardly worth serious consideration.
Yet in music education philosophical inquiry can be a very fruitful area for investigation. The last type, aesthetic inquiry (or
research), is a designation that normally relates to discovery of
the beautiful in the arts. In music, however, it rnay relate to
learning about a composer or the composer's music, or even to
any other area of investigation that focuses on music. When
concerned with the study and analysis of certain compositions of
a Composer, including the latter's role in the mainstream of music
history, it rnay be regarded quite properly as quasi-musicological
in scope. Many possibilities exist in the aesthetic type of research
for the music educator who has a good theoretical and musicological background.
Since the techniques, procedures, and characteristics of each of
these kinds of research as they relate to music education will be
presented in detail in subsequent chapters, they will just be mentioned here. Any one study, of Course, rnay incorporate some
aspects of the other research types, but its emphasis will be on one
of the five areas just listed. The organization of a study largely
detennines the format under which the research will be conducted. A historical study will emphasize the design for a historical study, a descriptive study the aspects of that kind of project,
and so on. The labels associated with a given research study
should not become a fetish, however, because the essential factor
is the information included in the study. Categorization, on the
other hand, is helpful in determining procedures that will be or
have been followed in a research study. For example, a study rnay
be aesthetic-descriptive, aesthetic-historical, or any other combination. In the former, a music or other aesthetic topic will be
approached using descriptive techniques, and in the latter, historical procedures .
Just as most research studies are not constituted exclusively in
11
one area at the expense of the others, so, by analogy, no person is

completely an introvert or an extrovert. Personality traits labe1 him
or her as being inclined in one direction or the other. To cite
another example, a musical tone that an observer identifies as A
may have a frequency of 220 hertz (Hz.). When the sound is
analyzed by an oscilloscope it rnay be found also to possess minor
amounts of energy present for E (660 Hz.) or C# (1,100 Hz.), yet
the listener perceives only the note A because it is the dominant
sound. Likewise, an experimental study could include both historical and philosophical concepts, yet be regarded as basically an
experimental study. Regardless of the kind of organization, the
research must meet certain rigid criteria if it is to be sound. Many
of these are totally dependent on the attitude of the researcher, not
on the organization, because even the best-organized research
plan is virtually meaningless unless it is implemented carefully by
an investigator who uses good research techniques.
The Research Climate

If music-education research is to gain and maintain the respect of the academic community, the desire for an advanced
degree or promotion to a higher professional rank does not provide the right kind of motivation. As noted earlier, the investigator is usually the key to the ultimate success or failure of a research project. 1s it not logical, then, to expect that researchers be
in the proper frame of mind while planning, executing, and reporting their investigations? This mental condition rnay be called the
"research climate," because it implies that the researchers will
involve themselves wholeheartedly in the tasks before them. Certain traits or characteristics are essential and need either to be
present or to be developed if a researcher is to complete a project
successfully . Ideally, one person should possess all of them, but in
reality each person has his or her own limitations. While by no
12
means exhaustive, the following ten adjectives suggest the characteristics that successful investigators in music education need to
possess. They should be inquisitive, perceptive, objective, discriminative , impartial, candid, diligent , persistent, creative, and
erudite.
The inquisitive mind is the first requisite for research. Without
a passion on the part of an investigator for uncovering or learning
new knowledge, research is not possible. Once the desire to find
answers to problems has been affirmed, a perceptive mind is
necessary to formulate the most effective plan to be used for the
duration of the research. This format, obviously, should not be
immutable, but subject to modification as the need for emendation arises. After the research plan has been established, investigators need to obtain information with an objective viewpoint.
They must be willing to accept the results of their research even
though the results may prove to be contrary to what they have
believed up to this point. Researchers should be discriminative in
determining what material will be useful in a written account of
the results of their research. Discrimination also implies that investigators ought to be impartial and not biased in their reporting. They should avoid the tendency to weight their evidence
because of some personal prejudice. A candid accounting, of
Course, suggests that investigators must be forthright and frank
with their presentation. This means that they accept and report
accurately all their research findings. If research is tobe successful
and complete, diligent attention to all details is necessary. Yet
diligence alone is not enough to guarantee good research. A
diligent researcher also needs to be persistent. Persistence implies that one will cany on a project despite obstacles that may
either appear to impede Progress or possibly intimate that the
results may be negative. Skillful researchers also should be creative. They must not only organize their project in an original way,
but also execute the study and disseminate the results in a manner
that is refreshing and different. Finally, researchers ought to be
13
erudite. Once the research is complete investigators should be

more knowledgeable than they were before engaging in the research. In addition, they will very likely have accumulated some
basic knowledge in the several disciplines that go into the making
of an "educated" Person, sometimes referred to as "basic general education " or "general cultural education. " Music
graduates are often handicapped in this regard, especially if they
have a conservatory training, where skills are emphasized at the
expense of general culture. This writer has found, as a result of
advising doctoral students for several years, that this "narrow"
concept often is a handicap in a doctoral program. Such students,
by inclination or training, sometimes do not have the intellectual
foundation to organize and execute a doctoral project. When
institutions that prepare students at the undergraduate level fail to
provide cumcula that train future musicians not only professionally but intellectually, they must share some of the blame when
their graduates experience difficulty in completing postbaccalaureate work .
Hopkins poignantly synthesizes the nature and purpose of research in these words: "A study of the evolution of music reveals
that Songs, too, can be thought of as answers to questions in the
minds of people. Studies of literature and music from all eras can
be viewed as attempted answers to the questions that were on
people's minds in each of those times. ' q 4
Research Concepts
The researcher in music education can expect to encounter
certain terms or concepts that relate to procedures of research.
Those that refer only to specific areas or types of research will be
discussed in the appropriate chapters in this book. Others, which
are common to all types of research, follow. An understanding of
these items is important to the logical organization of a study.
14
When matriculated, especially at the doctoral level, candidates

often are required to make a distinction in their programs of
studies between an emphasis that will enable them to prepare a
project of pure research and one that may be called applied. The
former, sometimes known as "basic" or "fundamental" research, is based on the accurate reporting of results without any
attempt to incorporate practical applications of the findings in the
study. Those who read the report are expected to make whatever
use of the data seems appropriate to their own situation. Pure
research, often concerned with the development of a theory or
model based on previous theories or models, is desirable in almost all fields of endeavor, but frequently is not the type that will
produce answers to the questions facing music educators in the
classroom. Applied (sometimes called "action") research is conducted and reported in such a way that the investigators include
practical suggestions for applying data of theirstudies to a teaching situation.
Some universities permit a variant of the Ed.D., referred to as
the "Alternative Ed.D.," which Stresses the development of a
product, a series of position Papers, or the completion of a
textbook, for example. This type of project is more flexible in
format than that for the traditional Ph.D., D.M.A., Mus.D., or
Ed.D., and the final document is similar to the one produced for
the D.A., referred to earlier in this chapter. An example of an
Alternative Ed. D. topic would be: "Three Position Papers on the
Teaching of Music Methods to Elementary Education Majors in a
College or University. " Sometimes the Ph.D. is erroneously referred to as a superior "research" degree because of its emphasis
on the "basic" concept of research, and the Ed.D. as a somewhat
inferior "teaching" degree, in which investigators are expected
to indicate explicitly how the results of their research may be
utilized. The elevation of one degree over the other is unfortunate. It must be admitted, however, that in some graduate programs the Ed.D. really is inferior to the Ph.D. due to differences
15
in acceptable minimum standards between them. The result is

that not as much is expected from academic, musical, or research
standpoints from the former as from the latter. Both types of
degree programs should be predicated on sound research procedures. It is the emphasis that ought to be the essential difference
between the two, not the academic or intellectual demands on the
investigator. A history of eighteenth-century English secular
choral music, for instance, most likely would be regarded as pure
research, providing the study was concluded according to the
concepts of "basic" research. On the other hand, an anthology of
eighteenth-century English secular choral music could be
classified as applied, because an anthology, by implication, may
consist of compositions that have been collected and edited for a
specific group, with rehearsal suggestions also incorporated in the
study. The anthology quite properly needs to contain a history
section, but this factor alone is not important enough to change
the character of the study, since the basic intent in this type of
research is to present practical suggestions for using the results.
Of the five kinds of research enumerated in this chapter, historical, experimental, philosophical, and frequently aesthetic usually
fall under the heading of pure research, whereas descriptive and
some aesthetic studies might be described as applied. It should be
noted, however, that any attempt to assign arbitrarily any h n d of
research to one category or the other is risky at best. The data and
the purpose of a research study ought to determine how the study
is classified. Pigeonholing can be very hazardous, but researchers
who, during the process of plaming, consider their research with
either a pure or an applied emphasis in mind will find their
projects much easier to organize.
The terms qilalitative and quantitutive refer to procedures for
looking at information. In the former, research results are largely
subjective, that is, not easily translated into scores, whereas in the
latter, objective data based on the scores of some type of measurement are given. Travers points out that qualitative generaliza-
16
tions eventually may lead to pronouncements that are substantiated quantitatively.16 Many research studies contain both qualitative and quantitative data. On the other hand, while it is possible for a research project to be so organized that it would contain
only qualitative data, it would be virtually impossible for a study
to contain quantitative but not qualitative data, because even in a
study where data are the result of some type of measurement,
narrative is necessary to explain the theoretical rationale for the
study, and a rationale Statement is a type of information.
It is not uncommon to examine research studies in music education that contain qualitative data only, with quantitative data
omitted, when there is every indication that they should have been
included. Such studies are ineffective and weak because the investigator did not proceed thoroughly and carefully to the next
significant step of quantifying information. For example, a qualitative study might be undertaken to l e r n which school systems
in a given state have instrumental music programs. These data,
readily obtainable by a questionnaire or other means, could be
useful to school administrators who do not have an instrumental
program, enabling them to report to their Boards of Education
that such a program is needed if children in the community are to
receive the Same cultural advantages as Youngsters in other
school systems. To music teachers, by contrast, these data would
be relatively useless because they give no indication of the actual
content of the instrumental programs surveyed. They merely signify the presence or absence of instrumental music in the school
systems investigated. Music supervisors more likely would be
interested in determining how their curricular offerings compare
with those of other schools. In other words, they might be interested to l e r n that a certain school has two orchestras, two
bands, or two choruses in the senior high school and thus try to
convince their superiors that this Pattern should be emulated.
Since music is largely concerned with skills, still unanswered is
the question of performing competency of the groups under con-
17
sideration. This problem also is quantitative, and answers would

be dependent on the use of a specialized type of measurement in
conjunction with the questionnaire. Such an investigation would
be proper under certain conditions. The investigator would need
to establish criteria for comparisons in order to ascertain how well
the groups performed. Researchers who organize their projects so
as to obtain quantitative data are in a better position initially to
produce a significant research study than are those who merely
scratch the surface by seeking only qualitative information. It
should be made clear, however, that both quantitative and qualitative studies may produce valid information although different
techniques are used for each. It has been gratifying to note that
the quality of research in music education has improved markedly
in the last decade. Much of this improvement is due to greater
sophistication in the field of research.
The Scientific Method

Precepts of the scientific method, which is a way of thinking,
were initiated and originally utilized by researchers in the natural sciences. These principles now have been applied to research in almost all disciplines. Unfortunately, music educators
at times feel that the scientific method should be used only with
certain types of research. This misconception evidently is due to a
misunderstanding of what the scientific method connotes. Each
of the five types of research enumerated earlier in this chapter
should utilize the scientific method with the understanding, of
Course, that some modifications will be necessary.
Stated in its simplest terms, any investigation thar is logically
organized, objectively implemented, und precisely interpreted
meets the conditions of the scientific method. Almack succinctly
defines the scientific method as "the expert pursuit of knowledge. "I6 Brennan points out that even in science, reasoning and
20
for embouchure development that result in a significant improvement in tone quality, but they still may be unable to analyze
why this transformation took place. Some music educators will
argue that development of practical skills should come first.
Then, if there is time and inclination, philosophical and theoretical concepts may be introduced. In the natural and physical sciences, where reflective thinking and an "intellectual" approach
normally are an adjunct to instruction, the scientific method is not
Strange to graduate students who initiate a research project. Observing this desirable fusion of skills and theory, Good states that
"science without philosophy is blind, while philosophy without
science is empty .
Music is a skill; consequently, the graduate student in music
education who has spent countless hours in the practice room
often is intellectually handicapped. Yet if research is to be successful some intellectual activity is necessary'. This intellectual
process is referred to as "critical" or "reflective thinking. " In a
recent article this writer stated that "critical or reflective thinking
is associated with logic and the scientific method, since all these
terms relate to obtaining information through metempirical rather
than empirical means. "23 Metempirical is a philosophical term
that refers to obtaining information solely through reasoning,
whereas observation and measurement characterize the empirical
method.
'lZ2
Reflective Thinking
An investigator must use reflective thinking to formulate a
problem into a pliable and workable format. As indicated earlier,
this initial phase of research unquestionably is one of the most
important, yet it frequently is treated perfunctorily. Several educational researchers, including Mason and Bramble, aver that the
21
&imate success of a research project is often related to the way

the problem is f ~ r m u l a t e d . ~ ~
Concepts of reflective thinking may be traced as far back as the
deductive method used by Aristotle and other early Greek thinkers. Deduction is reasoning from the general to the specific (or
particul~).This type of reasoning marked one of humanity's
earliest attempts to think through problems. As an example of
deduction, note the choral conductor who hears some unusual
sounds coming from the group and tries to determine what causes
them. It turns out that the altos were singing E b , not Eh; the
tenors forgot to sing F#; and the accompanist was one measure
ahead of the group. Deductively, this choral conductor has observed problems and then been able to correct them by identifying
specific weaknesses. In the research proposal, to be discussed in
Chapter 3, the process of delineating a general problem Statement,
and then forrnulating specific components, or subproblems, is
analogous to deductive reasoning.
Syllogism is another example of this Greek concept of deductive problem solving. In syllogism the formula of an argument
consists of three propositions. The first two, known as major and
minor premises, are assumed to be true, and lead to the third
proposition, known as the conclusion. No attempt is made to
prove or disapprove the major and minor assumptions. An example of syllogism follows:
Major premise: All musicians are talented.
Minor premise: Conductors are musicians.
Conclusion: Conductors are talented.
In examining the logic of this syllogism one assumes that the

musicians concerned are talented or they would not be able to be
musicians and that the conductors could not conduct unless they
had had musical training and were musicians. The conclusion
22
then is obvious. Characteristic of any syllogism is the identification of three factors, each of which is repeated twice. In the
aforementioned example, "musicians, " "talented, " and "conductors" each appears two times. Of course, because of the acceptance of faulty assumptions, some syllogisms do not result in
valid conclusions. Consider this example:
The Setting for Research 23
Major premise: A trombone is a brass instrument.

Minor premise: A brass instrument has valves.
Conclusion: A trombone has valves.
The major premise, of course, is true; the minor premise is only

partially true. Most brass instruments contain either piston or
rotary valves; however, the trombone (with the exception of the
virtually obsolete valve trombone) does not. The conclusion,
therefore, is not tenable.
There are many classic anecdotes about those who dared to use
logic different from this deductive method and who were repnmanded severely as late as the seventeenth century. For example,
the announcement by Galileo that while searching the heavens
with his new telescope he had discovered four moons revolving
around the planet Jupiter was received skeptically by many of his
Peers. One fellow professor even stated that since Aristotle had
not mentioned these moons, they could not possibly exist. Others
declared that since the moons were not visible to the naked eye
they did not exist at all. Such was the stranglehold the Greek
system of Aristotelian logic had on scholars up to the late sixteenth century, the time of Francis Bacon, who disagreed with the
prevailing concept of blindly accepting deductive theories merely
because they were passed on as truth by the authorities.
This uncertainty about the truth of a generalization led Bacon to
develop the type of thinking known as induction, or reasoning
from the specific (or particular) to the general. It was assumed that
reasoning based on specific items would result in more valid
'
I
I
generalizati~ns.On the basis of these specifics, generalizations

could then be made about similar or related but unobserved facts
or events. This type of reasoning is used occasionally by music
teachers. For instance, a band director may conclude that a group
will perform badly after observing several specific deficiencies
before the group starts to play. First, it may be evident that the
oboists do not have their reeds completely inserted in the casing,
which will result in intonation that is consistently flat. Some of
the French horns obviously are using the E b slide even though the
music is written for F horn. The percussion section may have the
wrong music in front of them. The example is absurd, of course,
but it illustrates that this music teacher has observed specific
deficiencies and then was inductively able to generalize that an
unsatisfactory sound will result if the musicians perform under
the conditions just described, even though they have not yet
played one note of music. Researchers who are formulating a
research design may have in mind specific components to be
researched, but then they must inductively derive the general
problem statement, or the gestalt.
More recently research has been predicated on a combination
of the two concepts; this is commonly referred to as the
"deductive-inductive process," but is also known by the term
'<
general-to-specific-to-general." Charles Darwin is generally
acclaimed to be the first to combine successfully the ideas of
Aristotelian deduction with those of Baconian induction. According to Best, Darwin, in stating his theory of the ongin of species,
formulated thmugh deductive-inductive procedures a process that
. ~ simple
~
now serves as the basis of the scientific m e t h ~ d A
illustration: after hearing a beginning string class perform badly , a
music teacher analyzes the performance of the students, inductively observing deficiencies and correcting them when necessary. Finally, as a result of the inductive diagnosis of each student's performance, the teacher may deduce what will result if
changes are not effected. Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh indicate that
24
Darwin's approach, the deductive-inductive process, is in accord

with the scientific method, the most appropriate procedure for
.~~
of this deductive-inductive
obtaining i n f o r m a t i ~ n Application
process will place investigators in a much more favorable position
to formulate adequately and then pursue their topics than they
would without it. This concept of logic makes it relatively easy to
organize research reflectively.
The large number of textbooks on research methodology that
use as the basis for reflective thinking the five steps originally
proposed by John Dewey (1859-1952) signifies the high regard
with which research leaders in virtually all areas of education
generally hold this distinguished educational philosopher. Dewey's five steps, as paraphrased, are:
(1) recognition of need,
(2) isolation of the problem,
(3) postulation of solution,
(4) accumulation and codification of data, and
(5) confirmation and experimental substantiation of
hypothese~.~'
To these original five, other educational philosophers, such as

Kelley, have added another-appraisal of the solution in light of
future n e e d ~ Not
. ~ ~only do these six precepts form the basis for
the delineation of a problem, they also may be employed for
implementation of the research. In view of current emphasis on
disseminating research findings, resolution and completion of the
research suggests an additional step, dissemination of the data,
which might be proposed as a seventh step. Attention was called
earlier in this chapter to deficiency in this regard in much musiceducation research. Many excellent reports are of no value to the
profession because investigators have been either unable or unwilling to share their results. Research that is worthy of the name
certainly ought to be worth disseminating. Even research of a
25
superficial nature has value for potential researchers because it

may point not only to areas needing more investigation but also to
mistakes and pitfalls to be avoided. These seven steps, in essence,
form the basis for the forrnulation, irnplernentation, and prornulgation of a research topic. In other words, they constitute a
"method" for research.
The scientific method and reflective or critical thinking should
not alarm a researcher in music education; rather, they need to be
understood and used. Today, when so much emphasis is placed
on research in music education, investigators can ill afford to
proceed with a project that is not logically orgarzized, objectively
irnplemented, and precisely interpreted. They may need considerable assistance and guidance to realize these objectives, especially if their undergraduate training has emphasized "skills" at
the expense of the "systematic" and "intellectual" approach to
learning. A college or university that does not provide intelligent
and perceptive leadership to give graduate students the kind of
information and stimulation they need for research is derelict in
its duty to train tomorrow's leaders in music education. This does
not imply, of Course, that advisers should do all the thinking and
planning for their advisees, nor does it infer that any graduate
students who comply with certain academic requirements will
automatically receive their degrees. The determining factor
should simply be whether or not an individual has been able to
produce a piece of research that at least meets the minimum
standards prescribed by the institution granting the degree. Students are entitled to competent advice and guidance to reach their
goals.
lnvolvement in research can be a most absorbing and gratifying
experience, especially if an understanding and application of the
concepts of reflective or critical thinking as embodied in the
scientific method are uppermost in the mind of the researcher.
Since the setting for research actually begins with a problem that
26
may need to be clarified or refined before it can be solved,

this initial phase of research will be discussed in the next
chapter.
9. What is a syllogism? Why is syllogism significant to research?
10. Name and discuss the seven steps of reflective thinking presented in this chapter.
Problems for Review und Discussion

1. What is research? Sound research involves what steps?
Supplementary Readings
2. Discuss factors important in the selection of a research topic.
3. Consider some of the problems that are of immediate concern to you, and make some type of preliminary investigation
to determine whether you will be able to reach a solution to
some of them.
4. Why is a proper "research climate" important for musiceducation research? What characteristics must a researcher
possess in order to meet the conditions of a proper "research
climate ' '?
5. What is the difference between pure and applied research?

Give Synonyms for each of these terms.
6 . Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative research.
7. In succinct terms, what does the term "scientific method"

imply? Why is the scientific method so important for musiceducation research?
8. Discuss reflective thinking. What differences exist between
the deductive and inductive methods of reasoning? How do
they differ from deductive-inductive reasoning?
27
ALMACK,
JOHNC. Research und Thesis Writing. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1930, Chapters 2 and 4.
ARY,DONALD,
LUCYC. JACOBS,
and ASGHAR
RAZAVIEH.
Introduction
to Research in Education, 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979, Chapter 1.
ASHER,J. WILLIAM.
Educational Research und Evaluation Methods.
Boston: Little, Brown, 1976, Chapter 1.
BEST,JOHNW. Research in Education, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, 1977, Chapter 1.
BEVERIDGE,
W. I. B. The Art of Scientific Investigation. New York:
Vintage Books, 1950, Chapters 1, 3, 4, and 7.
BORG,WALTER
R., and MEREDITH
D. GALL.Educational Research: An
Introduction, 3rd ed. New York: Longman, 1979, Chapter 1.
R., and ERNEST
NAGEL.An Introduction to Logic und
COHEN,MORRIS
Scientific Method. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1934, Chapters 1
and 11.
COOK,DAVID
R ., and N. KENNETH
LAFLEDR.
A Guide to Educational
Research, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1975, Chapter 1.
DREW,CLIFFORD
J. Introduction t o Designing Research and Evaluation. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby, 1976, Chapter 1.
MAX D. Methods of Educational Research. Chicago:
ENGELHART,
Rand McNally, 1972, Chapter 2.
GAY,L. R. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis und Application. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1976, Chapter 1.
GOOD,CARTERV. Essentials of Educational Research. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966, Chapter 1.
28
HILLWAY,
TYRUS.Introduction to Research, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1964, Chapters 1, 2, 7, and 17.
HOPKINS,CHARLES
D. Educational Research: A Structure for Inquiry.
Colurnbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1976, Chapters 1 and 2.
KERLINGER,
FREDN. Behavioral Research: A Conceptual Approach.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979, Chapter 1.
.
Foundations of Behavioral Research, 2nd ed. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1973, Chapter 1 .
MADSEN,
CLIFFORD
K., and CHARLES
H. MADSEN,JR. Experimental
Research in Music. Raleigh, N.C.: Conternporary, 1977, Chapters 1
and 2.
MASON,EMANUEL
J., and WILLIAMJ. BRAMBLE.Understanding
und Conducting Research: Applications in Education und the
Behavioral Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, Chapters 1
and 2.
MOULY,
GEORGE
J. The Science of Educational Research, 2nd ed. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970, Chapters 1, 2, and 3.
PETZOLD,
ROBERTG. "Directions for Research in hlusic Education, "
Music Educators Journal, January 1964, 50,5:39-42.
PHELPS,ROGERP. "Critical Thinking: A Prerequisite for All Sound
Research, " The New York Stute School Music News, March 1978,
41,7:31-32.
RUMMEL,
J. FRANCIS.
An Introduction to Research Procedures in Education, 2nd ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1964, Chapter 1.
SAX,GILBERT.Empirical Foundations of Educational Research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968, Chapters 1 and 2.
TRAVERS,
ROBERT
M. W. An Introduction to Educational Research, 4th
ed. New York: Macrnillan, 1978, Chapter 3.
, DEOBOLD
B. Understanding Educational Research: An
VAN DALEN
Introduction, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979, Chapters 1 and
2.
WATANABE,
RUTH T. Introduction to Music Research, Englewood
Cliffs, N.J .: Prentice-Hall, 1967, Chapter 1.
WHITNEY,FREDERICK
L. The Elements of Research, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J .: Prentice-Hall, 1950, Chapters 1 and 2.
Research Methods in Education: An Introduction,
WIERSMA,
WILLIAM.
2nd ed. Itasca, 111.: F. E. Peacock, 1975, Chapter 1.
29
WILLIAMSON,
JOHNB . , DAVIDA. KARP,and JOHNR. DALPHIN.The
Research Craft: An Introduction to Social Science Methods. Boston:
Little, Brown, 1977, Chapter 1.
WISE,JOHNE., ROBERT
B. NORDBERG,
and DONALD
J. REITZ,Methods
of Research in Education, Boston: D. C. Heath, 1967, Chapter 1.
2 . Formulating the
Problem
Formulating the problem is unquestionably the most important
initial step in research. As noted in the previous chapter, a problem that uses reflective or critical thinking as evidenced in the
scientific method is much easier to bring to a satisfactory solution
than one that does not. The most profound as well as the least
significant problems may prove to be disconcerting to music
educators, but if ways are found to resolve this dilemma, their
teaching will be more effective. The realization that many problems still remain for the researcher in music education has both
good and bad aspects. Most impelling, perhaps, is the negative
connotation, because it suggests that conditions, however they
31
may be defined, could be better for those concerned if solutions

were forthcorning. On the positive side, graduate students frequently may become unduly apprehensive and consequently
apply themselves diligently lest someone else "preempt " their
topic and complete the research first. Such misgivings usually are
needless because, as most research studies will bear out, the Same
problem could be approached differently by two individuals. In
addition, when one problem seems to be solved others appear that
were not apparent previously .
Even though research activity in music education recently
seems to have reached an all-time high, and although solutions to
many previously disturbing problems have been obtained by an
ever-increasing number of investigators, there are other
perplexities in which the explanations obtained have been either
inconclusive or unconvincing. Perhaps it is one of the ironies of
research that indecisive answers frequently result when a researcher fails to give enough thought to the organization and
formulation of the problem. In the desire to begin collecting
research data as soon as possible, investigators have begun the
actual research process before comprehending its significance.
An unorganized accumulation of data can be the result of this
kind of impulsive action. This writer, in an article in a recent
professional journal, called attention to this dilemma.' More than
one adviser has had to remand students back to the reflective or
critical thinking stage because they had begun to collect disparate
data with no reason other than it was interesting to do so. Research data by themselves are virtually worthless unless there is a
rationale for using and interpreting them. Commenting on the
importance of circumspect attention to the problem, Borg and
Ga11 relate that the distinction between an outstanding project and
one that is unscholarly does not rest on the "amount of work
required to carry it out, but the arnount of thought that the student
applies in the selection and definition of the p r ~ b l e m . " ~
Sources of Information
In the formulation of a problem, application of the time-wom
"who, when, where, what, why, how " can be most beneficial
to an investigator. Graduate students, in a sincere and diligent
endeavor to ferret out unique information, often overlook some
of the most obvious sources available to them. Some of the most
significant ideas for research projects in music education may
come from the following, not necessarily listed in order of importance:
(1) textbooks relating to various aspects of
music;
(2) professional and privately printed journals
for music educators;
(3) lists of graduate theses, dissertations, and
projects;
(4) reports of subsidized research;
(5) graduate seminars and classes;
(6) conferences with advisers and professors;
(7) discussions with fellow graduate students;
(8) difficulties pinpointed in the classroom;
(9) speeches and lecture-demonstrations at national, regional, and state meetings of
music educators; and
(10) visits to libraries, archives, museums, etc.
Textbooks are an unusually good source of potential research

topics because quite often readers will find statements with which
they disagree. Even more important, a perusal of textbooks places
students in a better position to know what is happening in their
own field and thus be more knowledgeable about what areas
remain as fertile fields for research.
Although the concepts and ideas in a textbook may be out-
Forrnulating the Problem
33
moded by the time it is actually printed, investigators can stay

up-to-date on the latest trends and ideas in their field by reading
periodicals and journals, such as the Journal of Research in
Music Education, Music Educators Journal, Bulletin of the
Council of Research in Music Education, and College Music
Symposium. State journals published by music educators' associations may be helpful, as well as such privately oriented publications as The Instrumentalist, Woodwind-Brass und Percussion,
and many periodicals in other disciplines that contain articles,
book reviews, and other items relating to music education. Some
of these, like the Music Educators Journal, contain accounts of
successful techniques teachers have used to surmount some of the
perplexities they have faced. Others, such as The Instrumentalist,
often include provocative articles that provide possibilities for
research topics.
One of the most effective ways for students to learn what has
been done in the field of music education is to examine lists of
theses, dissertations, and projects that are either in Progress or
have been completed. After scrutinizing these, researchers frequently See neglected areas in which they feel confident to pursue
research. On the other hand, they may discover that their "redhot" idea already has been competently investigated by others.
This, of Course, does not rule out the prerogative of continuing
research in the Same area, but students should certainly give top
priority to a very careful examination of studies already completed so as to make an early decision whether to implement or
abandon the idea. Bibliographical and other sources will be discussed in Chapter 4.
~ l t h o u g hfederal, state, and private subsidies for research in
music education are not as abundant as they were a few years ago,
they did Open up a whole realm of possibilities for investigators,
especially at the postgraduate level. Funding is now largely from
foundations, and is oriented more toward "related arts," which
include art, dance, music, and theater, rather than music alone.
34
One example is funding of postdoctoral research by the American

Council of Leamed S ~ c i e t i e sLists
. ~ of projects become available
at intervals, and reference will be made to them in subsequent
chapters. Since many of these reports contain suggestions for
research needed to follow up the completed studies, they usually
provide abundant information for investigators seeking a topic.
The interplay between professors and students in graduate
seminars and classes often proves to be a source of subjects for
research. Possibilities of which students were unaware or had
only considered lightly frequently manifest themselves in
graduate seminars. This is especially true when emphasis in the
class is upon reflective thinking which rnay result in students'
clarifying a topic that they already have in mind or in compelling
them to begin an analytical search for one. It has been said
however, that all people have problems, although they rnay not
always be aware of them. The process of interaction with an
adviser may help a Student delineate some of them. In the
classroom the instructor's comments or remarks often point out
areas or problems in need of attention.
Graduate advisers should do more than just affix a signature to
students' Course prograrn cards, nor do true "advisers" arbitrarily
assign topics to their advisees. The students must feel that the
subject they eventually select and then implement is their own
personal property. How can they spontaneously generate a "personal feeling" about something that has been forced upon them?
Advisers should manifest a sense of obligation by making suggestions and assisting each advisee in the formulation and development of the research topic. Quite naturally, professors, because of
their experience in the fiel4 rnay have definite ideas about needed
research and they should not hesitate to express them. They must,
however, be careful to advise, not mandate.
Informal discussion among graduate students often results in
tangible suggestions for research topics. An especially perceptive
individual rnay pinpoint the need for research in an area in which
he himself does not feel capable. Yet another qualified Person,
35
who had never regarded this as a possibility for herself or rnay

have rejected it as being impractical, rnay seize upon the idea. As
a result of discussions with some of her peers she rnay redirect her
thinking to a previously discarded subject.
On the surface, it would appear that a cataloging of problems
encountered in teaching might be a profitable source of research
subjects. A more careful study of the prospective topics, however,
will very likely reveal that many indeed are in need of study, but
the impracticability of defining them clearly so they can be studied in an objective manner tends to exclude some. The dilemmas
faced by one researcher rnay serve as natural points of departure
for the identification of potential research topics by others.
Remarks made by speakers, either informally or in prepared
lectures and demonstrations, sometimes supply ideas for research
topics. Points of disagreement especially can serve as possibilities for research. Graduate music-education students who
are seeking a topic and Want to keep their "ears to the ground"
should attend meetings of professional associations, such as the
Music Educators National Conference, the Music Teachers National Association, and the College Music Society. Although they
reasonably would expect to glean more ideas from meetings in
their primary field of interest, they should not overlook the possibility of obtaining stimulation in areas that ostensibly have little
interest for them.
Visits to libraries, archives, and museums can be especially
beneficial, provided a researcher is interested in more than merely
becoming farniliar with the holdings. For exarnple, an examination of the writings and effects of certain individuals might reveal
the need for in-depth studies about them. A musician could approach the matter from the standpoint of the contributions these
individuals have made to music, especially if their claim to fame
rests on accomplishments other than in music. For instance, the
involvement in and contributions to music of Benjamin Franklin
or Thomas Jefferson might prove to be intriguing to some investigator after examining personal effects and writings of these
36
esteemed patriots at the Free Library of Philadelphia and at

Monticello, Virginia, respectively.
Eager, dedicated, and inquisitive researchers should experience
little difficulty in finding subjects of particular interest to them.
The possibilities are legion, and a constantly changing society and
new methods and resources are continually opening up new ones.
Researchers can only hope that they can find topics that will be
acceptable to their advisers and that can be implemented without
undue hindrances.
Vulnerability of Music-Education
Research
Music-education research often has been vulnerable to attacks
not only from leaders in other disciplines but also from members
of the profession. In many instances the claims have been justified; in others, not so. Music basically is a skill, and this, no
doubt, makes it difficult for a researcher to state in objective
terms what actually takes place while the skill is being performed. Conversely, cognitive concepts are sometimes difficult
to translate into objective skills. To Pose an obvious question,
how can one objectively measure the effectiveness of a teacher of
violin in a private studio as against his performance in a
classroom with a group of violinists? To be Sure, certain subjective judgments can be made, based on an evaluation of the performance of his students, but this is an indirect type of measurement for a researcher who might have as her topic "A Study to
Compare the Effectiveness of a Violin Teacher in Private Studio
Teaching as Contrasted to His Classroom Violin Teaching. " This
indirect measurement results in a determination of pupil performance rather than the direct evaluation of the effectiveness of the
teacher himself. It may be validly argued, however, that pupil
37
to some extent is governed by teacher effectiveness.

The distinction, then, between the subjective measurement of a
teacher's skill and the objective measurement of pupil performance is a rather tenuous one. Does the latter result from the
former, or not? Researchers in music education and other areas
have undertaken several studies similar to this suggested topic,
often presenting results that are not too convincing.
Realizing that research in music education generally has been
suffering from what properly might be termed a "research malnutntion syndrome, " the Music Educators National Conference
appointed a committee on Graduate Studies in Music Education a
few years ago to evaluate research studies in music education that
had appeared up to that time. The committee's incisive and candid report was a landmark contribution to knowledge about research in music education. One or more of the ten deficiencies
noted then are still evident in many of the projects being submitted "in partial fulfillment" of degree requirements. In paraphrased version, these shortcomings are:
(1) a topic that is relatively insignificant;
(2) the tabulation of a large amount of miscellaneous data without the conscientious
and serious projection of logical conclusions;
(3) a project that requires little or no background in music and conceivably could
have been completed by a musically illiterate scholar;
(4) a study containing errors that might have
been eliminated by recourse to original
source material;
(5) presentation of erroneous conclusions because the investigator did not adequately
prepare, collect, and analyze data;
38
(6) obvious shortcomings in musical taste and

understanding;
(7) an inability of the investigator to write concisely and clearly;
(8) a failure to reveal intellectual curiosity,
which suggests a greater concern in
meeting formal Course requirements than
in becoming involved reflectively in the
quest for knowledge;
(9) a lack of understanding regarding the practical problems and potentialities of rnusic
education; and
(10) noteworthy indications of inadequate preparation and understanding of proper research t e ~ h n i q u e s . ~
Although some studies that seemingly are not significant are

still being undertaken, a heartening increase has been observed in
research that is not only organized and conducted well, but is
focused on a subject that could have considerable import for the
profession. Such topics as "A Study to Compare the Effectiveness of the Dry Lip as Opposed to the Wet Lip Approach to
Trumpet Playing" are being replaced by those with such titles as
"A Study to Determine the Effectiveness of Teaching Beginning
Trumpet Students with Computer-Assisted Instruction. " Each
one has its merits, no doubt, but the former is concerned with a
concept that is highly subjective and does not even arouse much
curiosity among brass players today, whereas the latter is related
to an idea that is receiving increasing attention on the part of
music educators, partially because this device offers certain objectivity in the evaluation of teaching procedures.
The tabulation of large amounts of miscellaneous data without
appropriate interpretation and projection of logical conclusions is
still an area that needs considerable attention. Correctly formulat-
39
ing and implernenting hypotheses that are logical and testable can
diminish weaknesses of this kind. False hypotheses delude both
researcher and research consumer. Interpretation of these data
also requires a researcher who possesses both a perceptive and a
creative mind.
Research that requires little or no background in rnusic does
not seem to be as prevalent in music education today as it once
was. It would appear that those charged with the responsibility of
directing music-education research studies not only are competent musically, but also, equally important, have an understanding
of research techniques and procedures. Persons from other disciplines who wish to pursue a study in the area of music evidently
are being discouraged if they do not have an adequate musical
background, or they are being required to strengthen their knowledge of rnusic before proceeding with the research.
Studies containing errors due to the failure of the investigator
to ferret out original source material continue to be more abundant than they should be. With the pressure incumbent upon
receiving a degree as expeditiously as possible, such is to be
expected. It is unfortunate that some graduate students, often not
by choice, rnust be rnore concerned with meeting certain deadlines than with the quality of the research they report. With rising
costs of education and of needed supplies, the researcher often
finds the proverbial vise closing tighter and tighter. It is hoped
that larger amounts of financial Support will become available
from govemment agencies and universities so the anxiety and
pressure to complete a graduate degree will not be a deterrent to
high-quality research. The lessened pressure to meet certain deadlines, because of financial exigencies, will make it easier, also, for
research advisers to make more effective appraisals of students'
work. In a more relaxed atmosphere careless errors may be recognized and rectified more easily.
Closely related to the previous research deficiency is the proffering of erroneous conclusions because the researcher did not
40
prepare, collect, and analyze data adequately. Many studies still

evidence weaknesses in this area. It is easy to rationalize that
this inadequacy also is due largely to the pressure on students to
receive their degrees as quickly as possible. In several of the
studies in music education that display such shortcomings the
explanation lies elsewhere. Sometimes the fault appears to be
with the candidates' sponsoring committees, but more often it is
the result of their own intellectual shortcomings. Projects organized according to the scientific method and implemented accordingly will rarely exhibit the weaknesses just mentioned. In
this connection, Van Dalen appropriately remarks that proper
organization of a research proposal is really the most significant
step in research, and implementation is "largely a mechanical
process which requires more persistence than profundity. " 5
Studies marked by shortcomings in musical taste and understanding are not as prevalent as they once were. In common with
the third deficiency, which was discussed abov&, it appears that
students with adequate background who may have proposed to
engage in some type of nebulous research bearing a general relationship to music are being urged either to pursue their topics in
greater depth or to abandon them entirely.
The inability to express oneself concisely and clearly is a perpetual problem for many music-education students, one for which
satisfactory answers may never be found. Presumably, graduate
students, prior to their matriculation for an advanced degree, have
had adequate courses that prepare them to express themselves
intelligently through writing. It does seem ironic that students
who communicate very expressively through the medium of performance sometimes cannot communicate effectively in their native language. (This suggests a topic for research: is there a
correlation between performance skills in music and verbal
skills?)
Many colleges and universities find it necessary to offer special
courses in remedial writing for graduate students. But does a
remedial writing course of one or two Semesters enable a student
41
to overcome a deficiency that evidently has persisted at least

since high school? It is rather difficult to imagine that a one- or
two-semester remedial course in music theory, for instance, could
enable a student to compensate for a minimum of two to three
years of college or university theory instruction that the student
either has not had or that was taught so ineffectively as to be
meaningless. Some serious resemations exist about the advisability of permitting students who are unable to express themselves
adequately in the English language to matriculate for a graduate
degree. Might not this serious deficiency indicate the presence of
others that would make the successful completion of graduate
study extremely improbable? On the other hand, assuming that
the graduate students can express themselves well in the English
language, the requirement of a master's thesis makes excellent
sense, because more and more master 's-degree recipients are continuing on to the doctorate. Experience with the formulation and
development of a master's research topic is excellent training for
the future doctoral candidate.
The failure to reveal intellectual curiosity is a weakness of
most serious consequence, one that still prevails in many graduate
music-research projects. It seems rather apparent that there is a
definite relationship between this defect and some of the others
previously discussed, notably the second, fifth, sixth, and seventh.
It is a matter of record that in most states it is mandatory for a
teacher in the public schools to earn a master's degree or its
equivalent in order to qualify fc~rpermanent certification and
subsequent advances in salary szhedule. Whether or not this
"pressure" has resulted in a lowering of graduate standards is a
debatable question that is beyond tiie scope of this book. It is an
issue that cannot be resolved by subterfuge. A thorough and
impartial reappraisal of the entire graduate program in music
education, especially at the master's level, is implicit.
One can only wonder how realistic a grading system is in
graduate schools that recognize only "Au and "B" as passing
grades. Furthermore, some schools that formerly permitted only
42
"AM or "B" grades now have further muddied the waters by

adopting a grading System that permits "A, " "A-," "B+,"
"B, " and "B - . " In effect, this dilution may actually be more
representative of the student's achievement than the Standard
"A" or "B. " Do "average" students suddenly become "good"
or "excellent" when they reach graduate school? Proponents of
this system contend that "average" students on the undergraduate level are not admitted to graduate study, so therefore
only those who are "good" or "excellent" remain. Unfortunately, not all graduate schools share this concept; many of them
admit students according to other criteria, even when the students
do not possess the requisite "B" average for admission. It seems
likely that there will be more rather than less relaxing of the "B"
requirement for graduate admission in the future, coupled with
increased emphasis on other factors that may be more truly indicative of a student's probable success in graduate study. It is
possible that some of these factors, such as natural curiosity or
motivation, which may not always be apparent in students'
grades, can be used to determine whether to adrnit students to
graduate study. These individuals may become so engrossed in
their subjects that they will experience less difficulty in pursuing
research to a logical and successful conclusion than will others
who do not have the Same motivation. The performance of veterans who enter college or university with previous unspectacular
records is a case in point.
Some students who have neither the background nor understanding of the discipline enroll in graduate music-education programs because it seems expedient to do so. Prospective doctoral
candidates often remark candidly that it is "easier to get a doctoral degree in music education than in other areas of music. " If
this indictment is true, it is time for a review of doctoral programs
in music education to determine areas that need strengthening. A
few years ago, when more teachers were needed to meet the demands of an exploding population, students entered graduate study
in music education with an undergraduate background in the liberal
43
arts. Many did not have general and specific methodology courses,
psychological principles of education, skill in the performing
areas of music, or Student teaching. To engender an understanding of the philosophies, principles, and problems of rnusic education is not easily accomplished in two or three Semesters of
graduate instruction. 1s it not reasonable to assume that those who
have taught in the public schools are in a better position to cope
with practical problems and potentialities in the field when they
enroll in a graduate program of music education than are those
who lack such experience? A new cloud is appearing on the
horizon. With the decreasing birthrate and the closing of both
elementary and secondary schools due to declining enrollment,
colleges and universities will themselves begin to experience a
severe decline in enrollrnent around the middle 1980s or the early
1990s. This means that cornpetition for students will become
even rnore intense, resulting in a lowering of Standards to admit
unqualified students to graduate music-education programs.
Fortunately, the increase in graduate courses in music education has been accompanied by a recognition of the responsibility
on the part of institutions to offer courses that devote some attention to research techniques. This factor, perhaps more than any
other, has resulted in a gradual increase in both the quantity and
quality of research studies in music education. There seems to be
an unanimous agreement among researchers that good research
usually does not just happen. Addressing themselves to this point,
Barzun and Graff affirm that "reading, writing, und thinking are
the three activities of research. "6
Initial Considerations in the Selection of a

Research Problem
Most textbooks on research methodology contain detailed and
helpful suggestions of a general nature pertaining to the selection
of a problem. One of the more concise accounts is that by Cham-

bers in the journal of a professional education society.' Some of
the important considerations listed therein are concerned with the
cordial relationships that should exist between students and advisers as the former seek to select problems for research. The
proposals of Chambers, in paraphrased version, indicate that potential researchers should:
(1) avoid asking their advisers for "assigned"
topics, but rather seek those that are in
accord with their own interests and initiative;
(2) elect subjects that are in harmony with their
interests and backgrounds instead of
those that are suited to the "predilections" of their advisers;
(3) manifest erudition by not ,expecting their
advisers to serve as "intellectual nursemaids ' ';
(4) define their problems clearly;
(5) become familiar with literature in their field
so as to find out what has or has not been
done;
(6) determine what methods, techniques, or instruments will be needed; and
(7) find out whether field trips or visits to
museums, libraries, private archives, and
other repositories of information are
necessary.
After continuing with suggestions for student-adviser conferences
and for writing up the study, Chambers concludes by stating:
"Research is not necessarily as complex, difficult, mysterious, or
esoteric as a pedantic attitude can make it seem. In common with
all things that are really great, it is essentially simple in concept.
45
It has been comprehensively and simply defined in eight words as

'the orderly treatment of data to answer questions. ' "8
It should be noted that topics that are "assigned" by advisers
have validity for investigators only if they are interested in the
subject und can involve themselves wholeheartedly in it. By analogy, there are too many exercises in music theory that result in a
mediocre or mechanical sound because the people writing them
have not been given the freedom to express themselves in a
manner that is meaningful and significant to them. This, obviously, is not to imply that all principles and rules should be
abrogated. They are certainly needed as guidelines, but students
need to be encouraged to express themselves in a manner that is
in accord with their own initiative and creativity. All too prevalent are research projects in a "series," usually at the master's
level, which are "assigned" by advisers to certain of their students. A group of studies of this type might center around a
general title, such as a survey of elementary private method instruction books for specific instruments, with students examining
and comparing materials for each instrument of the band and
orchestra. Such projects if well organized and implemented can
be very beneficial to students in instrumental-techniques classes
who are unfamiliar with these publications. It is in this Spirit, no
doubt, that advisers make such assignments. Koefod takes a less
optiniistic viewpoint: "Too many students do nothing but plead
for assignment of projects by faculty supervisors, apparently having been somehow conditioned by the 'system' to do t h i ~ . " ~
Whether the "assignments" are voluntary or involuntary, the
results will usually be the Same unless the students are interested
and completely immersed in the subject. The process of reflective
thinking discussed earlier in this chapter will be more effective
when the choice of a topic is the result of the students' initiative,
since the decision undoubtedly will be one of the most important
they will make in their educational careers, and thus should be
predicated on something in which they are intensely interested.
46
Chambers's reference to advisers serving as "intellectual nursemaids" is both amusing and tragic. The implication is that
students will merely put the "flesh" on "skeletons" constructed
by their advisers. Advisers can no more do students' reflective
thinking for them than they can take their examinations. Advisers
should direct attention to questionable Patterns of thinking and
organization of materials. Their suggestions should be practical,
relevant, and within the framework of the research proposal. Advisers' remarks are suggestions, not mandates, with full responsibility for accepting or rejecting them resting with the students,
upon whom, also, the onus eventually falls for defending their research.
Stating the problem clearly has been discussed earlier in this
chapter and needs no additional elaboration here; we need only
reiterate its importance.
It is incumbent on researchers, as already indicated, to
familiarize themselves with the literature in th'eir field. Many
advisers continue to be distressed by the inordinately large
number of students who come to them for advice regarding a
"red-hot" idea before they have examined the literature to determine whether the proposal is feasible. Such a Course would
eliminate many projected topics, leaving the students free to devote their energies, and those of their advisers, to topics within the
realm of possibility. It is conceivable that two individuals may be
proceeding with the Same topic unbeknown to one another. Although the likelihood of this happening is slim, Good and Scates
give an account of two music-education research studies conducted on the Same national organization, although they were not
done at the Same time. The projects were completed in different
sections of the country even though the institutions were only
three-hundred miles apart, but the initial study, which was
finished five years before the second, could easily have been
located by the second investigator in Doctoral Dissertations Accepted by American Universities. lo
Formulating the Problem 47

After their topics have been tentatively accepted, with the assistance of their advisers, investigators should carefully consider and
make a projection of the methods, techniques, equipment, and
instruments they will use to bring their studies to successful fruition. This might involve the use of certain standardized tests,
instniments of the investigators' own devising, questionnaires,
and Special equipment, such as teaching machines, Computers, or
other devices. Need for these items will be determined partially
by the methods or techniques chosen by the researcher. For
example, an investigation based on the experimetal method normally would not utilize the questionnaire technique, whereas one
based on a descriptive study would not often use the concept of
the Single variable (to be discussed in a later chapter).
An investigator involved with historical, and frequently a
philosophical or aesthetic, study will need information that may
be obtained from various repositories (libraries, museums, archives, historical societies, private collections, etc.). Since this
will be treated in greater detail in Chapter 5, mention will be
made here only in passing. The researcher will need to know
where specific items are located. If visits are involved, the investigator must plan them according to such considerations as financial resources, time available, and hours the repository is open.
Frequently it is next to impossible to conduct systematic and
exhaustive historical research without this kind of planning. Field
studies, in the form of visits to other schools or colleges and
universities, often are necessary in a descriptive study when comparisons are being made between curricular offerings or programs
of music education. To determine why a siring program may be
successful in one school System but not in others can hardly be
done properly by means of a questionnaire only. Interviews, personal visits, and a questionnaire might be needed to garner
enough information to make valid Statements when comparing
schools. Reference will be made to these techniques in the chapter on descriptive research.
Steps in the Formulation of a Research

Problem
Investigators who have a general subject in mind must proceed through several steps before they reach a point at which
their research topic is well defined, practical, and capable of
implementation. Almost every textbook offers excellent suggestions relating to educational research. For instance, Rummel
states that "personal interest, personal capabilities, value of the
topic, and availability of data" are the important principles to consider in the formulation of a research problem.l1 Almack indicates
slightly different precepts, including what already is known and
what needs to be leamed, inconsistencies evident, and implementing suggestions received from various s o u r c e ~ . ~ ~
Researchers may ask themselves certain questions about the
problem they have under consideration. The answers to these
queries will go a long way toward determining whether they
should proceed with the plan, modify it, or discard it entirely. For
example, Hillway poses five questions, of which the first four
should be answered in the affirmative and the last one in the
negative, if a researcher is to have a sound base for the formulation of a problem. He asks, "1s the proposed topic interesting?"
"1s it novel?" "1s it requisite to advance knowledge?" "1s it
practicable? " and "Has it already been investigated? "I3
By posing and answering general questions similar to those of
Hillway music educators may then proceed to more specific items
in an attempt to delineate the problem even more clearly. They
might, for purposes of illustration, begin with a topic like "A
History of Music in the United States. " At first glance, the subject may appear to be a good one for a graduate student, especially at the doctoral level. Before proceeding, however, a researcher would need to ask such questions as: Will the study
Cover all phases of music (instrumental, vocal, Opera, symphony,
chamber music, music education, etc.)? Will it be concerned with
49
teaching, or both? What years will serve as the

limits of the study? What kind of information will I seek? Where
may I best obtain the desired information? How will I interpret
the phrase "Music in the United States"? Will the study involve
only native-bom American musicians? Will it include the role of
music publishers? Will it analyze the compositions mentioned or
only identify them without comment? Will the study include artists and performing groups from other countries? What distinction, if any, will it make between amateur and professional
groups? Will I collect and catalog manuscripts or facsimile copies
of works by American composers? What attention will I give to
reviews of performances presented by artists in various cities?
and How will I determine what gaps still remain in American
musical history?
Almost immediately it should be apparent that "A History of
Music in the United States" is a subject that consists of many
components, each of which might be a topic worthy of investigation. This matter of delimitation is very important for successful
research, yet investigators in music education frequently do not
accord it enough attention. While there are certainly enough topics to go around, graduate students are unduly apprehensive about
the possibility that all areas in which they are interested soon will
be fully explored. Actually, as research studies are completed
they commonly suggest new areas needing investigation. It has
already been emphasized that a study that is well organized and
implemented in depth can make a much more significant contribution to human knowledge than one that is so broad that the
generalizations it reaches result only in superficial information.
The foregoing fourteen questions are suggestive of those that
researchers must keep in mind as they attempt to focus their
attention on the hypothetical research problem just noted. The
feasibility of any topic may be determined only after similar
questions have been asked. In other instances the impracticality
of a plan as originally conceived will be apparent earlier. After

revisions researchers will repeat the Same procedures until they
conhave developed a satisfactory proposal. This process-f
tinually returning to the begiming and repeating the steps until
satisfactory results are obtained-is reminiscent of the looping
technique used in certain phases of programming for the digital
computer, where a program is repeated in successive steps until
the desired information is received. In both instances the Same
questions may be asked over and over again, but with different
objectives in mind.
Sequential steps in the actual formulation and implementation
of a problem are to:
(1) determine an area of need to which answers
are not obvious;
(2) ascertain whether or not the idea contains
more than one basic problem;
(3) delimit the subject to a topic that may be
solved according to the background and
training of the investigator;
(4) develop basic assumptions andlor hypotheses;
(5) locate existing information relating to the
topic; '
(6) ascertain what instruments, tools, or equipment will be needed and whether such
items are readily available or may be devised expeditiously;
(7) postulate tentative conclusions;
(8) implement the plan and accumulate preliminary data;
(9) reconstitute and revise the research plan in
view of inaccuracies appearing as a result of the preceding steps;
(10) accumulate and assimilate additional data;
51
(1 1) interpret the data;

(12) draw up conclusions, recommendations,
and suggestions for additional research;
(13) obtain an evaluation of the research from
peers and associates; and
(14) disseminate results to the general public.
Determining an area of need for which answers are not obvious

may seem to be redundant, but it is only through this type of
intellectual inquiry that investigators really can decide whether
they have the basis for a research topic. Answers to questions
frequently are available in many sources, although the researchers
may be unaware of them. However, the need for a detailed study
of an area of concem may not be as critical as the researchers had
originally believed. An instrumental-music teacher, for instance,
who is interested in obtaining background material on Berlioz to
serve as motivation for introducing a high-school orchestra to the
composer's King Lear Overture hardly needs to go beyond Jullien's biography or Boult's Berlioz's Life as Written by Himself
in His Letters und Memoirs, to cite two important sources. The
attempt to locate some new or little-known facts of the composer's life, although it could prove interesting, would hardly be
worth the time and effort necessary to prepare for this orchestra
rehearsal and might in addition prove to be fruitless. If, on the
other hand, a researcher was concerned with one specific aspect
of Berlioz's life then the research, although time consuming,
might result in a noteworthy contribution, such as Barzun's publication of some previously unknown Berlioz letters.14 Experienced researchers like Barzun, of Course, usually find it easier to
obtain data because they know what they are seeking, whereas
inexperienced researchers often do not. Hillway is among the
many writers who Stress the importance of investigators' approaching research with a good idea of what they hope to find
0~t.l~
52
After careful scrutiny an initial idea may be subdivided into

several problems, each of which might constitute a topic in itself.
"A History of Music in the United States" obviously needs to be
divided into several topics before it can be considered feasible
and practical. It has already been observed that it is very difficult
to apply the techniques of sound research to a topic that is too
broad in scope. Such a subject disperses a researcher's energies in
several directions. Figure 1 serves as an illustration of this process of delineation.
As a result of successive delimitations, "The Development of
Municipal Professional Symphony Orchestras in the State of
Florida from Earliest Times to 1965 " is a subject for research that
a student with appropriate background training and motivation
could conceivably pursue. The final title not only confines the
study to certain specific objectives but also enables the investigator to proceed with research once the modus operandi is
established. The term "professional," as used in this illustration,
might be defined differently for Florida than it would be for New
York City, but the study would be just as valid in either instance if
the research were properly constituted and implemented.
After determining the feasibility of the topic, at least tentatively, students must then consider certain steps, when they are
needed in the plan of implementation; namely, basic assumptions andlor hypotheses, terms that will be discussed in greater
detail in the next chapter. It should be noted, however, that assumptions and hypotheses serve as the core of a study. A basic
assumption refers to what an investigator assumes to be true, and
thus does not need to be verified. A basic hypothesis is an educated guess that will need to be confirmed by experimentation,
rationalism, or other means.
After basic assumptions and hypotheses have been formulated
students must determine the kind of research plan or methodology best suited to the nature of their research problem. It is at this
point that researchers in music education will decide whether
53
Figure I
Delimitation of a Research Topic
TENTATIVE
TITLE
How DELIMITEDFROM
PREVIOUS
LISTING
A History of Music in the
United States
A History of Instrumental Delimited to instrumental
Music in the United
music
States
A History of Instrumental Further delimited to one
Music in the Southem
region of the United
United States
Stares
A History of Instrumental Additional chronological
Music in the Southern
delimitation
United States from Earliest Times to 1965
The Development of Slight change of title and
Municipal Symphony
further delimitation to
Orchestras
in
the
specific form of instruSouthern United States
mental ensemble
from Earliest Times to
1965
The Development of Additional delimitation to
Municipal Professional
exclude amateur groups
Symphony Orchestras
but to include a specific
in the State of Florida
state of the United States
from Earliest Times to
1965
54
their study will be essentially historical, experimental, descriptive, philosophical, aesthetic, or a combination of these. The ultimate determination is largely predicated on the previous steps.
Knowledge of relevant information is an important next step.
Students who, searching through various resources, both published and unpublished, find that their chosen topic has already
been adequately investigated should either recast the problem or
abandon it altogether. A paucity of information, of Course,
suggests fertile areas for investigation that eventually might result
in meaningful contributions to human knowledge. Moreover, a
wealth of material might enable investigators to concentrate on a
more specialized phase of the problem. Their methodology will
be governed to some extent by the kind of data they seek. An
experimental project, which would have as its end result the formulation of conclusions to controlled observations, would necessitate the quest for a different type of data than would a historical
study, which might rely heavily on original manuscripts or documents found in archives. In either instance the information sought
must be pertinent to the topic at hand.
Experimental and descriptive studies, in particular, frequently
make use of tests, statistics, special equipment, or questionnaires. Sometimes it is necessary for the researcher to devise and
validate tests or special equipment with the specific purposes of
the research in mind; in others standard items rnay be used.
Investigators devise questionnaires, almost without exception, to
fit the needs of a particular study, usually descriptive. Unlike a
test, which rnay be validated or standardized, a questionnaire
rarely can be used by more than one researcher unless another is
investigating the Same problem under comparable conditions.
Researchers rnay use standardized tests to supplement those they
have devised themselves. When tests, equipment, or instruments
are not available, investigators must either develop them themselves, adapt existing tests for purposes of their study, or revise
their methodology to use those in existence.
55
The postulation of tentative conclusions helps investigators to

anticipate the results of their research. To paraphrase a cliche, if
researchers do not know what they are seeking, how will they
know when they solve the problem? Tentative conclusions essentially are postulated from the basic hypotheses.
It is through implementation of the plan and accumulation of
preliminary data that researchers can really test their hypotheses.
They are then in a position to know whether and to what extent
their research plan needs to be revised. After necessary revisions,
additional data are accumulated and assimilated.
Mere accumulation of data, however, is not enough. They will
need to be interpreted in light of objectii-)esof the study. It rnay be
of little practical value, for instance, to find out that there are two
hundred school-owned oboes in the public schools of a certain
state. More important is knowledge about whether or not these
instruments are in playing condition, how many of them are being
used and by whom, and the proficiency level of the students
playing them. Moreover, the accumulation of additional data rnay
be necessary in order to make logical and valid interpretations.
Conclusions, recommendations, und suggestions for
additional study are commonly grouped together in the final
chapter of a research report. Final conclusions, although they rnay
be similar to the tentative conclusions identified earlier, are deduced after the data have been accumulated and interpreted. Recommendations and suggestions for additional research then follow in normal sequence after the conclusions have been drawn.
The recommendations usually include areas that, as they reflect
on the project, researchers feel might either have been approached
differently or pursued in greater depth. On the basis of these,
researchers offer suggestions for the benefit of future students.
Often the final chapter of a research report is the most vital one to
someone searching for a topic, for it is here that the investigator
may suggest areas that are in need of study.
A critique of the completed research by peers und associates
56
can be most helpful. An investigator who wishes to avoid the

usual redundancies that characterize the creative efforts of most
persons should welcome the opportunity to have an outside obServer examine the completed project objectively and impartially.
Because of a natural preoccupation with the project, a researcher
can seldom do this. Cntique of research by peers and associates is
fairly Standard practice in medical and scientific research, but in
music and other areas of education its use has been rather limited.
It is for this reason that additional members are usually added to a
doctoral candidate's examining committee at the time of the final
oral examination, when basically the Student must defend his or
her research.
A serious weakness in music education has been the disseminarion of research results to the general public. Most completed
doctoral projects in music education eventually are listed in Dissertation Abstracts International, but only a very small percentage of the musical public who might be able to use these
findings has access to them. Some reports do appear in national
and state music educators' or research journals, although usually
only as a result of the investigator's initiative in preparing an
abstract of the research for publication. Much useful research
remains unknown because researchers either do not take the time
to write an interesting account of it or feel that their responsibilities have been discharged once the project is completed.
This final step in the research process deserves much greater
emphasis than it has received up to the present time. If provisions
are made to disseminate research results some of the better master's theses in music education could be made available to the
musical public. On a more limited scale, Master's Abstracts,
containing brief accounts of research by master's candidates, is a
companion to Dissertation Abstracts International, but circulation is largely limited to libraries.
Other resources will be mentioned in Chapter 4 of this book. It
57
is encouraging, however, to note that many music educators have

been distressed by the sparse amount of research information that
has been disseminated in a form palatable to the general musical
public. Petzold urges that the results of research be shared with
t he
practicing music teacher, using terminology that is
readily understandable, so that any implications the
study may have for practices in music education are
evident. The teacher is seldom enthusiastic about
reading an article presented in the typical research
jargon that contains an overwhelming amount of
technical information. He wants, and deserves, the
Reader's Digest approach which summarizes the essential~in a straightforward manner.16
The finished research project is the result of careful planning
and implementation on the part of the investigator. Emphasizing
this, Koefod states that the researcher must "establish beyond
doubt that he has conceived a meaningful intellectual exercise
and carried it through gestation to fruition. '"'
Just as an architect's blueprint guides a building contractor, so
a research proposal serves as the design that points the way for a
researcher. In the next chapter we shall discuss this plan, design,
or proposal.
Problems for Revie W and Discussion

1. Give some of the most likely sources of ideas for research
projects in music education.
2. What have been some weaknesses of music-education research in the past?
58
3. Discuss suggestions of a general nature to be used in the

selection of a research problem.
4. The formulation of a research problem is dependent upon

what general steps or procedures? What are some of the
specific questions investigators might ask themselves as they
give consideration to their problem?
5 . What sequential steps are involved in the formulation and

implementation of a problem?
6. Take a broad subject area and delimit it to a workable topic.

(Use Figure 1 as an example of how a broad subject can be
narro wed .)
ALMACK,
ARY,DONALD,
LUCYC. JACOBS,
and ASGHAR
RAZAVIEH.
Introduction
BARZUN,
JACQUES,
and HENRYF. GRAFF.The Modern Researcher,
3rd ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977, Chapter 2.
BEST,JOHNW. Research in Education, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N. J .:
BORG,WALTER
R., A N D MEREDITH
D. GALL.Educational Research:
An Introduction, 3rd ed. New York: Longrnan, 1979, Chapters 2 and
3.
CHAMBERS,
M. M. "Selection, Definition, and Delirnitation of a Doctoral Research Problem, " Phi Delta Kappan, November 1960,
42,2:71-73.
COOK,D A V ~RD. , and N. KENNETH
LAFLEUR.
59
DEWEY,
JOHN.How We Think. Boston: D. C. Heath 1933, Chapter 7.
ENGELHART,
Fox, DAVIDJ. The Research Process in Education. New York: Holt
Rinehart and Winston, 1969, Chapter 2.
GAGE,N. L., ed. Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago: Rand
McNally, 1963, Chapter 2.
GOOD,CARTER
V. Essentials of Educational Research. New York:
"Graduate Study in Music Education," Journal of Research in Music
Education, Fall 1954, 2,2: 157- 170.
GRIFFITHS,
D A N ~ EE.
L Research in Educational Administration: An
Appraisal und a Plan. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1959, Chapter 1 .
HILLWAY,
TYRUS.
Introduction to Research, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1964, Chapter 8.
HOPKINS,
CHARLES
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1976, Chapter 4.
JONES,RALPHH., ed. Methods und Techniques of Educational Research. Danville, 111.: Interstate Printers and Publishers, 1973, Part 1.
KOEFOD,PAULE. The Writing Requirements for Graduate Degrees,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J .: Prentice-Hall, 1964, Chapter 1.
MASON,EMANUEL
J., A N D WILLIAM
J. BRAMBLE.
Understanding und
Conducting Research: Applications in Education und the Behavioral
Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, Chapter 3.
MOULY,
GEORGE
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold 1970, Chapter 4.
PHELPS,ROGERP. "The Doctoral Dissertation: Boon or Bane?" College Music Symposium, Fall 1978, 18,2:82-93.
RUMMEL,
J. FRANCIS.
RUNKEL,
PHILIPJ., and JOSEPHE. MCGRATH.
Research on Human
Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972, Chapter 2.
SAX,GILBERT.
Empirical Foundations of Educational Research. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968, Chapter 3.
60
TRAVERS,
ROBERT
ed. New York: Macmillan, 1978, Chapter 4.
ed. Second Handbook of Research on Tesching, Chicago: Rand
TUCKMAN,
BRUCEW. Conducting Educational Research, 2nd ed. New
York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978, Chapter 1.
VANDALEN,
DEOBOLD
Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979, Chapter 7.
WATANABE,
RUTH T. Introduction to Music Research. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J .: Prentice-Hall, 1967, Chapter 8.
WHITNEY,
Frederick L. The Elements of Research, 3rd ed. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1950, Chapter 3.
WIERSMA,
WILLIAM.
WILLIAMSON,
JOHN B., DAVID
G . KARP,and JOHNR. DALPHIN.
The
,-
3. Organizing the Research

Proposal
The prospectus, which graduate students subrnit for approval before they officially undertake their research, is known by various
terms: thesis proposal, thesis outline, research agendum, research
design, or dissertation proposal. Regardless of the nomenclature,
the purpose is the same-for the investigators to indicate systematically, in writing, the plan whereby they propose to collect,
organize, and interpret the data of their research. It is imperative
that researchers give careful consideration to the preparation of
their research proposal. Griffiths points out that careful researchers are never satisfied with things the way they are, are
constantly seeking to obtain clearer explanations of obscure areas
in their field, and are concerned with developing a taxonomy that
62
pulls together knowledge in their field.' In a recent publication

this writer stressed the importance of a good research proposal
that is worthy of sympathetic guidance from the Dissertation
Committee, also known as a Sponsoring Committee.*
After official acceptance by a committee or an individual especially designated to evaluate such proposals, the researchers ' plan
functions as the outline or guide as they proceed with their research. The approved design also serves as the instrument they
will use to obtain additional assistance and guidance from an
adviser or Sponsoring C ~ m r n i t t e e Best
. ~ considers the research
design analogous to the architect's blueprint, which must be prepared before construction can begin on a b ~ i l d i n g . ~
The research proposal, even after it has been officially accepted, should not be considered as immutable, for changes rnay
prove to be advisable as the actual collection of data proceeds.
These modifications rnay be minor, such as-a slight change in
title, or major, resulting in extensive alterations. As an example,
subsequent to the acceptance of "An Experimental Study to Determine the Effectiveness of Teaching Begiming Violin Students
by Means of a Teaching Machine, " it might be deemed advisable
to change the title to "An Experimental Study to Determine the
Effectiveness of Teaching Beginning Class Violin Students by
Means of a Teaching Machine. " In the original title no suggestion is given that the teaching will be for a class situation, even
though it rnay be so delineated in the actual body of the proposal
itself. The subsequent revision clearly indicates this clarification.
A research title, about which more will be said later in this chapter, needs to be a succinct and direct Statement of the exact nature
of the proposed study.
Other changes rnay assume greater import even to the point, in
extreme instances, of a radical change in methodology. For
example, in neither of the titles just proposed relating to violin
teaching is the methodology explicit. It is implicit, however, to
the extent that some kind of comparison is suggested. It is in the
Organizing the Research Proposal
63
actual plan that actual methodological changes rnay take place.

These in turn rnay suggest some modification of the title. An
illustration: an investigator, having determined that it is not feasible to conduct an experimental study to compare the effectiveness
of class violin teaching by means of a teaching machine, instead
decides to use two randomly selected violin classes with what
Campbell and Stanley call the Pretest-Posttest Control Group
Design and compare them e~perimentally.~
More will be said
about this technique in Chapter 6. The specific experimental
techniques used in this instance would involve giving a pretest to
both groups of violin students, then introducing an "X" factor or
independent variable to one group, which could be prestudy of the
notes prior to playing them. The other group would have no
prestudy prior to changes. A posttest would then follow to meaSure any changes in reading skill that rnay have taken place as a
result of manipulating the independent variable.
Emphasizing the importance of the research design, Asher
says: "The most important part of research methods is research
design. Knowledge of research design is the methodological
base upon which the profession rests. . . . Research design Opens
many doors to knowledge. "6 Although there is no universally
accepted format for a research desiga7 the one used in the School
of Education, Health, Nursing, and Arts Professions at New York
University includes the components usually found in plans in
effect elsewhere. This is not to suggest that the format used for
research designs at other institutions is less significant than the
one to be discussed shortly, but simply that the writer considers
this to be one of the better plans with which he has worked. The
schema of Figure 2 is flexible, so that the kind of research pursued will largely determine which of the components will be
utilized. Modifications and changes obviously are in order when
and where the occasion demands. The plan that follows in Figure
2 suggests the kinds of information to be included in a research design.
64
The Research Design
Figure 2
Format for a Research Design
Many students make the mistake of

spending many fruitless hours groping
The Title
for a title when the focus of the proposed research is not clear. The title, which should evolve after
the problem statement has been inductively determined, is a broad
but accurate account of the scope of the study stated in clear, conceptual form. This writer has reviewed all too many studies in
which the title and statement of the problem represent entirely
different entities. This can be frustrating to someone who receives
titles from an information-retrieval System and then, after ordering and receiving the documents, learns that the studies have little
relevance to the title. Occasionally a general title will not be complete without the addition of a subtitle, as a subsequent example
will show.
To repeat: students should not decide on a title before the
problem statement is clear in their minds. However, for purposes
of illustrating the reflective process involved, a statement follows
that will be developed into a title, problem statement, subproblems, basic assumptions, and basic hypotheses. The statement:
Title
Subproblems
Definitions of Terms
Delimitations
Basic Assumptions
Basic Hypotheses
Need or Significance of the Study
Related Literature
Met hodology
Bibliography
Personal Qualifications
Appendix
A research design should be long enough to indicate clearly

what the researcher proposes to do and how this is to be carried
Out, but not so verbose that it would appear to be the research
design and dissertation or thesis combined in one document.
(When this writer served as coordinator of the all-school Research Proposals Committee at New York University a few years
ago it was not unusual to receive a research design of 120 to 130
pages.) A researcher should be able to include all that is necessary in a research design numbering no more than forty typewritten, double-spaced pages, exclusive of Bibliography, Personal
Qualifications, and Appendix material. Redundant material from
the research design should be reserved for the thesis or dissertation. A discussion of each of the components of the research
design, with examples for consideration, now follows.
65
The nocturne, a character piecefor piano, was introduced by John Field (1782-1837). As applied to a
somewhat melancholy or languid style, with an expressive melody over a broken-chord accompaniment, the term "nocturne" has been used by many
composers, but perhaps the individual irlho adapted
the idea most successfully was Frederic Chopin. (It is
interesting to note that both Field und Chopin it8rote
eighteen nocturnes.) As a Pianist you Want to examine
the development of the nocturne to assist you in performing nocturnes by various Composers.
A title that might be derived from the above material is: "The
Nocturnes for Piano of John Field and Frederic Chopin." How-
66
ever, when an additional subtitle is added the focus of the study

becomes clearer, as follows: "The Nocturnes for Piano of John
Field and Frederic Chopin: A Stylistic Study to Aid in Their
Performance. ' '
Since the statement of the
Problem Statement
problem should be a clearly
worded indication of the focus
of the study, it should be somewhat more specific than the title.
The problem statement is a cognitive or conceptual statement of
what the researcher wants to find out or plans to do. It does not
indicate how the information is to be obtained. It is sometimes
referred to as the gestalt or organismic representation of a researcher's problem. A problem statement is usually expressed in
declarative form. Compare the hypothetical statements that follow with the title just noted:
( I ) The nocturnes of John.Field and Frederic
Chopin are the Same stylistically because
of their designation as ''nocturnes. "
(2) The nocturnes for piano of John Field are
comparable musically to those of Frederic Chopin.
(3) The purpose of this study is to compare
stylistically the eighteen nocturnes for
piano of John Field with those of Frederic Chopin as an aid to their performance.
(4) The purpose of this study is to compare
stylistically the nocturnes of John Field
with those of Frederic Chopin as an aid
to their performance.
Of these statements, when compared with the original source
material and title above, the clearest would be the third one because it encompasses the important items that are necessary to a
clear understanding of what the researcher proposes to do. The
67
first statement is not valid because it suggests that all compositions designated as "nocturnes" are the Same. The second
statement is not valid because no indication of comparing the
composers' nocturnes is given in the original statement. While
valid, the fourth statement is not as complete as the third one.
The third statement, then, is best because it incorporates more
of the information contained in the original statement than any
of the others.
During the Course of collecting data it may prove desirable to
make changes in the title as well as in the problem statement, as
noted previously. Whitney voices a generally accepted principle,
that an alteration of both research design and title should result
when it is evident that the research is proceeding differently than
originally p r o p ~ s e d . ~
Sometimes known as "subordinate "
Subproblems
or ' 'specific problems, " subproblems,
either in declarative or interrogatory
form, state the atomistic or more precise aspects of the problem
statement. In other words, the statement of the problem is broken
down into more definite components. Subproblems, however,
are not to be confused with subtitle. Subproblems are expressed
in cognitive or conceptual terms and like the statement of the problem, indicate what the researcher plans to do or find out. Subproblems are the parts that make up the whole or gestalr. The
researcher must find answers to these subproblems in order to resolve the main problem. Subproblems should be proffered in logical order because they indicate the direction the research will take.
In many theses or dissertations each subproblem will become a
chapter in the final document.
Using the hypothetical third statement of the problem noted
above, examine these subproblem statements:
(1) To compare the musical worth of the piano
nocturnes of John Field and Frederic
Chopin.
68
(2) To trace the background of the nocturnes up

to the time of John Field.
(3) What System of analysis may be devised to
analyze the nocturnes?
(4) To determine similarities and differences in
the eighteen nocturnes for piano of John
Field and Frkdiric Chopin.
Of these four Statements, three are in a declarative form, beginning with an infinitive. The third, however, is in an interrogatory
form. The two forms of stating a subproblem should not be
intermingled; the subproblems should either be all declarative or
all interrogatory. The first statement would not make a good
subproblem because musical worth is not a concept being compared according to the original statement. The second statement
would make a good initial subproblem because background information is always necessary in a study of this type. The third
statement, even though expressed here as a question, would be
viable if it were in infinitive form because researchers need to
adapt some existing approach to musical analysis, or devise their
own. Finally, the fourth statement would be a valid concluding
subproblem because the intent here is to pul1 together information
obtained from all the previous subproblems.
A researcher should define any
Definition of Terms
terms used in the title, problem
statement, subproblems, or
throughout the study if they are ambiguous or technical. In addition, terminology used to connote a meaning different from that
usually accepted should be clarified. This would be true not only
for such terms as gebrauchsm~sik,~
which might not be understood by any except the well-read musician, but also for such
seemingly well-known terms as "chorus," when the investigator
wishes to employ a specific meaning. This is not to suggest that a
researcher has license to manipulate a definition to meet the
purposes of the study or to use one that is not generally accepted
69
by authorities in the field. The sole purpose of including definition~is to bring about clarity. A well-balanced definitions
section contains both direct quotations from the literature and paraphrased terms. Definitions may be c o n c e p t u a l ~ l e a r l yand concisely operational-or indicating what the concept means-orfor instance, indicating what tool or instrument will be used to
obtain the desired information. A case in point: a researcher
provides a cognitive definition of "creativity" and then states
that "creativity " will be operationalized by using an instrument
like the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking.l0 Researchers,
moreover, must neither offend their readers by defining terms that
are obvious, nor assume that all of their readers are as farniliar
and as well versed in their subject as they are. It is this desirable
balance for which the researcher must constantly strive.
Referring again to the hypothetical problem statement above,
study these definitions:
nocturne-a musical piece that suggests night
visions and dreams, sometimes called
nachstuck.
nocturne-a piano composition in a melancholy
or pensive style, characterized by an expressive melody over a broken-chord accompaniment.ll
Of the two definitions, the second is more indicative of what
characterizes the term "nocturne," and thus expresses its meaning more clearly. In this second example, also, although the definition is paraphrased, the source is given. With definitions this is
a desirable practice, and for direct quotations citation of sources is
a must.
A research plan that is open-ended
Delimitations
will rarely result in the most expeditious accumulation and interpretation
of data. In their understandable enthusiasm and zeal to make a
significant contribution to the world's knowledge, research tyros
70
who have a study that is too broad frequently delimit their study
even further than the subproblems require. At this point a distinction should be made between ''limitations " and ' 'delimitations. "
Limitations represent a circumscription imposed upon a researcher
due to external circumstances. For example, certain documents
researchers need may be unavailable because they have been destroyed by some catastrophe, are lost, or are inaccessible because
they are classified as confidential material. Delimitations are circumscriptions the researchers themselves place on their study . They
are necessary to eliminate ambiguity and to exclude certain infen-ed items that the researchers do not intend to include. Delimitations are cognitive, conceptual, or what Statements, and
often include a rationale for their inclusion. Some factors that
might determine the extent of an investigator's delimitations include time and money available, personal qualifications to conduct the particular research, and availability ofspecial equipment
or tools needed for the project.
One of the most important of these is the element of time. This
is not to imply that researchers should delimit their topic so much,
ostensibly because of the pressure of time, that their design
virtually is emasculated before the study has begun. The delimitations must be those that will enable them to organize their study
in such a manner that they can effectively and efficiently obtain
as complete data as possible. By contrast, there are not many
occasions when researchers will find it necessary to expand their
topic. Such a dilemma may suggest that the topic is too insignifiCant to be implemented.
Delimitations may be negative-prescribing areas in which a
study will not venture, thus giving investigators a better idea of
what they do hope to effect-r
positive-succinctly and clearly
circumscribing limits of the study from an affirmative standpoint.
Positive delimitations are not used as frequently as those stated
negatively because it is easy to confuse them with objectives of
the study.
71
Let us consider these delimitations in reference to the above

hypothetical problem statement:
(1) No attempt will be made to compare editions of the nocturnes of John Field and
Frederic Chopin.
(2) The moods pervading nocturnes are melancholy and dreamy .
(3) The only system of analysis to be used in
this study is the one developed by Heinrich Schenker.
(4) This study will be delimited to a stylistic
comparison of the eighteen nocturnes for
piano by John Field and Frederic Chopin. No attempt will be made to compare
the relative worth of the nocturnes of
Field and those of Chopin.
Of these delimitations, the first is viable because the researcher
does not intend to compare the various editions to determine
whether they correspond to what the Composer intended in the
original version. The second is vague and would be better omitted
because a positive delimitation is usually more difficult to conceptualize, and this one is a good example of the difficulty a
researcher faces in providing a meaningful delimitation. The third
delimitation is inaccurate because the Schenkerian approach has
been modified by many individuals, including Felix Salzer and
Adele Katz. Furthermore, it is more of an approach than a system
for musical analysis. There would not be many occasions when a
researcher would want to hew the line in strict fashion with only
one approach: the complexity of many musical compositions require that an analysis use aspects of different approaches. The
fourth statement, although verbose, expresses well the idea that
the researcher is not trying to determine whether one composer's
music is better than that of the other. Although this last statement
may appear to be an oversimplification, and even a possible re-
72
dundancy, such lucid delineation is to the advantage of the investigator.

Almost
all
research
is
Basic Assumptions
predicated
upon
certain
principles or propositions for
which no proof is necessary or, in some instances, even possible.
Researchers are not expected to prove their basic assumptions,
but they should give a rationale for them. They merely present
precepts that, according to Rummel, usually are "axiomatic in
that they are propositions that virtually every reasonable Person is
ready to adopt but which cannot be proven. "I2 It is not always
necessary to incorporate basic assumptions in a research design.
A trend toward omitting them has become evident to this writer.
In many studies assumptions may be unnecessary, and to fabricate false assumptions just to meet a criterion is pointless. However, if they are used, they should be cognit?ve or conceptual
Statements that are relevant to the study.
Once again, refer to the hypothetical problem statement above
as a decision is made regarding these basic assumptions:
( I ) It is assumed that the nocturnes of Frederic
Chopin are more melancholy than those
by John Field.
(2) It is assumed that the first printed editions
of the nocturnes by John Field and Frederic Chopin represent the true intention
of the respective composers.
(3) It is assumed that John Field was a less
proficient performer on the piano than
was Frederic Chopin.
(4) It is assumed that a detailed analysis of the
nocturnes of John Field and Frederic
Chopin will enable a pianist to perform
them more effectively .
The first assumption is invalid and should not be included
73
because of a bias toward Chopin, suggesting that his troubled life

caused him to write music that was more melancholy. In addition,
the mood of the compositions being compared is not even under
consideration in either the problem statement or the subproblems.
Mood could be a topic in itself. The second is a very important
assumption because there will be many occasions when one is
unable to obtain an original manuscript to compare that version
with the first printed edition. Furthermore, in the proposed study
there is no attempt to determine whether the first printed editions
of each composer are to be compared with the original manuscripts to determine what changes the composers may have made
from the time the manuscripts were completed and the first editions were printed. The researcher proposes to deal only with the
first printed editions of each composer. The third assumption also
is invalid and biased because Field is not as well known as Chopin. Furthermore, performing ability of the composers is not a
focus of the study or even relevant to it. Such a study would be
difficult to objectify at best. The last assumption is valid and
really serves as the focus of the study. By examining in detail the
music of both composers one should be able to understand the
works better and thus perform them more effectively.
A hypothesis is a shrewd guess
of the outcome of a study. Like
Basic Hypotheses
basic
assumptions,
basic
hypotheses are not necessary to include in all research designs,
but they appear more frequently than do assumptions. They rarely
appear in historical or philosophical designs. If they are present it
would be after the research is completed and the researcher has
formulated hypotheses based on its results. Some aesthetic designs call for them; others do not. It is very rare to find descriptive and experimental designs that do not include them, as already
noted. Basic, sometimes known as "working," hypotheses are
indications of a researcher's guess as to the consequences of a
study. Setting forth the basic theory or rationale underlying the
74
hypotheses prevents the appearance of false or wild hypotheses.

Hypotheses remain tentative until the research is complete, when
they are either confirmed or rejected.
There are various types of hypotheses, but two are useful for
most music-education research: the research, also known as deductive, declarative, or positive, and the statistical, null, or negative. The research hypothesis is stated in form of a difference
that is expected. A researcher might use this formula: A > B,
to test whether A is indeed greater than B. If it is, then the
hypothesis is confirmed or sustained. On the other hand, if A
does not prove to be greater than B (A < B), then the hypothesis is rejected.
The statistical hypothesis simply states that no differences may
be expected between two or more variables when measured statistically . Although this procedure usually results in a direct testing
of the hypothesis, it nonetheless is constructed with the expectation that it will be rejected. Rejection then re'sults in affirmation
of the research hypothesis. Using the formula A # B, the researcher hopes that there will be a difference so the null
hypothesis can be sustained. A null hypothesis is not accepted;
rather, one fails to accept it. It may seem pointless to state something negative when it might appear easier to do so positively, but
statistically a null hypothesis is easier to handle because it is
predicated on the Gaussian or bell-shaped curve. (Further explanation can be found in Chapter 6.)
To reiterate, a hypothesis should be stated clearly and concisely. When so formulated, it is easier to test, thus fulfilling the
purpose of the research more readily. To put it another way, a
basic hypothesis is an unbiased statement of anticipated conclusions. Note that hypothesis is not synonymous with conclusion.
After data have been accumulated, a conclusion might, of Course,
be coincidental with a hypothesis formulated at the initiation of the
research design. Obviously, any bias will tend to prevent not only
the accumulation of valid data but also the deduction of sound
conclusions.
75
Let us examine once more the abovementioned hypothetical

statement to determine which of the following statements
represent viable hypotheses:
(1) It is hypothesized that, since the term "nocturne" is used by both John Field and
Frederic Chopin, no technical difference
between their nocturnes will be evident.
(2) It is hypothesized that, because of his national background, the nocturnes of Frederic Chopin will be more somber than
those of John Field.
(3) It is hypothesized that melancholy compositions will be more highly developed
stmcturally than will be pleasurable
compositions.
(4) It is hypothesized that there will be no difference in the results obtained irrespective of the system of stylistic analysis
used.
The first hypothesis is not valid, or testable, because each composer writing under the rubric of "nocturne" obviously is going
to express himself in his own way. Furthermore, there is no
technical limitation implicit or explicit in the term "nocturne. "
The statement "no difference" obviously designates this as a
null hypothesis. The second hypothesis is invalid and untestable,
because national background and mood are not common elements. To state that the music of composers of any one country is
more or less melancholy is irrational because it has no basis.
Since the word "more" is used in this hypothesis some specific
direction is indicated, and the hypothesis would be labeled as
"directional." If the statement simply stated that there was a
"difference" it would be nondirectional, and the researcher
would then have to determine through a comparison of the variables whether the judgment should be "more " or "less. " Research and null hypotheses should not be mixed up in any one
76
design. In other words, one hypothesis should not be positive and

the next one negative, or vice versa. The third hypothesis places
emphasis on mood and structure. There does not necessarily need
to be a relationship between them, so this hypothesis also would
be very difficult to test. In the final hypothesis the focus is on the
system of analysis used, which obviously is a fallacy. One of the
important decisions a researcher has to make is whether any one
system or approach of stylistic analysis will bring more valid
results than any other. The upshot of this discussion is that none
of the hypotheses above is valid and testable; all are false. Not
many studies of the type suggested above require hypotheses.
However, hypotheses need to be formulated and tested in experimental research, as will be Seen in Chapter 6.
Up to this point in the reNeed or Significance
search design the sections do
of the Study
not contain much narrative.
But in the need section investigators must clearly Set forth why they feel their proposed study
is needed and how the results might possibly be used. It is their
task to convince the reader that the study will result in a signifiCant contribution to the literature of the field. Sometimes this section of a research design is called "Significance of the Study," but
regardless of the designation, investigators must avoid giving, on
the one hand, the impression that here at last is research that will
resolve the most vexing problems in music education and, on the
other, an aura of apology. For instance, the use of such equivocal
phraseology as "interest of the writer, " "encouragement from
the writer's Peers," and "the writer's desire for musical growth"
is not very persuasive. Such euphemisms are redundant, to say
the least, and are an indication of intellectual immaturity. To lend
validity to their assertions researchers should use citations from
the literature or from individuals who share their convictions
about the need for such a study. The more convincing the evidence for need is, the less likely a reviewing panel will say "So
what?" after reading the research design. Indicate the signifi-
77
cance of the proposed study for music education, for the music
teacher in the field. This evidence may be based on critical thinking or obtained from the literature. The presence or absence of
corroborating and supporting declarations, moreover, may or may
not be sufficient affirmation that the research is needed. To be
significant a proposal must rest on its own merits, with or without
the substantiation of others.
Sometimes researchers will include a forthright and convincing
account of what caused them to select the proposed topic. Sometimes referred to as "Incidence of the Problem, " this information,
if needed, should be included in the need or significance section.
One of the most important
Related Literature
steps in the preparation of a
research design is a review of
related literature. There are several reasons: the review can help
the researcher
(1) avoid duplication of efforts;
(2) delimit the research problem;
(3) determine what areas need further investigation; and
(4) discover new approaches, methods, or insights into a problem.
In the related-literature section investigators include a brief
historical resume of their particular area of research, listing some
of the most important sources of pertinent information. They
should, in addition, include concise accounts of other concepts
that may be relevant to their topic, such as philosophical,
psychological, or sociological implications.
In a recent publication this writer stressed the importance of a
thorough review of the literature because researchers undoubtedly
will be the experts in their specific area of research by the time
they complete the study. Without a careful examination of the
literature investigators will not know what has been researched,
and will thus find it difficult to know what remains to be done.I3
The researcher presents a bnef Summary of the significant
78
points found in each source reviewed along with the relevance of

each one to the study. While it is important to present enough
information on each source to give an adequate picture of its
relevance, verbosity must be avoided lest this section balloon out
of proportion to the other sections of the research design. The
information needs to be presented from both positive and negative points of view. Researchers should not hesitate to point out
materials, for instance, that have little or no pertinence to the
study. On the other hand, they may have omitted some items purposely, and the uninformed reader needs to know why. As already stated, researchers are expected to survey the literature of
their field completely and carefully. This significant step will
prove beneficial when they organize their bibliography for the
final report. Citations, when fitting, are included in this section,
with appropriate comesponding footnotes, since they help verify
that the investigator is thoroughly familiar withthe literature. The
onus is upon the researcher to determine which materials are
pertinent and which are not.
Two parts normally comprise the
Methodology
methodology section: "Sources of
Data" and "Treatment of Data. "
In the first part the researcher indicates where and how the information wili be obtained. This should be provided for each subproblem, and represents the how phase of what is proposed in
each subproblem. The researcher includes the following in the
sources-of-information section:
(1) literature or other sources to be used;
(2) kinds of data needed;
(3) amounts of data needed;
(4) when data should be sought, if a time factor
is significant;
( 5 ) instruments with their validity and reliability coefficients, and equipment or materials to be used for data-collection; and
79
(6) personnel assisting with the accumulation

of data.
The focus and scope of the research problem will determine the
number of these components, and if others are needed. Cook and
LaFleur point out the importance of describing research procedures clearly and concisely, regardless of the techniques used.14
In the sources section a researcher will frequently pose certain
questions for which answers are being sought. These need to be
clearly delineated. The answers will not be complete until all the
data have been received. Questions to be posed on a questionnaire or in an interview or statistics of experimental designs also
appear in the sources section. When a jury is being used, researchers must indicate why these particular jurors were selected
rather than some others, specifying the criteria for their selection.
Once the procedure for collecting data has been established, the
researcher has not only a clear and concise guide for conducting
the study but also a plan that may be followed by another investigator who might desire to replicate the research.
In the treatment-of-data section the researcher indicates what
will be done with the information obtained in each subproblem.
The data, biographical and historical for instance, may come from
literary sources, in which case the researcher states that the information will be presented in "chronological, narrative form."
A research study based on an analysis of music compositions
should include a sample of materials that have been analyzed.
The analysis could be either in the treatment section or in an
appendix. All references to appendix material should appear in
the appropriate place in the context. Procedures for handling
questionnaire data, such as key punching, should be listed in this
section also. When historical material is presented researchers
must indicate how they will determine the authenticity and credibility of documents or statements they wish to include.
The sole purpose of the methodology section is to let a reader
know where data will come from and what will be done with
80
these data after they have been obtained. Methodology is the

most significant section of a research proposal, and as such requires very careful critical thinking and serious preliminary investigation of the problem.
Known also as "Preliminary " or
Bibliography
"Tentative " bibliography, this section contains references that the investigator considers to be most important. No attempt should
be made in the research design to incorporate all reference material~.However, a requirement for the Alternative Ed.D., to
be discussed shortly, is that an amotated account of bibliographical materials be given, but this is normally not done in
the Ph.D. and traditional Ed.D. As the study Progresses additional sources undoubtedly will be located. The quest for data
is an ongoing process, but the investigator needs to establish
limits. In the final report is included not only ,the most current
information but also the most recent bibliographical items relevant to the study. This bibliographical process continues right up
to the time of the completion of the final draft of the dissertation
or thesis.
It may prove beneficial in some designs to separate bibliographical items into primary and secondary sources. The former,
of Course, refers to original or firsthand accounts of information,
such as personal letters or data reported as the result of an experiment. A secondary source contains items that are not original
with the one reporting them. For example, most books on the
history of music would be considered secondary sources. Although the authors presumably used primary sources of data, their
reporting of them results in accounts that are secondary. (This
writer has difficulty on many occasions in making a clear distinction between primary and secondary sources, and therefore prefers that the bibliographical items be listed by category, for
example, books, periodicals, unpublished materials, etc.)
In this section of the proposal sources are presented in standard
81
bibliographical form. Researchers must be careful to include the

most recent edition of a publication; materials must be as up-todate as possible. This does not mean that older sources are less
valuable, but rather that investigators are obliged to keep informed of both past and present in their area of concentration.
There are instances when older sources still are the definitive
ones, so they should be used when needed.
This section gives the inPersonal Qualifications
vestigator 's education, degrees, Courses taken, and
professional and other experiences. In addition, writing and research may be listed in some research designs, but these are
optional. The import of these items is evident; their main purpose
is to show that the researcher has adequate preparation and background to pursue the proposed research successfully.
The appendix normally contains inforAppendix
mation to be used in implementing or
clarifying the proposed research. Reference to these items, as already observed, is made in the appropriate place in the context of the design. Preliminary questionnaires
and proposed charts for musical analysis are typical materials to
be included.
Format for Nontraditional Doctorates

Since the Alternative Ed.D., the D.A., and other "nontraditional" doctorates are largely tailored to the individual needs of
students, the research proposal for these designs is less rigid than
that for the Ph. D. and the traditional Ed.D. However, many components required for the Ph.D. or Ed.D. also appear in these
proposals .
The Alternative Ed.D. proposal contains the following: problem Statement; subproblems; significance of the study, including
82
relevance for education; methodology; annotated bibliography;

and relevant personal and professional experiences. The proposal
is not to exceed ten pages, exclusive of annotated bibliography
and personal and professional experiences. The most obvious
departure from the Ph.D. or traditional Ed.D. is that of annotated
bibliography. In the Alternative Ed.D. the annotated bibliography replaces the related-literature and bibliography sections
found in other proposals.
(Although no Alternative Ed.D. doctorates had been completed in music education at New York University at the time of
this writing, Ruth Coron, in accord with the interdisciplinary nature of the degree, completed "Interdisciplinary Teaching in the
Arts: A Videotape Presentation, " in 1974.15 Coron, a visual-arts
teacher, was joined by team members who were specialists in
theater arts, movement, and music to illustrate the interrelationships among lines, textures, colors, shapes, rhythms, and spaces
using demonstrations that were recorded on vide'otape. A written
document accompanied the videotape.)
The Doctor of Arts (D.A.), also is flexible and tailored to the
individual needs of students. Its proposal may contain all or any
combination of the components found in the Alternative Ed.D. or
Ph.D. and traditional Ed.D. research proposals. The end product
of the D.A. is a research essay, tobe developed in accord with the
Student's practicum, internship, or apprenticeship.
Proposals for the D.M.A. and Mus.D. normally follow procedures and format similar to those for the Ph.D., incorporating
modifications necessary to accommodate musical skills and analytical techniques.
Deficiencies in Research Designs

The foregoing pages have stressed factors to be incorporated in
a sound research design. Yet, the fact remains that knolvledge of
83
what should be and what actually is contained in a research

design do not always coincide.
Since this chapter has dealt largely with the research-design
plan in effect at New York University's School of Education,
Health, Nursing, and Arts Professions, a reasonable postlude is an
account of deficiencies observed in designs organized according
to this format. This is not to imply that proposals at New York
University are any better or any worse than those of comparable
institutions. This writer's evaluation of research designs completed elsewhere shows a general consistency indicating that
common areas of deficiency in any one institution will very likely
also be found at another.
In one six-month period eighty-eight research designs were
examined by a committee appointed by the dean of New York
University's School of Education, Health, Nursing, and Arts Professions (See Figure 3). Subsequent evaluations have revealed a
similar Pattern of the weaknesses listed here.I6
Methodology, not unexpectedly, proved to be an overwhelmingly consjstent area of deficiency. The term is analogous to data
sources and treatment procedures, which were discussed earlier in
this chapter. Weaknesses under this category include: failure to
list methodology for all subproblems; failure to give procedures
for testing hypotheses; use of general terms, such as "analyze, "
"survey, " and "research, " without indicating their specificity;
lack of evidence regarding reliability of research instruments and
techniques; no provision included for objectively evaluating data;
missing selection criteria for sources; and failure to list procedures for answering questions posed.
The most consequential inadequacies under the category of
"Assumptions" resulted from investigators' failure to defend or
justify their assumptions. In other instances, items listed here
should have been included elsewhere. For example, when investigators "assume' ' their project is significant, they should substantiate their assumption under "Significance of the Study," not
under "Basic Assumptions. "

Figure 3
Deficiencies Reported in Research Designs
Area of Weakness
(%) Containing Weakness
Methodology
Assumptions
Hypotheses
Suitability for Degree
Delimitations
Subproblems
Definitions
Related Literature
Significance of Study
Format
Problem
Bibliography
Likewise, factors often listed as hypotheses should actually

have been presented as assumptions or in some other appropriate
area of the design. In addition, hypotheses were given that bore
no relationship to the subproblem or that were not subsequently
developed in the design. A major weakness appears to be the
enumeration of hypotheses that are not testable.
When "Suitability for the Degree" was indicated as a deficiency, the implication was that an Ed.D. design was offered for a
Ph.D. proposal, or vice versa. As noted in Chapter 1, the difference between the two usually is that the Ph.D. is regarded as
pure research, with readers expected to make their own applications of the research results, and the Ed.D. as action research,
with the investigator incorporating uses of the data into the study.
Often the general topic chosen rnay be suitable for either degree,
85
but the formulation and implementation of the design rnay well

determine whether the study will be for the Ed.D. or the Ph.D.,
when such options are available.
The investigator who presents delimitations convenient to manipulate rnay be guilty of altering the direction the research normally would take because vital factors rnay have been excluded.
Another common weakness is failing to give reasons for specific
delimitations. Invalidated Statements naturally are suspect.
Failure to include all the subproblems necessary to resolve the
general problem of an investigation is, of Course, dereliction in
the organization of a design. This oversight rnay be due either to
carelessness or to intellectual ineptitude. Another deficiency is
that of confusing actual procedures with the formulation of subproblems. Subproblems actually are indications of areas to be
investigated and as such require no designation at this point of
how the research will proceed.
Definitions that lack delineation and specificity appear to be a
common weakness in designs. Occasionally researchers will fail,
also, to state how their definitions vary from generally accepted
usage.
Inadequacies in the section entitled "Related Literature" essentially consist of failure to indicate how the materials relate to
the study. Perhaps the researcher should give more consideration
to the possibility that a superficial or incomplete review of the
literature rnay cause a proposal to be disapproved by a reviewing
panel. Reference has already been made to this, but such inadequacy is inexcusable if for no more compelling reason than the
ethical and moral principles of scholarship involved.
One of the most recurrent deficiencies in the significance-ofthe-study section is the inability of a researcher to explain why
the proposed study will be important. The assumption that the
absence of research in a specific area is enough to justify it is
fallacious.
Included under the area of "Format" are such miscellaneous

items as misspellings, lack of pagination, disjunct presentation,
and indifference to accepted procedures for conducting scholarly
work. Although they may appear to be of minor import, any study
that treats these factors in a cavalier manner can hardly be
classified as good research. This writer is appalled at times by the
apparent lack of concern on the part of some doctoral students
who disregard correct format for footnotes, spelling, and conjunct
presentation. Graduate students should not expect their advisers
to remind them of all these details. If they are incapable of the
particularity required for adequate proofreading, they should seek
professional help for this chore.
Although failure to state a problem precisely is seemingly an
imocuous weakness, it is difficult to comprehend how any problem can be successfully pursued without a clear and concise
formulation of the research. Another deficiency is presenting the
problem as a prejudicial instead of an unbiased,*proposition. The
tendency to present a topic in hortatory manner may be anticipated when an individual is exuberant about the research but
uninitiated in its techniques.
Finally, weaknesses in the bibliography category stem largely
from researchers' failure to present references in a form generally
accepted for scholarly work and from the inclusion of many items
relatively insignificant to the topic. The danger is that research
tyros may believe the inclusion of a large number of references
will suffice to indicate that they have acquainted themselves with
the literature of their field. The result may be that they will
neglect to include a few works that are essential to the study at the
expense of numerous items of minor importance.
Whatever it may be called a research design or dissertation
proposal serves a very important function. It is the researcher's
plan or blueprint, as it were. A well-organized and carefully
prepared proposal can make the implementation of a research
plan easier and the interpretation of data much more meaningful.
A most important step in research plaming is a review of litera-
87
ture in the field. Suggestions for obtaining bibliographic information follow in the next chapter.
Problems for Review und Discussion

1. What is the function of a research design? What changes are
permissible in a design as the actual research proceeds?
2. Compare the research-design format recommended for use at

your institution with the one discussed in this chapter. Note
particularly elements that are common to both.
3. Why is the "Definition of Terms" section of a research
design so important?
4. Differentiate between positive and negative delimitations
and give an example of each.
5 . What is a basic assumption? How does it differ from a basic

hypothesis?
6. Differentiate between a deductive and a negative hypothesis

and give an example of each.
7. Why is a review of related literature one of the most important steps in the preparation of a research design?
8. Compare the deficiencies in research designs listed in this

chapter with those apparent in projects presented by members of your class.
9. Select a tentative research area and pursue it to formulate a
title, problem Statement, subproblems, definitions of terms,
88
delimitations, basic assumptions, and basic hypotheses i n the

manner discussed in this chapter.
BORG,WALTERR., and MEREDITH
An Introduction, 3rd ed.; New York: Longman, 1979, Chapter 2.
BURKE,ARVIDJ . , and MARYA. BURKE.Documentation in Education,
4th ed., rev. New York: Teachers College Press, 1967, Chapters 1 ,
4, 14. and 15.
GARRETT,ALLEN M. An Introduction to Research in Music.
Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1958,
Chapter 9.
Understanding ReHARDYCK,
CURTIS,and LEWISF. PETRINOVICH.
search in the Social Sciences. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1975,
Chapter 2.
HILLWAY,
TYRUS.Introduction to Research, 2nd ed..Boston: Houghton
HOPKINS,CHARLES
Columbus, Ohio, Charles E. Merrill, 1976, Chapter 5.
KERLINGER,
FREDN. Foundations of Behavioral Research, 2nd ed.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973, Chapter 2.
L A B O V I TSANFORD,
~,
and ROBERTHAGEDORN.
Introduction to Social
Research, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976, Chapter 2.
MASON,EMANUEL
J . , and WILLIAM
J. BRAMBLE.
Understanding und
MCGRATH,G. D., JAMESE. JELINEK,and RAYMOND
E. WOCHNER.
Educational Research Methods. New York: Ronald Press, 1963,
Chapters 5 and 7.
PHELPS,ROGERP. "The Doctoral Dissertation: Boon or Bane?" College Music Symposium, Fall 1978, 18,2:82-93.
RUMMEL,
J . FRANCIS.
SAX,GILBERT. Empirical Foundations of Educational Research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968, Chapter 5.
89
TRAVERS,
ROBERTM. W. An Introduction to Educational Research, 4th
TucKMAN, BRUCEW. Conducting Educational Research, 2nd ed. New
VAN DALEN,DEOBOLD
Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979, Chapters 7 and 8.
WHITNEY,
FREDERICK
L. The Elements of Research, 3rd ed. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall 1950, Chapters 5 and 6 .
WISE, JOHN E., ROBERTB. NORDBERG,and DONALDJ. REITZ.
Methods of Research in Education. Boston: D. C. Heath, 1967,
Chapter 2.
91
Efficient Library Use
4 . Obtaining Resource
Materials
Any research depends to a certain degree on the utilization of
bibliographic techniques. Some types of investigation require
more extensive source materials than others. For example, historical, philosophical or aesthetic inquiry or research will more
likely rely heavily on data to be found in libraries and archives
than will experimental or descriptive research. It is in the library
that researchers normally receive preliminary information that
corroborates the feasibility of pursuing the proposed topic. It is
here also that they procure much of the information they eventually use in their preliminary and final bibliographies. Yet it is
paradoxical that many graduate students, embarking on the initial
Stages of thesis or dissertation planning, are still unfamiliar with
some of the most fundamental techniques of efficient library use.
It hardly seems necessary to suggest that researchers should

first acquaint themselves with the general floor plan and holdings
of the library. This is not to suggest that they will need to examine every listing in the card catalog before selecting a topic.
Instead, they should become familiar with the library's card
catalog, general and special collections, reference rooms, and
facilities for the reproduction of materials.
General collections include books, periodicals, government
documents, and other publications, both of recent and of older
vintage. Special collections might consist of such items as writings, diaries, programs, letters, manuscripts, and other personal
effects of an individual or group. For example, a researcher investigating the role of music in the life of Georgia poet-musician
Sidney Lanier (1842-188 1) might examine holdings of the Lanier
Room at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. Uncataloged materials in special collections are often a lucrative
source of information. For example, one of this writer's doctoral
students found uncataloged materials in the library of the Lincoln
Center for the Performing Arts in New York to be a fruitful
source of information on Olga Samaroff Stokowski.' The Stokowski materials include letters, programs, concert reviews, citations,
curriculum guides, and miscellaneous memorabilia.
The reference room contains standard sources of general information, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries of all kinds.
Finally, because an individual may wish to have an item reproduced by some photographic process rather than copy it by hand,
especially if the material is extensive, it would be well to know
what technical processes are available at the library, how much
they cost, and how long it will take for duplication.
A general overview is necessary for investigators to determine
how many of the source materials are housed in a given library,
and they will also need to learn whether they have to look else-
92
where for appropriate items. Should this be necessary, they still

must find out where such materials may be found. Professional
colleagues, library staff members, and advisers are the most likely
sources of such information. They eventually may direct the researchers to another library to repeat the Same procedures of
acquainting thernselves with its holdings and facilities, examining
the materials, and so on, until the needed information is found.
Researchers should check Subject Headings2 before consulting
the card catalog in a library that uses the Library of Congress
System. A comparable qompilation is available for libraries using
These lists are helpful to
the Dewey Decimal Clas~ification.~
researchers because they specify what subject headings are used
in the card catalog. Another good source of information is Books
in Print .
Library Card Catalog

The card catalog undoubtedly is the most important single
source of preliminary information for researchers. Cards may be
prepared by the library staff or they may be published by the
Library of Congress or commercial book distributors. Each card
contains a wealth of information that sometimes is overlooked by
the research tyro. Figure 4 is a reproduction of a catalog card for a
recent publication in music. It is referred to as an author or main
entry card. The identifying numbers correspond to the following:
(1) library call number, which identifies where
the book is shelved;
(2) author's complete name;
(3) date of author's birth (and death in the case
of an author who was deceased at the
time the card was prepared, or whose
demise subsequently has been recorded
by a cataloger);
(4) title of publication;
93
Figure 4
Library Catalog Card
Bureau of P blications. T e a c h e r s College, Columbia University, 1928. ,New ~ o i kAYS

,
P r w , 1$2,
X, 107 p.
22 Cm.
Reprint uf the 1948 e., lssue In serles: Teachers College, Columbia Uuiversity. Contriibutlons to diicatlon, no. 885. +
Orlginally presented a s the author's thesis, Coliirnbla.
Bibllography : p. 101403.
1. Choral music-nlted
States.
I. Tltle. 11. S e r i e : Columbla
Unlversity. Teachers College. Coutrlbutious to educatlw, UO. 885.
13
20
16
ML1511.N5C5 1972
784'.1
I S E N @-404-55@&2
Libraiy of Congress
73 Pi
21
14
75-176698r-15
M-4Rc-18
MN
( 5 ) edition number often shown here (in this

example the edition number listed in (21)
is that of the publisher);
(6) place of publication;
( 7 ) publisher;
(8) date of publication;
(9) nurnber of pages in preface and in main
body of book;
(10) height of book;
(1 1) page references to bibliography;
(12) rlotation of "tracings" or subject or other
headings under which the book is listed
in the card catalog;
(13) Library of Congress cnll nurnber;
94
( 14) Dewey classflcation number;
(15) Library of Congress card nrimber;

(16) publisher of card;
(17) code for card;
(1 8) Library of Congress computer-system designation;
( 19) Libraq of Congress special-area designation;
(20) International Standard Book Number; and
(21) the series to which the book belongs normally goes here. (This example is an exception. The reprint is not part of the
senes as such. The original volume would
have shown series in parentheses at end
of collection .)
The library's call number (I) is inserted by the libraq staff. In
addition to the main-entry card shown in Figure 4 the card catalog
contains additional entries for each publication. Cards containing
identical inforrnation are filed in appropriate places of the card
catalog according to the additional information typed at the top.
The title card lists the title of the publication, and the subject
card identifies the subject, as shown at the bottom. Subject headings may appear typed in red or in black capital letters (sometimes both), depending on local preference, to distinguish them
from other added designations. In addition, all libraries maintain
a file known as a shelflist, containing, in call-number order, one
card for every item in the library, and usually the number showing
"holdings, " that is, volumes, number of copies, etc. (In many
libraries, the main entries also show holdings.) The shelflist,
normally used only by catalogers and others in technical Services,
is often available for use under the supemision of library personnel. Ir is important for the researcher to copy everything in a call
number e.xactly, line for line as it appears on the card.
95
Because the book listed in Figure 4 is a repnnt, two dates of

publication are cited, the original and the reprint dates (8). Although the Same city of publication (6) appears for both versions,
it is indicated in two places, as are the two different publishers
(7). Of some interest to researchers is (9), number of pages in
preface and in main body of the book. Bibliography references
(1 1) could lead researchers to additional sources of materials, and
(12) tracings may be helpful in locating items that might be
overlooked under different categories.
Certain items have little or no significance for a researcher and
are primarily of interest only to members of the library staff.
These are height of book (10), Library of Congess call number
(13), Dewey classification number (14), Library of Congress card
number (1 5), publisher of the card (16), code of date of card (17),
Computer designation (1 8), special-area designation (1 9), and International Standard Book Number (20). To a librarian, height of
a publication can be significant because items in music and art are
bound in a variety of sizes and shapes. To pose a very practical
question: should the height of the adjustable shelves found in
most libraries be altered to accommodate numbers of large musical anthologies, Scores, and art portfolios, thus wasting precious
space? Or should "oversize " resources be housed separately
from smaller books? The staff members of each library must
answer these questions in accordance with the individual situation. Researchers, however, should be aware that shelving may be
divided by size. Cards for large-sized materials bear some type of
Such
notation within the call number, frequently the Symbol
an indicator must be included on the call card or slip submitted by
a researcher. In addition, items may be shelved in a section of the
library where they would not normally be expected to appearfor example, in a special collection, or series, or with a related
area of scholarship.
In decentralized libraries researchers should first examine the
union or "public" catalog. The location of the material is usually
+.

noted at the top of at least the main-entry card; for example:
Music Library, Education Library, Science Library. A book on
music education, for instance, might be in the education rather
than the music collection. Investigators who examine only the
music card catalog might not find the desired publication listed
there and thus assume that it was unobtainable in that library.
Returning again to information included on a catalog card, note
that the author's complete name, the correct title of the publication, the edition, the publisher, and the place and date of publication are all significant information to be included in a bibliography. The author's dates become significant when one is concemed with writings from a certain historical period, as would be
true for many historical and philosophical research studies. Other
headings, as shown in the tracings, can be very helpful in locating
additional sources relevant to a topic. For example: an investigator knows that the name Davies was associGed with the psychology of music. By checking the subject heading "MusicPsychology" the researcher can find other materials on the Same
subject.
Although the classification of materials in American libraries
may vary in detail from one library to another, most items on the
Same subject will be classed by either the Dewey Decimal
classification or the Library of Congress system. Many smaller
college and municipal libraries use the Dewey system; larger
college, university, and city libraries find the Library of Congress
schedule to be more useful because the combination of letters and
numbers and the larger number of classes makes it more flexible
than Dewey.
First published in 1876 by Melvil Dewey (1851-1931), renowned progenitor of sound U.S. library techniques, the Dewey
Decimal Classification provides for the classing of published material~under ten major headings:
000 General Works
100 Philosophy and Psychology
200 Religion

300
400
500
600
700
800
900
97
Social Sciences
Philology
Natural Sciences
Applied Sciences and Technology
Fine Arts and Recreation
Literature
History , Geography , Biography .
Music entries are assigned numbers from 780 through 789,

with these representative examples:
Research
General Principles ("Theory of
Music ") and techniques
Dramatic music and production of
musical drama
Sacred Music
Sacred Music-Christianity
Voice and vocal music
Appreciation (analytical and program
notes)
Instrumental ensembles and their
music
Orchestra
Keyboard instruments and their music
Historical and geographical treatment
String instruments and their music
Violin
Wind instruments and their music
Oboe and English hom
Percussion, mec hanical, electrical instruments
Membranophones
Catalogs, lists, critical appraisal of recordings .5
98
The Dewey classing scheme has been replaced in many libraries by the Library of Congress system, devised by Herbert
Putnam (1861-1955) and published in 1902. This is especially
true in libraries where a greater diversification is desirable because of large holdings. The system of classification devised by
Putnam for the Library of Congress, one of the world's largest
repositories of materials, is:
A General WorksM Music
Polygraphy
N Fine Arts
B Philosophy-Religion
0 Vacant, left for expansion
C History-Auxiliary
P Language and Literature
Sciences
Q Science
D History and Topography
R Medicine
(except America)
S Agriculture-Plant and
E-F Arnerica
Anima1 Industry
G GeographyT Technology
Anthropology
U Military Science
H Sociology
V Naval Science
1 Vacant, left for expansion
W, X, Y Vacant; left for
J Political Science
expansion
K Law
Z Bibliography and
L Education
Library Science.
Oscar G. T. Sonneck (1873-1928) did the original scheme for
music. Music entries are classified under three broad subheadings
of the M classification system of the Library of Congress, as
follows:
M
Music [i. e., scores]
ML Literature of Music
MT Musical Instruction and S t ~ d y . ~
Some large subdivisions within each of these areas are:
M Music
5-1459
Instrumental Music
1495-2199 Vocal Music
99
ML Literature of Music
159-3790 History and criticism
1100- 1354 Charnber and orchestral music,
band (military music)
3800-3920 Philosophy, physics, psychology,
esthetics, etc., of rnusic
MT Musical Instruction and Study
40-67
Cornposition; rhythm, melody,
harmony, counterpoint, etc .
170-810 Instrumental technics; for Organ,
piano, string, wind, and plectral
instruments
820-949 Singing and voice culture
855-883 Special technics; chanting, sight
singing , choral singing , etc .'
Each of these is further divided into small topics.
From the extensive number-identification system noted above
it is easy to See why there might be occasional discrepancies in
the classification of publications. The classification Systems, both
of Dewey and Putnam, are suggestive only. It is the prerogative
of the individual cataloger to assign a specific number to each
item according to the library's present holdings. Note that the
general classifications should fall within these basic patterns of
headings. It would be unlikely to find materials relating to music
instruction (MT classification) listed under ML (Music Literature). Some music libraries, moreover, use a scheme of classification for musical scores based on a decimal system devised by
George S. Dickinson (1888-1964) though often modified by individual libraries to accommodate local conditions. The
Dickinson-Columbia schedule includes these classifications for
musical scores:
00-09 Collections, general and instrumental
10-69 Instrumental music (by medium)
70-99 Vocal m u s i ~ . ~
100
Since the trend in library science today is toward Open Stacks or

shelves, students familiar with classification systems can go to the
appropriate area of a library and examine materials firsthand.
Another advantage of becoming familiar with these schemes is
that investigators rnay locate items appropriate to their musical
topic that are classed under another area heading. The appropriate
classification of materials in a library obviously is not the responsibility of music researchers, but an understanding of the principles of classification can be useful to them in locating materials
relevant to their research.
While most of the remarks above relate to published materials
such as books, researchers rnay have occasion to examine musical
scores, which, unfortunately, have less uniformity in their systems
of classification. Often scores are merely placed in portfolios and
arranged alphabetically by title and by composer, conductor, or
performer. In other instances they rnay be found arranged according to some modified classification system.
Some researchers rnay have occasion to use disc and tape recordings that are housed in special collections of a library. Library of Congress cards are available for many of the disc recordings, and this, of Course, makes the search much easier. The LC
card numbers rnay be found in the discography section of each
issue of Notes, the quarterly journal of the Music Library Association .9
Some libraries, especially those in which records circulate,
maintain a separate card file for disc and tape recordings because
of the ease with which users rnay find the titles, which are conveniently listed by composer. Another reason is that records, as
Shank and Englebrecht correctly state, wear out easily through
handling and often will not be replaced, thus making it logical to
maintain a separate catalog for them.1 Some libraries now do not
permit disc recordings to circulate, instead keeping them as
"master copies" and making audiotapes or cassettes that circulate or are reserved for use in the library's listening room.
101
It should be clear to the reader by now that the card catalog of a

library can be a most valuable source of preliminary information.
Regrettably, many researchers do not use it as effectively and
efficiently as it should be.
Suggestions for Note Taking

Even before detemining what materials they want to examine,
researchers should ascertain which system of note taking will best
suit their needs. Actually, a uniformity in procedure is more
important than the plan followed.
The most widely used method involves making notations on
blank or lined file cards, usually 3" X 5" or 4 X 6" because of the
ease with which they rnay be handled and filed, preferably in an
easily carried file folder or box.
Other researchers prefer to place inforrnation on blank pieces
of paper 8%" X 11" or smaller, and then file them in a large
manila envelope." The advantage of this system is the ease in
keeping material from a single source on one or two pages instead
of on several filing cards, thus permitting facility of reference.
(By the way, manila envelopes containing a string loop fastener
usually are more durable than those with flexible meta1 clasps.)
A third method is to make notations in a looseleaf or spiral
notebook. Although the looseleaf notebook makes it easy to arrange materials, it frequently proves to be less durable because of
inconvenience in handling. Spiral notebooks have the disadvantage that pages rnay be easily detached; it would be well to carry a
few paper clips to attach loose sheets to the notebook so they will
not be misplaced before they have been inserted in an envelope or
file box. Some researchers object to using spiral notebooks on the
premise that pages detached have rough serrated edges that are
difficuit to clip together, and there are aesthetic objections also to
the appearance of these irregular sheets.
102
Whatever system they use, researchers must be methodical and

consistent in their procedure and approach so they can obtain
most of the information they need the first time they examine the
materials. This is accomplished only with patience and practice.
Smith is not alone in offering the advice that systematic note
taking is accomplished only as a result of careful preparation,
organized thinking, and resolute application.I2 Baughman
suggests that color coding, either through using different-colored
file cards or coloring the tops of file cards with crayons, may
help organize material obtained from various sources.13
The data to be recorded on each card or sheet must be complete
enough not only to be useful but also to save researchers from
having to reexamine the same item for information overlooked
the first time. They should record first the library call number for
the item in the upper-left-hand Corner (also location, if more than
one library is used), and other pertinent identifying information in
case there is occasion to refer to the material'again. Next, every
notation should list complete bibliographic information (author's
full name, complete title, place, publisher and date of publication,
and pages used). (How many times does a research tyro find it
necessary to look up forgotten Page numbers for quotations?)
Notes should be placed on only one side of a card or sheet and
may consist of: (1) direct quotations, (2) paraphrase of material
and (3) outline of important points.
In order to differentiate them from other types of commentary,
direct quotations are enclosed between quotation marks. Intellectual honesty demands that all items be quoted exactly as
printed; this includes marks of punctuation as well. Mistakes in
the original must not be corrected, but rather indicated with the
Latin word [sic]in brackets, underscored because it is a foreign
word. If extensive portions are to be quoted it would be advisable,
in the interest of time and accuracy, to have them reproduced at a
nominal cost by one of the photocopying processes now available
in most libraries.
103
Materials should be paraphrased whenever possible to develop

the facility for expressing in one's own words what one reads. This
will rnake it easier to resist the temptation to present a report that
essentially consists of direct quotations held together by introductory statements in the author's own words. (Such studies are,
unfortunately, still being produced by graduate students in music
education.)
More experienced investigators often like to use an outline of
important points because they can note subject headings and subheadings along with page numbers and enough appropriate annotations to determine which items will be of greatest utility later
On.
Whatever system of note taking a Person employs, the notations must be gathered with a specific purpose in mind: to relate
to the problem being solved, as Mouly avers.14 At the end of each
day researchers should alphabetize, by author and title, the cards
or sheets they have prepared and place them in their file.
In the preliminary examination of a book researchers should
first examine the table of contents and the listings in the index;
then they should leaf through the book to deterrnine whether or
not it is worth scrutinizing further. There obviously is no use in
wasting time reading a publication that has few, if any, references
listed in the table of contents or the index that are significant to
the research. Time could be occupied more efficiently with materials containing pertinent information.
It may seem redundant to stress the importance of requisite
reading skills since it generally is assumed that by the time one
reaches graduate level one already has developed facility in reading rapidly and in distinguishing between what is relevant and
unnecessary. Yet sometimes research tyros do not realize that
they can save much valuable time by skimrning through an article
or book to determine the most significant paragraphs, sentences,
and key words. They may then make note of important items and
paragraphs that they can reread before going on to new material.
104
Burke and Burke, cognizant that note taking frequently is difficult

and troublesome because researchers are afraid they will lose
some consequential idea as they read, suggest that they have the
material reproduced in some type of photocopying process
whenever p o s ~ i b l e . ' ~
Some research topics in music education may require using
books and articles written in foreign languages. Researchers who
lack sufficient foreign-language skill to comprehend what they
are reading would do well to consider another topic. To read an
article or book almost entirely with a lexicon is a slow, tedious,
and frequently unrewarding procedure .
In addition to books, articles, and pamphlets, useful information is sometimes found in newspapers. It is helpful to clip articles of significance and place them in a manila envelope or folder. Since newspaper accounts do not always include the year and
date of the article, the name of the newspaper and specific month,
day, and year should be noted on the margin' or reverse of the
clipping. In addition, some researchers list the Page where the
material is found.
105
in the library requesting them. A two-week maximum period for

using materials should be anticipated, with one renewal possible
if there is no demand for them. Several states, through a statewide
circulation System, have procedures whereb y books from any
library in the state may be obtained for a limited period of time.
Rare books and items regarded as irreplaceable if lost rarely, if
ever, are obtainable through interlibrary loan. The researcher may
then request a copy of noncirculating materials on microfilm or
some other type of photocopying process. Microfilm, for instance, is an inexpensive and practical way to procure copies of
resource materials that would otherwise be unobtainable. A rnicrofilm reader has become standard equipment today even in the
smallest libraries, private or public, so little difficulty should be
experienced in locating equipment to read microfilms once they
have been received. Microfiche copies of materials, which are
cheaper than microfilm, also may be obtained in many libraries
having equipment to read them.
Photocopying Materials
Obtaining Items from Other Libraries
Sometimes materials deemed important for a study are not
available locally. It is necessary then to procure them by other
means, either through interlibrary loan or by some photocopying
process.
Interlibrary loan is a relatively easy way to obtain materials
from another library. Individuals requesting items on interlibrary
loan must know where they may be obtained before they ask their
local librarian to procure them (though the librarian will advise on
finding locations). A nominal fee to Cover postal charges both
ways is normally the only charge. Materials obtained through
interlibrary loan often do not circulate and therefore must be used
Various types of photocopying are available to reproduce items

either in full-sized or in microtext format. Full-sized copies,
either positive or negative, are available through many processes.
The photostat, one of the earliest to be used for music, is expensive for extensive copying and often takes considerable time to
obtain. More recent processes, such as Xerox, Verifax, Thermofax, and Diazo, have the advantage of providing a copy not only
rapidly but also at a lower cost than the photostat.
Microforms, both positive and negative, are of four kinds: microfilm, microcard, microfiche, and ultramicrofiche. When a copy
of an entire graduate project, rare book, or collection of musical
manuscripts is needed, microfilm, either in 16 or 35 mm, provides
a very practical and economical way to obtain it. Since microfilm
106
has received such wide acceptance in this country, most libraries,

as already observed are equipped with at least one microfilm
reader. In addition, portable microfilm readers are available for
home use.
Microcards, of more recent origin than microfilm, require special equipment to enlarge the positive image contained on the 3"
X 5" cards. The number of pages on a single card may vary from
forty to sixty, depending on the size of the item reproduced.
Microcards have begun to receive some acceptance, although not
as much as anticipated when they first appeared. They now include not only an American thesis and dissertation publication
series but also the Early Music Book Series of significant music
books.16
Although they are widely used in Europe the potentialities for
microfiche and ultramicrofiche are only now being realized in this
country. For example, research studies available through the Educational Resources Information Center of the U.S. Office of Education are obtainable either in hard copy or microfiche. Microfiche
may be procured in either positive or negative. A microfiche
is essentially a piece of film (3" X 5" or 4" X 6 ) containing
frames of microfilm. The 4" X 6" microfiche will accommodate up to eighty pages of textual material. Because microfiche
frames are easier to locate and store, the process, although requiring a microfiche reader, has an advantage over microfilm for both
the researcher and the librarian. Portable microfiche readers are
now standard equipment in many libraries, and a researcher may
sign one out for a specified period, often a week. Ultramicrofiche,
a piece of film 4" X 6 , can accommodate up to three thousand
pages of text.
Even though a researcher may have a preference for one microform over another, the availability of items in that microform
will determine whether microfilm, microcard, microfiche, or ultramicrofiche will be used.
107
Reference Materials for Music

To present an inclusive listing of all references to which the
researcher in music education might have recourse would be beyond the purpose of this book. Sources most likely to prove
beneficial are suggested in the sections that follow. However,
new items appear regularly, and no list can be comprehensive, so
researchers need to be continually alert for new materials that
might be of assistance. Those seeking specific information in a
restricted area of music will find Duckles' Music Reference und
Research Materials: An Annotated Bibliography extremely helpfu1.l'
Among the English-lanDictionaries, Encycloguage dictionanes, encypedias, Indexes18
clopedias, and indexes most
likely to be used are: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians
(Nicolas Slonimsky, ed., 6th ed., 1978); Grove's Dictionary of
Music und Musicians (Stanley Sadie, ed., 6th ed., 1969); The
Harvard Brief Dictionary of Music (Willi Apel and Ralph T.
Daniel, eds., 1960); The Harvard Dictionary of Music (Willi
Apel, ed., 2nd ed., 1969); The International Cyclopedia of Music
and Musicians (Oscar Thompson, ed., 10th ed., 1975); The New
Encyclopedia of Music und Musicians (Waldo S. Pratt, ed., 1936);
and The New College Encyclopedia of Music (Jack Westmp and
F. L. Harrison, eds., 1976).
Among foreign-language dictionaries and encyclopedias for
either general or specialized areas are: Die Musik in Geschichte
und Gegenwart; allgemeine Enqklopdie der Musik (Friedrich
Blume, ed., 1949-); RISM (International Inventory of Musical
Sources; 1960-); and Biographie universelle des musiciens er
bibliographie gknkrale de la musique (Franqois J. Fktis, ed.,
1972).
Reference materials in music relating to such diverse subjects
108
as musical instruments, musical themes, jazz band, and chamber

music, and other areas also are available. Representative examples are: The Complete Encyclopedia of Popular Music und J a u
1900-1950 (Roger D. Kinkle, ed., 1974); An Encyclopedia of the
Violin (Alberto Bachmann, ed., 1975); Real-Lexikon der
Musikinstrumente, zugleich ein Polyglossar f i r gesamte Instrumenentegebiet; mit 200 Abbildungen (Curt Sachs, 1964); A
Dictionary of Musical Themes (Harold Barlow and Samuel
Morgenstern, eds., 1975); Band Encyclopedia (Kenneth W. Berger, 1960); Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music (Walter W .
Cobbett, ed., 2nd ed., 3 vols., 1963); and An Index to Early Music
in Selected Anthologies (Ruth B. Hilton, 1977).
Often overlooked by musicians
General References
are such general references as
Dictionary of American Biography; Directory of American Scholars; Encyclopaedia Britannica;
Encyclopedia of Educational Research; National Union Catalog,
with quarterly and amual cumulations; Who's Who in America;
Who's Who in American Education; Who's Who in the East (with
comparable volumes for the Midwest, West, and South and Southwest); and Who Was Who in America.
Periodicals in both music and other
Periodicals
subject areas often prove to be one
of the most valuable sources of information. Researchers can save considerable time by referring
to such periodical guides as Education Index (1929-);I9 Guide
tu the Performing Arts, 1957-1968; International Repertory of
Music Literature (RILM 1967-); Jazz Index ( 1977 -); Music
Article Guide (1966-); Music Index (1949-); Music Therapy
Index (1976); Vol. 2 is called Music Psychology Index (1978);
Popular Music Periodical Index (1973-), which list title and
author of article, name of periodical, and date and inclusive
pages of article. Most of these guides are up-to-date within a
109
few months. In addition, many joumals indicate on the title Page

in what indexes they are covered. An annual index, frequently
the last issue of a volume, also appears in most journals.
Music journals vary widely in objectives and contents. Some
of the representative current American publications in music and
music education are: The American Organist (now the A.G.O.
und R.C.C. 0. Magazine), The American Music Teacher, American String Teacher, Black Music Research Newsletter, Bulletin
of Councilfor Research in Music Education (Illinois), Bulletin of
the National Music Council, Choral Journal, The Clarinet,
Clavier, College Music Symposium, Computer Music Journal,
Contributions to Music Education (Ohio), Current Musicology,
Diapason, Ethnomusicology, The Horn Call: Journal of the International Horn Society, Instrumentalist, The International
Trumpet Guild Newsletter, The International Trombone Association Journal, Iowa Journal of Research in Music Education,
Journal of American Musical Instrument Society, Journal of
American Musicological Society, Journal of Band Research,
Journal of Church Music, Journal of the International DoubleReed Society, Journal of Jazz Studies, Journal of Music Theory,
Journal of Music Therapy, Journal of Research in Music Education, Missouri Journal of Research in Music Education, Music
Educators Journal, Music Journal, Musical Analysis, Musical
Quarterly, Music Researchers Exchange Newsletter, NACWPI
Bulletin, Notes, Perspectives in New Music, Piano Quarterly,
PMEA Bulletin of Research in Music Education, T . U.B.A . Newsletter, and Woodwind World-Brass und Percussion.
Research reports also appear in many of the journals published
by each of the state music educators' associations, other than the
research joumals listed. Trade journals, such as Connchord and
Selmer Bandwagon, frequently contain articles relating to research of particular interest to instmmentalists. Other sources
valuable for research of historical import are periodicals no
110
longer published: Educational Music Magazine, Electronic

Music Review, and Woodwind Magazine belong in this category.
Many colleges and universities prepare bibliographies of
graduate research, either cornpleted or in Progress, that are available free of charge or at nominal cost-sorne contain listings in
several disciplines; others report only on rnusical studies-as well
as reports of sponsored research, both faculty and Student.
Music educators engaged in research often will find data in
periodicals and journals in other areas. Among those rnost likely
to be useful are: American Educational Research Journal,
American Journal of Psychology, Educational Technology,
Journal of the Acoustical SocieS, of America, Journal of Aesrhetic Education, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Journal of
Applied Psychology, Journal of Educarional Psychology, Journal
of Educational Research, Journal of Experimental Education, Oral
H i s t o Association
~
Newsletter, Phi Delta Kappen, Practical Applications of Research (Phi Delta Kappa), Psychological Review,
Review of Educational Research, and Scientific American.
Local school Systems sometimes print reports of research
undertaken by staff rnembers. For exarnple, Research Reports of
Los Angeles Ci- School Districts includes some projects in music
education. Research in the field of rnusic also is contained in
publications frorn various state departments of education, such as
the Minnesota National Laboratoq News Bulletin. The ACLS
Newslerrer, a publication of the Arnerican Council of Learned
Societies, contains reports on postdoctoral research that the organization has funded. Many studies in rnusic are enumerated in
its amual report of grants made for research.
The rnusic researcher should not overlook such seemingly irrelevant sources for rnusic as the Journal of the American Dental
Association. For exarnple, Dr. Heman's article, with bibliography, "Dental Considerations in the Playing of Musical Instruments," should be of interest and value to researchers in instrumental rnusi~.~O
11 1
Two recent publications relating to research in the arts include

information that should be useful to music researchers: Murphy
and Jones have prepared Research in Arts E d ~ c a t i o n , ~which
'
contains brief Summary reports and listings of projects funded by
the U.S. Office of Education in aesthetic education, art, rnusic,
and theater education, among other areas; Research in the Arts
und Aesthetic EducationzZ is a directory of investigators and their
fields of inquiry . In addition to educational background and publication history, individuals are listed in Research in Arts und
Aesthetic Education according to their professional specialties in
the arts and aesthetic education. The following areas of instruction are included in this report: visual arts, music, literature, theater, dance, film rnedia, and interrelated arts.
Yearbooks of the Music
Yearbooks und Proceedings
Educators National Conference
and its predecessor, the Music
Supervisors National Conference, published annually frorn 1910
to 1940, are especially valuable for the researcher interested in
philosophical and curricular trends in music education. Music
Education Source Book [I], initially published in 1947; Music in
American Education: Source Book Number Two, 1955; and
Perspecfives in Music Education: Source Book 111. 1966, are
successors to the yearbooks. Proceedings of the Music Teachers
National Association, containing addresses and Papers presented
at the organization's annual conventions, was published frorn
1876 to 1950. Other important items include Proceedings of the
National Association of Music Therapists, Universi~,of Iowa
Studies in the Psychology of Music, and the Yearbooks of the
~ ~ 1973 the
National Society for the Study of E d u c a t i ~ n .In
American Educational Research Association began to publish an
annual Review of Research in Education. Additional sources of
information are UNESCO publications on rnusic education, yearbooks of the International Society for Music Education, and International Folk Music Council Yearbook.
112
Two important kinds of information, often overlooked by music

educators, are publications listing the holdings of music libraries and thematic catalogs of
incipits. These items are particularly beneficial to someone
who is interested in special collections. Thematic Catalog of
a Manuscript Collection of Eighteenth-Century Italian Instrumental Music in the U n i v e r s i ~of California, Berkeley, Music
Library (by Vincent Duckles and Minnie Elmer, 1963) is an
example of a publication by a university library. A representative publication of a municipal public library is the four-volume
Catalogue of the Allen A. Brown Collection of Music, a very
significant compilation of nineteenth-century Opera and orchestral Scores, put out by the Boston h b l i c Library from 1910 to
1916. Julia Gregory's Catalog of Early Books of Music (1913),
yith the 1944 Supplement, represents a valuable*listing of books
on music theory published before 1800 that are housed in the
Library of Congress in Washington, D.C."
In the past, catalogs of thematic incipits have been marked by
diversity of format from one library to another, with the result that
an investigator sometimes finds the information contained in the
card catalog less than satisfactory. The growing acceptance of
electronic data processing (EDP) has opened up new potentialities for a more uniform System of cataloging thematic incipits,
according to LaRue and Logemann. They caution, however, that
EDP is not i n e x p e n s i ~ e . ~ ~
For the researcher who is looking for information on musicalinstrument museums, the Directory of Special Libraries und Information Centers (4th ed., 1977) lists some.
Since the vast majority of
Dissertations und Theses
research in music education at
present consists of reports that
culminate in a graduate degree, the researcher should consider
bibliographical compilations of these items to be a prime source.
Special Catalogs
113
William S. Larson compiled two listings of completed master's

and doctoral projects entitled Bibliography of Research Studies in
Music Education. The first, covering the years 1932 to 1948,
appeared in 1949. The second, published as the Volume V,
Number 2 (Fall 1957) issue of the Journal of Research in Music
Education, includes studies fom 1949 to 1956. Roderick D. Gordon has continued the Larson bibliography of completed research
but has resuicted the listing to doctoral studies. Doctoral Dissertation~in Music und Music Education 1957-1963, compiled by
Gordon, was published as the Volume XII, Number 1 (Spring
1954) issue of the Journal of Research in Music Education, and
supplements have appeared in the Same journal as follows:
1963-67, Volume XVI, Number 2, Summer 1968; 1968-71, Volume XX, Number l, Spring 1972; and 1972-77, Volume XXVI,
Number 3, Fall 1978.
The International Index of Dissertations und Musicological
Works in Progress (edited by Cecil Adkins and Alis Dickinson,
1977) combines Doctoral Dissertations in Musicology und Musicological Works in Progress, and lists 3,200 American doctoral
dissertations and works in Progress and about 1,500 from Argentina, Australia, Canada, Europe, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, and
South Africa.
The leading repository in the United States for foreign dissertations is the Center for Research Libraries, 5721 South Cottage
Grove Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637. Students involved with research that deals with personalities or subjects outside the United
States should ascertain whether this center can provide some
useful materials. Paul Doe has compiled a register to theses on
, ~ ~German dissertations in music have been
English m u s i ~ and
identified by Richard SchaaLZ7
A Selective List of Master's Theses in Musicology, compiled
by D. R. de Lerma, was published by the American Musicological Society in 1970 and H. M. Silvey 's compilation of Master's
Theses in the Arts und Social Sciences appeared in 1976. Rita M.
114
Mead's Docroral Dissertations in American Music: A Classified

Bibliography was printed in 1974; and in the same year the Texas
Music Educators Association published a Bibliography of Master's Theses und Doctoral Dissertations in Music Completed ut
Texas Colleges und Universities, 191 9-1 972. A somewhat dated,
but still valuable, regional compilation of master's-degree projects in music education was completed by Borg.28
Research Studies in Education, an amual compilation by Phi
Delta Kappa of doctoral dissertations, research reports, and field
studies, includes many in music.
The foregoing compilations merely list titles of graduate research; investigators who wish to examine the research in detail
can procure photographic copies of completed dissertations
(either full-sized or rnicroprint) and abstracts. University Microfilms, Inc., began publishing doctoral dissertations on microfilm in 1938. Comprehensive Dissertation InGex ( C D / ) , contains a listing by title only of all dissertations accepted by United
States and Canadian institutions from 186 1 to 1972, with amual
supplements. For the researcher who is starting to select a topic
for investigation, this should be a standard reference. With two or
three exceptions, all institutions of higher learning in the United
States and Canada that have doctoral programs send their dissertations to University Microfilms. Abstracts of no more than six
hundred words are contained in Dissertation Abstracts Inrernational. Music projects are listed under Section A (The
Humanities). University Microfilms has issued the recent catalog
Doctoral Dissertations Music: 1949-1964, which lists the author,
title, order number, and price of microfilm and Xerox copies of
approximately seven hundred music projects that have appeared
in Disserrarion Abstracts International and its predecessor, Microfilm Absrracrs. DATRIX,a new computerized data-retrieval system for doctoral studies operated by University Microfilms, will
be discussed in a later chapter. As noted earlier, some research
reports may be obtained on microcard from the Sibley Music
115
Library of the Eastman School of Music. Microcard Edition, Lnc.,

Washington, D.C., also has a limited number of items on microcard or microfiche of interest to the music researcher.
Since November of 1966
Government Publicarions
Resources in Education
(formerly Research in
Education) has been appearing monthly under the sponsorship of
the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC),of the
U.S. Office of Education. Currently there are sixteen ERIC
clearinghouses, which acquire, select, catalog, abstract, and index
the documents listed in Resources in Education (RIE). In 1969
ERIC began publishing CIJE (Current Index to Journals in Educarion), covering over seven hundred major journals that relate to
all areas of education. Useful in conjunction with RIE and CIJE
is Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors (7th ed., 1977), which contains
all subject headings or descriptors used for retrieval of documents
in the ERIC collection. As an example of the types of studies
handled by clearinghouses Kemeth S. Goodman's Music
Analysis: Applications t o Reading lnstruction, was published in
1973 by the ERIC Clearinghause on Reading and Communications Skills, Urbana, Illinois.
In order to make biographical informaNecrology
tion complete an investigator needs to
discover sources of necrology . To examine all issues of newspapers and periodicals for several years
to obtain this kind of information can be a very time-consuming
and frequently disappointing pursuit. Yet this undoubtedly is the
best way to procure the needed information if it is not available
elsewhere.
Fortunately for musicians and librarians, each June issue of
Nores includes a section on necrology. These accounts list names
of the deceased, their nationality and musical distinction, date and
place of death, and source or sources of obituary.
This writer has made it a continuing practice to clip obituaries
116
of musicians and other professionals from newspapers, and then,

after indicating date and publication, place them in a Special
folder. From time to time the accounts are sorted and clippings
appended to appropriate sources containing biographical sketches
of these people. Such a system has advantages only if it is regularly pursued over an extended period of time and if the researcher has recourse to a newspaper that has extensive national
and worldwide coverage.
Other publications, such as the Music Educators Journal and
Time, to mention only two with different coverage, also include
necrology. Additional sources of necrological information include Biography Index, the New York Times Index for Necrology, and annual supplements to an encyclopedia, such as the
Britannica Book of the Year. Maintaining a current chronography
of every author listed in the card catalog obviously is not the
responsibility of researchers. When data are not forthcoming,
however, they must obtain them as best they C&.
Studies of a historical or
Archives und Central
aesthetic nature may make it
Repositories
necessary for researchers to
examine manuscripts, writings, and other artifacts in libraries or archives that are not Open
to the general public. An investigator interested in studying the
compositions of New England composers Charles C. Perkins
(1823-1886) or James C. D. Parker (1828-1916), for exarnple,
almost certainly would need to plan a visit to the Harvard Musical
Association in boston to examine manuscripts, publications, and
other materials of these composers housed there. For one interested in early Moravian music the collections of the Moravian
Archives at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and Winston-Salem, North
Carolina, contain prime source materials.
Unlike public libraries, archives frequently are Open only by
invitation. Researchers, however, are usually granted the
117
privilege to make visits for research purposes if they follow the

protocol governing such matters: (1) ask permission to exarnine a
certain collection or collections at a time convenient to the archivist; (2) state purposes and objectives of the visit; and (3)
obtain sponsorship from an institution of higher learning or recognized scholar in the field who is interested in the research.
Authorities in the field and advisers usually can given excellent
advice relative to the most likely repositories containing the information a researcher is seeking.
The Midwest Library Center, housing rarely used materials that
normally circulate from the libraries of the Big Ten schools, and
the New York State Library system are examples of central repositories or circulation systems that enable researchers to procure materials that might otherwise be inaccessible to them. The
new developments in information retrieval that are coming to the
forefront will make it possible in the near future for scholars to
receive within minutes an item they may request. The material
will be transmitted by a Computer interchange system and can be
reprinted on the spot, as it were, for the use of the one requesting it.
The Music Education Historical Research Center, established
in 1965 at the University of Maryland in College Park, has become one of the most complete repositories of music-education
materials in the United States. Investigators can examine manuscripts, letters, Papers, speeches, textbooks, and other materials,
many of them irreplaceable, by the leaders in music education
both past and present. Also included are yearbooks, minutes from
meetings of music educators, state music-educators association
publications, early instmctional method books, and various publications in the field of music education.
Several individuals are preparing bibliographies of a composer's works or of articles in various areas of music for use with
information-retrieval systems. For example, The International
Repertory of Music Literature (RILM), mentioned earlier, a
118
computer-indexed international bibliography containing short

abstracts of scholarly works about music published since 1967, is
under the direct editorship of Barry S. Brook of the City University of New York.
One of the most important steps in research, it will be recalled,
is that of examining the literature in a chosen field to determine
the feasibility of a proposed study. The process seemingly is
open-ended because new and significant information appears
almost daily. It is important for the investigator either to possess
or to develop the proper techniques to make efficient use of the
many resources and processes of bibliographic information available. Some kinds of research are almost exclusively dependent on
information obtained from published and unpublished sources in
libraries, archives, and private collections. Historical research,
which best exemplifies this kind of investigation, will be discussed in the next chapter.

1. What techniques can make use of the library more effective?
2. Why is the library card catalog an important source of preliminary information?

3 . Compare methods of note taking. Give advantages and disadvantages of each one.
4. Consider the various photocopying processes and indicate
which ones are accessible in your local library.
5. Think of a specific music topic and list categories under which

reference materials may be found.
1 19
ALMACK,
JOHNV. Research und Thesis Writing. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1930. Chapter 9.
ARY,DONALD,LUCYC. JACOBS,
and ASGHAR
RAZAZVIEH.
Introduction to Research in Education, 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehan
and Winston, 1979, Chapter 3.
ASHER,J. WILLIAM.
BARZUN,JACQUES,
3rd ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977, Chapters 4, 5,
6.
BEST,JOHNW. Research in Education, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.:
BRICKMAN,
WILLIAMW. Research in Educatiom/ Histon. Norwood,
Pa.: Folcroft Library Editions, 1975, Chapters 3 and 6.
BURKE.ARVIDJ., and MARYA. BURKE.Documentation in Education,
4th ed., rev. New York: Teachers College Press, 1967, Chapters 2, 3,
5, 10, and 15-22.
DUCKLES,
VINCENT.Music Reference und Research Materials: An Annotated Bibliography, 3rd ed. New York: The Free Press, 1974.
ENGELHART,
MAX D. Methods of Educatioml Research. Chicago:
Fox, DAVIDJ. The Research Process in Education. New York: Holt,
GOOD, CARTERV. Essentials of Educational Research. New York:
HOPKINS,CHARLES
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill 1976, Chapter 12.
JONES,RALPHH., ed. Methods und Techniques of Educational Research. Danville, 111.: Interstate Printers and Publishers, 1973, pp.
35-48.
Manual of Music Librariamhip. Ann Arbor: Music Library Association, 1966, Chapters 5 and 10.
MOULY,GEORGE
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970, Chapter 5.
120
SAX, GILBERT. Empirical Foundations of Educational Research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall, 1968, Chapter 4.
SHAFERROBERTJ., ed. A Guide to Historical Method. rev. ed.
Homewood 111.: Dorsey Press, 1977, Chapter 4.
SMITH,HENRYL. Educational Research, Principles und Practices,
Bloomington: Educational Publications, 1944, Chapter 4.
TRAVERS,
ROBERT
M. W. An lntroduction to Educational Research, 4th
TUCKMAN
,BRUCEW. Conducting Educational Research, 2nd ed. New
VAN DALEN,DEOBOLD
lntroduction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979, Chapter 4.
WATANABE,
RUTH T. lntroduction to Music Research. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967, Chapters 1-7, 9- 12, 16-17.
WHITNEY,
FREDERICK
L. Thc Elements ofResearch, 3rd ed. Englewood
Cliffs, N .J .: Prentice-Hall, 1960, Chapter 4 and Appendix 3.
WIERSMA,
WILLIAM.
Research Methods in Educ-ation: An Introduction,
2nd ed. Itasca, 111.: F. E. Peacock, 1975, Chapter- 12.
5 . Historical Research: A
Chronicle of the Past
The collection of data pertaining to the past frequently is referred
to as history. Vincent notes that "history is a narrative of the
actions of human beings in comection with the topic of research,
whether it be in politics, law, religion, music, or mechanical
arts. ''I Nevins presents a different viewpoint: history is "actually
a bndge connecting the past with the presenf and pointing the
road to the future. ''=
When the data assembled are interpreted the process is known
as historiography, a procedure similar to the fourth of Dewey's
steps of reflective thinking (accumulation and codification of
data) discussed in Chapter 1 of this book. Researchers in music
education who use the historical method consequently are ex-
122
pected not only to obtain various kinds of data about the past
related to their topic, but also to interpret them according to
generally accepted techniques of historiography. Historical research, as is tme with all methods or procedures for obtaining
data, must employ the scientific method to solve problems in
history. Defining an approach that is predicated on the scientific
method, Fischer says that history is "a problem-solving discipline" and the historian is someone who "asks an open-ended
question about past events and answers it with selected facts
which are arranged in the form of an explanatory ~ a r a d i g m . " ~
Purposes of Historical Research

Historical research is pursued for a variety of,purposes. Study
of the past may serve as the basis for understanding the present or
for predicting the future. Although this concept is not used as
extensively in music education as it is in the social or political
sciences, researchers may study stylistic periods in music, for
example, with this objective in mind. The simpler and emotionally restrained Classical period may be better understood when
contrasted with the highly chromatic, introspective, and less formal Romantic era. In the same manner, concepts of neoclassicism
might become more evident when compared with classicism.
A desire to learn more about the life of a significant music
educator, contemporary or deceased, or the organization, developrnent, and infiuence of a performing group or a professional
organization, presents many opportunities for a researcher who
has an inclination in any of these directions. A historical study of
the contributions to music and music education of Luther Whiting
Mason (1 828- 1896) or Charles H. Fmsworth (1859- 1947)
would be exarnples of the former. Representative of the latter
might be "The Chicago Symphony and Its Role in the Improve-
Historical Research
123
ment of Musical Standards in Nineteenth-Century United States"

or "History of NIMAC and Its lnfluence on Music Education."
The quest for information to complete a missing link in the
figurative chain of knowledge is a third reason for the student of
music education to undertake historical research. Recent investigations into the musical contributions of the Moravians in
America is an example of filling a gap in the history of music in
America.
Undoubtedly the most significant reason for involvement in
history today is the Same one given by Thucydides (c.460-c.400
BC),generally acclaimed as the "father " of the modern historical
method, who remarked that his purpose was "not to write for
immediate applause but for posterity. " This eminent Greek historian also explained very astutely that it was his duty to supplement and compare, as accurately as possible, his own observations of the Peloponnesian War (43 1-404 BC)with the reports of
eyewitnesses.
Although historical research in music is often regarded as the
exclusive province of musicology, there really is little justification for this restrictiveness, as an examination of historical studies
in music education over the past twenty years will reveal. Garrett,
in defining the function of the musicologist, indicates that the
researcher uses scholarly procedures to locate and organize data
relating to the evolution of all types of m ~ s i cThese
. ~ Same conditions are incumbent upon the music educator engaged in historical research. There is no need, as is commonly done, for
investigators who use the scientific method to be rigidly labeled
according to some narrow, arbitrary distinction like historian,
musician, or educator. Rather, they should be regarded as "research scholars." This is in harmony with the views of Hockett,
who considers the usefulness of history as the "intellectual honesty
which should be developed by the quest for truth in any field of
knowledge, in defiance of all temptations to wander from the
strait and narrow path which alone can lead to it. "5
124
Historical Research Procedures

Historical research is based on certain steps or procedures that,
Hockett states, consist of "the gathering of data; the criticism of
data; and the presentation of facts, interpretation, and conclusions
in readable form."6 The first point is closely related to the
sources and kinds of information needed for the study. External
and internal criticism, to be discussed later in this chapter, are
used respectively to determine the truthfulness and trustworthiness of the data. Hockett's final step, relating to exposition and
interpretation of data, already has been referred to as historiography, but will continue to be discussed throughout this chapter.
Gottschalk has a slightly different emphasis, asserting that
"historical facts have to be (1) selected (2) arranged, (3) emphasized or minimized and (4) placed in some sort of causal
sequence. '" Gottschalk's first two steps relate Jo what Hockett
calls "gathering of data." His third point bears a relationship to
Hockett's "criticism of data" but with positive or negative implications. Finally, Gottschalk's sequence of data placement is
closely allied to Hockett's "interpretations and conclusions. "
Barzun and Graff present a more succinct statement about research procedures applicable to historical research: the subject or
topic "is defined by that group of associated facts und ideas
which, when clearly presented in a prescribed amount of space,
leave no questions unanswered WITHIN the presentation, even
though many questions could be asked OUTSIDE it."* Historical
research is sometimes criticized for being too subjective because
historiographers are not always in a position to exercise the rigid
controls that natural scientists regard as absolutely essential. Historiographers, unlike scientists, normally are concemed with more
than an observation of the present. When involved in the preservation of today's chronology, which tomorrow will be history,
historiographers must be just as accurate and precise as natural
scientists in order to realize the objective of presenting and inter-
Historical Research
125
preting the truth. A music critic, attending the world premiere of a

composition by either a renowned or unknown Composer, is on
the threshold of history, as it were. The critic's responsibility to
the musical world in accurately reporting the performance of this
new work is essentially no different from that of the reporter who
writes the proceedings of a conference of the world's leaders for
dissemination to the general public. Both have an obligation to
provide information that is as objective, truthful, and unbiased as
is humanly possible.
The classic "who, what, where, when, why, " timewom as it
may seem, is another way to look at a procedure for collecting
historical data. Researchers in history, however, should always be
aware that they may never be able to obtain all the information
needed and that additional sources may be discovered later that
will refute what they believe to be true based on their evidence.
The onus is on researchers to verify all data as best they can.
Discussing the importance of verification of Statements, Shafer
states that a researcher "must make the best judgments he can on
every statement that is important to his investigation. In every
case the judgment is one of varying degrees of probabilityprobably true, probably accurate, probably untrue, probably inaccurate. "9
Source Materials
Source materials used by the historiographer are normally of
two kinds, primary and secondary. A primary source of data, as
noted in Chapter 3, is "firsthand" information. When data are
not original to the one reporting them they become "secondhand" or secondary sources. It is also possible to obtain information from a "tertiary" or other source even further removed
from the original. Every effort should be made, though, to obtain
original data because the basis of historical research is the pn-
126
mary source. According to Mason and Bramble, historiographers

recognize the necessity of directing their energies to obtain this
kind of information.I0
An investigator preparing the biography of a living person
might use such primary source materials as correspondence with
and publications by the subject; legal and personal documents,
such as contracts, wills, and diaries; newspaper items; photographs and photocopies; concert programs; oral and written reports by contemporaries; and tape recordings of personal interviews.
Secondary sources often have value but should be used only
when primary sources are untrustworthy or difficult to procure.
Brickman asserts, however, that reliable secondary sources are
preferable to primary sources that are questionable or incomplete.ll Secondary sources worthy of merit will be adequately
documented since they should be based on primary materials.
Accounts of a concert written by someone other than the person
actually present are secondary, as are specially prepared Summary
accounts of the minutes of official meetings. History books and
many encyclopedia articles are secondary even though the author
may have had recourse to primary materials. Likewise, publications by an individual may be primary sources, but when excerpts
from then are quoted by another they become secondary.
Biographical accounts of composers frequently include an
analysis of their music to indicate how events of their lives may
have influenced their creativity. For example, Vallis, in a doctoral
study, incorporated biographical information into an aesthetic inquiry that involved an analysis of Brahms's concertos to trace
evidences of the Baroque instrumental style in these works.12
Vallis concluded that Brahms was not only a crusader for
Baroque music, but that he also incorporated such Baroque elements as counterpoint and the concertato principle into his concertos; the texture and rhythm were characteristically Baroque in
many instances.
Historical Research
127
Selection of Topic
Although factors in the selection of a topic already have been
discussed at considerable length in Chapter 2, five that Brickman
considers to be significant before an investigator decides on a
historical-research topic are: (1) interest, (2) source materials
available, (3) the time factor, (4) relevance to course, and (5)
specialized knowledge . I 3 The reader will recognize immediately
that these steps differ only slightly in emphasis from those listed
in Chapter 2.
Researchers in music education should direct their energies
toward a topic in which they have an intense interest. A highschool choral director, for instance, might Want to write a history
of the high-school choral contest-festival movement in the United
States. Preliminary investigation may reveal that source materials
are so limited that it would be impractical to continue with the
original idea without expanding its scope. Such expansion would
obviously require additional time, a factor that might not be feasible in a Situation where a deadline becomes an extemal factor
imposed only by the duration of the instructional period.
One aspect has not yet been mentioned: Brickman states emphatically that the topic of a research report should bear relevance
to the objectives of the research class.14 While there may be
exceptions, it is only logical that researchers in music education
select a topic that they can develop in relation to music education.
One of the principal objectives of a music-education research
course is to give students experience in making practical application of the precepts they l e r n there. Taking Brickman's enjoinder more seriously could result in fewer unsuitable musiceducation research proposals.
In the realm of specialized knowledge, the researcher who
considers a study of the history of music education in Germany,
to cite a possibility, should obviously possess both a knowledge
of the history of music education in general and an adequate
128
reading comprehension of German, the language in which most

primary sources would appear. It would be very impractical, as
noted earlier, to attempt logical translations with the use of a
German-English lexicon exclusively, especially if one were unfamiliar with music-education terminology and philosophical
principles.
Oral History
The origins of Oral History date back to 1948, when Columbia
University professor Allan Nevins conducted an oral-history
interview with George McAney, a New York civic leader. The
Columbia University Oral History Collection now includes the
memoirs of over three thousand people and 375,000 pages of
transcript. Oral history is a procedure or method fpr obtaining and
preserving historical information in spoken form based on the
interview. Data gathered through oral-history interviews are
largely intended for future use by historians rather than for the
substantiation of hypotheses, as would be the case in experimental
or descriptive research. Cutler states that "knowledge about the
past passes by word of mouth from generation to generation, and
not only must the scholar capture it but he must also try somehow
to filter the significant from the inconsequential as well as the
truth from the exaggerated."15 The collection of data in oralhistory research is not by means of spontaneous or random interview~,but by the following steps:
(1) invitation by the researcher to individuals to
participate;
(2) preparation for the interview;
(3) preinterview visit;
(4) the interview session (tape recorded);
(5) preparation of verbatim transcript of the
interview;
Historical Research
129
(6) submission of transcript to interviewee for

corrections and additions, along with legal
draft agreement;
(7) concluding the legal agreement and contract
or statement of gift; and
(8) preparation of final copy of interview.
Before sending an invitation to prospective interviewees researchers must identify the purposes of the research and the
problem to be investigated. If the oral-history project involves
working in a remote area, individuals able to provide the desired
information must first be identified, and then necessary preparations arranged, such as housing for the researcher, equipment to
be used (usually portable battery-operated cassette tape recorder
and adequate supply of tapes), and mode of transportation to
reach the interviewees. The researcher meets and establishes rapport with the interviewees, indicating purpose of the interview
and arranging a definite time and place for the next meeting.
Researchers should use a portable tape recorder because they will
not have time to write down everything of importance that the
Person being interviewed may say. An added advantage is that a
tape recording may be replayed as many times as necessary to
obtain a literal transcript of the interview. A verbatim transcript
allows the interviewee to make additions, corrections, or deletions and to protect both parties from any legal action that might
result.
Legal documents should be worked out with the interviewer's
attomey. Once editorial and legal details have been clarified the
final document is submitted for signature, and the contract or
statement is made indicating the type of remuneration the interviewee is to receive. The oral-history process culminates in the
preparation of the copy to be deposited in some archive or central
repository for the benefit of other researchers.
Oral-history studies in music education have been infrequent to
date, but this should change as researchers become more in-
130
terested in sociological and cultural studies that impinge on

music. However, recent national and regional meetings of the
Music Educators National Conference have included sessions devoted to oral history.
One of the most recent oral-history studies in music education
was completed by Brobston.16 In the first part of his study
Brobston presented the antecedents of gospel music, music used
by evangelists in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and the
current Status of gospel music in the South, including singing
conventions, publishers of gospel music, and performers. The
second part of his study contained the field research, or oralhistory aspect. This was conducted in twenty-five counties of
South Georgia selected at random, from which twenty-three farnily singing groups were interviewed and recorded in actual performance. Brobston concluded that there appears tobe no signifiCant diminution of gospel-singing activity in the geographical
area included in his study.
The Oral History Association publishes two sources of information that should be helpful to music-education researchers:
Oral History Association Newsletter and the annual Oral History
Review. Both contain articles, abstracts of studies that have been
completed and a listing of recent publications dealing with oral
history. One such citation is Cooper's "Popular Songs as Oral
History: Teaching Black History Through Contemporary Audio
R e s o ~ r c e s . ' "At
~ the time of this writing The Oral History Collection of Columbia University, 1978-1983 was in preparation. It
is to be a dictionary-catalog of entries in the Oral History Collection at Columbia University.
Historical Research Data Gathering

Musicians involved in historical research will most likely find
that their data fall into one or more of the following categories:
Historical Research
131
that of (1) heretofore-unknown information about an individual,

group, object, or era; (2) uncovering heretofore-unknown creativity of an individual; (3) uncovenng a more complete or an authentic copy of an individual's work; (4) uncovering an individual's
creative efforts that were known to have been written but believed
not to be extant; (5) collecting, codifying, or analyzing information of historical import from diverse sources; (6) verifying that
documents, statements, or creative works reputedly by an individual are spurious; and (7) rectifying incorrect statements, dates,
or information previously accepted as true.
One of the most gratifying by-products of historical research is
the discovery of heretofore-unknown information. Although such
data result from serendipity, opportunities for revelations of this
kind are too infrequent in music and music education. The most
likely sources of such information are newly discovered manuscripts, personal letters, or documents that previously were unavailable to the general public. Barzun and Graff give an interesting account of the former's discovery of a previously suppressed
letter of Berlioz that appeared shortly after the first appearance of
his "Rakoczy March" in 1846. The original was not only misdated but also distorted from a letter basically musical in content
to one with "political " implications. l 8
Even more significant than Barzun's discovery is the announcement by Richard L. Crocker, professor of music history at
the University of California at Berkeley, that the deciphering of a
Song on clay tablets pushes the history of music back a thousand
years to the second millennium BC. Unearthed by French archaeologists in the 1950s in Ugarit, in what is now Syria, the
cuneiform symbols were undecipherable until 1972. The Song is
based on the Same heptatonic diatonic scale in use today in Western music. Crocker states that it sounds like a lullaby, hymn, or
gentle folk song.19
Discoveries of heretofore-unknown creativity normally are of
two kinds: items that have been identified positively as authentic
132
and those about which some question remains regarding authenticity. Newspapers and periodicals like the Journal of the American Musicological Socieo and the Musical Quarterly frequently
contain accounts of the discovery of lost items. Pauly, for example, reports on some newly discovered manuscripts of Michael
Haydn (1737- 1806), a Composer of sacred music and younger
brother of Franz Joseph Haydn (1732- 1809). Pauly indicates that
as the result of several months of research in libraries in Austria,
France, Germany, and Italy he located extensive holdings, previously unknown, of the younger Haydn's manuscripts in the
Bavarian State Library in Munich and in monasteries throughout
Au~tria.~O
The Amencan concert pianist Byron Janis identified a
hitherto-lost manuscript copy of Chopin's "Waltz in G Flat
Major, " Op. 70, No. 1. Found at the Chateau de Thoiry in
Yvelines, France, the manuscript was unearthed in a box marked
"old clothes" by the mansion's owner, B u n t Paul de La
Panouse, who showed the work to Janis. The connection between
Chopin and the Panouse family is that Chopin's friend, French
writer Eugene Sue, was in love with the second wife of one of
Count Paul's ancestors. Janis, recognizing the importance of the
manuscript, had it authenticated by Chopin expert Francois LeSure, of the Societe Francaise de M~sicologie.~'
Discovered at the
Same time and in the same place was the "E Flat Waltz," Op. 18,
the ''Grande Valse Brillante. "22
The discovery a few years ago of a Violin Concerto in C
Major, reputedly by Beethoven, is an example of a composition
the authenticity of which remains uncertain. Only further investigation will reveal whether this does belong in fact to Beethoven's
catalog of works.
In addition to locating previously unknown works, another
source of personal satisfaction to a researcher is to uncover a
more complete or authentic copy of a musical composition or
other creative work. This writer, for example, while examining
Historical Research
133
stacks of uncataloged instrumental music in the Moravian Archives in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, in 1949, located a
complete set of the Three Trios, Op. 3, of John Antes (174018 1 l), minus the last Page of the violoncello part. John Bland of
London published these undated trios, apparently about 1785,
because Antes was known to have been in England then. Prior to
this wnter's discovery the only known set in existence consisted
of a second violin and a violoncello part owned by the Sibley
Music Library of the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New
York. A comparison of the Eastman and Winston-Salem copies
disclosed exact duplication. Thus, by using the Winston-Salem
first and second violin parts and the Eastman violoncello part it
was possible to present the first modern performance of Trio in D
Minor, Op. 3 , No. 2, the second of these charming Haydnesque
trios, at the University of lowa, Iowa City, on May 19, 1950, with
violinists Stella Hopper and Joame Dempsey and violoncellist
Charles Becker as performing artists.
Antes, whose surname is the Greek equivalent of von Blume,
was born at Frederick-trop, Montgomery County, Pemsylvania,
on March 24, 1740. In accord with prevailing educational philosophy of the Moravians at that time Antes intensively pursued
musical instruction in his youth in addition to his other studies. In
1769, after being ordained at Marienborn, Germany, he went to
Egypt as a missionary. While recuperating from physical afflictions Antes composed some quartets and other pieces before retuming to Europe in 1782. In Viema, according to Grider, Antes
met Haydn, who assisted other musicians in the performance of
some of his c o m p o s i t i ~ n sIt
. ~was
~ during this period of convalescence in Cairo that the trios were written, as indicated by the
inscription of the title page, which states in part "Composti a
Grand Cairo da1 Sigre Giovanni A-T-S. Dillettante Americano.
Op. 3" (Composed at Grand Cairo by Mr. John A-T-S. American Dilettante. Op. 3.). Quite in keeping with the custom of the
time, Antes perplexingly listed himself as A-T-S, a factor that
134
resulted in his anonymity until 1940, when Carleton Sprague

Smith, then chief of the Music Division of the New York Public
Library, revealed the identity of this important Moravian compo~er.~~
When any work is unearthed its importance ultimately may rest
on its value when viewed in light of historical perspective. Under
ordinary circumstances the discovery of works by someone such
as Antes, who is relatively unknown to music educators, probably
would go unheralded. In terms of historical perspective, however,
the Antes Trios assume a new dimension. They represent, as far
as the writer has been able to discern, the earliest extant chamber
music written by a native-born A m e r i ~ a n . ~ ~
Another phase of historical research in music education that is
bound to bring personal gratification is ferreting out creative efforts known to have been written but believed not to be extant. At
the Moravian Archives in Winston-Salem, in the same pile of
uncataloged instrumental compositions that c'ontained the Antes
Trios, this writer discovered the manuscript of "Parthia IX, " by
David Moritz Michael (1 75 1- 1825), generally regarded as the
most important nineteenth-century Moravian instrumental composer. Rau and David, in their catalog of American Moravian
music, report that "Psrthia IX" was not to be found in Bethiehem
. ~ ~and David had indicated that the
nor Lititz in P e ~ s y l v a n i aRau
collections of Lititz and Bethlehem contained thirteen wind partier~.~'With the finding of "Parthia IX" it may safely be stated
that Michael composed at least fourteen partien, all of which
exist in manuscript in the Moravian Archives either at Bethlehem,
which now contain the former Lititz holdings, or at WinstonSalem.28 Since Bethiehem and Winston-Salem served as
ecclesiastical headquarters for the northern and southern divisions
of the Moravian Church, respectively, the duplication in manuscript of some compositions in the archives of these two cities
may be explained by the constant interchange of personnel.
Historical Research
135
Michael, however, confined his activities to Bethlehem and

Nazareth, Pemsylvania.
These partien, in accordance with the meaning of the word,
were meant to be performed out-of-doors. Grider notes that they
usually were performed from a balcony of the home of the
Moravian Brethren on Wednesday evenings during the summer
for the benefit of the citizens of the c ~ m m u n i t y . ~ ~
In four short technically easy movements, "Parthia IX," except for the second movement, is scored for two clarinets in Bb,
two French horns in Bb, and bassoon. The first (Allegro), third
(Minuet), and fourth (Allegro) are in the key of B b Major. The
second (Andante), in the key of F Major, is scored only for two
Bb clarinets and bassoon.
The Polish-born violinist Henryk Szeryng, after a seven-year
search, finally located a manuscript copy of Concerto No. 3 in E
Major, by violin virtuos0 Nicolo Paganini (1782- 1840). It was
known that Paganini had written five violin concertos, but prior to
Szeryng's rediscovery Concerto No. 3 was the only one that had
not been found. Authenticity of the work was verified by French
musicologists .30
Keahey, in a doctoral dissertation, analyzed eight tnos by J. S.
Bach's youngest son, Johann Christian Bach, that are not found
anywhere else. Included also is a thematic index to update Terry 's 1929 biography of the c ~ m p o s e r . ~ '
Collecting, codifying, or analyzing information of historical
import from diverse sources, sometimes known as "documentary
research," represents another very important aspect of historical
research in music education. In a doctoral study exemplifying this
type of research Bagdon brought together many sources to present a concise picture of musical activities in Charleston, South
Carolina, which in 1735 was the site of the first ballad-opera
Performance in America, Flora, Hob in the Well. Bagdon declared that the St. Cecilia Society, founded in 1766, was one of
136
the first musical organizations in America, and although musical

culture was largely imported from England, teachers and instruments were readily available in C h a r l e ~ t o n . ~ ~
In documentary research investigators assemble data from all
available sources, codify them, and present their interpretations.
The value of this type of study for both the musical layperson and
the professional music educator is obvious. Someone who has
neither the time nor the inclination to ferret out answers to questions usually welcomes the opportunity to obtain detailed and
comprehensive information from one codified source. It is for
this reason that dictionaries and encyclopedias of musical biography , terminology, and other kinds of information are so widely
used by music educators and others who are seeking ready references.
The annals of historiography are replete with examples of
documents, statements, compositions, or items that, although they
may have been accepted at one time as authentic, subsequently
have been proven to be spurious. An often-quoted example is the
account of the fantastic and fanciful Cardiff Giant, unearthed in
upstate New York in the late nineteenth century. Good tells of a
different type of chicanery involving an individual who received
a baccalaureate degree from a music school in 1950 and who, by
1963, through extensive forgery, was able to fabricate a transcript,
complete with official registrar's seal, equivalent to two graduate
d e g r e e ~ This
. ~ ~ writer's evaluation of the authenticity of a string
quartet allegedly by Benjamin Franklin and a copy of a composition supposedly by Sidney Lanier will be discussed later in this
chapter under "External Criticism. "
Numerous examples exist in music as well as in general history
for the rectification of statements, dates, or beliefs that previously
have been accepted as correct. Brickman, Gottschalk Hockett,
and Nevins present several accounts to show that many anecdotes
and statements attributed to George Washington, Thomas Jeffer-
Historical Research
137
son, and Abraham Lincoln, among many other distinguished

Amencans, have proven to be illusory.
The correction of an improperly dated musical example well
known to students of music history is cited. Hockett, in reporting
on the English round Surner is icurnen in, says:
A recent example of misdating due to unskillful use of
evidence concems an old musical piece known from
its opening words as Sumer is icumen. Nineteenthcentury historians thought it was written about 1240
because that was the date of another piece in the same
manuscript. Not until the 1940s was the error discovered when a professor from an American university
pointed out that the handwriting of the two pieces was
not the same, and that the musical notation of the
Sumer did not come into use until long after 1240,
making the probable date of Surner about 1310.34
This rectification of date was made by the late Manfred Bukofzer
(1910-1955).
Another interesting example of misdating is the claim that
Boston University, in 1876, was the first institution to grant the
Bachelor of Music degree in the United States. Eells, however,
relates that a report of U.S. Commissioner of Education for 1873
confirms that the distinction properly belongs to Adrian College
in Michigan. He notes that Trustees Minutes of Adrian College,
dated June 1873, list Mrs. Mattie B. Pease Lowrie as the recipient
of a Bachelor of Music degree in 1873.35Eells also reports that
the first honorary degree in music was awarded by Georgetown
University to Henry Dielman by Zachary Taylor, the twelfth President of the United States. Eells, quoting Shea, states that this
apparently was the only time a President of the United States has
been privileged to award honorary d e g r e e ~ . ~ ~
Evaluating results of information has been discussed to some
extent in conjunction with the seven kinds of data mentioned
138
earlier in this chapter. The historical method, however, is more

explicitly concemed with external and internal criticism, or the
"how " techniques.
External Criticism or Authenticity

Through the process of external (or lower) criticisrn the investigator learns whether or not the subject of scrutiny is authentic.
Many aspects constitute the overall meaning of external criticism, but the prime objective is to determine whether or not
the item of concern is genuine. Hockett, in defining extemal
criticisrn, states: "It examines documents-a comprehensive term
which. . . includes not only rnanuscripts but books, pamphlets,
maps, and even ancient inscriptions and monuments. "37 Verification of authenticity also is part of the external-criticism procedure. Fischer, insisting that the successful obtcome of factual
verification rnay rest on the skill of the researcher, says: "A
historian must not merely tell truths, but demonstrate their truthfulness as well. He is judged not simply by his veracity, but by his
skill at verification. "38 One of the purposes of extemal criticisrn
is to detect forgeries. Shafer points out that in 1648 Kircher
published what he alleged was the lost accompanirnent to Pindar's first "Pythian Ode, " a fabrication later proven to be f a l ~ e . ~ ~
Some of the questions that might be asked by a researcher in
music education who is engaged in the process of extemal criticism are: (1) Where was the item originally located? Where is it
now? (2) 1s this document an original version or a copy? If a
copy, where is the original? (3) What is the estimated age of the
item? Does it appear to be as old as it should be to be authentic?
(4) Are there autographs or other identifications that will rnake
the process of verification easier? (5) Is the handwriting (in the
case of manuscripts) consistent with other items by the reputed
writer? (6) Are there any indications (diaries, newspaper ac-
Historical Research
139
counts, etc.) that such an item may have existed? and (7) 1s there
any reason to suspect that this item may be a hoax?
In the process of external criticisrn it often becomes necessary
to probe auxiliary areas of knowledge. Some of the fields musicians most frequently consult seem to be photography, paleography , sernantics, chronology , genealogy , and cartography .
Sometimes they may even find themselves trying to determine the
watermark of a document as well as the age and kind of paper
used .
For answers to the questions posed above through the principles of external criticism, consider an intriguing and beguiling
flute and piano composition by Sidney Lanier (1842- 188 1) entitled "Danse des Moucherons. " This writer has in his possession
a negative photostat of this short, rhapsodic, chromatic work. In
an attempt to locate the original manuscript he checked the holdings of the Lanier Room at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore,
Oglethorpe University in Georgia, and other likely sources without
success. In addition, personal correspondence with Lanier's children, each of whom courteously replied, failed to shed any light
on rnanuscripts other than those at Johns Hopkins, which, as just
noted, does not possess the original to "Danse des Moucherons."
Henry W. Lanier, who indicated that his manuscripts had been
given to the Lanier collection at Johns Hopkins University, wrote
the following regarding his father, a self-taught flutist and poet:
"He once said to his wife what I believe to be literally true-that
the difficulty with him was not to write down music. The moment he had time and strength, there were songs ready to be
born.
Several brief sketches may be found in the Lanier Roorn
at Johns Hopkins, including his projected "Quartette," "Tuno
Religioso" (for two flutes or violas), "La Reve" (three flutes and
bass flute), and "Trio for flute, pianoforte and violoncello. "
External criticisrn can thus give but inconclusive answers to the
first two questions. As to the third, this writer was informed that
his copy was reproduced directly from the original manuscript.
140
The date 1873 appears after Lanier's name, yet the style of handwriting with regard to tempo and dynamics is inconsistent. The
tempo markings in particular appear to be in a more contemporary hand, especially on the last two pages of the six-page composition. In addition, the twelve-line manuscript paper on which
the composition was written bears this inscription: "Carl Fischer,
New York. Monarch Brand Warranted. " It is tme that Sidney
Lanier spent some time in New York from 1870 to 1872, the year
in which Carl Fischer arrived in the city. Fischer's first business
venture, however, was in musical instruments. It was not until considerably later that the publishing phase of the company began.
There are no autographs, holographs, or other identifications on
this writer's copy to suggest a negative answer to the fourth
question. The composer's name is written in a combination of
upper- and lower-case hand lettering. The tempo and dynamic
terms, as just noted, appear to be in two different hands, making
them difficult to compare with the holograph bf the composer's
name and identification of the composition. Starke, in his biographical and critical account of Lanier's life, includes a photostatic copy of the flute part of the second and concluding Page of
Lanier's "Gnat Symphony, " which consists of only three and
one-half l i n e ~ . ~The
' Page does contain Lanier's account, in a
very neat and unhurried handwriting, of the composition, which
the Composer describes as a "translation of the sound. " As already related, this writer's copy contains six pages, including the
piano part, but the last twelve measures of the flute part in the two
versions do not agree.
In response to the fifth question, a comparison was made of the
item just cited and another one by Lanier, his unaccompanied
flute solo "Wind Song, " which Starke states was performed in
October of 1874, but apparently was written e ~ l i e rThere
. ~ ~ is a
strong similarity in handwriting; both appear in a style that shows
a lighter, more delicate, and less hurried stroke than that in the
copy of "Danse des Moucherons" possessed by this writer.
Historical Research
141
That such an item by this Georgia-bom poet-musician may

have existed, the object of the sixth question, has already been
established in conjunction with the previous discussion, and the
title is listed in Starke's bibliography under "Music by
Lanier."43 It also is listed in Centennial Edition of the Works ancl
Letters of Sidney L ~ n i e r . ~ ~
In answer to the seventh question, it would appear that the
authenticity of this copy of "Danse des Moucherons" must be
Open to serious question because of the discrepancies that exist,
although the composition is listed by both Starke and Graham.
Perhaps additional research will result in more convincing data to
suggest otherwise. Hockett pinpoints the universal dilemma faced
by historians who must pass judgment on a document, especially
if there are some questions about its veracity, prudently noting
that additional evidence eventually may appear to alter previously
accepted i d e a ~ . ~ ~
To cite another example of the application of principles of
extemal criticism, this writer became intrigued by an item that
appeared in a now-defunct New York City newspaper a few years
ago. The article, a dispatch from Lynchburg, Virginia, stated in
part that a previously unknown quartet for strings by Benjamin
Franklin was soon to have its initial performance in Philadelphia,
largely through the efforts of a woman who was an associate
professor of French at a local woman's college. The professor's
attention was called to this composition by the owner of a Parisian bookstore in which she was browsing. The article stated that
the quartet was discovered by an eminent musicologist in a pile
of forgotten works, although their location was not d i s ~ l o s e d . ~ ~
Several factors should be noted relative to this quartet. The
original manuscript, in tablature, was reputed by the transcriber to
be housed in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. In correspondence with this writer, however, music librarian E. Lebeau
indicated: "La Bibliotheque nationale, et la Bibliotheque du Conservatoire qui en fait partie, ne possedent ni quatuor ni aucune
142
Oeuvre musicale de Banjarnin Franklin. "47 [The national library

and the library of the Conservatory which is a Part of it, possess
neither the quartet nor any other musical composition of Benjamin Franklin. ]
The real motive behind the use of tablature would be interesting to leam. In the preface to his transcription, which was published in 1945, the transcriber reports that the original is in the
handwriting of a professional copyist of the late eighteenth century, who otherwise remains unidentified. Benjamin Franklin
served as United States Ambassador to France from 1776 to 1785,
and it is known that he attended concerts in Paris, including
performances of chamber music at the salon of Madame Helvetius d'Auteui1. It does seem rather Strange, though, that tablature would be used for a string quartet so late in the eighteenth
century, since this type of writing, except for guitar and other
fretted instruments, had largely been replaced by the conventionai
system of notation currently in use. Also unexplained is the
rationale for placing each of the four instruments (three violins
and violoncello) in scordatura. The use of this system of mistuning by Heinrich Biber (1644-1704) is well known, but the simple,
uninteresting, Single melody line employed for each instrument in
the alleged Franklin quartet suggests no need for scordatura,
which normally was used with multiple stops. By using scordatura, however, instrumentalists can play each of the parts in the
Franklin quartet entirely on Open strings, another curious circumstance.
The quartet is in five short movements. The first bears no
subtitle, but appears to be in a march tempo. Other movements
are: menuetto, capriccio, menuetto, and siciliano. The capriccio
and siciliano are basically tripartite while the others are in two
parts structurally. Unusual too, is the inclusion of five
movements in a quartet of this period in musical history, as is the
use of three violins and violoncello.
Information from the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, where
the first contemporary performance of the quartet was scheduled
Historical Research
143
was to the effect that the work had not yet been presented. Furthermore, all attempts to communicate with the discoverer and the
transcriber of the work proved to be fmitless. These repeated
efforts continued for approximately two years, until the death of
the transcriber.
A review of a performance of the alleged Franklin quartet
appeared in a New York newspaper, but no additional information was provided to suggest that the work was genuine, except
that the version examined by this writer had been further edited
and corrected by yet another i n d i v i d ~ a l . ~ ~
Finally, no definite proof has been advanced to show that
Franklin actually knew enough about the technique of musical
composition to enable him to compose a quartet, or any other
musical work for that matter. True, he often is credited with the
invention of the armonica, or musical glasses, a distinction he
disclaimed. Franklin, however, admittedly did make many improvements on the instrument, whose sweet and pleasant tinkling
Sounds were produced by moistened fingers massaging rotating
tumblers of different frequencies. The armonica, or musical glasSes, so intrigued Mozart and Beethoven that they composed several pieces for the instrument.
In view of the rather consistent pattem of negative evidence, or
lack of evidence, it must be conceded that this work unquestionably is spurious. The Franklin quartet appears to be a musical joke,
the product of an anonymous jester. It always is possible, though,
that more positive data may be forthcoming in the future that
could result in a more exact evaluation.
Interna1 Criticism or Credibility

Had the evidence regarding the Lanier and Franklin compositions been more positive, investigation of other factors, known
as internal (or higher) criticism, could have proceeded. There are
many occasions when this additional step is necessary. Although
144
extemal criticism may establish that a document, item, or statement is authentic, there may be inaccuracies or inconsistencies
within, as Nevins reports: "While it is sometimes troublesome to
establish the authenticity of a historical source, that is usually an
easy matter compared with making certain of the entire integrity
of a source. "49 The purpose of intemal criticism, according to
Gottschalk, is to establish whether data are "at all credible, and if
so, to what extent.
Experienced researchers frequently engage
in external and intemal criticism simultaneously, in which they
will use information from one to assist in the implementation of
the other.
Some historiographers divide intemal criticism into positive
and negative phases. Making a distinction between them,
Brickman states that positive criticism tries to ascertain the true
meaning of Statements, whereas negative criticism concems a
researcher's rationale for discrediting them as evidenced by the
partiality or inefficiency displayed by the ~ r i t C r . ~ l
The investigator in music education who is dealing with internal criticism must answer the questions: (1) Is the document
consistent stylistically with others by the writer? Are there
major inconsistencies? (2) Are there any indications that the
writer's reporting was inaccurate? (3) Does the writer actually
mean what he or she says? (4) Could this work have been written
by someone else in the style of the individual? and (5) 1s there any
evidence that the writer is biased or prejudiced?
lt generally is conceded that artists do change their manner of
expressing themselves stylistically due to the natural process of
artistic growth and development. For example, students of music
literature are regularly concemed with comparing various characteristics of a composer's stylistic periods. One of the most obvious examples is the three distinctive epochs in the creative life of
Ludwig van Beethoven (1 770- 1827); the first ending about 1802,
the second approximately in 1815, and the third in 1827.
Although Composers may show stylistic changes during their
lifetime, the musical idioms that they favor usually persist
Historical Research
145
throughout their creative life. Characteristic idioms serve as

guides for the researcher when attempting to ascertain whether
the composition in question is consistent with others by the Same
composer. Major inconsistencies may result from the composer's
deliberately altering an accustomed style by using different
idioms. On the other hand, the incongruent features also suggest
that these works are indeed by two different individuals. In the
instance of a composer like Arnold Schoenberg (1874- 195l), a
change in both stylistic characteristics and musical idioms is apparent in the transition from the postromantic style of the Verklrte Nacht to dodecaphonic Pierrot Lunaire.
Occasionally inaccuracies will be suspected in a document.
Barzun and Graff describe the incorrect dating of a letter by
Berlioz to his publisher indicating that he was forwarding the
Table of Contents to a book. Berlioz dated his communication
"Thursday June 23"; Barzun and Graff point out that the year
must have been 1852, in which case June 23 fell on Wednesday.
They also remind their readers that it was not unusual for Berlioz
to mistake the day of the ~ e e k . ~ ~
A third question that might be raised in regard to internal
criticism is whether or not the writer actually meant what he or
she said. Although some confusion understandably could come
from writers assuming that their readers comprehend and agree
with their definition and use of certain terminology, misunderstandings are often more than merely problems of semantics.
Witness persons who use the word "cornett" when "comet" is
intended. Despite the difference of only a single t the instruments
are vastly dissimilar in nature. The former refers to an obsolete
fifteenth- and sixteenth-century instrument, normally made of
wood, containing six finger holes and played with a cup-shaped
mouthpiece. The contemporary comet, a three-valved instrument
constructed of metal, is similar to the trumpet, but shorter. Furthermore, the cup-shaped mouthpiece of the cornet is larger and
deeper than that of the comet.
The next question, more applicable to music than other disci-
146
plines, is concemed with compositions that may have been written by an imposter in the style of another Person. Especially
suspect are "newly discovered " works by such well-known
composers as Haydn and Mozart. Reasons for this type of deception vary, but one of the most common is to enable someone who
is unheralded to capitalize on the name of an esteemed Composer.
On the other hand, there are numerous examples in which musicians, in good faith and with no attempt at deception, have completed works left unfinished by composers at the time of their
death. A represe ntative example is Mozart 's Requiem, which was
finished by his protege and intimate friend Franz X. Sussmayer.
Despite the best of intentions, it is difficult to be completely
unbiased or unprejudiced . Some writers, of Course, deliberately
present a unilateral point of view, as evinced by some early
textbooks on the history of music in the United States. The
treatise by Frederic L. Ritter, Music in America, for instance, is
generally regarded as strongly prejudiced in the'direction of German Romanticism.
In a general sense, the realm of aesthetic judgment is characterized by personal predilection and preference, just as is the
choice of an automobile. It likely would be more difficult for a
critic who prefers the piano music of Liszt to that of Chopin to
present an unbiased account when reviewing the works of both
composers than it would be for one who has no preference.
Likewise, two concert artists do not perfonn the Same composition in precisely the Same manner. Gottschalk, aware of these
differences in interpretation, comrnents " . . . perhaps it is desirable that they should. Musicians are, after a fashion, merely historians interpreting past achievements of a specialized nature. "53
Historical research can provide many challenging opportunities
for a music educator to make significant contributions to human
knowledge. However, it should be remembered that history is
more than reporting facts. Nevins succinctly avers that "a balance must be maintained between history as a body of facts, based
Historical Research
147
solidly upon research, and history as an exercise in analysis,

interpretation, and generalization. "54 By using principles of historiography the researcher in music can employ the scientific
method to obtain and evaluate facts objectively. Experimental
research, which undoubtedly uses the scientific method more
consistently and effectively than any other, will be the subject of
examination in the next chapter.
Problems for Review and Discussion

1. For what reasons does a music-education researcher pursue
historical research?
2. Differentiate between primary and secondary sources and give
some specific examples of each. How do you determine
whether primary or secondary sources should be used?
3 . Into what categories might data for historical research in
music education fall? Give specific examples.
4. Discuss the place of external criticism in historical research.
What specific questions might a music-education researcher
ask when involved in extemal criticism?
5. What function does internal criticism serve in historical research? Differentiate between the negative and positive phases
of intemal criticism. What specific questions might be asked
by the music-education researcher engaged in applying the
principles of intemal criticism?
6. What is the purpose of oral history? What procedures should
be followed to complete an oral-history research project?
148
Supplernentary Readings
ALMACK,JOHNC. Research und Thesis Writing. Boston: Houghton
ARY,DONALD,
LUCYC. JACOBS,
and ASCHAR
RAZAVIEH.
Introduction
BARZUN,
JACQUES,
and HENRYF. GRAFF.The Modern Researcher, 3rd
ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977, Chapters 5-10.
Prentice-Hall 1977, Chapter 10.
BORG,WALTERR . , and MEREDITH
An Introduction, 3rd ed. New York: Longman, 1979, Chapter I 1.
BRICKMAN,
WILLIAMW. Research in Edilcational History. Norwood,
Pa.: Folcroft Library Editions. 1975, Chapters 2, 4, and 5.
COHEN.MORRIS
R . , and ERNEST
NAGEL.An Introduction to Logic und
Scientific Method. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1934, Chapter 17.
R . , and N. KENNETHLAFLEUR.
COOK,DAVID
FISCHER,
DAVIDH. Historian's Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical
Thought. New York: Harper and Row, 1970, Chapters 3, 5, 9-1 1.
GARRETT,ALLEN M. An Introduction to Research in Music.
Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1958,
Chapters 9 and 10.
G ~ D CARTER
,
Appleton-Century -Crofts, 1966, Chapter 4.
GOTTSCHALK,
LOUIS. Understanding History, 2nd ed. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1969, Chapters 3, 5-7.
HILLWAY,
TYRUS.Introditction toResearch, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton
HOCKETT,
HOMERC. The Critical Method in Historical Research und
Writing. New York: Macmillan, 1955, pp. 13-70.
HOPKINS,
CHARLES
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill 1976, Chapter 8.
Historical Research
149
JONES,RALPHH., ed. Methods und Techniques of Educational Research. Danville, 111.: Interstate Printers and Publishers, 1973, pp.
151-180.
MOULY,GEORGE
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970, Chapter 8.
NEVINS,
ALLAN.The Gateway to History, rev. ed. Garden City, N.Y .:
Anchor Books, 1962.
PHELPS,ROGERP. "The Mendelssohn Quintet Club: A Milestone in
American Music Education," Journal of Research in Music Education, Spring 1960, 8,1:39-44.
SHAFER,ROBERTJ., ed. A Guide to Historical Method, rev. ed.
Homewood, 111.: Dorsey Press, 1977, Chapters 5 and 6.
SMITH,HENRYL. Educational Research, Principles und Practices.
Bloomington: Educational Publications, 1944, Chapter 7.
TRAVERS,
VAN DALEN,DEOBOLD
Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill 1979, Chapter 11.
VINCENT,JOHN M. Aids to Historical Research. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1934, Chapters 2, 5, and 12.
WHITNEY,FREDERICK
L. The Elements of Research, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J .: Prentice-Hall, 1950, Chapter 8.
WILLIAMSON,
JOHNB., DAVIDA . KARP,and JOHNR. DALPHIN.The
WISE, JOHN E., ROBERTB. NORDBERG,and DONALDJ. REITZ.
Methods of Research in Education. Boston: D. C. Heath, 1967,
Chapter 4.
Experimental Research
6 . Experimental Research:
Purview of the Future
Experimental research usually is regarded as the most objective
of the five methods of obtaining data discussed in this book.
Because of the rigid controls exercised in experimental research it
is possible to duplicate this kind of study and receive virtually the
Same results, sornething that is not as easy to accomplish in historical and descriptive research or philosophical and aesthetic inquiry. Experimental laboratory, or empirical research is sometimes regarded as "a glimpse into the future" because it can
show what is possible under carefully controlled situations. Fox
suggests that this orientation to the future is possible because the
researcher is trying to evaluate something new.'
Another term associated with this type of investigation is "behavioral research. " Even though researchers often have an idea
151
of what their results will be, with better controls possible in

experimental studies the results usually are more definitive than
in other kinds of research. Research in the laboratory has long
been regarded as the "method of science. " It is from the laboratory that scientific concepts were adapted and applied to educational, including music-educational research. Experimental
studies in music education and in education, however, usually
attempt to sirnulate empirically, as closely as possible, laboratory
conditions in the classroom or in the field with individuals or
groups rather than with the process followed in the laboratory
with individuals. The term "empirical" refers to information
obtained through some type of observation, "metempirical, "
through reflective thinking.
Precise controls characterize the experimental method. For this
reason music researchers have turned increasingly to the behavioral or experimental process, sometimes to the exclusion of
other procedures, for obtaining practical answers to questions, as
. ~ though an empirical process
this writer has clearly ~ t a t e dEven
will be used to carry out the research, logic and common sense are
necessary to organize an experimental research study, as Beveridge points out.'
Experimental research can be simple or complicated, depending on the topic. Keppel's Statement is simple, precise, and direct:
"Basically, the experimental method consists of the contrast between two treatment conditions. The subjects in both of these
conditions are treated identically, except for one feature that is
different. "4 The treatment condition may consist of one or more
independent and one or more dependent variables. A variable is
defined as "anything that can change." for example, test Scores,
grades, or experimental conditions. The independent variable,
also known as stimulus, treatment, experimental, or antecedent
variable, is the factor that causes a change in something. It is the
"manipulation of the independent variable" by a researcher, according to Gay, that "differentiates all experimental research
152
from the other methods of research. " 5 The dependent variable,

also known as response or criterion variable, is observed to See
what happens to it as a result of manipulation of the independent
variable. It rnay be defined as the result of the presence or absence of the independent variable. Rating scales and direct observational schedules are examples of dependent variables. This
process of determining the relationship between two treatment
conditions, the effect of the independent on the dependent variable, is sometimes referred to as "cause and effect." The designations of "independent" and "dependent" for a particular item
are not fixed, however. What rnay be an independent variable in
one situation rnay be a dependent variable in another. The designation of one or the other depends on how they are used.
In 1923 W. A. McCall published a treatise laying out procedures for conducting experimental research in the field of education. Sir Ronald A. Fisher's Statistical Methods for Research
Workers (1925) provided further direction f6r the researcher
through the introduction of a procedure that was to become
known as randomization, according to Campbell and S t a n l e ~ . ~
McCall's concepts were further refined by experimental psychologist Robert S. Woodworth and others in the 1930s and 1940s.
One of the most widely used methods for experimental study in
music education involves making comparisons between a control
group and one or more experimental groups. The control group
maintains a "status quo" situation: investigators continue their
usual procedure in working with it. Any changes or alterations of
method or content take place in the experimental groups, or in
the ones that can effect change in the dependent variable.
In medical research some new drug rnay be given to the experimental group while a placebo, a harmless substance that
looks identical to the drug being tested, rnay be administered to
the control group. The placebo helps achieve more uniform controls for the investigator. This is possible because the subjects do
not know whether they are receiving the ingredient being tested
153
or the placebo. Thus they have no reason for reacting abnormally

to the experiment, as they might do if they were aware of the
content of the medication. Application of the principle of the
placebo sometimes is possible in music-education research, but
its use generally is quite limited. There are occasions in educational research, which includes music, where psychological factors can differentially affect experimental and control groups
when the control group receives no treatment, according to Borg
and Gall, who state that a ' 'placebo treatment " could be given to
both experimental and control groups to keep psychological conditions similar for both groups. For example, if the experimental
group receives a new approach to foreign-language instruction, the
control group might experience some background music not presented before . The music would not affect t he experimental
group, and the control group would receive a "placebo treatment, " thus creating a similar psychological effect.' The concept of the single variable is applicable in almost all situations in
experimental research to test a hypothesis. Implicit in the use of
the single-variable principle is that all other factors in the experiment remain constant. On the other hand, manipulation of the
independent variable results in observable changed conditions, or
what is sometimes called a "cause and effect" relationship. Frequently the terms "independent" and "dependent" variable refer
to cause and effect. Here is an oversimplified example of
hypothetical experimental study. The objective is to learn what
effect drill on a certain rhythmic Pattern will have on a student's
ability to recognize it in musical context. The drill is the independent variable, and the reading skill that results is the dependent
variable. Another experiment might be conducted to determine
what effect listening to dodecaphonic music has on a theory student who is writing conventional four-part-harmony exercises. In
this example dodecaphonic music is the independent variable, and
the dependent variable is the student's harmony achievement.
Not all differences observable in the dependent variable rnay
154
be attributed to the experimental factor or the independent variable. Some dissimilarities will result from errors due to conditions that cannot be regulated. Lindquist has labeled these kinds
of errors as Types S, G, and R.s Type S, or sampling, errors may
take place as a result of random sampling. Those under Type G
relate to extrinsic factors that may affect one group but not
another, hence are known as group errors. When an experiment is
repeated, Type R, or replication, errors may be expected because
of uncontrollable variations, such as changes in mood of the
groups being tested that are present in one administration of the
experiment but not in others. Investigators, aware that such errors
may occur, should take this into consideration and organize their
study to include procedures that measure these deviations statistically .
One of the criticisms of experimental research has been that it
often contains an element of artificiality, especjally if it is conducted in a laboratory Situation. However, a well-designed experiment that has rigid controls will minimize artificiality, according
~
or behavioral, research, like any
to W i e r ~ m a .Experimental
other type, needs to be designed to obtain answers to questions in
the easiest and most direct way possible.
Research conducted by the experimental method essentially is
of two kinds: laboratory and field studies. Laboratory, also
known as basic, research is perhaps best exemplified in music
education by doctoral or postgraduate experimental projects that
are concerned directly with finding realistic solutions to basic
problems and only indirectly with financial benefits. In a doctoral
study Harris investigated the effect of an intonation training program upon the intonation achievement of junior and senior
high-school wind instrumentalists. Using his own Instrumental
Test of lntonational Skills (ITIS)as a pre- and posttest, he found
that the experimental-group students scored significantly higher
at the . O l level on the posttest than on the pretest.1 Colnot, also
155
in a doctoral study, used text and audio-cueing to test the effects

of these media on cognitive understandings, attitude toward
teaching, and rates and ratios of teacher-approved responses of
three groups of university instrumental student teachers. The
audio-cueing System resulted in increased academic approval
rates and ratios.ll The focus of Petzold's five-year longitudinal
postdoctoral study was aural perception of children's musical
development. Examining rhythm, timbre, and harmony in a series
of pilot studies, Petzold found that the ability to imitate musical
ideas was not a measure of the understanding of these ideas.12
Spohn's postdoctoral research tested and evaluated a clinical type
of instructional program based on individual differences. He used
three procedures: item analysis of student worksheets and test
Papers, discriminative analysis to serve as bases for autoinstructional phases, and an experiment using freshman music students
enrolled in a music-fundamentals Course at Ohio State University
in 1966- 1967. Results showed that individual and group learning
problems could be ascertained.I3
In addition to doctoral and postdoctoral research, there are
some studies in music therapy that fit the category of behavioral
or experimental research, such as the one by Nucci. Before receiving the Ph.D., Nucci had earned an M.D. She used selected
types of music to ascertain the concomitants of verbalization of
depressed and schizophrenic patients as observed in individual
psychotherapeutic settings. Nucci, a psychiatrist, with the assistance of three raters, whose qualifications had been validated by
the Lucas and Ludwick Mood Scale, observed eighteen patients
(nine schizophrenic and nine depressed) in individual
psychotherapeutic settings under three conditions: melancholy
music, no music, and stimulating music. Results indicated that
depressed patients verbalized more with melancholy music, but
stimulating music decreased the number of verbalizations.
schizophrenic patients verbalized more with stimulating music,
156
while melancholy music decreased the number of verbalizations .l4

In contrast are field studies or classroom research. Normally
employing classes, either intact or divided into sections, depending on what the investigator is looking for and how the experiment is organized, this type of research is more common in music
education than is laboratory research, especially if the latter deals
with only one individual or a very small group of individuals.
Many illustrious individuals have distinguished themselves in
experimental research. Some of these are Herbart and Pestalozzi
(education), Binet, Terman, and Otis (psychology), Harvey (blood
circulation), Faraday (electricity), and Seashore, Kwalwasser, and
Wing (psychology of music). Music therapy is now gaining acceptance by both musicians and physicians, so studies in this area,
largely of an experimental nature, are beginning to make an impact on the field. About fifty years ago Hyde studied the influence of music on pulse rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure,
and velocity of blood flow.15 More recently Dreher, in a doctoral
study, investigated the relationship between the verbal reports of
subjects and galvanic skin responses to different kinds of music.16
Sears's doctoral study related to the kinds of music that can be
effective in changing levels of tension in college students. He
found that music is slightly more effective in causing tension
changes in nonmusicians than in musicians, and in females than
in males.l7
Purpose of Experimental Research

Experimental research shows what can result under carefully
controlled conditions. Observations of these precisely regulated
factors, as already noted, enable a researcher to discem what
commonly is referred to as a "cause and effect" relationship.
Also known as "causation, " this concept, widely used in experi-
157
mental research, is based on a set of canons forrnulated by the

nineteenth-century English philosopher John Stuart Mill:
( I ) method of agreement
(2) method of differences,
(3) joint method of agreement and difference,
(4) method of residues, and
( 5 ) method of concomitant variations.Is
The first canon, the best known and simplest of the five, states
that if the factors relating to a certain event have one characteristic in common, that characteristic variable is the "cause" of the
effect. According to the second canon, when two or more sets of
circumstances are identical except for one factor and when a
given effect is noticed only when that factor is present, that factor
is the cause of the effect. Both the first and second canons are
methods of elimination. The methods of canons 1 and 2 are
combined in the procedure for the third canon. In this canon the
common factor first is isolated and then is withdrawn to determine if the effect is dependent upon the presence of the common
factor. A more complex canon, the fourth, is the method of residue, in which causes are determined by process of elimination.
When definite factors are known to cause certain parts of a given
effect, the other aspects of the total effect must be due to the
remaining factors. The final canon states that when two factors
change consistently or when they vary together, the variations in
one are caused by the other, or both are affected by the same
cause .19
In educational research, including music, solutions to some of
the most pressing problems do not lend themselves to the experimental method because of the rigid controls imposed by this type
of research. For instance, one of the most vexatious problems
confronting music teachers is that of scheduling adequate rehearsal time for performing groups. The descriptive method might be
selected to survey what policies regarding rehearsal schedules are
158
in effect in various schools. On the other hand, if the music

educator were concemed with how to make rehearsals more effective, two procedural methods might be experimentally contrasted and the results compared statistically to determine which
one appears to be more effective.
Kinds of Experimental Research

As already noted, two types of research characterize the experimental method: the laboratory, or basic, and the classroom, or
field, study. In the laboratory experiment, the researcher rigidly
controls all independent variables and eliminates extraneous influences that may affect the dependent variable as much as possible. Another strength of the laboratory experiment is that the researcher can use random assignment of subjects and thus control
l McGrath
one or more of the independent variables. ~ u n k e and
state that in a laboratory experiment the investigator organizes the
research to focus attention on selected behavioral procedures and
the conditions related to these p r ~ c e s s e s . ~ ~
The laboratory study, which usually Centers on the observation
of one person or a small group of persons, may be in a laboratory
setting, in a location familiar to the subject or subjects (often
abbreviated Ss), or in an especially arranged Situation outside the
laboratory but simulating laboratory conditions. Some researchers have criticized the laboratory experiment because of the
artificiality of the research setting. It usually is organized to
exclude distractions that may be present in a research study.
However, this is a strength rather than a weakness; the more
distracting factors are controlled or eliminated, the stronger the
research. Kerlinger states that an even greater weakness of the
laboratory experiment is the lack of strength of the independent
variables. This is because the laboratory experiment is created for
Special purposes .21
Kerlinger gives three related purposes of laboratory research:
159
(1) to find out the relations that exist under uncontaminated conditions, (2) to test predictions derived from this and other research, and (3) to develop new theories based on the refinement
of existing theories and h y p ~ t h e s e s . ~ ~
A good example of laboratory research conducted with only
one individual is the longitudinal, or extended, study by Revesz of
the Hungarian child prodigy Erwin Nyiregyhazi, which is discussed in Chapter 7. Also of interest to musicians should be the
ongoing experimentation related to improving musical instruments by highly specialized personnel in laboratories of the Conn
Corporation and other musical-instrument manufacturers.
Classroom, or group, research sometimes is referred to as field
experimentation or research. In field studies it is often difficult to
control all independent variables, and for this reason they sometimes are labeled as "quasi-experimental. " Campbell and Stanley comment:
There are many natural social settings in which the
research person can introduce something like experimental design into his scheduling of data collection
procedures (e.g., the whom and to whom of measurement), even though he lacks full control over the
scheduling of experimental stimuli (the when and to
whom of exposure and the ability to randomize exposures) which makes a true experiment p o ~ s i b l e . ~ ~
Despite their limitations, field experiments are especially

suited to kinds of complex social and educational problems to be
addressed by social psychologists, sociologists, and educational
researchers. In addition to the difficulty of controlling the independent variables, another weakness is randomization, because
subjects in the control and experimental groups do not receive the
Same treatment. The attitude of the researcher and lack of precision are two other weaknesses of field experiments mentioned by
Kerlinger.24Kerlinger's point is that the researchers' egos may be
deflated before they even embark on their field study because
160
they have had little or no encouragement from school administrators or from their Peers. His reference to the lack of precision
pertains to the difficulty in accurately measuring the effect of the
independent on the dependent variables because extraneous variables, such as intenuptions and other noises, are present in
classroom and field situations even though every effort has been
made to control them. Classroom experimentation is useful where
evaluation is needed for a new teaching method, curriculum innovation, or teaching procedure.
Kerlinger points out that a compelling reason for conducting
field studies is that they offer the opportunity to observe a larger
number of subjects simultaneously in the classroom, a setting
more natural than the laboratory and involving less student distraction. The incidence of what is commonly called the "Hawthorne Effect " may therefore be less pronounced.
When subjects are aware that they are participating in an experiment or recognize that they are receiving special attention, some
of the improvement (or regression) may be attributed to the
Hawthorne Effect, which derives its name from studies by industrial psychologists in the late 1920s at the Chicago plant of the
Western Electric Corporation. Although difficult to do, the
Hawthorne Effect can be controlled by introducing a second control group that represents a "systematic intervention and interaction on the part of the experimenter with the subjects, " according
~ instance a new procedure is introduced that
to T ~ c k m a nIn. ~this
is not expected to have special effects related to treatment or
intervention variables being evaluated. Borg and Ga11 refer to this
intervention as the "John Henry Effect," from the legend of the
worker who pitted his strength and skill in driving spikes in
railroad ties against a machine. The John Henry Effect is particularly evident when teaching methods are being compared and the
investigator who is working with the control group feels
threatened and makes every effort to prove that the traditional
method of teaching is equivalent to or better than the experimental m e t h ~ d . ~ '
161
Sometimes unreliable data are obtained because there is a confounding of variables. Variables are considered to be confounded
when additional factors at variance with the independent variables are introduced, or occur. For example, testing control and
experimental groups at different times of the day, or using different researchers at different times during the experiment, could
cause a confounding of variables. Random assignment of subjects
to groups will help to reduce the incidence of confounding of
variables.
Examples of experimental research conducted by music
educators using the classroom method follow. Zimmerman and
Sechrest, in a postdoctoral study, designed and administered a
series of five experiments to 679 elementary and junior highschool students over a two-year period to determine the relevance
of Piaget's concept of conservation to musical leaming. Musical
tasks consisted of stimulus Patterns and variations of these patterns. The authors concluded that an early acquaintance with
basic music structures and vocabulary is very important and that
perception must be kept clear of biasing aspects of music by using
musical v a r i a t i o n ~ .Dzik,
~ ~ in a doctoral study, compared two
methods of instruction to ascertain whether there would be any
change in attitudes toward opera of selected high-school
general-music students. Eight general-music classes (four experimental, four control) were taught Bizet's opera Carmen. Students in the experimental classes participated in creativedramatics activities; the control classes only were told the story as
they listened to the music. Results indicated that a positive attitude toward opera was developed with the experimental
clas~es.~~
Concepts of Experimental Research

The keystone of experimental research is the formulation and
testing of hypotheses. A hypothesis is a question for which an
162
answer is being sought, or-as stated in Chapter 3-a shrewd

guess as to the outcome of the research. A hypothesis is based on
facts that are already known and on conditions that are expected
to exist, but can be c o n f h e d only by testing the relationships
that may be evident between the known and the presumed.
According to Travers,30 hypotheses should be:
(1) Clear und succinct. Use technical terms to
avoid such generalities as "good leaming
conditions. "
(2) Testable. A music researcher who
hypothesizes that string performers have a
keener sensitivity to pitch than woodwind
players would be hard pressed to obtain
valid data to accept or reject this
hypothesis.
(3) Indicative of relationshi~s between variables. When relationships between variables are not clearly stated, the
hypothesis is not testable. For a researcher
to hypothesize that politically conservative music teachers are more effective
teachers than those who hold liberal views
is absurd. The hypothesis is not testable
because "conservative " and "liberal "
are not variables that can be delineated
clearly .
( 4 ) Limited in scope. If a research tyro were to
state that music instruction in Illinois is
more effective than that in New York
State, the investigator would be stating a
hypothesis that is obviously global in
scope, and one that is not readily testable.
(5) Consistent with known f ~ c t s . Since a
hypothesis is based on information al-
163
ready at hand, it would be incorrect to

hypothesize that all trombone players can
read the alt0 clef simply because some
music of the Baroque and Classical
periods contains trombone parts written in
the alt0 clef. Bass trombone players, for
example, have little need to l e r n the alto
clef because the part they play is almost
exclusively in the bass clef.
(6) Stated in simple terms. Related to Travers's
first criterion, simplicity is not related to
significance of hypotheses. That a tone
produced on a wind instmment will continue until it is intempted by some intervening force (tongue, termination of
breath) is a hypothesis that could be easily
tested.
(7) Feasible to test within a reasonable time.
The passage of time will affect the outComes of a study. Musical maturity of a
child who studies privately from the
fourth to the seventh grade is a case in
point. The technical facility of the
fourth-grade Student cannot be effectively
compared with the Student's skill as a
seventh-grader because the passage of
time changes the variables.
Testing Hypotheses
Hypotheses must not only be logical but testable. Keppel gives
one of the clearest Statements on hypothesis testing, indicating
that the process includes the following steps: (1) formulating the
164
research hypothesis, (2) drawing a sample or samples from the

population, (3) determining the experimental design, (4) manipulating the independent variables, (5) comparing the results
statistically, and (6) accepting or rejecting the hypotheses based
on the results of (5).31
After formulating the hypotheses, researchers need to determine the population or universe from which they will draw the
sample. They will also need to plan the sampling process carefully. Meaningful results rnay not be forthcoming, even though
the hypotheses and sample are valid, if the experimental design
used to test the hypotheses is incorrect. Such a design could result
in rival or competing hypotheses, in which the answers obtained
are due to confounding factors. When the appropriate design for
the experiment has been determined the experiment can proceed,
and the investigator is then in a position to manipulate or introduce the experimental variable (the "X" factor), to See whether
or not the independent variable does effect difference in the
dependent variable or variables. After the experiment has been
completed the results will be compared using the statistical procedures that best seem to treat the data, taking into consideration
what was tested. The final step is a judgmental one. In some
instances all hypotheses rnay be rejected or accepted, or some
may be accepted and others rejected, based on the comparison of
results with appropriate statistical tables.
Selection of Subjects
Three procedures are normally used to select subjects for a
research study: randomization, matching, and ranking.
Randomization, which means that every person in a group has
an equal chance of being chosen, consists of two separate
functions: random sampling and random assignment. The first
relates to drawing a random sample from a population. A popula-
1' 1
'
165
tion is defined as all the potential individuals in a universe or

Situation. For example, there rnay be a population of four
thousand in the universe of flutists from which a random sample
could be drawn, but only a certain number of them actually will
be used in a study. In randomization it is assumed that any normal
group will possess characteristics that rnay be found in a comparable group. Seventh-graders in School A with a certain background who have had specific training in a musical area rnay be
assumed to be comparable to seventh-graders in School B under
similar conditions. A random sample rnay be drawn in one of
several ways: drawing names out of a hat; flipping a coin; throwing dice; or using a fable of random numbers, which is found in
most statistics books. After the random sarnple has been drawn
from the population the Ss are randomly assigned to experimental
and control groups to achieve equivalency of groups. The experimental group is the one that will receive the treatment, or
"X," factor while the conditions for the control group remain the
Same, with no attempt to manipulate the independent variable
with the control group.
Matching is predicated on assigning Ss to either the experimental or control group based on Scores obtained from some
instrument used to measure characteristics pertinent to the study.
An individual who has a certain score is paired with another who
has exactly the Same score. Ss who cannot be paired are eliminated from the study. Suppose ten ninth-graders received the
following raw scores on the pitch section of the Seashore Measures of Musical Talents: 48, 48, 47, 45, 45, 45, 40, 38, 38, 38.
The first subject with the score of 48 would be assigned to the
experimental group and the other 48 to the control group. The
subject with the score of 47 would not be used in the study
because no other person has an identical score. The first two 45s
constitute a pair and would be assigned to the experimental and
control groups, respectively. The subject with the score of 40 and
the one with the third 38 are excluded because there is no match
166
for them. Although a high degree of comparability is obtained

through matching, the necessity of eliminating Ss is a serious
weakness.
Ranking provides for the assignment of Ss alternately to the
experimental and control groups, even though it may not always
be possible to pair the scores. In the previous example 48 and 48
would be paired and would be assigned to the experimental and
control groups, respectively. The subject with 47 would go to the
experimental group and the first 45 to the control group. The next
two 45s would be paired in experimental and control groups,
respectively; the 40 would go to the former and the first 38 to the
latter. Finally, the last two 38s would be paired and placed in
experimental and control groups, respectively. Although the
scores of all Ss are used, there will be instances when the Ss
paired will not have matching scores, thus making the ranking
process weak if there is a concern for compaIjng the growth of
paired individuals who do not have matchings scores.
Before matching or ranking can take place a pretest could be
given to Ss to be included in the research. A pretest is some type
of measurement to determine the performance of Ss prior to the
begiming of the experiment. One procedure would be to introduce the "X" factor to the experimental group, but not to the
control group, and then at the end of the experiment to administer
a posttest to both groups to ascertain whether the "X" factor
actually did make a difference. The same instmment, or equivalent forms of the same test, should be used for the pretest and
posttest. Equivalent forms will be discussed in the next chapter.
Sampling
Since it usually is not possible to investigate the characteristics
of the entire population or universe relevant to a study , it is necessary to use a procedure known as sampling.The sample, however,
167
must be representative of the population for data thus derived to be

valid. When data on all factors under consideration can be obtained
for every subject in a population it is unnecessary to use sampling,
but this is extremely rare. It might be both practical and possible
to procure information from all living individuals who either have
taught or currently are teaching harp in a state with a population
of 5 million. To obtain a response from every living Person who
either has taught or currently is teaching any kind of instrumental
music in that state, however, might be both impossible and impractical from the standpoint of time and money. A sampling of
instrumental music teachers should be undertaken.
In determining the specific nature of a sample, three factors
need to be kept in mind: (1) the definition of the population, (2)
where this population is located, and (3) delimitation of this representative sample. In defining the population an investigator
might restrict the study to teachers of wind instruments and would
then need to determine who all of the wind-instniment teachers
are and where they are located. Listings of music teachers could
be obtained from such diverse sources as telephone books, city
directories, rnembership lists of music educators, union membership lists, rosters of school personnel. and the services-offered
section of want-ad columns in newspapers. It might then be decided to delimit the representative sample to private teachers of
wind instruments. The group subsequently selected would be
representative of the entire population of wind-instrument
teachers. Any inferences drawn about wind-instmment teachers
would be based on information given by the sample group.
The procedures used to select the sample are crucial to the
outcomes of the research. Research findings must be generalizable beyond the sample. For exarnple, to compare the musical
achievement of sixty fourth-grade students in suburban schools
A, B, C, and D with the musical achievement of sixty fourthgraders in inner-city schools D, E, F, and G would be appropriate
as long as generalizations for either category of fourth-graders
168
were made to the other groups in a comparable population. The

difference between characteristics of the population from which
the sample is drawn is called sampling error. Sampling error is
directly proportional to the size of the sample: the larger the
sarnple, the smaller the error, the smaller the sample, the larger
the error.
Random, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling are the
four procedures for sampling most often used, according to Borg
and
Another possibility is volunteer sampling, although
the Ss usually are biased.
In a random sample each individual in a population has an
equal chance of being chosen or selected. Sampling errors can be
minimized through inferential statistical procedures. A random
sample may be drawn in one of several ways. One of the most
widely used is a table of random numbers, found in most statistics
books. The tables usually consist of a series of five-digit numbers
generated by a Computer. A Segment of a hypothetical table of
random numbers is given in Figure 5.
If 109 Ss are to be selected from a list of 875 students the researcher could start at any place on the table and move horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. For instance, if the researcher who
Figure 5
Random-Numbers Table
169
wishes to move vertically started in Column 4, Row 3, the Student

listed with the last three digits 680 would be chosen first, 093
would be next, 844 would be next, and so On. In column 4, Row 5,
942 is omitted because it is larger than 875, the total number of Ss
to be selected. When only three digits are used the first two of the
five-digit configuration are ignored.
In systematic sampling a sample is again drawn from a population, and the Ss are placed in random order on a list. The researcher then decides on a formula to be used to select Ss-for
example, every eighth individual on the list. To start, any subject
up to the eighth one on the list can be used, then every eighth
subject after that will be selected. Systematic sampling is a
somewhat easier procedure to use than random sampling because
each subject is not chosen independently, as would be the case
with random sampling.
In stratified sampling the sample is chosen in such a way that
all subgroups in the population will be represented in the sample
in proportion to their representation in the population. When all
subgroups are represented comparisons between various subgroups can be made. For example, a researcher might Iike to find
out if a correlation exists between musical-literacy Scores on
Level 6 of the Zowa Tests of Music Literacy (ZTML) and three
levels of intelligence of eighth-graden.33 Since there are generally recognized differences between boys and girls in any school
System, both in general intelligence and in musical literacy, it
would be necessaty to select a stratified sarnple that includes the
following levels of intelligence: highest-range boys, highestrange girls, middle-range boys, middle-range girls, lowest-range
boys, lowest-range girls. Based on the proportion of students in
each level, a random sample would be drawn that is proportional
to the number of students represented in each group of the population.
Cluster sampling is used when it is more convenient to select a
group of persons representative of the population rather than pro-
170
portional subgroups, as would be the case in stratified sampling.

Cluster sampling deals with groups that occur naturally. For instance, a researcher who wishes to study the musical characteristics of high-school juniors who play the French horn might use
cluster sampling when lists from which junior French-horn
players could be selected are not available. The researcher could
divide the school districts in a state into certain discrete areas, or
clusters-thirty-two, for example. After numbering each area, the
researcher would draw the schools to be sampled in each area at
random, and the junior French-hom players at random from the
sample.
Volunteer samples are used extensively in education and
music-education research because it usually is possible to obtain
more information from these Ss than would be the case with
random sampling. One major difficulty with volunteer samples is
the bias of Ss. Those who may have very positive or negative
positions on a topic usually are the ones who volunteer to Seme as
research Ss. Because of recent legislation, ethical and legal constraints pose an additional burden for the researcher who deals
with volunteer samples. The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974, also known as the Buckley Amendment, and
the National Research Act of 1974 are of most concem to the
researcher. Ethical considerations are those to which professional
organizations, such as the Music Educators National Conference,
the American Educational Research Association, and the American Psychological Association, expect an investigator to subscribe.
The Pilot Study

Before researchers launch a full-scale investigation they should
conduct a pilot study to determine whether the intemention
hypothesized between independent and dependent variables will
materialize in a situation comparable to the one proposed for the
171
actual study. Runkel and McGrath point out that a pilot study is
used to confirm one's guess about characteristics of a given situat i ~ n . 'A~ smaller number of Ss is used in a pilot study as compared to the actual research. For example, if it is proposed to use
four hundred Ss in the actual research, forty might be sufficient
for a pilot study. The Ss used in the pilot study must not be
included in the actual study, although both samples should come
from a comparable population.
Designs for Conducting Experimental

Research
Campbell and Stanley have developed a schema for conducting
experiments that has become a Standard for the educational res e a r ~ h e r . 'Included
~
are three tables that list sources of invalidity
for the sixteen designs discussed. The authors divide the designs
into three categories: preexperimental, designs 1-3; true experimental, designs 4- 6; and quasi-experimental, designs 7- 16. In
addition to including the notation and discussion of each of the
sixteen designs, factors that could jeopardize internal and external
validity are presented. Tests of internal validity determine
whether the independent actually effects a change on the dependent variable. To put it another way, are the results obtained due
to the effect of the independent variable? Intemal validity is the
sine qua non for ideal research designs. according to Campbell
and S t a n l e ~ . 'The
~ amount of generalization the research results
will have on similar groups is the focus of extemal validity.
However, external is more difficult to achieve than intemal validity .
According to Campbell and Stanley, there are eight factors or
extraneous variables that could jeopardize intemal validity if they
are not controlled: history, maturation, testing, instrumentation,
statistical regression, selection biases, experimental mortality, and
selection-maturation intera~tion.~'
172
History, the first factor, is concemed with what has happened

between the pretest and the posttest. Has there been some unusual
event, such as the Jonestown, Guyana, Massacre of 1978, that
could change the reaction of Ss to the experiment? In an experiment to measure degree of like or dislike for classical music, the
subjects rnay have attended a live performance of Beethoven's
Symphony Na. 6 in F Major between the pretest and application
of the independent variable or treatment. Although it rnay not
have been related to the experiment, the Beethoven performance
could have been a source of internal invalidity because if Ss had
never attended a symphony concert before, it could have been
historically significant for them.
Since Ss are growing older and more mature due to the Passage
of time. maturation is the second factor that needs to be kept in
mind. The time of day the experiment is conducted is an important maturation variable. When Ss are hungry or {ired they rnay
not perform as well on an experiment. If music students have
heard a composition before, their musical taste could have matured and their reaction to repeated hearings of it (maturity) could
result in a source of intemal invalidity.
A third factor that rnay jeopardize intemal validity is the practice effect of having taken a pretest. This could affect the results
of the second testing or posttest, which is administered at the
close of the experiment. Intemal invalidity is possible even when
equivalent forms of a test are administered, for example Forms A
and B of the Musical Memory section of the Drake Musical
Aptitude Test. 38
Instrumentation, the fourth factor, relates to changes that take
place because different observers or scoring procedures are used
between the pretest and posttest. Occasionally the calibration of a
measuring instrument changes, and this also could jeopardize
intemal validity. On an ear-training test, if the procedure for
recording the correct answer were changed from oral to written, a
source of internal invalidity could exist.
.
173
The fifth factor that rnay jeopardize internal validity, statistical

regression, occurs when extreme scores of Ss in a sample are
used. An experimenter rnay believe that results would be more
significant statistically if the Ss were drawn from the highest and
lowest quartiles, or the upper 25 percent and the lower 25 percent,
respectively, omitting the Ss who rank in the middle 50 percent
on a pretest. Statistical regression means that scores in the upper
quartile tend to regress downward toward the mean or average on
the posttest and those in the lower quartile tend to regress upward
to the mean.
Selection bias, the sixth factor, occurs when an experimenter
has previously worked with some of the Ss included in the sample
but not with others. If an investigator has already had certain
students in a music class prior to the experiment, these rnay
unintentionally be given preferential treatment over others simply
because the researcher knows their capabilities. Volunteer Ss also
constitute a selection bias.
When Ss are no longer available for the posttest, a seventh
factor could jeopardize intemal validity: experimental rnortality.
In this instance Ss have moved or are no longer available for other
reasons. Only scores of Ss who take both pretest and posttest rnay
be included in the evaluation and reporting of research results.
High music-test scores for students who are no longer emoiled in
the experimental music class, for instance, rnay not be used to
prop up less satisfactory scores of those still remaining in the
program.
Selection-maturation interaction, the eighth factor, occurs
when the effects of a design that has not been the best one for the
expenment confound results that might have been expected from
the independent variable. The question facing the researcher is
whether the results obtained are the djrect result of the independent variable or due to the confounding of another variable. The
music researcher who employed one specific music test to determine the results of Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) might
~
174
wonder if another test should have been used if the results were
not what were expected.
Campbell and Stanley list four factors that could jeopardize
external validity: reactive effects of testing, interaction effects of
selection biases and the independent variable, reactive effects of
experimental arrangements, and multiple-treatment interference.
A pretest could alter the responsiveness of a subject to the
experiment so that results for Ss who have a pretest might be
different from those in the Same experiment who do not have a
pretest.
The second source of extemal invalidity is the interaction effects of selection biases und the independent variable. When Ss
are selected in a biased manner the results obtained from manipulation of the independent variable cannot be generalized with any
degree of confidence.
Reacrive arra ngements, the third factor, refcr to the artificiality
of the setting for much experimental research in education because students are aware that they are participating in an experiment .
Multiple-treatment interference, the fourth factor, occurs when
several treatments are given to the Same Ss and the effects of each
preceding treatment are not completely obliterated.
It is usually more difficult to control external than intemal
validity. Ideally, a research design should make provisions to
control both. Since this is not often possible, however, a design that
possesses strong controls for internal, but few for extemal validity ,
should not necessarily be regarded as weak.
The designs that follow use certain notational symbols:
X the independent variable
0 the observation, or result of the independent

on the dependent variable
R
randornization to achieve pretest quality of

groups .
175
Parallel rows separated by straight lines represent groups equated

by randomization; parallel rows separated by dashes represent
groups not equated by randomization. An X and an 0 in one row
apply to the SE at different times; an X and an 0 vertical to one
another represent simultaneous conditions.
Campbell and Stanley regard three designs as preexperimental:39 ( I ) one-shot case study, (2) one-group pretest-posttest design, and (3) static-group comparison. All these designs are considered weak and unacceptable for solid research because they
contain so many sources of internal and extemal invalidity. Of
the three, the strongest is (3), static-group comparison Notation
for these preexperimental designs is:
(1) One-shot Case Study
(2) One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

(3) Static-Group Comparison
-X- -00 .
Campbell and Stanley regard three designs as true experimental designs because all possible factors jeopardizing intemal validity can be controlled, as well as some of those of external
validity. The true experimental designs with their notation are:
(4) Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design
(5) Solomon Four-Group Design
176
177
(10) Nonequivalent Control Group Design
0 x- - -0-
- --
(6) Posttest-only Control-Group Design
0 0
(1 1) Counterbalanced Design (sometimes called
Latin Square)
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4

Designs 7 through 16 represent quasi-experimental designs.
These are frequently associated with descriptive research because
they are used in social Settings or in situations that call for observation of Ss. In quasi-experimental situations the experimenter
introduces data-collection procedures but often cannot exercise
full control over the independent variables of the "X" factors.
The quasi-experimental designs do not control sources of internal
invalidity as well as do true experimental designs; however, some
of them-12, 13, 15, and 16-control sources of ixternal invalidity better than designs 4, 5, and 6 under the true experimentaldesign designation.
Quasi-experimental designs listed by Campbell and Stanley,
with the notation for each, are:
(7) Time Series
(8) Equivalent Time-Samples Design
The subzeros in this instance, and those that follow in subsequent

designs, represent hazards to external validity because of the difficulty of spacing when "X " is repeated.
(9) Equivalent Materials Design
Group A XI 0
X, 0
XB0
X4 0
GroupB
X,O
X40
XiO
X30
Group C
X3 0
X, 0
X, 0
X, 0
Group D X, 0
XJ 0
X, 0
X, 0 .
In this design each "X," or treatment, occurs only once in each

row and in each column.
(12) Separate-Sample Pretest-Posttest Design
R
X 0.
The parenthetical (X) is a treatment that is not relevant to the
experiment .
(13) Separate-Sample Pretest-Posttest Control
Group Design
R 0 (X)
(14) Multiple Time-Series Design
178
(15) Recurrent Institutional Cycle Design: A

"Patched-Up " Design
ClassA
XO,
----------_--
Class B,
Class B,
R
R
0 2
X
X
0 3
o4
o5X .
- - - - - - - - - _ - - _--_
Class C
This complicated design, in which the dependent variable, or X, is

introduced with different groups (classes) at different times, is not
as practical to use as are others listed above and should be used
only as a last resort.
(16) Regression-Discontinuity Analysis
This design was developed to replace ex post facto designs. No
notation is given for this design, but it is based on'the premise of
awards that are made to students. Students who received awards
were compared with those who had other achievements. The
purpose of the regression-discontinuity analysis example given
by Campbell and Stanley was to See whether or not the awards
actually made a d i f f e r e n ~ e The
. ~ ~ inference made is that those
receiving the awards would have scored higher even without the
awards when compared with those who did not receive awards.
179
consist of two kinds of music instruction, CAI and traditional, and

two levels of music aptitude, high and low, as illustrated in
Figure 6.
In Figure 6 Group A, high-musical-aptitude students, receive
CAI, high-scoring Group B receive traditional instruction, lowsconng Group C students receive CAI, and low-scoring Group D
receive traditional instruction. High-scoring students would be
assigned randomly to Groups A and B and low-sconng students
to Groups C and D. According to Gay, in a 2 X 2 design there is
one variable that is manipulated and one that is not.42 In Figure 6
miisical aptitude is the control variable, or the one that is not
manipulated.
Ex Post Facto Research

Ex post facto research is regarded as a specific type of research
by Kerlinger, and is frequently encountered in studies by
sociologists or behavioral s ~ i e n t i s t s Literally
.~~
meaning "after
Figure 6
2 X 2 Factorial Design
Traditional
Factorial Designs
Factonal designs enable an investigator to measure the effect
of two or more independent variables simultaneously and to examine their interaction with one another. According to Gay, the
term "factorial" means :hat the design involves several factors.
Factorial designs can be simple or complex. For example, the
simplest, a 2 X 2 factonal design, involves four groups and could
Scores
Group C
Group D
180
the fact, " this procedure is quasi-experimental in scope, because

experimental procedures are simulated and cause and effect are
determined after they actually have taken place, thereby introducing a certain amount of subjectivity into the study. A serious
weakness of expost facto research is the difficulty of controlling
the independent variable since it must be reconstmcted after the
circumstance has occurred. Kerlinger lists two additional weaknesses of ex post facto research: inability to randomize groups,
. ~ ~because such
and difficulty in interpreting data p r ~ p e r l y Yet
variables as personality, musical or other kinds of aptitude, home
background, and parental control are not manipulable, ex post
facto research is important in certain kinds of studies.
Basic Statistical Concepts

No textbook on research methods can Cover adequately all the
statistical concepts necessary for data-interpretation purposes.
However. a basic knowledge of certain statistical concepts is
important so that all researchers will be able to understand the
research reports they read. Courses and textbooks specifically
devoted to statistics should serve the reader as the basis for a
complete understanding of the subject.
There are several reasons for
Reasons for Using
using statistical procedures.
Statistics
Through the use of statistics
data may be: (1) codified,
(2) analyzed, and (3) interpreted. lmplicit in the first designation are both the compilation and codification of data. Scores
or results of testing or making comparisons are of little value
unless they can be collected in one place and classified in a manner useful to the investigator. In an obvious example, when test
scores of fifty trumpet players are to be related to the scores of
fifty clarinetists, it is important that two separate listings be main-
i; I/
$ 1
11
I
I
~i
*T '
.I
1
I
I
t
?
18 1
tained, one giving trumpet and the other clarinet data. Then these
findings can be compared effectively.
Once data have been collected they need to be analyzed to
determine possible relationships. Comparisons might be made
between individuals within each group or between the groups as a
whole. The interpretation of data is concerned with an attempt to
find out whether differences are due to the effects of the experimental treatment (the independent variable or X) or may be accounted for by chance alone.
Statistics are either descriptive
Kinds of Statistics
or inferential. Descriptive,
"parasometimes
called
metric," statistics describe or summarize discrete bits of information that comprise the results of an experiment or study. In
descriptive statistics the relationships among scores obtained
from comparison units of reasonably equal size may be Seen
graphically and objectively. Inferential, or "nonparametric,"
statistics refer to making valid inferences from samples to whole
populations. Descriptive statistics numerically "describe " a particular group or groups; inferential statistics "infer" what may be
assumed to be representative of a large group or population.
Inferential statistics also specify the degree of error that may be
anticipated when these inferences are made.
The most important types of descriptive statistics are measures
of central tendency, measures of variance or variability,
measures of relationship, and standard scores or measures of
relative position. Inferential statistics to be discussed are: standard error of the mean, tests of significance, degrees of freedom,
the t test, analysis of variance, analysis of covariance, and chi
Square.
The most frequently used and
most important measure of
Measures of Central
central tendency is the mean,
Tendency
or arithmetic average of Scores.
182
Computed by adding all the scores and dividing the total by the
number of scores, the mean is identified by X or M. The formula
for finding the mean is
Cx
N
in which
the mean or arithmetic average of the scores
C = upper case Greek letter sigma, meaning
"the sum
of "
X = each score or measurement in the array
N = number of measurements.
Assume that scores of 35, 37, 40, 43, and 45 are obtained on a
music-aptitude lest Then CX = 200, divided b y N = 5, resulting
in X = 40.
The median, designated by Md or Mdn, the second most useful
measure of central tendency, represents the middle point in a
distribution of scores. Half the scores in a distribution occur
above and half below the median. In the comparison of scores
just given for the mean, 40 is both the median and the mean; thus,
the distribution is symmetrical.
Mode, a third measure of central tendency, is indicated by the
symbol Mo. This term denotes the most prevalent interval in a
distribution of scores. For example, in a tally of the scores 4, 8, 4,
6, 4, 1, and 7, the mode is 4 because it appears more frequently
than any other number. A distribution containing two noncontiguous intervals where scores are concentrated is called bimodal,
asevidencedbythesefigures: 3 , 6 , 7 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 9 , 7 , 1 , 3 , 8 , 5 , and7.
In this instance 3 and 7 are the numbers that make this distribution bimodal. The mode usually is the least useful of the three
measures of central tendency just discussed because it may fluctuate from one Set of data to the next.
183
Variability , or variance, relates

to the amount of deviation or
Measures of V a r i a b i l i ~
spread of scores from the mean.
Gay points out that it is possible for two sets of data that are
very different to have identical means or medians, but there still
is need to determine the variance of individual scores from the
mean.45The three most frequently used measures of variability are
range, quartile deviation, and standard deviation.
Range is the difference between the highest and lowest scores
in a distribution. When scores are close together the range is
small; when scores are far apart the range is large. Range is
frequently used to give quickly an unofficial estimate of range of
variability .
Quartile deviation, or semi-interquartile range, provides a
method by which variability can be determined with reasonable
accuracy. One-quarter, or 25 percent, of the scores fall below
Q, , or the first quartile; three-quarters, or 75 percent, of the scores
are below Q3, or the third quartile, and so On. The semi-interquartile range contains about 50 percent of the scores and is
considered to be the difference between 75 percent and 25 percent,
or between Q3 and Q , , divided by two. Because scores of both
the highest and lowest are eliminated, there is less likelihood
that extreme scores will influence the quartile deviation. When
the quartile deviation is small the scores are close together, and
when they are scattered the quartile deviation is large.
Standard deviation is the most useful and frequently used
measure of variability, or variance. After a determination is made
by subtracting each score from the mean, the differences are
squared. Then the squared differences are added and the total is
divided by the number of scores resulting in the amount of variance
from the mean. The Square root of the variance is called standard
deviation. Standard deviation is indicated by the formula
( T = *
184
in which cr = lower-case Greek letter sigma, meaning standard

deviation
ZX' = sum of squared deviations from the mean
N = number of measurements or scores.
For example, 3, 15, 6, 10, 5, and 9 total 48, divided by 6 or N,
results in X = 8. Subtracting each Score from X results in 5, -7,
2, -2, 3 , and - 1. When the deviations from X are squared they
become 25, 49, 4, 4, 9, and 1, which signify an arithmetic total of
92. When 92 is divided by N (or 6) the variance is 15.33. The U ,
determined by taking the Square root of 15.33, is 3.92. Calculation of U is a necessary first step for many advanced statistical
techniques.
For statistical purposes it is assumed that the scores of all
individuals may be plotted along a normal probability curve, also
known as a "bell-shaped" or "Gaussian" curve, as illustrated in
Figure 7.46In this hypothetical example it is assumed that the
Figure 7
Normal Probability Curve
185
mean or most common or critical value is 0. Deviations from this

central point are listed as either positive or negative and the total
for all components of the curve equals approximately 100 perCent. It will be observed that there are as many scores to the right
as there are to the left of 0 in Figure 7. This means that 50 percent
of the scores are above and 50 percent are below the mean. Also,
the median and mode would be the Same. In Figure 7 approximately 68 percent of all scores in a normal curve will fall between
+ 1.0 and - 1.0 standard deviations, and 95 percent of all scores
will be found between +2.0 and -2.0 standard deviations (68
percent + 27 percent). Between +3.0 and -3.0 standard deviations will be approximately 99 percent of all scores in a normal
distribution. The tails of a normal curve are asymptotic, that is,
they never touch the horizontal line or abscissa, but always approach it.
When there are more extreme scores at one end of the array
than the other, the distribution is skewed and "the mean will
always be in the direction of the greater number of extreme
scores," report Borg and Ga11.47 In Figure 8, where the tail is
skewed to the right, the mean is to the right of the median. When
a curve is skewed negatively to the left, as in Figure 9, the mean is
to the left of the median.
Relationship is concerned with
Measures of Relationship
determining whether or not a
correlation exists between two
or Correlation
or more variables, and if one
does exist, the amount of that correlation or relationship. Correlation may vary from a positive one of 1.00 to the negative
- 1.00. The more the two scores agree, the more positive the
correlation; conversely, the more they disagree, the more negative
the correlation.
The two most frequently used techniques for determining correlation are the Pearson product-moment correlation, or r, and the
Spearman rank-difference, or rho, designated by the lower-case

Figure 8
Positively Skewed Curve
186
187
Greek letter p. Product-moment correlation, which shows deviation from 0 in a frequency distribution, may be computed by the
formula
product-moment correlation coefficient

sum of
2, = mean standard deviation of X variable scores
2, = mean standard deviation of Y variable scores
in which r
Figure 9
Negatively Skewed Curve
Product-moment correlation can help a researcher pinpoint the

variance evident between two observations for each individual. In
other words, the two variables are compared.
When it is desirable to show the correlation between individuals by ranks rather than by variables, the Spearman rankdifference correlation technique may be used, applying this formula:
in which p = rank-difference correlation coefficient

CD2 = sum of differences between ranking of the two
variables squared
Figure 10 is an example of rank-order correlation scores received
by a group of high-school juniors on two music-aptitude tests
administered by this ~ r i t e rRaw
. ~ ~scores and ranks are listed for
each test, and the differences between Ranks 1 and 2 are listed in
D. Finally, D2 gives the Squares of the differences between each
188
Figure 10
Rank-Order Correlation of Scores Obtained
on Music Tests
(Student
X,
X.
X,Rank
X,Rank
DZ
Another measure of variance is

standard scores. When raw test
scores are converted into standard scores, it is possible to "compare scores within a group
arid between groups to add the scores from two or more tests to
obtain a single score," according to T ~ c k m a nStandard
.~~
scores
are based on standard deviation units, or distance of the scores
from the mean or X.The most useful measure of standard scores
is the Z score. By definition, a Z score has a mean of 50 and a
standard deviation of 10. The formula for Z scores is
Standard Scores
in which Z
X
X
*Subjects F and J both attained a score of 41 on X therefore share
the mean of ranks 8 and 9. The Same is true for subjects B and E under X?.
pair. Based on data from Figure 10, the Spearman rank-order

difference correlation for these scores is:
189
the standard score

= student's raw score
= mean of group
= standard deviation of scores of group.
Inferential statistics deal with

inferences made from samples
Standard Error of the Meun
to whole populations. Standard
error of the mean is used to determine the accuracy of estimates
of the population mean from the sample mean. Hardyck and
Petrinovich state that "the standard error is the statistic we use
to make the best estimate possible of the numerical values of the
standard deviation of the random sampling distribution of
means.
The size of the sample directly affects the standard
error; the larger the sample, the smaller the standard error of the
mean. The formula for the standard error of the mean is
in which
<r
U =
190
= standard error of the mean

standard deviation of the population
number in each random sample.
A level of significance is a
predetermined level at which
the null hypothesis (H,) will be
rejected. In the null hypothesis no difference is expected between
two or more variables when measured statistically. If a null
hypothesis is rejected when it should have been accepted a Type I
error results. The probability of cornmitting a Type I error, called
a level of significance, is indicated by the lower-case Greek letter
alpha a. A null hypothesis that is accepted when it should be
rejected is known as a Type I1 error. Lower-case Greek letter beta
designates this level of significance for a possible Type I1 error.
Most research in education and music educati.on is based on the
5-percent (.05) level of significance. This means that in ninetyfive instances out of one hundred the differences are due to the
experimental treatment rather than to sampling error or chance. A
more precise level of significance is one percent (.01), signifying
that in only one chance in one hundred are the results due to
sampling error or chance.
Two-tailed and one-tailed tests of significance relate to the
direction of difference of the hypotheses. Tests of significance
are almost always two-tailed. The null hypothesis states that there
will be no difference between the groups (X = Y) being compared. The two-tailed test indicates that the difference may be in
either end of the tail. In other words, the mean of X may be higher
than that of Y, or the mean of Y may be higher than that of X. In a
one-tailed test the difference appears only in the end of one tail,
either in the direction of X or Y.
After determinig whether a test
Degrees of Freedom
will be two-tailed or one-tailed
and a test of significance has
Tests of Significance
191
been completed, the researcher uses the appropriate table from a

statistics book, taking into account the significance level(.05, .01,
etc.) and degrees of freedom (df). Degrees of freedom are related
to the number of subjects that are independent of each other. For
example, for the correlation coefficient r, the number of degrees
of freedom is determined by the formula N-2, or number of subjects minus 2. However, each test of significance uses a different
formula for deterrnining degrees of freedom.
The t test of significance, used with no more
than two groups of a maximum of thirty Ss
t test
each, determines whether two means are significantly different at a given level of significance. When using a
t test the researcher compares the actual mean differences observed
with the mean differences expected by chance. The formula for
the t test is:
in which t
significance
mean
p = lower-case Greek letter mu, signifying population
mean
CT = standard deviation
N = size of sample.
= t test of
= sample
There are computer packages available now that contain the formula for the t test and other statistical formulas. The researcher
need not laboriously determine each value of t by hand, but can
feed the data into a computer and easily obtain the results.
The one-way analysis of
Analysis of Variance
variance (ANOVA)is used to
(ANOVA)
determine whether the differences in the means of two
192
or more groups rnay be attributed to chance or to sampling error.

ANOVAis now being used by many researchers who formerly
used the t test because ANOVA rnay be employed in any situation
where a t test also can be utilized. ANOVAcan be used to determine variance between groups and variance within groups. The F
ratio, to be found in F ratio tables in statistics books, is used to
deterrnine whether or not the null hypothesis should be rejected,
F ratios are given at the .05, .01, and other levels of significance.
Analysis
of
covariance
Analysis of Covariance
(ANCOVA)
is used when it is not
(ANCOVA)
possible to assign Ss at random
or to use matching procedures.
Its value is that it can be used to adjust dependent variable scores
for initial differences on such variables as musical aptitude, IQ, or
pretest scores. ANCOVA
rnay be used to adjust large differences
among groups that become apparent at the end pf the experiment
but that were not evident when the experiment began. Hardyck
and Petrinovich report that ANCOVA makes it possible to "adjust
the scores of the groups in such a way that we can estimate very
precisely what the scores at the end would have been if the . . .
groups had been comparable to begin with. "51
Using the chi-square of
Chi-Square (X2)
significance (X2), a researcher
can compare the frequency of
factors that fall into different categories. The chi-square test also
indicates whether the results obtained are different from those
results that might be expected by chance. Tables of X2 distributions at the .05, .01, and other levels rnay be found in statistics
books.
Many of the statistical techniques discussed in this chapter will
be applicable also in the next, on descriptive research. However,
the high degree of objectivity inherent in experimental research
because of the System of precise controls is in contrast to the
subjective nature of much descriptive research, where controls
193
frequently are difficult to regulate accurately. Despite the subjective nature of much descriptive research, some problems still are
best resolved by descriptive-research techniques, the subject of
the next chapter.

1. Why is the experimental-research method generally regarded
as more objective than the other types?
2. What is the purpose of experimental research?
3. Discuss "causation" as formulated in Mill's canons.
4. Contrast the laboratory and classroom types of experimental

research, giving advantages and disadvantages of each.
5. Differentiate between independent and dependent variables.
6. What procedures rnay be used to select subjects for a research study?
7. Discuss hypothesis testing.

8. What procedures rnay be used to draw a sample from a
population?
9. Discuss sources of internal and external invalidity as enumerated by Campbell and Stanley .
10. What are some of the reasons for using statistical procedures
to treat data?
194
11. When would it be appropriate to use descriptive statistics?

What are the most important types of descriptive statistics?
12. When would it be appropriate t o use inferential statistics?

What are the most important types of inferential statistics
discussed in this chapter?
ALMACK,
and ASGHAR
RAZAVIEH.
Introduction
ARY,DONALD,
LUCYC. JACOBS,
Winston, 1979, Chapters 4, 5, 6, 9, and 10.
ASHER,J. WILLIAM.
Boston: Little, Brown, 1976, Chapters 2, 3, 5, and.7.
BERLYNE,D. E., ed. Studies in the New Experimental Aesthetics: Steps
Toward an Objective Psychology of Aesthetic Appreciation.
Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing, 1974, Chapters 1, 2, and
3.
BERNSTEIN,
ALLENL . A Handbook of Statistics Solutions for the Behavioral Sciences. New York: Hol4 Rinehart and Winston, 1964,
Chapters 2, 3, 6, and 7 .
Prentice-Hall 1977, Chapters 4, 7, and 8.
BORG,WALTER
R . , and MEREDITH
An Introduction, 3rd ed. New York: Longman, 1979, Chapters 2, 5,
6, 12, 15, and 16.
C. STANLEY.
Experimental und
CAMPBELL,
DONALD
T . , and JULIAN
Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand McNally,
1966.
COHEN,JACOB.Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences,
rev. ed. New York: Academic Press, 1977.
LAFLEUR.
COOK,DAVIDR., and N. KENNETH
195
DIXON,WILFRID,
and FRANK
J. MASSEY,
JR. lntroduction to Statistical
Analysis, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.
DREW,CLIFFORD
J . lntroduction to Designing Research und Evaluation. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby, 1976, Chapters 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
EDWARDS,
ALLENL. Statistical Methods, 2nd ed. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1967.
ENGELHART,
MAX D. Methods of Educationul Research. Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1972, Chapters 8, 9, 12, and 13.
GEORGE
A. Statistical Methods for the Behavioral Sciences.
FERGUSON,
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1954, Chapters 2-6, 8,
12-13, 15-16.
FOX,DAVIDJ . The Research Process in Education. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1969, Chapters 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 16.
GAGE,N. L., ed. Handbook of Research on Tesching. Chicago: Rand
GAY,L. R. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis und Application. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1976, Chapters 2, 4,
and 7.
GOOD, CARTERV. Essentials of Educational Research. New York:
GUILFORD,
J. P. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology und Education,
4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965, Chapters 3-6, 10, and 14.
HARDYCK,
CURTIS,and LEWISF. PETRINOVICH.
Understanding Research in the Social Sciences. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1975,
Chapters 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, and 9.
HILLWAY,
TYRUS.Introduction to Research, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton
HOPKINS,CHARLES
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1976, Chapters 4 and 10.
JONES,RALPHH., ed. Methods und Techniques of Educational Research. Danvill, I11.: Interstate Printers and Publishers, 1973, Parts 4
and 5.
Design und Analysis: A Researcher's Handbook.
KEPPEL,GEOFFREY.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J .: Prentice-Hall, 1973.
KERLINGER,
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979, Chapters 2-8.
196
Foundations of Behavioral Research, 2nd ed. New York:

Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973, Chapters 2, 3, 7, 8, 11-16, 22,
and 23.
LINDQUIST,
EVERET
F. Design and Analysis of Experiments in Psychology und Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953, Chapters 2 and
3.
MADSEN,
CLIFFORD
K . , R. DOUGLAS
GREER,and CHARLES
H. MADSEN,JR., eds. Research in Music Behavior: Modzving Music Behavior in the Classroom. New York: Teachers College Press, 1975.
H. MADSEN,
JR. Experimental
MADSEN,
CLIFFORD
K., and CHARLES
Research in Music. Raleigh, N.C. : Contemporary Publishing, 1978.
MADSEN,
CLIFFORD
K . , and RANDALL
S. MOORE,EDS. Experimental
Research in Music: Workbook in Design and Statistical Tests, rev.
ed. Raleigh, N.C. : Contemporary Publishing, 1978.
MASON,EMANUEL
J., and WILLIAM
J. BRAMBLE.
Understanding und
Conducring Research: Applications in Education and the Behavioral
Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, Chapters 4, 5, 7, 8, and 9.
MOULY,GEORGE
J. The Science of Educational Resbarch, 2nd ed. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970, Chapters 6, 7, 11, and 12.
RUNKEL,
PHILIPJ., and JOSEPHE. MCGRATH.
Research on Human
Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972, Chapters 4,
5, 11, 13, and 14.
SAX,GILBERT.Empirical Foundations of Educational Research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968, Chapter 12.
SIMON,JULIANL. Basic Research Methods in Social Science: The Art
of Empirical Investigation. New York: Random House, 1969, Chapters 3, 4, 13, 14, 16, 17, 22, and 23.
M. W. An Introduction to EducationalResearch, 4th
TRAVERS,
ROBERT
ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, Chapters 9-1 1.
-,
ed. Second Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago:
Rand McNally , 1973, Chapters 9 and 11.
TUCKMAN,
York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978, Chapters 4-7 and 10.
VANDALEN,DEOBOLD
Introduction, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979, Chapters 5, 6,
8. and 9.
197
WALKERHELENM. Mathematics Essential for Elementav Sratistics,

rev. ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1951, Chapters 4, 7,
10, 15, and 17.
WHITNEY.
FREDERICK
L. The Elements of Research, 3rd ed. En.. - glewood Cliffs, N. J .: Prentice-Hall, 1950, Chapter 9.
WIERSMA,
WILLIAM.
2nd ed. Itasca, 111.: F. E. Peacock, 1975, Chapters 2, 4, and 8-10.
WILLIAMSON,
JOHNB., DAVIDA. KARP,and JOHNR. DALPHIN.
The
Little, Brown, 1977, Chapters 5, 9, 12, and 15.
WISE, JOHNE., ROBERTB. NORDBERG,
and DONALDJ. REITZ.
Methods of Research in Education. Boston: D . C. Heath, 1967,
Chapters 7 and 8.
Descriptive Research
199
Descriptive research has until recently constituted the bulk of

project~completed in music and other education. Although still
used extensively, through misuse it is not as highly regarded in
many institutions as it formerly was, and has come under censure
from many sources. But descriptive research does not need to be
shallow and subjective; appropriately organized and implemented, it can make important contributions to music education. Certain kinds of information may be obtained best or exclusively by one of the descriptive methods or techniques.
Purposes of Descriptive Research
7 . Descriptive Research:
An Account of the Present
Descriptive research, sometimes called "status research. " essentially deals with that which exists at the present time. It goes
without saying that "the present" is here only for a fleeting
moment, and then it becomes the past. For practical purposes of
organizing descriptive research, however, the present will be construed in this book as an arbitrary time Span of short duration
(usually no more than a year) that is defined by an investigator to
circumscribe a study. In descriptive research emphasis is on the
present at the time of observation, whereas in historical research
emphasis is on the past. The term "descriptive research," according to Mason and Bramble, is used to "represent a broad
range of activities that have in common the purpose of descnbing
situations or phenomena. '"
In music education descriptive research usually is conducted

for three purposes: (1) to obtain data on current conditions or
pmcedures; (2) to establish relationships among factors or conditions; and (3) to determine needs, trends, or changes. Frequently
it is beneficial to know the current status of a subject area, such as
music. In several states, for example, the state music supervisor
or consultant annually attempts through a survey to procure from
each school district in the state such information as the following:
number and kind of music teachers (vocal, instrumental, etc.);
educational qualifications of each teacher; the number of students
enrolled in each of the music Courses andlor performance groups;
kinds and number of district-owned instruments; and number and
specific titles of textbooks and other instructional materials used
for class instruction. These data, when assembled, can be used to
show the relative status of music education in the state.
The mere accumulation of data, however, is not always the
only purpose of descriptive research as Van Dalen notes: "Descriptive research is not confined to routine fact gathering. Identifying and clarifying relationships among variables are the goals
of many inve~tigators."~
In the previous illustration the state
supervisor or consultant in music, in addition to ascertaining the
status of music education, may make quantitative comparisons of
200
music programs in various districts even though there is no attempt to make qualitative judgments of these programs. This
information can be especially useful when, for purposes of upgrading, the music program in one school district may be judged
quantitatively to be inferior to others in terms of the items contained in the survey. Qualitatively it should be apparent that a
descriptive survey cannot indicate whether musical-performance
Standards in one school are Superior to those in another. Descriptive survey procedures can be used to ascertain the presence or
absence of certain conditions or factors but cannot always
evaluate their effectiveness.
Returning to the example citing kinds of data collected by state
music supervisors, certain trends may become apparent as information is compared year after year. It may be found, for instance,
that music-theory classes are becoming more prevalent in high
schools, which suggests that more high-school graduates are entering college or university as music majors witf a better theoretical background. Unmet needs for equipment and materials also
may be apparent when the state music supervisor collates data
from the survey. These data can then be used to show school
administrators how their Systems compare with others of comparable size in regard to equipment and materials. Presumably the
school music directors already know, but they may be accused of
promoting their vested interests if they persistently try to convince their administrator of the Situation. Sometimes the state
supervisor can assist a teacher by providing comparative data on
music programs in school districts similar to those of the teacher.
The Disparity of Descriptive Research

Textbooks on educational research not only lack Consensus
regarding what constitutes valid descriptive research but also fail
to accept terrninology appropriate to it. There probably is more
20 1
disagreement and confusion in the area of descriptive research

than in any of the other four types discussed in this book. For this
reason, perhaps, descriptive research in music education frequently has been looked upon with disfavor by some who believe
it to be too subjective and disorganized to obtain valid data using
the scientific method.
Wiersma, distinguishing experimental from descriptive research, calls the latter "nonexperimental research" because there
are so many variables in educational research, such as aptitude,
intelligente, and socioeconomic background, that cannot effectively serve as independent variable^.^ The position taken here is
that there is a rather large body of studies in music education thai,
because of the methodology employed, may be categorized under
a general grouping as descriptive research because they tell
"what is, " as the word "describe " implies. Sometimes quasiexperimental is the designation given to descriptive studies, especially if Campbell and Stanley designs 7-16, discussed in the
preceding chapter, are used.
The many different chapter headings found among textbooks to
designate descriptive research indicates the disparity of terminology among researchers. Among the terms used are: surveys, observations, growth-and-development studies, correlation studies,
causal-comparative studies, and documentary analysis. Even
greater disparity is apparent in other sources where these specific
items are included as subheadings in a chapter devoted to descriptive research.
Until recently, as already observed, the bulk of research studies
in music education fit into the descriptive area. Petzold placed the
figure at 70 percent of all music-education research completed
during the ten-year period 1952-62.4 lt might be pointed out that
the greater the number of studies, the more reasonable it is to
assume that there will be a higher proportion of inferior projects
merely on the basis that perfection is inversely related to the mass
of items present. An oboist will not necessarily produce a greater
202
percentage of good reeds when making a hundred rather than only

ten.
Schneider and Cady, in a federally funded research project,
prepared a synthesis and evaluation of doctoral dissertation and
published research reports in music education for a thirty-twoyear period (1930-62). Schneider and Cady prepared abstracts
for those studies they regarded as competent research, based on
their own criteria. A large number of these studies fall under the
rubric ' 'descriptive research. "5
Richard Colwell also conducted a federally subsidized
descriptive-research project to identify doctoral research studies
in music education that were not only of good quality but also
relevant to the music-education profession. Colwell's research
report consists of a compilation of the doctoral dissertations that
were critiqued by reviewers from vanous institutions of higher
education in the United S t a t e ~ . ~
The proliferation of descriptive-research stubies in music education (and education in general) is partially due to the disparity
in terminology just noted and also to a mistaken conception that
this type of research is easy to organize and implement. These
factors, in addition to the poor quality of some research, have
resulted in a general discrediting of descriptive research. Yet
Simon states: "Students should not automatically shy away from
descriptive projects, however, because they are harder to do well
and easier to do atrociously than are other types of research.
Three problems, according to Cook and LaFleur, tend to make
descriptive research difficult to handle in some instances: sampling, valid data-collection techniques, and interpretive t h e ~ r y . ~
One of the difficulties of sampling in descriptive research is defining the appropriate population to which the results of the sample
studied may be generalized. The problem of sample bias is especially difficult to control in descriptive research. Since there are
so many instruments or techniques for obtaininn data in descrintive research, investigators must choose the appropriate tech-
"'
203
niques or instruments carefully or the data they collect may be

invalid. The foremost question they should ask is, "Will the
techniques or instruments used to collect data give valid answers
to the questions asked?" A mere presentation of facts and figures
is not enough to make a descriptive-research study acceptable.
The basic assumption underlying the research should be related to
the results of the completed study. Once data are collected they
may be interpreted in the form of a theory.
Recognizing the utility and popularity of descriptive research,
Mouly observes: "No category of educational research is more
widely used than the type known variously as the survey, the
normative-survey, status or descriptive research. This is a broad
classification comprising a variety of specific techniques and procedures, all similar from the standpoint of purpose-namely, to
establish the status of the phenomenon under i n ~ e s t i g a t i o n . ' ~
Kinds of Descriptive Research

As already noted, considerable disagreement exists among researchers regarding types of descriptive research. For purposes of
this book the three categories under which all descriptive research
in music education falls are: survey studies, correlation studies,
and development studies. These categories are not to be confused
with descriptive-research tools, which will be treated later in this
chapter.
The prime purpose of any kind
of survey is to obtain objective
Survey Studies
data
through
observation
regarding the current status of a specific situation or activity.
Survey studies include: educational or school, community, job
analysis, content or documentary analysis, public opinion, and
curriculum. Data obtained from a survey may help plan for future
needs or test the validity of a current practice. One of the most
204
widely used types is the school, or educational, survey, which

according to Good appeared around 1910.'O Surveys of this kind
normally are conducted by local school officials or by research
teams from a professional organization, such as the National Education Association. Music can receive significant attention in this
type of survey, moreover, as evidenced by the report resulting
from research a few years ago by the Research Division of the
National Education Association." Although many of the data
may not be accurate today, the report contains information on the
status and relevante of music and art in the elementary and secondary schools of the United States. Included for the elementary
schools are such pertinent items as time allotments for music by
grade, personnel responsible for music instruction, instrumental
music offerings, and equipment. Other aspects consist of trends in
secondary-school music e ~ o l l m e n t ,music courses added or
dropped in secondary schools, music credits allowed for highschool graduation, and public funds budgetkd for music programs .
The local school survey is conducted primarily to obtain information about each family in the community on such factors as
number of children (both preschool and school-age), grades in
which school children are emolled, number of families owning
homes, and occupations of the parents. Other kinds of data that
may be sought in educational surveys are: teacher training and
experience, pupil achievement, instructional materials and
equipment, and physical-plant facilities. Although such data formerly were used to determine anticipated need for such things as
additional classroom space, teaching personnel, and educational
Services, with the declining school population educational surveys now may be used to determine whether schools should be
closed, how many teaching positions may be lost, and other factors associated with the general retrenchment in education today .
One way a school survey can be of significance is to enable a
local board of education to plan for additional music personnel (in
205
the few Systems where music teachers are being added) and for
equipment, such as pianos tubas, double basses and other items
normally not purchased by the individual student for school use.
The music director establishes anticipated needs on the basis of
proper balance in terms of emollment figures for each of the
instniments. Projected enrollments for required general music
courses can be established quite accurately for a designated year
by noting the number of students in each grade level who eventually will be enrolled. In addition, the number of families owning
homes and occupations of the parents are significant, not only in
terms of helping to establish a tax base for budgetary purposes,
but also in indicating to a considerable extent the socioeconomic
and cultural status of farnilies in a community. These kinds of
data frequently are examined by school boards when preparing
budgets to ascertain the validity of requests for additional music
personnel and capital items .
As an example of a survey, Tyler investigated professionalpreparation programs in music in eight colleges and universities
in the southwestern United States. Curricula of these institutions
were compared with the minimum standards recommended by the
National Association of Schools of Music.I2 Although all were
accredited by regional associations, none met the minimum standards Set by the National Association of Schools of Music. Tyler
offered recommendations to enable each of these institutions to
reach minimum National Association of Schools of Music standards.
Music educators do not often undertake community surveys.
Recommendations of a community survey, usually more general
than those for an educational survey, might include planning for a
community perforrning-arts Center. Many community-attitude
scales include items relating to music and the arts. One by Bosworth, for example, included a question to find out if citizens felt
that their community should Sponsor more music and lecture
programs. Bosworth used a five-point scale ranging from
206
strongly agree to strongly disagree to determine the community

reaction to Services suggested on a questionnaire.I3
Job analysis, as it originated in business and govemment, enables workers to relate more easily to their jobs, according to
Mouly.14 In education job analyses are used to deterrnine duties
and responsibilities of school administrators, teachers, and staff.
In music, for example, a survey was conducted in the state of New
York to obtain information on such items as administrative duties,
scheduling, and teaching and nonteaching re~ponsibilities.~~
More specifically, questions in this New York survey pertained to
assignment of the music teacher to cafeteria, bus, or study-hall
duty; time allotment for consultation responsibilities; scheduling
procedures for music; audiovisual equipment; and budgetary considerations.
Liston undertook a job analysis to ascertain educational background and professional experience of management personnel in
the music industry. If they majored in music he'set out to determine formal and informal music activities that enabled them to
make the transition to industry. If they came from outside music
he sought to determine what was unique about their formal or
informal training that caused them to enter the field. He found no
identifiable and measurable characteristics in the music industry.
A music background is rather uncommon among the forty-six
persons included in the study.16
Content analysis, also known as documentary or textbook, is
sometimes included as a phase of historical rather than descriptive research. Engelhart states that content analyses of visual,
oral, and written communications yield useful data to study problems in the behavioral sciences. These cornmunications could
include pictures, kinescopes and tape recordings, books,
magazine and newspaper editorials, radio and television programs, student creativity, and other results of student activities.I7
In content analysis the investigator uses existing materials in a
given area to determine quantitatively their relationship or com-
207
patibility with certain concepts or philosophies. In a textbook

analysis, for example, a researcher might compare instrumental
tutors printed in 1920 with comparable volumes published in
1940, 1960, and 1980 to determine what pedagogical concepts
have remained the Same, what old ones have disappeared, and
what new ones have appeared. Borg and Gall, lamenting that
content analysis is not used by more researchers, state: "The
content-analysis technique is very well suited for small-scale
educational research projects, and it is surprising that more students do not carry out content-analysis studies. It is usually easier
to obtain communications such as textbooks and newspapers than
it is to obtain research subjects. ' " 8
James, in a doctoral study, examined 499 elementary books of
ninety-eight basal music series to determine the proportion of
Afro-American music in each series. She also offered teaching
suggestions for Songs and provided illustrative materials and
identified Afro-American composers whose music was used.
Afro-American composers were first included in 1912 in The
Lyric Music Series, but illustrations of Afro-Americans did not
appear until the 1953 edition of The New Music H o r i ~ o n s . ' ~
Public-opinion surveys, used rather extensively in business
and politics, do have some import for music education. Commercial public-opinion surveys are very powerful and are used widely
to measure public reaction to a new product or procedure. Local
governments and other organizations occasionally use them as a
convenient way to obtain suggestions or to learn what improvements the general public feels need to be made. Public-opinion
polls generally reach the height of their popularity and are
scrutinized closely just prior to state and national elections. Some
defeated candidates have even gone so far as to accuse opinion
polls of influencing the public against them. Fublic-opinion surveys obviously cater to biases or preferences, but this factor alone
should not be sufficient to indict them. Because more scientific
sampling procedures are being used now, public-opinion polls are
208
proving to be surprisingly accurate in predicting the outcome of

state and national elections in the United States.
Music-education researchers occasionally use opinion studies
to obtain certain kinds of data that cannot be procured as easily
any other way. Hawkins, for example, in a doctoral study, used a
panel of secondary music teachers in selected urban schools to
find out which behavioral and expressive objectives they considered important. Another objective was to see how rnuch agreement one might expect from a panel regarding the ability of
teachers to achieve their objectives. Hawkins rnailed a questionnaire to thirty-six secondary music teachers. Results showed that
the teachers believed an analysis of music through common elements is important and that students can achieve the objectives
that are relative to their musical e n ~ i r o n m e n tStill
. ~ ~ another type
of opinion survey is conducted to learn from music educators
whether they believe there will be a significant demand for certain projected publications or for the contempfated manufacture
of new products.
Curriculum survpy or research, perhaps because it appears to
overlap content analysis or trend studies to some extent, is not
regarded as a separate type of investigation by rnany writers on
educational research. Despite the difficulty of even attempting a
clear definition of "cumculum" and of a "theory of curriculum," Venable and Alger suggest areas in which this type of
research rnay be pursued: (1) status of the curriculum, (2) sources
of curriculum, (3) structure of curriculum, (4) evaluation of existing curricula, and ( 5 ) analysis of curriculum d e ~ e l o p m e n t . ~ ~
Music education can make use of the following kinds of curriculum research: studying the curricular offerings of a local
school district to deterrnine if they are adequate in terrns of objectives and educational goals; comparing music curricula of various
school distncts to serve as a basis for organizing or revising an
existing program; detennining the effect on the curriculum of
educational television, cornputer-assisted instruction, and other
types of educational technology.
209
In a doctoral study Martinez developed a piano ciirriculurn to

improve the music-reading skills of general music students. Martinez assigned forty-eight fifth-grade students to control and experimental groups. Rhythrnic, melodic, and transpositional skills
were tested in training exercises. Tonal subtests were statistically
significant but rhythrnic variables were not.22
The various studies just noted
Correlation Studies
have been concemed with
procedures to "survey" the
current status of a Situation or prevalence of an idea. A second
type of study, known as ' 'correlation " or "interrelationship, "
shows relationships among individuals, groups, or agencies. Emphasis here, as in the survey study, is still on the present, but with
greater attention given to more detailed data taken from fewer
sources. The correlation area in music education normally cornprises research referred to as case studies, causal-comparative
studies, and relationship studies.
Sax lists four purposes of the case-study rnethod: ( I ) to provide
hypotheses that can be tested under similar circumstances, (2) to
determine the availability of unique situations to test hypotheses,
(3) to deal with a study that rnay provide new insights into a
problem, and (4) to demonstrate how a theoretical model can be
used in a specific ~ i t u a t i o n .In~ ~dealing with an individual or
small group, researchers rnay discover situations that they can test
with larger groups of Ss who are in similar circurnstances. As an
example of Sax's second point, it has been demonstrated that
congenitally blind individuals can make a distinction between
"large" and "small" Sounds even though they never have Seen
"large" or "small" objects. A hypothesis relating to the concept
of "size" also might be tested with other handicapped groups. To
discover new or unusual solutions to a problem through a case
study is rewarding for any researcher. Finally, a model rnay be
used to determine the degree of dogmatism that rnay be anticipated with various ethnocentric groups.
A case study rnay profile a Person or persons for a relatjvely
210
short time period. The medical and behavioral sciences traditionally have made extensive use of the case-study technique,
and recently there has been an increasing interest in applying this
concept to the social sciences and humanities, as the purposes
listed above by Sax would seem to suggest.
Because it is desirable to leam about the total interaction of
persons, not only with others around them but also with Situations
they encounter daily, case-study research frequently is undertaken
by a team of qualified personnel, each a specialist in a certain area
or discipline. For example, the investigator who is a musician
might enlist the assistance of a physician, a psychologist, and a
sociologist to study cooperatively how the last-chair player in the
third clarinet section of a high-school band reacts to the other
members seated ahead in the section. This team might individually andlor collectively, through interviews, observation, testing,
and the examination of personal written reports, such as dianes,
letters, and anecdotal records, render a comprehensive account,
offering recommendations for and remedial action to assist the
subject in making whatever adjustments are necessary. In most
school Systems the personnel in the counseling (or guidance)
department are the key persons in organizing and implementing
studies involving the cooperation of subject-matter specialists in
various fields. Music teachers may find themselves included on
such teams, especially if the subject of the investigation seems to
do better in music than in other subjects. Case studies of this type,
especially if they involve the cooperative effort of several competent people, are less likely to come under criticism as frequently
as those in the past, which, according to Mouly, often lacked an
empirical b a ~ i s . ~ ~
Case studies may be conducted by a team or by an individual.
Revesz's continuation, or longitudinal, study, of child prodigy
Erwin Nyiregyhazi, a protege of Ernst von Dohnanyi (18771960), is one of the most extensive case studies dealing with a
musician. A Hungarian music psychologist, Revesz, in 1961, published the results of his eight-year intensive longitudinal study of
2 11
Erwin's development beginning at age f i ~ eRevesz

. ~ ~ shows that
Envin, even at a very young age, displayed unusual powers in the
areas of tonal memory, absolute pitch, improvisation, and clarity
in comprehension of harmonic, melodic, and formal structure,
which are representative of the gifted creative mind. Like many
child prodigies, Nyiregyhazi dropped out of sight musically and
socially until his recent emergence from virtual seclusion, which
has been reported in at least two p u b l i c a t i ~ n s . ~ ~
Using a case-study process, Lenz sought to determine the
ability of three- and four-year-old children to make aural discriminations of rhythm, melody, and modality. The children's
parents were asked to fill out a questionnaire to comment on the
musical behavior of their offspring. Lenz found a positive correlation between singing scores and music-discrimination-test
scores and background data.27
Causal-compurative studies compare the incidence of certain
factors or conditions and then attempt to show the reasons why
they occur. For instance, in a rather obvious example, an
instrumental-music director rnight be aware that thirty-eight girls
and only two boys play flute, and thirty-eight boys and only two
girls play trumpet in the director's instrumental organizations.
Then, if reasons for the imbalance between boys and girls on
these instruments could be determined, steps might be taken to
ensure a more equitable emollment by Sex, if the director felt this
factor to be important.
In experimental research, where t h s concept also is used, the
investigator is able to control rigidly the dependent variables and
manipulate the independent variables to determine the causal relationship. On the other hand, when behavioral scientists use the
causal-comparative principle they often are not able to control the
comparative factors as easily as can the investigator in experimental research. As an example of a causal-comparative study in
music education, Huebner, in a doctoral study, investigated
whether method of listening, tempo of music, or interaction between method and tempo affected the attitude of sixth-grade stu-
212
dents listening to classical music. The number of Ss used was

108, and thirty-two excerpts of classical music of four different
musical periods performed at two different tempi were used as the
pretest and posttest. Huebner found that no single rnethod of
listening or tempo is recommended for shaping attitudes toward
classical music .28
The term relationship studies has been used to encornpass
correlation and progression or development projects. Most of the
music-education relationship studies have been labeled correlation. Since most of these are in the area of psychology of music, it
is understandable that the term "correlation" should be used.
Relationship, or correlation, studies are conducted to show how
two variables correspond to each other-for instance, to determine the relationship between intelligence and musical aptitude,
race and musical aptitude, and Sex and rnusical aptitude. Some of
the best relationship studies in music are reported by Kwalwas-
er.^^
In a fairly recent relationship study Hurn sought to determine
music-education majors' responses to the F Scale and to the
MTAI (Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory). One of Hurn's
objectives was to establish norms for the MTAI for musiceducation majors. Another objective was to ascertain intercorrelations between authoritarianism and the variables of Sex, age,
career goals, influence of teachers, or other models. Hurn tested
472 music-education majors frorn Ohio colleges. He concluded
that both the F Scale and the MTAI can provide information about
individuals and groups and that music-education students are
more authoritarian than other s t ~ d e n t s . ~ ~
Development, or progression,
Development Studies
studies are concerned with
changes or developments over
a period of time. Mason and Bramble list four purposes of developrnent research: (1) to seek origins of behavior, (2) to find
interrelationships among factors affecting growth, (3) to deter-
213
mine what influences affect growtb and (4) to use trends of the
past to predict the future.)' Two kinds of development studies are
normally found in music research: growth and trend. Growth
studies are usually classified as either longitudinal or crosssectional. Longitudinal studies are time-consuming and expensive but constitute the best way to study human development.
Studies of this kind attempt to measure changes or developments
in the Same individual at different age levels. Some of the best
examples in music involve measurement of musical achievement
over a period of years. Petzold's five-year study on auditory
perception of elementary-school children, discussed in the previous chapter, is an example of a longitudinal study, although it is'
basically an experimental rather than a descriptive study.12
Stanton conducted a ten-year study of musical talent at the
Eastman School of Music in which she followed the students
through their undergraduate training. She also compared each
entering freshman class. Her investigation is an example of both
longitudinal and cross-sectional use in what might be termed a
quasi-experimental p r o ~ e s s . ~ ~
Obata's developrnental study, completed for a doctoral degree,
was concerned with the history and growth of the band movement
in Japan from 1945 to 1970. He used personal interviews and
correspondence with musicians in Japan and in the United States
to show American influences upon the growth and development
of band music in J a ~ a n . ) ~
Cross-sectional studies are more widely used than longitudinal,
undoubtedly because they are not as expensive or timeconsuming. They compare different individuals at the sarne age
or level of development; for example, the musical achievement of
all fifth-grade students in a school System each year. Crosssectional studies frequently involve a greater number of individuals than longitudinal and also employs fewer variables. The objective of Trammell's doctoral research was to determine the
effectiveness of repetition and guided listening in developing en-
214
joyable music-listening experiences for second-grade students.

Using two experimental and one control group, Trammell had the
137 Ss listen for mood tone color, melody, form, and rhythm.
She found that repetition and guided listening produced a higher
level of enjoyment than guided listening alone. Repetition was
effective, but she concluded that more repeated listenings would
be a d v a n t a g e o u ~ . ~ ~
Trend studies identify trends or predict what is likely to take
place in the future. One of the best-known types of trend studies
is the school census, conducted annually in many school districts.
When not incorporated in a survey, the objective of a school
census is merely to obtain the name, age, and educational Status of
each child in a family. Trend studies have been used quite extensively also in music education. Dudd in a longitudinal study for a
doctorate, sought to predict the success of majors enrolled at the
University of Michigan School of Music. He delineated 130 preenrollment predictors and other criteria, such as college Grade
Point Average (GPA), persistence in music through graduation,
and then remaining in music as an occupation. He sent a questionnaire to 134 students who had been enrolled in 1962. Dudd
found a significant relationship between predictors and college
GPA'S after three Semesters, and at g r a d ~ a t i o n . ~ ~
Many teachers or music administrators undertake a less formal
type of trend study to deterrnine the direction of enrollment in
specific music classes over a period of years. An increasing or
decreasing demand for certain Courses may be due to declining
school enrollment, state requirements, popularity of the instructor,
or other factors.
Ethnographic Research
Ethnographic research is a procedure that, although developed
by anthropologists, has received considerable attention from edu-
2 15
cational researchers. The main characteristic of ethnographic investigation is that some special process is used to perrnit the
researcher to maintain continuous observation of a Situation so
that all things related to the study can be recorded. The researcher
may use participant observation, nonparticipant observation, or
both. Borg and Ga11 point out that in participant observation the
researcher uses some type of audio or video device, or both, and
then analyzes the data later. In the nonparticipant process the
researcher takes extensive handwritten notations of continuous
activities and i n t e r a ~ t i o n sIn
. ~ethnographic
~
research hypotheses
usually are generated after the study is completed. However,
these hypotheses may be tested in subsequent research that may
involve the experimental method. Any hypotheses formulated are
based on the researcher's observation, either participant or nonparticipant .
Tools of Descriptive Research

The collection of data for various kinds of descriptive research
discussed in the foregoing pages is predicated on the use of
certain tools, singly or in combination. Those most frequently
used are: questionnaire, opinionnaire, interview, rating scale, observation, checklist, and standardized tests.
One of the most widely used tools
Quesrionnaire
of descriptive research is the questionnaire. Unfortunately , it also has
been abused and misused, with the result that researchers and
recipients alike tend to regard the questionnaire as anathema.
Borg and Ga11 pinpoint one of the most serious weaknesses of
the questionnaire when they o b s e ~ that
e many of them "appear
to have been thrown together by the graduate Student during the
short break between lunch and her two o'clock class. "38 When
an investigator takes the time and thought necessary to construct
216
a sound questionnaire, there is no reason why it cannot

be used to acquire information that is obtainable in no other
manner .
Questionnaires are of two forms, closed and open-ended. The
closed, also kno wn as "structured " or "restricted, " questionnaire, is objective, easy to administer, facile in response, and
fairly simple to Score and analyze. Because of its rigid construction, however, respondents may not be able to express their answers exactly in the manner they wish. This weakness can be
overcome to some extent by providing opportunity for an alternative answer.
Answers for the closed questionnaire may be in the form of (1)
checking a "yes" or "no " answer, (2) underlining or circling the
correct response, (3) ranking items (1, 2, 3,4, 5 ) according to their
correctness or validity, or (4) inserting specific data in a blank or
space provided. An example of each of these four items follows.
1. Directions. Check the correct answer.
The section leader in each of your senior
high-school rnajor instrumental performing
groups (orchestra, band, etc.) is required to
study his or her instmment privately.
Yes2o-.
2. Directions. Underline the correct response.

Extra chorus rehearsals, when needed, are
scheduled (a) before school (b) during
lunch hours (C) after school (d) oth-
3. Direcrions. Circle the correct answer.

How would you rate the attitude of your principal toward music?
enthusiastic
sympathetic
2 17
impartial
tolerant
antagonistic
4 . Directions. Insert the correct answer in the

blanks provided.
How many full-time instrumental music
teachers are employed in your school system?-.
The open-ended questionnaire, also called "free response" or
"unrestricted," enables respondents to reply in their own words,
thus perrnitting them not only to be more candid but also to give
reasons for their responses. However, the time necessary to formulate an answer carefully and critically can be discouraging and
restraining to a busy respondent. The investigator will also find
that data obtained from an open-ended questionnaire frequently
are difficult to tabulate, categorize, and summarize.
Rephrasing the first exarnple just given to make it conform to
an open-ended question, the investigator might ask: "What is
your policy regarding private instruction for the section leader of
each of your senior high-school major instrumental performing
groups? "
Several factors should be kept in mind when constructing a
questionnaire Among the most significant are: ( I ) Oniy seek
information that cannnt readily be obtained elsewhere. A questionnaire should not be used when data can be obtained from a
dictionary, encyclopedia, or other easily accessible source. (2)
Instructions for completing the questionnaire should be concise
so that they may be understood by the recipient. Terms that have
a specific connotation should be carefully defined. (3) Questions
should be phrased clearly und in unambiguous terms. When the
respondent has to spend unnecessary time trying to determine the
218
intended meaning, validity of the responses is diminished. (4)

The questionnaire should be brief und to the point, yet long
enough to obtain desired information. Unduly long questionnaires, if returned at all, are Iikely to be completed rather hurriedly or with some information lacking. To reduce what may
appear to be an excessive number of questions, several similar
items may be incorporated into one question. The psychological
effect of observing fewer separate questions is conducive to better
response. (5) The order in which questions are placed should be
logical, proceeding fi-om those that are simple und general to
those that are more complex and specifc. ( 6 ) Controversial questions und those that might prove disconcerting to the respondent
should be avoided. (7) Format of the questionnaire should be
psychologically conducive to a response on the Part of the recipient. A poorly reproduced questionnaire, one that contains print
too small to read easily or one in which items are too close
together, will seldom receive favorable attentibn.
Prior to sending out a questionnaire an investigator should
pretest it on peers or on groups similar to those whose responses
are to be elicited, requesting suggestions for improvement. These
will be useful in preparing a final version with fewer inconsistencies than might have been the case without this "dry run."
Accompanying the final version of the questionnaire should be
a covering letter in which the investigator candidly states the
purpose of the study, its relevance to music education, its sponsorship, and date by which the questionnaire is to be returned.
Also enclosed should be a self-addressed, stamped envelope.
This writer has received questionnaires in which no such envelope has been provided. Its omission does not represent much
of a financial outlay for the one who is to respond, but ethically it
is a serious breach of accepted research protocol. It is a case of a
researcher seeking assistance and then having the audacity to ask
the respondent to supply return postage in addition!
2 19
The covering letter should preferably be three paragraphs long

but complete enough to impress upon the recipient the importance
of a reply. If the investigator is to treat answers anonymously
respondents must be so informed, and the researcher must maintain integrity in that regard when questionnaires are returned and
data tabulated. If an anonymous questionnaire is sent out the
researcher should use a coding System, assigning consecutive
numbers to questionnaires. The researcher keeps a record indicating who 001, 002, 003, etc., are in case follow-up is needed.
Sponsorship may be indicated either in the body of the covering
letter itself or in the form of an attachment to it. Investigators
must not assume that their enrollment at a college or university
automatically entitles them to carte blanche endorsement for everything they send out.
Although the precise lapse of time before a questionnaire is
returned is dependent upon such factors as distance of mailing,
length of questionnaire, and time of year, a period of two to three
weeks is not unreasonable. At certain times of the year, notably
during football season and at Christmas and spring festival time,
music teachers are unusually busy and, understandably, are not as
responsive to questionnaires as they might be at other times. The
follow-up timetable must be reasonable. This writer once received a questionnaire from a noneducational source that he filled
out and returned the Same day. Two days later a follow-up postal
card arrived requesting cooperation in completing the questionnaire. Obviously, the time difference between receipt of this questionnaire and the follow-up communication was too short. A
researcher has to allow for possible delays in the delivery of mail.
The hypothetical letter recorded in Figure 11 is based on communications this writer has received in conjunction with, or in
place of a formal questionnaire. It is indicative of an omnibus or
so-called "shotgun" approach, which should be avoided both in a
covering letter and in a questionnaire.
220
Figure 11
Omnibus Request for Information
Dear Sir or Madam:

I am doing research for my doctoral dissertation. Please send me a
bibliographical list of textbooks used in all your Courses that doctoral students take at your institution. 1 know you understand the
importance of this information to the success of my doctoral project. Thank you for your assistance.
Yours Sincerely,
Several comments about this letter are in o d e r . In the first

sentence the researcher fails to name the sponsoring institution.
Furthermore, no deadline for retum of the information is given. In
addition, two of the four sentences begin with the first-personSingular personal pronoun, which is considered in poor taste not
only in ordinary everyday communication but also in research.
The second sentence is really the "catchall" section, and the
researcher is so vague and indefinite that no recipient would
know how to reply intelligently. It assumes that all doctoral programs include the Same course requirements and thus will make
use of common bibliographies. Does the researcher Want required
textbooks only or supplementary materials, or both? The request
also does not take into consideration that some institutions may
award more than one kind of doctorate, in which case the course
requirements would differ to some extent. The third sentence is
an attempt to impress upon the recipient the importance of a
prompt reply, but because of the omnibus nature of the request it
would be difficult for anyone to respond with specific information. The importance of stating in clear, unambiguous terms what
221
information is desired cannot be stressed too much. An omnibus

request for information is a guarantee that if any information is
received at all it will be minimal.
As soon as questionnaires are retumed the tabulation of information may begin. Data may be recorded on blank questionnaires, on separate sheets of Paper, on file cards (3" X 5" or 4" X
6'9, or punched on IBM cards. It is good practice to date each
questionnaire as it is received for ease in rechecking later on.
Also, when a coding System is not used, questionnaires should be
numbered as they are returned. In determining percentages, the
researcher must account for every questionnaire sent out in the
totals, either as usable or void. For example, investigators wishing to obtain a minimum of two hundred responses may not
continue sending out questionnaires to reach this goal without
accounting for all of them in their totals. This may mean their
entire mailing might be as many as three hundred questionnaires,
with some going to persons less suitable for the study. Rather
than continuing to send out additional questionnaires, follow-up
procedures should be undertaken so information can be received
from the original sample to whom the questionnaires were sent.
Although there is no general agreement among educational
researchers as to what constitutes an acceptable minimum percentage for questionnaire returns to represent a valid study, in the
opinion of Good the minimum of 90 percent now seems to be
plausible.39 Formerly a minimum percentage of 75 was considered acceptable by many researchers, but the American Educational Research Association and other professional groups have
insisted upon and have been able to reach a figure of 95 percent,
or above in some instances. A response this high usually is obtained only by solid follow-up techniques. Obviously, the higher
the percentage of response, the more valid will be the data.
The first follow-up, in the form of a letter or postal card, is
usually mailed about three weeks after the original questionnaire
has been sent. The purpose of this reminder is to encourage those
222
who have been dilatory in responding. Approximately one week

later another copy of the questionnaire plus a new covering letter
should be sent out to those who still have not replied. Thus
persons who may have misplaced the first questionnaire have
another opportunity to complete and retum it. This mailing is to
include another self-addressed, stamped envelope. 1f additional
follow-up is desirable the investigator may resort to more expensive means of obtaining data, such as registered mail with return
receipt requested, person-to-person telephone calls, or telegrams.
The opinionnaire, sometimes
Opinionnaire
known as "attitude scale, "
which measures a person's
opinions, attitudes, or beliefs, is not used to any great extent in
music education. The researcher must accept the information reported without using any objective measures to verify the validity
of the statements. Respondents, for example, q a y conceal their
real attitude or provide answers that they think will be most
acceptable to the investigator. Regarding techniques used, respondents may be asked to indicate their degree of agreement or
disagreement with certain statements, as in this example:
Directions. Circle the number above the descriptor that indicates your opinion of the statement
that follows.
Music instruction should be provided for all children in the elementary school up to the limit of
their ability and interest.
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Agree with
Reservations
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Seipp has completed a recent doctoral study in music education

using the principle of the attitude scale. He sought to determine if
223
there were differences in the musical Progress and attitude of

freshman music majors between class and private applied instruction. Seipp's conclusion was that differences between class and
private instruction are slight and indicate no particular advantage
for either method for the types of attitudes and skills examined in
this r e ~ e a r c h . ~ ~
The interview technique is an oral proceInterview
dure for collecting answers to questions
on a direct person-to-person basis. Frequently interviewers use a questionnaire on which they fill in the
responses given by the Person being interviewed. When used in
this manner the questionnaire sometimes is called a "schedule."
An interview is an excellent procedure to use in correlating the
answers received with questionnaire results that are on hand. When
a subject gives the Same answers on both questionnaire and in the
interview the validity of the questionnaire is indisputable.
It is usually possible to obtain more detailed data through an
interview than by an impersonal questionnaire sent through the
mail. In addition, interviewers are able to ask for clarification of
any answer they may not understand, which is impossible when
using a questionnaire without additional correspondence. A restatement of the question also is possible when it becomes apparent that the interviewee has misunderstood the question. On the
other hand, questions that might be embarrassing for a subject to
answer in a face-to-face situation will frequently receive better
response through the impersonal mail questionnaire, especially if
the investigator ensures anonymity.
Interviews may be either structured or unstructured. In the
former the interview procedure follows a fairly rigid Pattern in
regard to questions asked, answers expected, and techniques used
to encourage the anticipated responses. Data obtained from the
structured interview are usually easier to modify and evaluate
than those from the unstructured interview. Flexible procedure
and informal questioning mark the unstructured interview. The
224
casual manner characteristic of this type of interviewing infrequently elicits responses that might not be possible through
any other means. However, comparison of data from various
subjects is more difficult.
For best results the interview technique should not be used by a
person who is inexperienced in such procedures. Training and
experience in counseling provide good background for the musician who wishes to solicit extensive information by the interview
method. According to Rummel, the researcher employing interview procedures should develop proficiency in "(1) creating a
friendly atmosphere, (2) asking questions, and (3) obtaining responses. ' 141
Interviewers who prefer to use a tape recorder to preserve the
comments on magnetic tape should first obtain permission to do
so from the interviewee. They should not resort to subterfuge
through the use of hidden microphones or camouflaged listening
devices. An interview preserved on magnetic tape has the advantage of being readily accessible should the investigator wish to
recheck direct verbatim statements, something not always possible when remarks are paraphrased or recorded on Paper.
A rating scale, according to Tuckrnan,
Rating Scale
is used to record judgments on behaviors that are ~ b s e r v e dAlthough
.~~
there are several forms of rating scales, many researchers prefer
the form developed by Rensis Likert. In the Likert-type scale all
intervals are assumed to be equal. In recording an attitude or belief, a Likert-type scale would make use of the following levels
of agreement or disagreement (see figure 12).
Student-recommendation forms that instructors fill out for
placement bureaus or that supervisors complete in conjunction
witb student-teaching evaluation frequently involve qualitative
judgments that are recorded on rating scales. A Likert-type scale,
for example, might be used to rate a Person's skill in teaching,
with 1 representing superior and 5, inferior achievement. In this
225
Figure 12
Likert-Type Scale
Directions. Place an "X" at the appropriate place on the

scale below that most nearly represents your attitude.
Music should be required of all seventh-grade students.
I
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Agree with
Disagree Strongly
Reservations
Disagree
instance the intervening descriptors and corresponding numbers

might be: above average ( 2 ) , average ( 3 ) , below average ( 4 ) .
Respondents might be instructed to underline the item or to circle
the number that most closely corresponds to their evaluation of
the person in question.
Another type of appraisal might utilize descriptors that are
indicative of a subject's behavior as follows: Always Trustworthy, Usually Trustworthy, Occasionally Trustworthy, Rarely
Trustworthy, and Never Trustworthy. Response to this type of
evaluation also might be made by underlining or circling the
appropriate descriptor.
Frequently used for character assessment is a graphic rating
scale, in which lines and bars indicate the continuum of the descriptive terms. Evaluators check or draw a line on the contour
that comes closest to their evaluation. These lines may be on the
vertical bar, in which case a circle can be used; otherwise the bar
can be at any place along the horizontal between two descriptors.
Most rating scales are designed to provide for an odd number
226
of judgments, in other words, five, seven, or nine, rather than four,

six, or eight. With an odd-number of descriptors the middle item
is always neutral. There are some hazards associated with the use
of a rating scale. It is often difficult to determine the specific trait
or attitude to be measured. Another weakness is the so-called
"halo effect," in which judgments of one trait or attitude are
influenced by others, resulting in unintentional bias. Thus a person who displays a pleasing personality may rightly or wrongly
be regarded as intelligent, or an individual who is artistic may be
considered a liberal, which may or may not be the case. The halo
effect is difficult to control and usually is prevalent when uncertainty exists regarding choice of factors for a particular individual.
Direct observation obviously is the
Observation
most objective way for a researcher
to obtain data for descriptive research.
The method of observation has not been used viry extensively in
music education to evaluate behavior. Music supervisors, however, have employed this technique widely for periodic evaluation of the performance of student teachers or regular instructional
personnel. Various devices and instruments may be used in conjunction with this type of evaluation. Some researchers in music
education have used interaction analysis, a process developed by
Ned Flanders and modified by Amidon, Bales, and Taba, among
others. Using Flanders's system of interaction analysis as a basis,
Whitehill observed thirteen teachers of general music in grades
six through nine.43 To Flanders's ten categories Whitehill added
five to examine nonverbal behavior characteristic of music classes.
Based on the results of his observation, Whitehill placed teachers
in either high or low categories. This categonzation resulted in a
hypothesis that needs to be tested by additional research: students
of teachers in the high group will l e r n more about music than
students of teachers in the low group. In interaction analysis the
researcher observes the verbal behavior Pattern of teacher and
227
students, based on a series of predetermined concepts. A record

is made every three seconds of the type of behavior observed.
Observation of behavior by using a videotape porta-pack has
become increasingly popular in recent years. A music teacher, for
instance, might observe and evaluate the behavior and response of
students ' 'under pressure " who are auditioning for first-chair
positions in the schools' instrumental organizations. A checklist
could be used to record the student's reaction to sight reading, as
well as such devices as a stroboscope and a metronome to measure accuracy in pitch and time or rhythmic pulse, respectively.
A checklist is a simple way to record
Checklist
information about an individual or a
situation. It consists of a list of carefully defined items or statements that call for a check mark or
a "yes" or "no" response. If, in the firstchair auditions just
noted, the music director were to include on a checklist such
adjectives as "calm, " "steady ," and "accurate " to indicate
how each student approaches the audition, a "yes" or "no"
answer would suffice. When constmcting a checklist, the evaluator should make provision to augment it with additional words
or remarks that seem appropriate at the time of the observation. In supervising a teacher (student or otherwise) an evaluator
might use a checklist containing such items as "poise, " "selfconfidence, " "well-modulated voice, " and "skill in questioning. " The observation with accompanying checklist, although
usually regarded as a tool of descriptive research, is occasionally
included as a part of experimental research. An example of a
checklist is the one Parr developed to identify essential and desirable music and music-teaching competencies for first-year band
instructors in the public schools. He devised a Competencies
Checklist containing 51 1 statements. These competencies were
evaluated by a random selection of first-year and experienced
band instructors. As a result of his research P a n identified statements from which behavioral objectives can be developed for
228
competency-based teacher-education programs for prospective

band i n s t r u ~ t o r s . ~ ~
Standardized tests in music and
Standardized Tests
in other subject areas are often
employed in conjunction with
experimental and descnptive research. Achievement tests in
music, for instance, could be used to deterrnine the present level
of attainment. These data then might be used as the basis for
growth studies, content analysis, or in conjunction with case
studies.
There are approximately thirty music tests of various kinds on
the market (aptitude, achievement, readiness, appreciation, etc.)
that may be used in connection with interest inventories, measures of mental aptitudes, personality tests, and others. To discuss
the purposes, kinds, and uses of tests is beyond the scope of this
book. The reader is directed to Buros's Eighth Mental Measurements Yearbook for current information on all types of
t e s t ~Since
. ~ ~ the yearbooks are not cumulative it is recommended
that the reader also consult previous editions of The Mental Measurements Yearbook for reviews of music and other tests. More
specific information on music tests may be found in publications
by W h ~ b r e w 4and
~ Leh~nan.~'
Concepts of validity and reliability, normally associated with
tests and measurements, also may be used to evaluate data obtained by the various tools of descriptive research descnbed in
this chapter. Validity is an indication of whether an instrument or
device measures what it is supposed to. For example, a college
theory teacher who is devising a test to measure aptitude for
freshman ear training needs to be especially thorough in validation procedures lest the aptitude test actually turn out to be one to
measure achievement in ear training. On the other hand, reliability is an indication of whether an instrument or device will show
the Same results under identical or comparable conditions. A
researcher rnight ask, "Will Student A receive the Same or comparable score when the Same test is administered the second
229
time?" Conditions have to be comparable, of course, if this is to

be true, as would be expected in the case of an aptitude test, where
uaining significantly does not affect a Student's score.
In the previous chapter mention was made of an equivalentforms test. According to Mehrens and Lehmann, the two forms
are statistically equivalent, containing equal means, variances,
and item intercorrelations. The items also are similar in difficulty
and f ~ r m a t In
. ~ the
~ case of an equivalent-forms music test, if
quarter-and eighth-notes appear in an item on Form A , quarterand eighth-notes should also be included in the corresponding item
on Form B, albeit in a slightly different context. This example
illustrates the meaning of the term "intercorrelations" used by
Mehrens and Lehrnann. It will be recalled from the previous
chapter that equivalent forms are useful when a pretest and a
posttest are given. It is always possible, of course, to administer
the Same form of one test both as a pretest and as a posttest, but
the element of testing, mentioned by Campbell and Stanley, could
be a source of internal invalidity, whereas this would not be as
likely when using equivalent forms of a test.
Descriptive research, although one of the most widely used
types in music education, especially at the master's-degree level,
probably has been misused and abused more than any other kind.
Certain types of data, however, cannot be readily obtained by any
other method. It is for this reason that descriptive research procedures undoubtedly will be used for some time yet in music education. By contrast, the method of philosophical inquiry has not
been employed to any great extent in music education. It is this
type of research that will be treated in the next chapter.
Problems for Revie W und Discussion

1. Why is descriptive research undertaken?
2. Discuss the disparity surrounding descriptive research
230
3. Contrast and compare the various kinds of studies included

under the general heading of survey: school survey, job
analysis, content analysis, public-opinion survey, and curriculum research. Give the purpose and indicate how each
one may be implemented in music education.
4. What types of research are described as correlation studies in

this chapter? Identify the purpose and tell how each one may
be utilized in music education.
5. Discuss the types of development studies listed in this chapter and make an application of each one to music education.
6. What factors need to be kept in mind in the construction of a

questionnaire? Distinguish between the kind of questions
used in a closed- and an open-ended questionnaire.
7. What is the purpose of ethnographic research?

8. How does the opinionnaire differ from a questionnaire?
9. Discuss the interview technique as it relates to musiceducation research. What are advantages and disadvantages
of the interview as compared to the questionnaire?
10. What are the purposes of using a rating scale? Indicate precautions that must be considered when this research tool is
used.
11. Discuss observation techniques as they might be used in
music education.
12. How may standardized tests be used in music-education research?
Descnptive Research
23 1
ARY,DONALD,
L,UCY C. JACOBS,
and ASGHAR
RAZAVIEH.
Introduction to Research in Education, 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979, Chapters 10 and 11.
ASHER,J. WILLIAM.Educational Research und Evaluation Methods.
Boston: Little, Brown, 1976, Chapter 6 .
BEST,JOHN W. Research in Education, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, 1977, Chapters 5 and 6.
BORG,WALTER
R., and MEREDITH
D. GAI-L.Educational Research:
An lntroduction, 3rd ed. New York: Longman, 1979, Chapters 3, 8,
9, 10, 13. 14. 17, 18, and 19.
BUROS,OSCARK. ed. The Eighth Mental Measurements Yearhook,
Vol. I. Highland Park, N.J.: Gryphon Press, 1978, pp. 173-184.
COOK,DAVIDR., and N. KENNETH
LAFLEUR.
ENGELHART,
Rand McNally, 1972, Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 10.
Rinehart and Winston, 1969, Chapters 15, 17, 18, and 19.
GAGE,N. L., ed. Handbook ofResearch on Teaching. Chicago: Rand
McNally, 1936, Chapters 6 and 7.
GOOD,CARTER
HARDYCK,
CURTIS,and LEWISF . PETRINOVICH.
Understanding Research in the Social Sciences. Philadelphia: W. B . Saunders, 1975,
Chapters 5 and 6.
HILLWAY,
TYRUS.
lntroduction to Research, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton
HOPKINS,
CHARLES
D. Educational Research: A Structure for I n q u i ~ .
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Memll, 1976, Chapters 6, 7, and 9.
JONES,RALPHH., ed. Methods und Techniques of Educational Research. Danville, 111,: lnterstate Printers and Publishers, 1973, Part 2.
KAPLAN,
MAX.Foundations und Frontiers of Music Education. New
York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1966, Chapter 5.
232
KERLINGER,
FREDN. Foundations of Behavioral Research, 2nd ed.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973, Chapters 22. 24, and
25-34.
LEHMAN,PAUL R. Tests und Measurements in Music. Englewood
Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968, Chapter 3.
MASON,EMANUEL
J., and WILLIAM
J. BRAMBLE.
Understanding und
Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, Chapters 10 and 11.
MEHRENS,
WILLIAM
A . , and IRVINJ. LEHMANN.
Standardized Tests in
Education, 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975,
Chapters 2 and 3.
MILLER,DELBERT
C. Handbook of Research Design und Social Measurement. 2nd ed. New York: David McKay, 1970, Parts 2 and 4.
MOULY,GEORGE
York: Van Nostrand 1970, Chapters 9 and 10.
PHELPS,ROGERP. "The Psychology of Music and Its Literature, "
College Music Symposium, Spring 1975, 15: 114-125.
-.
Review of Australian Test for Advanced MGsic Studies and of
Farnum Music Test, in Buros, Oscar K. The Eighth Mental Measurements Yearbook. Highland Park, N.J.: Gryphon Press, 1978, pp.
174, 176-178.
REvEsz, GEZA. The Psychology of a Musical Prodigy. Westport,
Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1970.
RUMMEL,
J . FRANCIS.
An Introduction to Research Procedures in Education. 2nd ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1964, Chapters 4-9.
SAX,GILBERT.Empirical Foundations of Educational Research. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968, Chapters 8, 9, and 11.
SIMON,JULIANL . Basic Research Methods in Social Science: The Art
of Empirical Investigation. New York: Random House, 1969, Chapter 16.
TRAVERS,
ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, Chapters 5-8, 12, and 13.
-,
ed. Second Handbook of Research on Tesching. Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1973, Chapters 5 and 15.
TUCKMAN,
York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978, Chapters 8 and 9.
233
DALEN,DEOBOLD
B. Understanrling Educational Research: An
Introduction, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979, Chapter 10.
WHITNEY,FREDERICK
L. The Elements of Research, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1950, Chapter 7.
WHYBREW,
WILLIAM
E. Measurement und Evaluation in Music, 2nd
ed. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown, 197 1.
WIERSMA,
WILLIAM.
2nd ed. Itasca, 111.: F. E. Peacock, 1975, Chapters 5-7.
WILLIAMSON,
JOHNB., DAVIDA. KARP,and JOHNR. DALPHIN.The
Little, Brown, 1977, Chapters 6-8 and 11.
WISE, JOHN E . , ROBERTB. NORDBERG,and DONALDJ. REITZ.
Methods of Research in Education. Boston: D. C. Heatk 1967,
Chapters 5 and 6.
VAN
Philosophical Inquiry
search, therefore no separate method is needed to obtain desired

information; (2) the absence of objective procedures or techniques, such as those employed in descriptive and experimental
research, discourage many researchers from selecting philosophical inquiry as a method for approaching a problem under the
assumption that data obtained by any other than empirical procedures frequently are difficult to document. Stressing that
philosophical inquiry is not the exclusive province of the
philosopher, Gorovitz and Williams aver: "It is a common mistake, fostered in Part by the division of research areas in the
modem university, to suppose that philosophic concerns and
problems are completely separate from the concern of scientists,
lawyers, artists, etc.
The philosophical method or approach is directly related to
problems of philosophy. Philosophical inquiry and investigation
are very old, stemming from the time of Aristotle and other Greek
philosophers. Langer states that philosophy "deals primarily with
meanings-with the sense of what we say. If the terms of our
discourse are incompatible or confused, the whole intellectual
venture to which they belong is invalid; then our alleged beliefs
are not false, but s p u r i ~ u s . "Admittedly,
~
philosophical inquiry
does not deal with solving problems empirically, but Brubacher
reminds his readers that pragmatists view any type of thinking as
re~earch.~
Music education is a discipline that can use the concepts of
philosophical inquiry even more than it has in the past. The
potentialities in this discipline were noted as early as 1955 by
Leonhard, who pointed out that the "areas of philosophy and
esthetics have been neglected as areas of research by music
educators. Reimer, in discussing the changes that have taken
place in philosophies of music education, remarks: "A philosophy . . . must be conceived as being 'of a time,' and must also
give recognition to the fact that it can only provide a point of
departure for practitioners of that time. "6 Aesthetics, a phase of
'12
8. Philosophical Znguiry:
Rational Quest for Truth
Philosophical inquiry (or research) is concemed with disceming
tniths or principles upon which knowledge in any field is based.
Unlike experimental research which is predicated on observing
rigid controls to obtain data, the philosophical method fundamentally is based on reflective or critical thinking by which the researcher compares ideas through analysis and synthesis. This
writer has already referred to his article on the importance of
critical and reflective thinking.'
Rationalism, the concept upon which the philosophical method
is based, employs a priori logic, wherein knowledge and truth are
derived solely through reasoning rather than through the a posteriori or empirical method of educational research, for at least
two reasons: (1) a priori procedures permeate all types of re-
235
236
music education that is a special field of inquiry in its own right,

employs some of the techniques of philosophical inquiry; it will
be discussed in the next chapter.
Descriptive research seeks to find out what exists at the present
time. Philosophical research attempts to establish or determine
concepts or truths that may be used to confirm or modify attitudes, beliefs, and principles.
Metaphysics
Metaphysics, a term used in philosophy, is derived from the
writings of the Greek philosopher Aristotle. The metaphysician is
concemed with the tmth that characterizes and underlies all
things, what accounts for their being, or the way one thinks about
reality. In Book 11 of Metaphysics Aristotle notes that the search
for tmth is both difficult and easy. No one is' able to obtain
complete truth but every person adds a little, and when all bits of
truth from every person are added together, much tmth is revealed.' Hospers states that metaphysics is closely allied to epistemology, which relates to the nature of knowledge. He says:
"Metaphysical problems have to do with what is, whereas epistemological problems have to do with our knowledge of what is;
but in the discussjon of the one the other is bound to enter."8
One of the concems of metaphysics is the nature of problems
that might be called theoretical. The metaphysics of the Greek
philosophers lost some of its stature with the rise of science in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Problems that had been
solved through a priori processes in the Renaissance began to be
resolved with a posteriori procedures because scientists wanted
more objective proof than was usually possible through reflective
thinking alone. The recent trend in music education to seek answers to problems through the empirical process to the exclusion
of other means has been mentioned elsewhere in this book. There
237
still are questions, however, that can best be answered by

metaphysics. For example, is the "sound" identified by the brain
as A = 440 Hz. the Same as the "sound" that enters the extemal
canal of the outer ear? In this example, there obviously are physical answers related to the kind of energy involved in this
metamorphosis, but the ultimate answer is a problem for
philosophy-more particularly, metaphysics-because the realm
of reality is the focus of this question. Moreover, Brenner notes
that the analytical philosopher Rudolf Carnap insists that
metaphysicians deal essentially with psuedo-problems, as this
statement suggests: "Metaphysicans are musicians without musical talent. '*
Plato, in Book V1 of his classic work The Republic, presents a
method of philosophy known as the "divided line" process. FigUre 13 illustrates this procedure.1 The paradigm, divided into two
unequal parts, represents two realms: visible part (the smaller
one) and intelligible Part (the larger one). Proceeding upward
from the perception of shadows, apprehension increases from the
dimmest to the clearest. The lowest level represents the realm of
the imagined or the conjectural; the highest level consists of the
objective realization of the images portrayed in the lowest level.
The intermediate level in each section represents, respectively,
opinion (lowest) and pure knowledge (highest). This process of
deduction from general to specific has served for centuries as an
acceptable procedure for obtaining information and may appropriately be labeled a method of philosophical inquiry.
Science Versus Philosophy

Plato's paradigm is based on a mathematical process, proceeding from hypotheses (lowest limit) up to conclusions that are
demonstrable (highest level). The methods of science, which depend largely upon empirical procedures, make it easier to obtain
238
Figure 13
Plato's "Divided Line" Process
FIRST PRINCIPLES
UNDERSTANDING OF MATHEMATICAL OB JECTS
BELIEF IN VISIBLE OBJECTS
X 4
3
3 E?
V-
PERCEPTION OF
SHADOWS
quantitative data t han do the reflective processes of philosoph y .

Yet, almost paradoxically, philosophy frequently evolves the
theories that subsequently are subjected to scrutinizing experimentation and appraisal in the field of science. The more
239
general what of philosophy is translated into the rather specific

and objective how of science. Yet Smith notes that while acts can
be discovered by science, their utility is determined by other
means." The basically subjective nature of philosophical inquiry,
however, is not sufficient reason to rule out this process altogether as a method of research. Also, historical and descriptive
research are based upon techniques different from those of experimental research, yet they are accepted as valid methods in
their respective areas. Although techniques differ in some respects, philosophical as well as historical, experimental descnptive, and aesthetic research seek to interpret truths resulting from
data collected.
Those who maintain that science and philosophy are not compatible frequently insist that science, because of its emphasis on
the how and rigid control of constants and variables, is able to
obtain data in an objective and valid manner not possible by any
other method. Philosophy, by contrast, is concemed with the
rvhat or principles, ideals, and concepts, which are not always
easy to quantify in a manner entirely satisfactory to a scientist.
Individual evaluation and interpretation play conspicuous roles in
philosophical inquiry, and philosophers, when dealing with a
general concept about which they agree in principle, are not always in accord among themselves regarding how best to arrive
reflectively at inferences. For example, from a philosophical
standpoint music educators may accept universally that general
music is a desirable requirement for all junior-high-school students. However, it would not be unusual for disagreement to arise
over such things as when it should be taught, by whom, for how
long, and precisely what should be included in the Course. One
group of music educators may insist that seventh grade is the
most desirable level to teach general music, while another group
may feel that the eighth or ninth grade is more appropriate. On the
other hand, the music psychologist might consider general music
from the standpoint of objective measurement of the skills ex-
240
pected of each student. Such evaluation might take the form of

charting an oscilloscopic profile of students as they sing or, by
means of a teaching machine, ascertaining their comprehension of
material covered in the Course. In the above examples science
concentrates on the how, or the practical application of specific
theories, whereas philosophy essentially is related to the what, or
ideas and theory. Does this not suggest that philosophy can be as
important as science, because each serves a different but equally
significant purpose? To look at it another way, experimental and
philosophical research may be said to represent the two extremes
in research objectivity, the former generally the most objective
and the latter the most subjective, yet each is important in its own
right.
It seems redundant to point out again that interpretation of data
is a most important step in all types of research. When explicating
data the investigator must use the scientific method to arrive at
generalizations. The scientific method, with it's emphasis upon
logical organization, objective implementation, and precise interpretation, may be considered to be aprima facie application of
the philosophical method of inquiry. For this reason some researchers aver that there is no distinct philosophical method of
research. This writer supports the premise that there is. There is
no reason why research that is philosophical in scope cannot be
conducted just as competently and skillfully as any other type.
Likewise, inferences derived deductively need not be any less
valid than conclusions reached employing other types of research
methodology .
Purposes of Philosophical Research

Music education can use findings of philosophical research for
many purposes. One of the most important is to evaluate metempirically current practices to determine which ones should be
24 1
retained, abandoned, or modified. The curriculum is in a constant state of flux, with innovations instituted periodically to keep
Pace with a rapidly changing world. This is apparent in the
seemingly endless testing and e,valuation of new concepts and
procedures in the classroom. Music education fortunately has
been involved in some of these innovative practices. Recall that
about seventy years ago the revolutionary English concept of
instrumental teaching was brought to the attention of music
educators in the United States. One of them, Albert G. Mitchell,
was so intrigued with its possibilities that he obtained a leave of
absence from his position as supervisor of music in the Boston
Public Schools to travel to England to study firsthand this System
of teaching violin in classes, commonly referred to as the
Maidstone Movement. From this concept of violin class teaching
has come the phenomenal development that has resulted in teaching all kinds of instruments to unprecedented numbers of students
in classes in the United States. This idea has been adapted also to
piano, voice, and Organ instruction. The original Maidstone
philosophical concept of class teaching has been implemented in
the form of specific skills and techniques peculiar to each performing medium, with the result that many individuals have made contributions to this idea since then.
Although the value of class teaching in the development of
sound music-education programs rarely is challenged today, there
still are many diverse ideas relating to specific and effective ways
to implement this philosophical concept. The Suzuki , Kodaly ,
Orff, and Manhattanville approaches have been in the forefront
recently, and although there are similarities each one has a different philosophical approach to methodology. These concepts
eventually may result in the changing of certain practices in the
teaching of music. This will not come, however, until it has been
demonstrated that appropriation of the specific techniques under
consideration will result in more effective and meaningful learning by students. It is too early yet to determine whether the
272
One of these is the search for truth. Altick differentiates between

the role of the critic and that of the scholar, frequently a task for
the music researcher also. Noting that the roles often are merged,
Altick writes: "Every good Student of literature is constantly
combining the two roles, often without knowing it. "45
One of the ideas that has hampered researchers who desired to
analyze musical compositions has been expressed poignantly by
Richards: "To say that a thing is unanalysable may be to assert
either that it is simple or that we do not know yet how to analyse
it. Musical effects, like the effects of form in general, are inexplicable in the second sense only. To pretend that they are inexplicable in the first sense is mere mystery-mongering. "46
In music analysis, Heinrich Schenker (1868-1935), who
pioneered the technique of describing tonal structure and meaning
in music, is now receiving belated recognition. Largely neglected
during his lifetime, his theories are now coming into Vogue.
Schenker has provided a direct way of approachiiig musical compo~itions.~'One reason for Schenker's neglect by musical
scholars has been his obtuse writing. However, Michael Mann,48
Adele K a t ~ , 4and
~ Felix Salzes0 have been able to clarify and
synthesize some of Schenker's concepts. The clearest and most
direct of these is the article by Mann.
In the Schenkerian System musical structure may be understood on three levels: vordergrund (immediate level), mittelgrund (middle ground or intermediate level), and hintergrund
(background or remote level of musical structure). All musical
events are viewed against these three levels as the analysis continuously connects and integrates these levels. Examples of the
graphs Schenker used to delineate and integrate the elements in a
composition may be found in Five Graphic Music A n a l y s e ~ . ~ ~
Certain terms assume importance as the Schenkerian approach to
analysis is used. Ursatz relates to the fundamental structure of the
tonal composition, expressed through the horizontalization of the
soprano (or top) and bass (or lower) voices. (Schenkerian
Aesthetic Inquiry
273
analysis is not very practical for use with music other than that
written in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.) Urlinie represents the background of all melody, or a melodic unity. All
motivic and thematic viewpoints are subordinated to the concept
of urlinie. Schicht refers to the structural level (foreground, middle ground, background) . Schenker regards melody as subordinate to harmony, but at the Same time restricts harmonic structure
to the triad. Seventh and ninth chords are split up into their triadic
c o m p o n e n t ~ .(For
~ ~ information on Schenkerian analysis, See
works by YestonS3and N a r m o ~ r . ~ ~ )
LaRue has formulated a more recent approach to musical
a n a l y s i ~LaRue's
.~~
basis for analysis consists of five components
and three levels for investigation. The five musical components
are: sound, harmony, melody, rhythm, and growth, frequently
shortened to SHMRG. LaRue also adds another factor that is present in vocal compositions, text influence.
Sound encompasses timbre, tessitura, texture, and dynamics;
harmony includes Stages of tonality, movement relationships,
chord vocabulary, and polyphony. Range, motion, patterns, and
dimensions (peaks and lows) are important in melody. Rhythm
consists of frequency and duration of rhythmic patterns, meter,
patterns of change or Stress, and rhythmic fabnc. Balance and
relationship among tempi, textures, dynamics, and meters are included in growth, as are homogeneity or heterogeneity and
sources of shape, such as anticipation, overlap, and elision. When
text is involved textual injluences become an added factor, and
exploitation of words for mood and texture becomes important
from melodic and rhythrnic standpoints.
LaRue's three levels of investigation are large dimension, middle dimension, and small dimension. Large dimensions are associated with movement, work, and groups of works. LaRue says
that large dimensions "concern musical wholes: entire
movements, or even successions of movements of a large unity
can be discerned."" Sentences, paragraphs, sections, and parts
274
make up middle dimension, or as LaRue writes: "the individual

character of the parts of a piece-the part in itself rather than as a
contribution to the movement. "57 Small dimension consists of
motive, subphrase, and phrase and is "involved with the stnict~re
and character of the smallest self sufficient uni4 the smallest
complete idea. "58
Dipert and Whelden provide an interesting new approach to
musical analysis by combining elements of Set theory of
mathematics and Chomsky's concept of transformational
grammar, in which surface and deep structures are linked by
t r a n s f o r m a t i ~ n Surface
.~~
structure, as envisioned by Dipert and
Whelden, refers to "pieces" of the music and the way these
pieces are heard; deep structure, to what lies behind the pieces or
"within" them. When the surface and deep structures are connected they are transformed. Dipert and Whelden propose four
procedures that are relevant for set-theoretical music analysis: (1)
exploring the relationship between music and aii axiomatic settheory, in which "set" is synonymous with musical terms; (2)
providing definitions of traditional music that are fundamental to
music analysis; (3) examining durations, which deal with the
"set" of all pieces of music; and (4) exploring other techniques
that relate to set-theoretical musical a n a l ~ s i s . ~ ~
The computer and the musician are no longer at enmity. Computers are used not only for information Storage and retrieval but
for composing and analyzing music. Lincoln reports that "the
music researcher is immediately confronted with a basic need
when he looks to the computer as a tool. He must convert either
the sound of music or the printed musical Score to machinereadable data. "61 The necessity for specialized training in computer programming is obvious. Specialized workshops in computer programming for musicians are not uncommon now in
many parts of the country. A good source for the musician who is
interested in learning more about computer uses in music is The
.~~
in this volume are
Technology of Computer M ~ s i c Included
Aesthetic Inquiry
275
fundamentals basic to all computer sound processing, computer

programming for sound processing, and a description of the
Music V program developed by the authors.
Meyer's Statement on critical judgment is an appropriate one to
close this discussion of aesthetic inquiry:
Musical information is . . . evaluated both quantitatively and qualitatively. Hence two pieces might, so to
speak, yield the same amount of information but not
be equally good because one is less elegant and economical than the other. On the other hand, a piece
which is somewhat deficient in elegance may be better than a more economical piece because it contains
substantially more information and hence provides a
richer musical e ~ p e r i e n c e . ~ ~
Aesthetic inquiry, like all other types of research, requires

some type of written report by the candidate for a graduate degree. Some suggestions for preparing a research report are discussed in the next chapter.

1. What is the purpose of aesthetic inquiry?
2. Differentiate between speculative aesthetics and empirical
aesthetics.
3. What is the difference between "aesthetics" and "aesthetic
experience ' '?
4. What is the difference between intuition and revelation as

expressed in music?
276
5. What postulates may be used to examine aesthetic objects?

6. What are some of the procedures or techniques that constitute
the aesthetic method?
7 . Discuss approaches to aesthetic inquiry that may be applied to
music.
ALTICK,RICHARDD. The Art of Literary Research. New York: W. W.
Norton, 1963, Chapters 2-4.
BEARDSLEY,
MONROEC. Aesthetics: Problems in the Philosophy of
Criticism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1 958, Chapters
1-3, 6, 8, 18, and 19.
P,
and HERBERT
M. SCHUELLER.
Aesthetic Inquiry: Essays on Art
Criticism und the Philosophy of Art. Belmont, Calif.: Dickenson,
1967, Chapters 1, 6, 10, 19, and 23.
BEITTEL,KENNETHR. Alternatives for Art Education Research.
Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown, 1973.
BERLYNE,
D. E., ed. Studies in the New Experimental Aesthetics: Steps
Toward an Objective Psychology of Aesthetic Appreciation.
Washingtob D .C. : Hemisphere, 1974, Chapters 1-3.
DIPERT,RANDALL
R., A N D R. M. WHELDEN.
"Set-Theoretical Music
Analysis, " The Journal of Aesthetics und Art Criticism, Fall 1976,
35,1:15-22.
ECKER,DAVIDW., THOMAS
J. JOHNSON,
A N D EUGENE
F. KAELIN.
"Aesthetic Inquiry," Review of Educational Research, December
1969, 39,5:577-592.
ECKER,
DAVIDW., and EUGENE
F. KAELIN."The Limits of Aesthetic
Inquiry: A Guide to Educational Research, " in Seventy-First Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1972, Part I, pp. 258-286.
EDMAN,
IRWIN. Arts und the Man. rev. ed. New York: W. W. Norton
1939.
Aesthetic Inquiry
277
GHISELIN,
BREWSTER,
ed. The Creative Process. New 'i'ork: Mentor
Books, 1952, pp. 44-53.
HILLER,LEJAREN
A. Experimental Music. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1959.
HOFSTADTER,
ALBERT.Agony und Epitaph: Man, His Art, und His
Poetry. New York: George Braziller, 1970, Chapters 4 and 5.
KAINZ,FRIEDRICH.
Aesthetics the Science, trans. and intro. by Herbert
M. Schueller. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962, Chapters
1, 3, and 4.
KATZ,ADELE.Challenge to Musical Tradition. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 1946.
LANGER,
SUSANNE
K. Feeling und Form: A Theory of Art. New York:
Charles Scribners' Sons, 1953.
.
Philosophy in a New Key, 3rd ed. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969.
LARUE,JAN.Guidelinesfor Style Analysis. New York: W. W. Norton,
1970.
LINCOLN,
HARRY
B., ed. The Computer und Music. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1970.
MADEJA,STANLEY
S., ed. Arts und Aesthetics: An Agenda for the
1977.
Future. St. Louis: CEMREL,
,
and SHEILAONUSKA.Through rhe Arts to Aesthetics. St.
Louis: CEMREL,
1977, Chapters 1, 3, 4, and 5.
MADSEN,CLIFFORD
K., R. DOUGLAS
GREER,and CHARLES
H. MADSEN,JR., eds. Research in Music Behavior: Modihing Music Behavior in the Classroom. New York: Teachers College Press, 1975.
MANN,MICHAEL."Schenker's Contribution to Music Theory," The
Music Review, Febniary 1949, 10,1:3-26.
MATHEWS,
MAXV., with the collaboration of JOANE. MILLER,F. R.
MOORE,J. R. PIERCE,and J. C. RISSET.The Technology of Computer Music. Cambridge: M. I. T. Press, 1969.
MEAD,HUNTER.An Introduction to Aesthetics. New York: Ronald
Press, 1952, Chapters 2, 6, 7, and 15.
MEYER,LEONARD
B. Emotion und Meaning in Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956.
MUNRO,THOMAS.
Scientific Method in Aesthetics. New York: W. W.
Norton, 1928.
278
Toward Science in Aesthetics. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill,

1956, Chapters 1 and 4.
MURPHY,
JUDITH,and LONNAJONES.Research in Arts Education.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1978.
NARMOUR,EUGENE.Beyond Schenkerism. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press. 1977.
PIKE, ALFRED."The Perceptual Aspects of Motivic Stmcture in
Music," Journal of Aesthetics und Art Criticism, Fall 1971,
30,1:79-8 1.
PRALL,D. W. Aesthetic Judgment. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell,
1929, Chapters 1, 5, 6, and 11.
REIMER,BENNETT.A Philosophy of Music Education. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970.
Research in the Arts andAesthetic Education. St. Louis: CEMREL,
1978.
SCHENKER,
HEINRICH.
Five Graphic Music Analyses, with a new intro.
by Felix Salzer. New York: Dover, 1969.
SMITH,
RALPH.A, ed. Aesthetic Conceprs und Educbtion: Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1970, Chapters 1, 6, 12, and 16.
TORRANCE,
E. PAUL,and J. PANSY
TORRANCE.
1s CreativiQ Teachable? Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1973.
YESTON,MAURY,ed. Readings in Schenkerian Analysis und Other
Approaches. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977.
10. Writing the Research

Report
Data collection is a most important and significant step in implementing the research proposal. Yet the research process is not
complete until findings of the study, along with interpretations
and implications, are made public, most often in the form of a
written report of some type. Mention was made in the second
chapter that this final phase of research sometimes is not handled
as carefully as it should be. This is a Syndrome that affects some
graduate students, who, after all data are obtained seem to take
the attitude, "Well, I'm glad that tiresome chore is done," and
consequently put together some kind of perfunctory report with
which they hope to satisfy degree requirements. Fortunately for
the music education profession, this approach usually is not successful. Rather disturbing, nevertheless, is the number of graduate
Writing the Research Report
280
students who continue to put together large amounts of incongruous material. A research report without direction and purpose is
as useless as an interstate highway without properly marked exits.
It is in the research report that investigators are able not only to
display their scholarship but also to demonstrate their understanding of sound principles of reflective thinking.
Format
A graduate research report is composed of three complementary Parts, which for purposes of discussion will be called preface,
the main body, and epilogue. The prefatory section contains the
title page, acknowledgments, table of contents, list of tables, and
list of figures. Most institutions require the inclusion of an approval sheet or Page with signatures of the candidate's sponsoring
committee. This page, or signature sheet, when required, immediately follows the title page. Because of minor differences
from one institution to another students should follow the style
manual adopted for their own institution before beginning work
on the final report. Likewise, in reporting subsidized research
projects, they should consult the appropriate manual for such
studies. In general, however, organizational procedures will be
quite similar. This introductory section includes the organization
of the research report without concern for data presentation and
interpretation. If this part were detached from the study the only
inconvenience to readers would be their lack of knowledge regarding what to expect in the study and where to find it.
The title Page for a graduate project usuPreface
ally contains: title of the research, investigator, degree that the candidate is seeking,
institution where the work is being completed, and date. In addition, at some institutions the members of a candidate's sponsoring
committee also are indicated. Often this is the policy when indi-
28 1
vidual members do not sign an approval sheet included in the document. In other instances the members of the candidate's sponsoring
committee (dissertation committee) are listed even though an approval sheet has been signed. When members are listed their names
appear at the top of the title page, as shown in Figure 15.
Although it is optional, many investigators like to include an
Acknowledgment page, where the researcher, simply and directly,
expresses gratitude to those who have given assistance in the
project.
Figure 15
Dissertation Title Page
Sponsoring Cornmittee: Professor Roger Phelps, Chairman
Professor Jerrold Ross
Professor Agnes Burger
AUDITORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY AND SELECTIVE

ATTENTION AMONG THE MENTALLY RETARDED
KENNETH E. BRUSCIA
Subrnitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in the School of Education,
Health, Nursing, and Arts Professions
New York University
1979
282
One of the most useful areas in the prefatory section is the

fable of contents. The headings and subheadings are listed here
and identified by page number, thus partially serving as an index.
The table should be compiled after the entire report is completed
so that Page references can be indicated accurately. Evidently,
this procedure is not always followed carefully. This writer has
reviewed some graduate theses, dissertations, and other projects
in which Page numbers listed in the table of contents did not
coincide with the actual location of the materials. In addition to
chapter headings and subheadings with Page references for each,
the table of contents lists bibliography and appendixes.
Following next, when needed, are list of tables and list of
figures. Each of these headings should be started on a separate
page, as would be true when ending one chapter and begiming
another. If, for instance, only five tables are to be listed, any
remaining space on that Page is left blank with the enumeration of
figures begiming on another page.
Three sections make up the main
The Main Body
body of the study; namely, introduction; presentation and interpretation of data; and Summary, conclusions, and recommendations.
The introduction contains a brief statement of the Same items
referred to in the third chapter of this book relative to organization of the research proposal. It will be recalled that these
include statement of the problem and subproblems, definition of
any terms that are necessary for a clearer understanding, an
indication of the delimitations of the research, basic assumptions and hypotheses, review of related literature, and general
overview of method.
In a research proposal the tentative plan of procedure is postulated. Frequently as the research proceeds and data are assembled evaluated, and interpreted some modification of the original
plan becomes necessary. For this reason the researcher should
li
283
defer writing the introductory phase of the actual research report

until all data have been presented and interpreted. The introduction in the research report, to recapitulate, contains the actual
statement of the problem and other parts just enumerated even
though they rnay or rnay not differ from the way they were listed
originally in the research proposal except for the change from
future to past tense. The section on related literature in the final
version of the research report becomes an account of materials
that proved to be significant to the study. The introduction rnay
be listed as the first chapter or simply as an introduction without
any chapter designation. In terms of consistent organization the
former is preferable.
The heart of a research report is the middle section pertaining
to the presentation and interpretation of data. It is essential to plan
and execute this part meticulously. The material to be presented
largely determines the organization into chapters. A rather common organization scheme is to let each subproblem constitute a
separate chapter. This procedure applies fairly well to research
studies that are descriptive, experimental, or aesthetic. Historical
research, and frequently philosophical inquiry, rnay require a
more detailed breakdown of one topic into several chapters. Tables and figures normally appear in the middle section of the
report, although there rnay be instances when incorporating them
in the appendix rnay seem more feasible.
Presentation and interpretation of data rnay appear in the Same
chapter or in separate chapters, preferably contiguous, although
this procedure lacks some of the "gestalt" that is so important
for clarity in research reporting. The interpretation of data is not
to be treated lightly, but rather must be given careful attention
and deliberation by the researcher, who is better able than anyone else to reveal the significance of this information. Reflective thinking obviously is essential to the interpretation of accumulated data.
310
already has taken place, past tense should be used for most of the
writing. On occasion, however, present or future tense may be
required.
Cliches, colloquialisms, and hackneyed terms are best avoided
in formal writing except as they may be needed to illustrate a
point. Repeatedly used phrases or words become trite and detract
from the study. The liberal interspersing of Synonyms can help
maintain variety and interest. A thesaurus, such as Roget's, will
be an excellent reference for assistance in this regard.
The third Person normally is used for formal writing except
when first- or second-person pronouns appear in direct quotations. When researchers find it necessary to refer to themselves
they may modestly use "this investigator," "this researcher," or
similar phraseology. It is in poor taste to use such wording as "I
found. "
Correct grammatical construction obviously is a necessity in
research reporting. Presurnably, students who undertake to write
a thesis or dissertation have already developed competency in
expressing themselves consistently and clearly. If they have not, a
refresher Course in written English skills rnight be helpful. An
exarnple of inconsistent usage: although the practice is quite
common in formal writing, it is generally considered in poor taste
to begin a sentence with conjunctions, such as "and" or "but."
Conjunctions connect phrases or clauses; they do not begin sentences.
Spelling should be orthodox and consistent throughout the
document. To Substitute "thm" for "through" or "nite" for
"night" is inexcusable except when these simplifications appear
in direct quotations. If such words as. "catalogue" or "aesthetic"
are used in the first chapter of a report they should not be replaced
with "catalog" or "esthetic" in other sections of the study without justification.
There is a tendency for inexperienced researchers to use terms
that are absolute. Investigators who rnake such statements as,
31 1
"No study of this kind exists," or, "Nothing has been written
about this subject" place themselves in an extremely vulnerable
position. It is very difficult to cornpile a bibliography that is
exhaustive and completely accurate because the frontiers of
knowledge are continually expanding. To report, "To this
writer's knowledge no study of this kind exists," or, "This writer
has been unable to locate anything written about this subject" is
in much better taste. Such words as "never, " "ever, " and "always," should be used rarely, if at all.
Appropriate introductory statements should precede direct quotations. Merely to present quotations without some type of introduction results in a disjunct and incoherent narrative style.
Readers must not receive the impression that direct quotations are
separate from the narrative. They should, rather, be complementary to a smooth narrative flow.
Sometimes there is undue concern about the number of pages
needed to make a research study acceptable. The criterion for
acceptability ought not be the number of pages assembled but
what is contained in them. Normally, a concise and well-prepared
report of fifty pages is more acceptable than a verbose, incoherent, and redundant one of two hundred pages. Investigators
should say what they intend in clear and terse language.
When under pressure to meet a deadline, one is apt to becorne
careless and overlook minor details. It is the responsibility of
investigators to See that their finished product represents the best
work of which they are capable. The world of scholarship can
hardly condone slipshod work any rnore than does NASA, where
perfection is the hallmark of space technology. The investigator,
the adviser, and others should carefully check all detailsconsistency in style of writing, footnotes, pagination, spellings,
use of Special terminology, and other items-to ensure that the
final report is a credit not only to the investigator and the institution she or he represents, but also to the entire profession of music
education .
3 12
Writing a research report can be a very gratifying and stimulating experience. Sharing the results of research is both a privilege
and a responsibility. The initial reaction of researchers to reporting their research findings may be negative. When they reflectively consider the information to be transmitted, however, their
responsibility for disseminating their findings can become impelling .
The subsidization of studies in music and music education is
not as extensive as it was ten or fifteen years ago. Agencies still
supporting research emphasize investigation in the related arts
rather than in specialized areas, such as music. Procedures for
making application to some of the agencies that still Support arts
research are discussed in the next chapter.

1. Discuss the composition of the three complementary parts of a
research report.
2. Contrast the format for footnotes given for the five style manuals included in this chapter.
3. What is the proper procedure for handling direct quotations of

more than four lines? Of fewer than four lines?
4. How may the different types of subheadings discussed in this

chapter be identified?
5 . What is the purpose of using superscripts?
6. What stylistic considerations are important in the proper preparation of a research report?
313
+.
:f
i
ALMACK,JOHNC., Research und Thesis Writing. Boston: Houghton

ARY.DONALD,
LUCYC. JACOBS,
and ASGHAR
RAZAVIEH.
Introduction
ASHER,J. WILLIAM.
BARZUN,
JACQUES,
3rd ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977, Chapters
11-15.
BEST,JOHNW. Research in Education, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J .:
BORG,WALTER
R., and MERED~TH
D. GALL.EducationalResearch: An
Introduction, 3rd ed. New York: Longman 1979, Chapter 20.
WILLIAM
G., and STEPHEN
V. BALLOU.
Form und Style:
CAMPBELL,
Theses, Reports, Term Papers, 5th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
1978.
ENGELHART,
G ~ DCARTER
,
GORN,JANICEL. Style Guide for Writers of Term Papers, Masters'
Theses, und Doctoral Dissertations. New York: Simon and Schuster,
1973.
HOPKINS,
CHARLES
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1976, Chapter 14.
IRVINE,
DEMAR.Writing About Music: A Style Book for Reports und
Theses, 2nd ed., rev. and enlarged. Seattle: University of
Washington Press, 1968.
JONES,RALPHH., ed. Methods und Techniques of Educational Research. Danville, 111.: Interstate Printers and Pubishers, 1973, Part 6.
314
KOEFOD,PAULE. The Writing Requirements for Graduate Degrees.

Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964, Chapter 8 and Appendix K.
MADSEN.CLIFFORD
K., and CHARLES
H. MADSEN,
JR. Experimental
Research in Music. Raleigh, N.C.: Contemporary, 1978, Chapter 10.
A Manual of Style, 11th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949.
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, und DissertaYork: Modem Language Association, 1977.
t i o n ~ New
.
MOULY,GEORGE
York: Van Nostrand, 1970, Appendix.
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 2nd
ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1974.
RUMMEL,
J. FRANCIS.
An Introduction to Research Procedures in Education, 2nd ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1964, Chapter 11 and
Appendix A.
STRUNK,
WILLIAM,
JR., and E. B. WHITE.The Elements ofStyle. New
York: Macmillan, 1962.
M. W. An Introduction to ~ducati6nalResearch, 4th
TRAVERS,
ROBERT
ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, Chapter 15.
TUCKMAN,
TURABIAN,
KATEL. A Manual for Writers of Terrn Papers, Theses, und
Dissertations, 4th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973.
VAN DALEN,DEOBOLD
WATANABE,
RUTH T. Introduction to Music Research. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967, Chapters 14 and 15.
L. The Elements of Research, 3rd ed. EnWHITNEY,FREDER~CK
glewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1950, Chapter 16.
WIERSMA,
WILLIAM.
11. Funding for Research

in Music and Music
Education
*
i :.
ti
When the first edition of this book appeared in 1969 there was
considerable money available from foundations and govemment
agencies during the era of "The Great Society" for the Support of
individual and group research projects in music and music education.' The research subsidization picture in 1979, although not
entirely bleak, is not as encouraging for musicians as it is for
practitioners in the genre of "arts." Although music is included,
the emphasis is on a broader approach to problems under the
rubric of the "arts. "
A review of federal announcements for research grants available for 1979-80 will reveal an emphasis on bilingual teaching
316
and learning and on health-related programs. Limited funds still

are available, however, for research in the arts, and a few enterprising researchers are taking advantage of these grants. Moreover, grant money is rarely available for individual research projects, as it was a decade ago; rather, allocations are for group
projects, and funds are chameled through an institution where the
researcher is employed. Research results are expected to be applicable to and beneficial for a group or groups in society. This is
in contrast to some grants awarded previously in which results
often were applicable only to an individual situation or to a very
limited group situation.
Monies appropriated for research do not necessarily have to be
spent within a certain fiscal period. If not enough worthwhile
proposals are submitted, the funds still remaining are either transferred to other accounts or lie unused. Involvement in research, as
has been stressed repeatedly, is predicated on initiative, insight,
and creativity on the part of the one engaging in it. Rarely, if ever,
are research funds dispensed without a formal request for them. A
potential researcher usually spends considerable time seeking
sources of support. On the other hand, neither high aspirations
nor a sound and elaborate proposal will guarantee support for a
contemplated project. Only a very small percentage of the proposals subrnitted to a foundation or govemment agency are funded.
The agency must feel that the proposed research fits the criteria
and philosophy of its funding process. It is unfortunate that limited
funds necessitate the rejection of many excellent proposals.
Federally Supported Research

Federal legislation provided financial support for sixty-one
studies in music education from 1959 to 1972. These projects
represent a wide variety of topics and types of r e ~ e a r c hSupport
.~
was given basically for two types of research studies: project and
Funding for Research

*
317
program. Projects were planned, subrnitted, and pursued for a

relatively short period of time by the Person submitting the proposal. program support, although available to a limited number of
individuals in music, was essentially for prolonged activity by
researchers at colleges and universities, state departments of education, public school Systems, and professional and nonprofit organizations.
Federal funds for research still are available for projects that
have relatively fixed time limits. Research of this type has been
used to develop or test new educational materials, to analyze or
synthesize completed research, to determine educational needs, or
to evaluate issues critically. The most recent guidelines at the
time of this writing stress research relating to the teaching and
learning process, as already noted, especially for bilingual programs and those for persons with learning disabilities.
The bulk of support for research in music for 1959-72 came
from the Cooperative Research Act of 1954, Public Law 83-531,
and its successor, Title IV of Public Law 89-10, the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act of 1965, commonly known by its
acronym ESEA.NO provision was made for funding music projects in the original Cooperative Research Act. Later the act was
amended, and in 1959 Robert G. Petzold, of the University of
Wisconsin at Madison, received the first music grant for his research, "The Perception of Music Symbols in Music Reading by
Normal Children and by Children Gifted Musically . "3
For many of the projects completed the initiator of the research
was encouraged to send three copies of a preliminary draft indicating what he or she proposed to do. The draft contained the title,
objectives, procedures, and significance of the research. If encouraged to proceed, the initiator then prepared a formal proposal. Because procedures, deadlines, and other items relating to
format for proposals vary, anyone making application for a federal grant should obtain the latest guidelines from the U.S. Office
of Education ( u s o ~ ) the
, National Institute for Education (NIE),
3 18
local contract or research-project officers, or from the liaison

officer between federal agencies and the local institution.
Small Project Research, although no longer available, has been
used for small-scale postdoctoral or graduate investigations. Pilot
studies to determine the feasibility of a more extensive project
often were completed under a small contract. Experimental research, survey and curriculum research developmeni, analysis of
data and materials, and improvement of instruction were possible
with this kind of support. Examples of research in each of these
areas, although not necessarily supported by small contracts, are
,~
and
projects completed by Petzold," C o l l i n ~T, ~h o m a ~Schneider
Cady,' and P h e l p ~ . ~
Several regional laboratories and centers were set up throughout the United States in the 1960s under the auspices of u s o ~ .
According to Travers, they were "established as nonprofit making corporations so, in theory, they could continue to survive
without federal funds by taking in work on a cbntract basis, but
those laboratories that lost their federal funding, died quickly
without a struggle. "9 By 1979 the ten Research and Development
Centers had been reduced to six, and the twenty regional
laboratories also numbered six.I0 Those surviving have established a consortium known as the Council for Educational Development and Research, referred to by the acronym cEDaR. The
council prepares summaries of the activities of its member organizations. l 1
The National Institute of Education, established in 1972 by the
Education Amendment Act, is the research arm for education.
Borg and Ga11 report that "many of NIE'S functions formerly
were served by usoe's National Center for Educational Research
and Development an4 before 1969, by USOE'S Bureau of Research. Both of these latter agencies have since been dissolved. 'q2
Objectives of N I E are to: (1) provide an equal opportunity for
every Person to receive a high-quality education; (2) solve or
3 19
alleviate the problems of American education; (3) advance the

posture of education as an art, science, and profession; (4)
strengthen the scientific and technological foundations of education; and (5) build an effective educational research and development System. Contracts and grants are awarded by NIE in these
program areas: (I) basic skills, (2) educational equity, (3) education and work, (4) dissemination and resources, (5) finance and
productivity, and (6) school capacity for problem solving.
Basic skills relate to acquisition and evaluation of reading and
mathematics skills by children and adults. Through educational
equity emphasis is given to programs that improve teacher practice and curriculum materials for those who are culturally and
linguistically different. NIE'S education and work programs assist
students who lack knowledge and skills to successfully pursue a
career. The sixteen ERIC clearinghouses handle the dissemination
und resources activities of NIE.Finance und productivity relate
to research on raising and allocating funds for education,
competency-based education, the use of technology in education,
and other projects designed to improve the effectiveness of education. Through research and development (R&D) NIE hopes to
help schools solve their problems by soliciting the assistance of
citizens, teachers, and others involved in making educational decisions.
Funding by NIE is usually based on submission of a preliminary
proposal. If this is accepted the researcher is invited to subrnit a
formal application for funding. Nonsolicited proposals in the
form of a concept developed in a three- or four-page prospectus
may be forwarded to NIE for review and approval prior to formal
application for funding . Formal proposal deadlines for 1979 were
January 31, May 31, and September 30. Guidelines for unsolicited proposal applications may be obtained from the NIE Proposals Clearinghouse, Washington, DC 20208. The NIE appropriation by the U.S. Congress for 1979-80 was $100 million.
The main purpose of the United States Office of Education is to
320
improve education through research and development. Although

the U.S. Congress provides separate allocations for USOE and NIE,
the former has the larger budget. Funding through Titles I , 11, 111,
and IV of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
(ESEA)still is possible. Some funding also is available through the
Education Amendment of 1972, which established NIE and the
Fund for the Improvement of Post-Secondary Education. Preliminary draft proposals to u s o to
~ request an allocation for funding still are possible. Undoubtedly the best source of information
on government grants is the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance, available at nominal cost from the Superintendent of
Documents, U.S. Govemment Printing Office, Washington, DC
20402.
Federal funding for the arts is available through the National
Endowment for the Arts and the National Foundation for the Arts
and Humanities. Both of these require matchivg funds from institutions or private agencies. These agencies usually earmark
funds for specific disciplines or programs so the researcher who
has an interest in one of these designated areas usually has a
better chance for funding than someone whose interest or expertise is elsewhere.
The National Endowment for the Humanities awards fellowships for scholars, teachers, and "other interpreters of the
humanities. " Acceptable research topics could be in any of these
areas: musical performance and composition; teaching creative
composition and performance; and cultural, historical, and
theoretical studies of the arts. NEH Fellowships, Category A, are
awarded for continuous periods of either six or twelve months
and carry a minimum of $10,000 for six months and $20,000 for
twelve months. The National Endowment for the Humanities is
located at 806-15th St., N.W., Washington, DC 20506.
The Bureau of Education for the Handicapped also is a possible
source for funding for researchers, especially for those in the arts
therapies. The Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., has
321
a limited number of visiting research appointments. The researcher interested in any of these possibilities should get in touch
with the appropriate agency.
One of the most important sources for information on funding
is the Washington International Arts Letter (WIAL), Box 9005,
Washington, DC 20003. Founded in 1962, this newsletter focuses
on grants and other forms of assistance in the arts and humanities.
Available from WIAL at the time of this writing were: Millions
for the Arts: Federal und Stute Cultural Programs (1972); National Directory of Grants und Aid to Individuals in the Arts,
International, Danie1 Millsaps, ed. (1976); The National Directory of Arts Support by Private Foundations, Daniel Millsaps, ed.
(Vol. 3, 1977); and National Directory of Arts Support by Business Corporations, 1st ed. (1977).
Foundation Support for Research

A limited number of subsidies for projects in music are available from private foundations. The format of proposals subrnitted
to a foundation is similar to that for proposals sent to the u s o or
~
NIE.A foundation proposal should include at least the following:
a clear and concise Statement of the problem, objectives, related
literature, research procedure, personnel and facilities available,
and pro posed budget .
There is no easy way to find out which foundations might be
interested in subsidizing a specific proposal. Those seeking support should write to any foundation thai, in their opinion, would
seem likely to provide funds, presenting their case as convincingly as possible. They should consult the latest edition of the
Foundation Directory, a voluminous compilation of foundations
offering grants in various disciplines, including music.I3 In addition to identifying the foundations and subject fields in which
they offer assistance, the Directory indicates to whom applica-
322
tions should be addressed and when, if an application deadline is

indicated.
The likelihood of obtaining research funds from a foundation is
no more certain than it is from any other source. Each proposal
must rest on its own ments, and the decision to accept or reject
will be determined largely on the quality of its organization and
its degree of relevance to the aims and objectives of the prospective agency. The availability of funds is always a significant
factor, of Course, in determining how many proposals will be
accepted.
Other Sources of Subsidization for

Research in Music
A limited number of awards of short duration are available
from the American Council of Learned ~ocietie's.Awarded on the
basis of a national competition, the music grants are among those
given in the general area of humanities. The awards are in the
following categories: ACLS Fellowships, Study Fellowships, Research Fellowships for Recent Recipients of the Ph.D., Grantsin-Aid, and Grants-in-Aid for Recent Recipients of the Ph.D.14
College and university budgets often include appropriations for
research. The amount and kind of support obviously vary among
institutions and according to funds available. Prospective researchers should check with the Person at their institution who is
in charge of such requests for research assistance. Larger colleges
and universities usually have a research bureau or division; in
smaller institutions this responsibility may be charged to the dean
or to an assistant dean.
State music-educators' associations occasionally provide limited assistance to a member involved in research that will be
beneficial to the organization. Research of this type frequently
falls under the descriptive category, and the investigator often
323
receives no more than a subsidy for expenses incurred in conducting the study. Projects of this type are usually undertaken at the
request of the association rather than upon the researcher's initiative.
The third chapter of this book laid great stress on the importance of a carefully designed research proposal to the ultimate
success of a project. With subsidized research this skill becomes
even more significant. Presumably, by the time an individual
prepares a proposal for research support he or she will at least
have had the experience of organizing and implementing a
graduate research study. Lack of such firsthand knowledge, however, should not be a deterrent to the formulation of an acceptable
proposal. On the other hand, as already obsewed, the organization of a proposal that is justifiable and excellent in all respects is
no guarantee that even the most experienced researcher will be
successful in o b t a i ~ n gsupport. Research funds are not as plentiful as one would like them to be. The ratio of proposals rejected
to those accepted appears to be a deterrent to some researchers;
but this fact does not seem to prevent others from making application for funding.
Preparation of the Research Proposal

for Funding
General guidelines have been established for research proposals submitted to the u s o ~and to the NIE. They give specific
details regarding number of copies required, to whom the proposal is to be submitted, deadlines for submission, and suggestions regarding format of the proposal, including recommended
number of pages. Some minor deviations are permitted depending on the nature of the proposed research. A research proposal
~ NIE usualiy should contain: (1) Cover Page;
submitted to u s o or
(2) abstract or survey of the project; (3) statement of tkie problem
324
or focus of the study and objectives; (4) procedures to be used in

canying out the research, or how the research will be conducted;
(5) facilities and arrangements; (6) background of the principal
investigator and others connected with the study; (7) name and
address of other agencies to which the proposal is being submitted; (8) current projects to which the personnel are committed; (9)
budget; (10) procedures for dissemination of results; and (1 1)
appended materials .
On the Cover Page is placed the title of the research, the initiator, project director (if different from initiator), signature of
official of transmitting agency (college, university, or other), proposed beginning and ending dates of the project, total federal
funds requested, and date proposal is transmitted.
The abstract, normally no more than one page, should contain:
project title; principal investigator; contracting agency; federal
funds requested; duration of the research activity; and a Summary
defining purposes and objectives, anticipated 'contributions to
education, and procedures or description of what the research is
supposed to accomplish.
Focus or purpose of the study, the first Statement in the proposal proper, is a concise description of the purpose of and need
for the research, its objectives, and a review of related literature
and research.
Under the procedures section the initiator indicates how the
proposed research will be implemented, when, and what specifically will be done to accomplish the objectives of the research.
The researcher must specify facilities and arrangements
needed: tests, instruments, or other procedures for collecting data;
whether the research will be conducted at a college or university,
or in a public-school setting; office space for the project director,
tentative reservations for classrooms, laboratories, or other
facilities.
Background of the principal investigator as well as others involved in the research project need to be delineated precisely and
325
concisely. This includes educational background, research experience, and other information to indicate that the investigator
and his or her associates are qualified to undertake the research.
If the proposal is to be submitted to other agencies, this needs
to be spelled out along with the name and addresses of these
groups. A proposal will not be rejected necessarily because an
investigator is involved with an ongoing project. However, if a
project in Progress appears to be overly time consuming this may
suggest to the reviewers that the proposed research should be
deferred until the investigator has completed the study already
under way.
If any of the personnel are involved with other research activities, this needs to be indicated because, as just noted, an overcommitment on the part of anyone involved could jeopardize the
success of the proposed study. The degree of involvement of all
personnel who have agreed to assist with the research must be
indicated. Also to be mentioned are potential consultants who
could contribute to the study, even though they may not have
been formally invited.
The budget section of a proposal should be prepared preferably
with the advice and assistance of some person responsible for
administering research projects at the institution or agency that
transmits the proposal. The delineation of costs should be reasonable and yet evidence an understanding of fiscal responsibility.
The researcher lists, in tabular form, requested federal and local
contributions, where applicable, for each item in the budget.
Local contributions relate to office space, utilities, etc. The
budget includes four categories of costs: direct, indirect, total
costs, and cost sharing, if applicable.
Direct costs include projected expenditures for personnel, employee benefits, travel equipment, and other direct costs. Personnel expenditure estimates include those for the project director,
research assistants, secretarial help, consultants, and others. To be
recorded here for each person involved in the project are percent-
326
age of time commitment, annual salary, beginning and ending

dates of employment in the research project, and, in the instance
of consultants, the prevailing local per diem rate of compensation
and the number of days each consultant will be used. Social
Security, retirement, and other deductions for each individual,
based on the prevailing withholding rates in effect at the transmitting agency, should appear under employee benefits. When travel
is involved, the researcher should list estimated fares or the local
allowable mileage rate for project personnel and consultants. Per
diem allowances also need to be indicated. In calculating this
portion of the budget, the proposer is advised, when authorized
and applicable, to obtain exemption certificates for federal excise
tax on transportation, and state and local sales taxes on housing
and meals for each Person entitled to receive them, if applicable
in the state or locality. Costs for office supplies and project materials appear under the appropriate section. Communications costs
when necessary to the project, should be estimated as accurately
as possible. Under the heading of services appear estimates for
duplicating and reproducing materials and for statistical, testing,
and other costs. Final report costs are determined on the basis of
the number of copies required. This information may be found in
the guidelines used in conjunction with preparation of the proposal. When necessary, capital equipment may be purchased with
research funds, although it is preferable to rent many items. Discretion in requesting equipment is advised. Questions regarding
this portion of the budget should be directed to the appropriate
project officer in USOE or NIE. Any other necessary direct costs
should be itemized, and a subtotal of all direct costs should be
obtained.
The second category of the budget contains indirect costs, or
overhead. The basis on which the local overhead is computed, the
rate, and period covered, need to be indicated. Overhead includes
local agency administrative costs, office space and equipment,
utilities, and other services. The local agency official who trans-
B
?
327
mits the proposal should assist with this portion of budget preparation.
Direct and indirect costs are then totaled in the third part of the
budget. The fourth item, cost sharing, indicates the percentage
distribution of proposed federal and local contributions. This section is not applicable in most instances, but when it does apply the
amount and kind of contributions by the sponsoring agency
should be specified.
The manner of disseminating research findings, which has been
stressed throughout this book, is an important Part of a research
proposal submitted for federal funding. Proposers should indicate
what they believe the educational contributions of their research
will be and how the results will be disseminated. Researchers
should ask themselves whether they will use some professional
Organ or other media to disseminate the results. One logical
source would be Resources in Education; others would be over
and above RIE.
The final section of a research proposal, entitled "Appended
Items," includes statements required by u s o ~or NIE and any
other statements or items necessary for the completion of the
project .
After a research proposal has been approved, the contractual
arrangements between the sponsoring agency and u s o ~
or NIE are
completed. During the Course of the investigation the researcher
may be required to make interim Progress reports. Instructions for
preparing them will be included with materials forwarded to the
investigator after the proposal has been approved for funding.
Accompanying the final report (at the completion of the research)
should be a specified number of copies of the ERIC abstract to
contain no more than three hundred words. These abstracts facilitate the dissemination of the research through M E and other
sources.
A formal research proposal for federal funding, therefore,
should make provision for the three significant aspects of suc-
328
cessful research that have been emphasized throughout this book:

organizntion, implementation, and dissemination.
Although financial support is rather limited, there still are those

who are engaging in worthwhile music-education research. The
next chapter discusses some of the ongoing postdoctoral projects
and presents some of the promising signs on the horizon for
rnusic-education research.

1. What types of research still are receiving federal funding?
2. What are the objectives of the
NIE?
3. What types of research subsidies are available from foundations?
4. What are the important components of a research proposal

submitted for federal funding?
ASHER,J. WILLIAM.
BEST,JOHNW. Research in Education, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N. J .:
Prentice-Hall, 1977, Appendix H.
BORG,WALTER
R., and MEREDITH
D. GALL. Educational Research:
An Introduction, 3rd ed. New York: Longman, 1979, Chapter 21.
CULBERTSON,
JACKA., and STEPHEN
P. HENCLEY,
eds. Educational
Research: New Perspectives, Danville, 111.: Interstate Printers and
Publishers, 1963, Chapters 17 and 18.
HOWARD,
and KATHRYN
NATALE.The Art of Winnitzg GovHILLMAN,
ernment Grants. New York: Vanguard, 1977.
329
LAUFFERARMAND.
Grantsmanship. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1977.
MARGOLIN,
JUDITHB. About Foundations: How to Find the Facts You
Need to Ger a Grant, rev. ed. New York: Foundation Center, 1977.
MCASHAN,HILDRETHH. Elements of Educational Research. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1963, Chapter 9.
MOULY,GEORGE
York: Van Nostrand, 1970, Chapter 13.
ORLICH,DONALD
C. The Art of Writing Successful R & D Proposals.
Pleasantville, N.Y. : Redgrave, 1977.
TRAVERS,
ROBERT
M. W. An Itztroduction to Educational Research, 4th
ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, Chapter 1.
WHITE,VIRGINIA
P. Grants: How to Find Out About Them and What to
Do Next. New York: Plenum 1976.
Today and Tomorrow
33 1
word "research" is the connotation of searching for something

new and untried.
Postdoctoral Research
Research: Today and

TomorroW
The cutback in govemment funding for research was discussed in
the preceding chapter. Nevertheless, it is heartening to observe
that music educators still are engaged in postdoctoral research,
some of it without subsidy. Examples of postdoctoral research
that have come to the attention of the writer will be discussed in
the next few pages. These reports will be followed by a discussion of some signs on the horizon that may influence musiceducation research in the future. Any attempt to state categorically what the future may hold for research in music education is
mere conjecture. This is not to suggest that an attempt to Peer into
the future is inappropriate. Quite the contrary, for implicit in the
The reports that follow concern music-education research

completed at five universities and are representative of the
scholarly activity at the time this chapter was written, early in
1979. The exclusion of other reports in no way implies that value
standards of judgment were used to include some postdoctoral
studies and exclude others. No attempt has been made to critique
the research; they are included for informative purposes only so
that the reader may learn about recent studies in the field.
Warren C. Campbell and James J. Heller, of the University of
Connecticut at Storrs, are represented by three studies: "The
Contribution of Legato Transient to Instrument Identification, "l
"Convergence Procedures for Identifying Music Listening
"Judgments of Interpretation in String PerforT a ~ k s , " and
~
mance. "3
In the first study fourteen music graduate students were asked
to identify the sounds of a clarinet, flute, oboe, piano, trumpet,
and violin playing a two-note sequence (F = 344.2 Hz. to A =
440 Hz.). The relative contribution of attack transient (AT),
steady state (ss), and legato treatment (LT)in isolation, were to be
determined. Scores of the Ss were determined by the number of
intervals correctly identified out of twenty-four possibilities using
these durations: 110 milliseconds (ms.), 20 ms., 40 ms., and 20
ms. Subjects were able to identify instruments better by the LT
short Segments than by AT or SS.
The focus of the research on convergence procedures in listening was on the tasks a listener might perform covertly while
comprehending the components of a performance. In their review
of the research already existing on convergence procedures
332
Campbell and Heller state that in most of the studies the listener is
asked to discern whether successive iterations of a phrase are
similar or different when a phrase has been repeated in the context of a performance. Research on the convergence procedure is
still largely unknown to many musicians, although the concept is
not new. The development of models for listening strategies,
according to Campbell and Heller, could lead to diagnostic and
corrective pedagogical techniques for individuals who are unable
to perform these tasks satisfactorily.
In the study on judgment of interpretation in string performance, the focus was on a musician's interpretation while listening to music. A laboratory analog was designed to determine
indirectly the correct task by assessing a listener's ability to perform a related overt task: the identification of similar interpretations of musical phrases. Two graduate music students, a violist
and a cellist, recorded short musical phrases on tape using different bowings, dynamics, articulation, and finierings. Thirteen
college music majors, listening to the tapes, were able to discriminate accurately among the interpretations of the violist and
violoncellist.
Edwin Gordon, of the State University of New York at Buffalo,
has been in the forefront of music testing for many years. His
Music Aptitude Profile was published in 1965: and the Iowa
Tests of Music Literacy appeared in 1970.5His most recent test is
Primary Measures of Music A ~ d i a t i o n .The
~ Musical Aptitude
Profile (MAP) is a group test for Grades 4 through 12 that may be
used to determine students' musical aptitude. It consists of tests
in three areas, with subtests as follows: Tonal Imagery-Melody
and Harmony; Rhythrn Imagery-Tempo and Meter; and Musical
Sensitivity-Phrasing, Balance, and Style.'
The Iowa Tests of Music Literacy (ITML) is a six-level battery
of tests to measure musical achievement. The battery is designed
for Grades 4 through 12, but not every level is appropriate for all
grades. Each of the six levels increases in complexity and is
Today and Tomorrow
333
divided into Tonal Concepts and Rhythm Concepts. Both Tonal

and Rhythm Concepts include these subtests: Aural Perception,
Reading Recognition, and Notational Under~tanding.~
The musical potential of children in kindergarten and fist,
second, or third grades may be determined by Gordon's newest
test, Primary Measures of Music Audiation. Children listen to
tape-recorded tonal and rhythm patterns and decide whether the
pairs sound the same or different. They indicate their answers by
drawing a circle around pictures on an answer sheet. If the sounds
are the Same the similar objects are to be circled; if they are
different the dissimilar objects in each picture are to be circled.
Research procedures and data on the validation of each of the
Gordon tests are discussed in the accompanying manual for each
test.
Tests obviously have a relationship to learning or the potential
for learning. Gordon also has been involved in research related to
the learning process in music as it affects teaching. Three publications have resulted from his research: Tonal und Rhythm Pat,~
Seqlcence und Patterns
terns: An Objective A n a l y ~ i s Learning
in Music, l 0 and Pattern Sequence und Learning in Music. l 1
In the first publication Gordon presents a detailed taxonomy of
tonal and rhythmic patterns as determined by experimental research over a three-year period with ten thousand elementary
school children. Data on difficulty levels and growth rate associated with the patterns are given along with ideas for curriculum development in music for individuals and for classes.
Learning Sequence und Patterns in Music and Pattern Sequence und Learning in Music are companion volumes. The
former explicates the efficiency and appropriateness of learning
in music. Aural and performance tasks, both tonal and rhythmic,
are discussed in terms of music literacy, creativity, and improvisational skills. The sequence of learning as it applies to teaching
also is covered. In Pattern Sequence und Learning in Music
Gordon delineates the specific order in which tonal patterns in a
334
given tonality and rhythm pattems in a given meter are applied to

the learning process. He gives pattems for all levels of tonal and
rhythmic learning sequences, as well as ways these patterns may
be incorporated into a music lesson.
Steven K. Hedden, of the University of Iowa, Iowa City, published a research study entitled "Meaning of the Concept of
Music Teacher to High School Musicians. "I2 The purpose of
Hedden's study was to determine the concept high-school students have of musicians of various kinds as they relate to nonmusical variables encountered in the high-school music teacher.
These variables were: students' concepts of different kinds of
musicians and a differentiation between classical and pop musicians. Using a semantic differential, Hedden asked 705 highschool students in North Carolina to indicate the meaning of these
concepts: music, music teacher, pop musician, classical musician,
teacher, male, and female. Results indicated thqt classical musicians were evaluated negatively, pop musicians as potent and
active, and music teachers as neutral.
Hedden's study "Dissemination of Music Education: Are Researchers the Problem?" is predicated on the concept that the
music-education profession is not effectively translating research
findings into action in the classroom. Results of this research
were presented at the International Society of Music Education
(ISME) Seminar in August of 1978. Hedden designed three instruments to collect his data: Research Questionnaire (RQ), ASsessment of Research Knowledge (ARK), and Attitudes Toward
Music Education Research (ATMER). The RQ measured what
music educators regard as the most positive and negative aspects
of music-education research; ARK, music-education knowledge
about research; and ATMER, attitudes of music teachers toward
selected aspects of research. Responses were obtained from
thirty-nine Ss attending a district workshop sponsored by the
Iowa Music Educators Association. The RQ results supported the
contention that research can provide valuable information and
Today and Tomorrow
335
new ideas for teachers. Results obtained on the ARK showed that
the "typical" music educator has little knowledge of research.
On the other hand, replies on the ATMER indicated the attitude of
music educators toward the research process was inclined to be
more positive than negative.
In another study, "Listening Skills in Secondary Students, "
Hedden Set out to determine the extent to which students are
acquiring listening skills.I3 Research Ss were 262 secondaryschool students attending a summer music camp at the University
of Iowa. Using listening tests developed by Woodford Zimmerman at Ohio State University and by Hedden and Marvin Thostenson of the University of Iowa, Hedden found that Ss scored
well. The relationship between listening skill and background
music was less positive. There was, however, some relationship
between listening skill and the ability to identify intervals and
knowledge of music fundarnentals.
Mary L. Serafine, of the University of Texas at Austin, in "A
Measure of Meter Conservation in Music, Based on Piaget's
Theory," had two purposes: (1) to develop a task to measure
conservation of meter in children ages four to nine, and (2) to test
the validity of the measure in terms of Piaget's concept of conservation.14 A pretest on the conservation-of-meter task and on
Piagetian tasks of conservation of space, number, substance, continuous quantity, weight, and discontinuous quantity was administered to 103 children from four to nine years of age. Following
the pretest nonconservers of meter were divided into two groups:
an experimental group who received training in conservation of
meter, and a control group who received no training. At the end
of training the Same measures were used as a posttest. From the
results obtained Serafine concluded that Piaget's principle of conservation may be applied to the development of the concept of
meter in music. "Piagetian Research in Music" and "Musical
Timbre Imagery in Young Children" had just been completed by
Serafine at the time of this writing, but no data were available for
336
dissemination. A longitudinal study, supported by a grant from

the Spencer Foundation, is Serafine's research "The Development of Musical Cognition. " In this study, scheduled for completion in 1983, Serafine will investigate the development of the
capacity for musical cognition, a type of aesthetic thinking, in
children and adolescents. She proposes to test two hundred Ss
from four to fourteen years of age on musical and other standard
cognitive tasks. The effects of training on these musical tasks will
be measured.
Donald J . Shetler, of the Eastman School of Music of the
University of Rochester, New York, has been involved with "A
Pilot Study of the Training and Career Experiences of Symphony
Orchestra Musicians. " Shetler, working with a five-member research team that included sociologists, sought to develop datagathering instruments to provide detailed analyses of educational
and career influences on symphony-orchestra musicians. Six
American symphony orchestras constituted ihe sample. A
hypothetical model of a symphony-orchestra player was developed to determine the following on career development: parental and early musical experiences; postsecondary training; and
career entry, satisfaction, and success as an orchestral musician.
Results of the study indicated that encouragement by parents
(especially that of the mother) and teachers is a positive influence. Secondly, more conservatory or professional musicschool-trained players studied with professional musicians than
did liberal-arts-trained performers. Also, conservatory-trained
players were more likely to earn income while performing during
their junior and senior years. Third, conservatory-trained musicians were not as concemed about sponsorship in obtaining an
orchestral position as were liberal-arts-trained performers. One
paradoxical finding was that the level of a musician's orchestral
employment, although it increased earnings, seemed to decrease
commitment to an orchestral career.
Today and Tomorrow
337
Signs on the Horizon for Music-Education

Research
When attempting to foretell events in almost any area one is
confronted with at least two dilemmas: the difficulty of such a
comprehensive task, and the likelihood that some important
trends may not be included. The difficulty lies in the realization
that no bibliography, no compendium of materials, or no complete list can be made of what is important to consider for the
future. No one individual can know all there is to know about any
one subject or topic; therefore, even the most knowledgeable
individual may inadvertently omit some important trend because
it is only just beginning to make an appearance and has not yet
been publicized.
As viewed by this writer, there are five areas that could havean
impact on music-education research in the near future. In no
particular order, they are: (1) the impact of technology, (2) the
necessity for more adequate training in research techniques for
potential researchers, (3) the organization of conferences and
workshops for researchers, (4) the growing relationship between
music and other disciplines, and (5) the increasing use of
specialized and centralized computer Centers.
The computer not only has changed the way people live their
daily life but also has had an impact on research.15The researcher
can produce thematic catalogs and analyze musical compositions
by computer, to cite two of the most widely made uses of the
computer by musicians. Recognizing the value of the computer,
seminars on Computer Application to Music are not uncommon.
For example, the Third Annual Seminar on Computers in Music
was held at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro,
November 2-4, 1978. The International Computer Music Conference was held at the same time at the Evanston, Illinois, Campus
of Northwestern University, November 1-5, 1978. The Fourth
338
International Conference on Computers and the Humanities was

scheduled for August 20-22, 1979, at Dartmouth College,
Hanover, New Hampshire.
In order to conform to changes mandated by the Library of
Congress, many research libraries are in the process of creating a
computerized file of book information. Instead of looking for
data in the card catalog an investigator will be able to obtain the
needed information by interfacing with a computer terminal. This
process should make it easier to obtain bibliographic and other
data. Another manifestation of computer use is the Computerized
Register of Voice Research (CRVR)
being developed at Southern
Illinois University in Carbondale.
As music educators confront more complex problems the need
for more specialized and intensive training becomes necessary.
Some music researchers take advantage of highly specialized research seminars, such as those offered regularly by the American
Educational Research Association. In addition,. there are conferences on the application of the computer to music, as already
noted. Advanced research courses, in addition to the general
Course in research methodology, are now available at many institutions for students who plan to pursue a more sophisticated
type of investigation.
One of the most significant conferences in recent years for
music researchers and music teachers has been the Ann Arbor
Symposium, held on the Campus of the University of Michigan at
Ann Arbor, October 30-November 2, 1978, and July 30-August
2, 1979. At this symposium music educators met with psychologists to determine if there are concepts of psychology and learning theory that can be applied to make music instruction at all
levels more effective. The Research Commission of the International Society for Music Education (ISME)was scheduled to hold
its Eighth International Seminar July 15-22, 1980. Researchers
from all over the world were to present reports of their recent
studies in music education.
Today and Tomorrow
339
Because of the growing interest in related arts courses and the

demand for teachers in this area, it is reasonable to expect that
more research in the various related arts will be forthcoming. A
Special Interest Group of the American Educational Research
Association, entitled Arts and Leaming, was inaugurated at the
organization 's amual meeting in San Francisco, April 8- 12,
1979. The National Institute of Education is continuing to assist
the AREA in providing a format for educational research in the
arts.
Many specialized bibliographic and research centers are organized to permit retrieval of data by computer. One of the best
known of these is DATRIX,
the acronym for "Direct Access to
Reference Information: a Xerox Service," which is operated by
the University Microfilms Division of the Xerox Corporation.
makes it possible to obtain within a few days a computerDATRIX
produced list of doctoral studies pertinent to an investiagtor's
topic. Bibliographies sent to the researcher contain title of the
dissertation, name of investigator, place where the study was
completed, date, and Page and volume of Dissertation Abstracts
International where the doctoral study is located. Key-word lists
are available; the one entitled "Humanities/Social Sciences" is
the one most likely to be relevant for the music researcher. Key
words, often chosen with the assistance of the local library staff,
are fed into the computer, which in turn will retrieve every reference in the areas identified by the key words. Another project,
known as RILM (Repertoire International de la Litterature Musicale), was established in 1966 jointly by the International
Musicological Society (IMS), the International Association of
Music Libraries (AIBM),and the American Council of Learned
Societies (ACLS).RILM is an abstracted, computer-indexed international bibliography of scholarly writings about music. Included
are articles, books, dissertations, reviews, essays, catalogs,
iconographies, and other pertinent musical items that have appeared since January 1, 1967. RILM Abstracts, the journal of
340
RILM, was first published in August of 1967. It includes abstracts

of up to 150 words, as well as other items related to music.I6.
Another computerized service is that provided by ENC, the
acronym for Educational Resources Information Center. Established by the U.S . Office of Education in 1965, the ERIC System is
composed of Central ERIC in Washington, D.C., and sixteen
clearinghouses located in different parts of the nation. Each
clearinghouse handles data for a specific subject area. The National Institute of Education now maintains ERIC. The principal
E N C publication of interest to music researchers is the monthly,
computer-produced Resources in Education, formerly called Research in Education. Covering all fields of education, each issue
of RIE contains the following: document resumes, subject index
listings, author index, and institution index. A reader, for example, knowing that a certain individual is pursuing research in the
area of his or her interest, can refer to the author index to determine the specific nature of the investigation. Th'e Same would be
true if one knew that research of a certain type was being carried on at an institution. The institution index would indicate what
has been transrnitted to ERIC from a specific institution.
Although not computerized, the Music Educators National
Conference Historical Research Center is of import for musiceducation researchers who seek historical information. Located
on the Campus of the University of Maryland in College Park, this
Center was established in 1965 to house materials related to the
history of music education in the United States. The archives are
contiguous to and complementary to the Research Center of the
American Bandmasters Association. Materials included in the
MENC Historical Research Center consist of: early music
textbooks; copies of national, state, and locd music periodicals;
letters, personal effects, Speeches, and unpublished manuscripts
of leaders in music education, both past and present; and other
miscellaneous documents. Many primary sources of information
on music education are housed here. These sources could be
Today and Tomorrow
341
especially valuable to someone who is preparing a biographical

account of a musician who has been outstanding in the musiceducation profession.
Although the decrease in funding is a black cloud on the horizon of music-education research, the blue sky of dedicated researchers always shines through. Even greater research opportunities appear ahead, especially as music educators work together with their colleagues from other disciplines to find answers
to common problems. Members of the profession, realizing that
research holds the key to the destinies of untold numbers of
youngsters whose lives they are helping to shape, appear ready to
face the future with confidence. It is imperative that this quest
proceed with dispatch and precision to the end that the researcher
who is obsessed with the goal of making the world a better place
in which to live may be able to realize this objective.
Problems for Discussion and Revie W

1. Which of the postdoctoral research studies included in this
chapter have import for you as a potential researcher?
2. What are the signs on the horizon that could influence musiceducation research?
3 . What are some of the ways computers may benefit music

educators and researchers?
BORG,WALTER
R., and MEREDITH
An Introduction. 3rd ed. New York: Longman 1979, Chapter 19.
342
BOWLES,EDMUNDA., ed. Computers in Humanistic Research. Englewood Cliffs, N. J .: Prentice-Hall, 1967, Section 5.
ENGELHART,
Fox, DAVIDJ. The Research Process in Education. New York: Holf
GAY,L. R. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis und Application. Colurnbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1976, Chapter 7.
HOWE, HUBERT S., JR. Electronic Music Synthesis, Concepts,
Facilities, Techniques. New York: W. W. Norton, 1975.
KERLINGER
New York: Holf Rinehart and Winston, 1979, Chapter 14.
.
Foundations of Behavioral Research, 2nd ed. New York: Holf
Rinehart and Winston, 1973, Appendix C.
KOSTKA,STEFANM. A Bibliography of Computer Applications in
Music. Hackensack, N. J .: Joseph Boonin, 1974.
LEFKOFF,
GERALD,ed. West Virginia Universiiy Conference on Computer Applications in Music. Morgantown: West Virginia University
Library, 1967.
LINCOLN,HARRYB., ed. The Computer und Music. Ithaca, N.Y.:
Comell University Press, 1970.
MASON,EMANUEL
J.. and WILLIAM
J. BRAMBLE.
Understanding und
MATHEWS.
MAXV., with the collaboration of JOANE. MILLER,F. R.
MOORE,J. R. PIERCE,A N D J. C. RISSER.The Technology of Computer Music. Carnbridge: M.I.T. Press, 1969.
RUMMEL,
J. FRANCIS.
Scientific American, Vol. 21 5, September 1966.
TRAVERS,
ROBERT
ed. New York: Macrnillan 1978, Chapter 15.
TUCKMAN,
VAN DALEN,DEOBOLD
Chapter 1
1 Trurnan Lee Kelley , Scientific Method. New York: Macmillan, 1932,
P. 1.
2 Charles D. Hopkins, Educational Research: A Structure for Inquiry.
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1976, p. 14.
3 Clifford J . Drew, Introduction to Designing Research und Evaluation.
St. Louis: C. V. Mosby, 1976, p. 6.
4 Max D. Engelhart, Methods of Educational Research. Chicago: Rand
McNally, 1972, p. 1.
5 Clifford K. Madsen and Charles H. Madsen, Jr., Experimental Research in Music. Raleigh, N.C.: Conternporary, 1977, P. 4.
6 Jacques Barzun and Henry Graff, The Modern Researcher, 3rd ed.
New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977, p. 83.
7 For an informative account of the nontraditional doctorate, See Kenneth H. Ashwortk "The Non-Traditional Doctorate: Time for Sine
Cera? " Phi Delta Kappan, November 1978, 60,l: 173- 175.
8 Paul E. Koefod The Writing Requirements for Graduate Degrees.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964, p. 1I .
9 Kelley, p. 3.
10 Walter R. Borg and Meredith D. Gall, Educational Research: An
Introduction, 3rd ed. New York: Longman, 1979, p. 3.
11 Roger P. Phelps, "Research in Music and Music Education," Music
Educatars Journal, June-July 1960, 45, 6:5 1-53.
12 Judith Murphy and Lonna Jones, Research in Arts Education.
Washington, D .C. : U. S. Department of Healtk Education, and Welfare,
1978.
13 Roger P. Phelps, "Critical Thinking: A Prerequisite for All Sound
Research," The New York Stute School Music News. March 1978,
41,7:3 1-32.
14 Hopkins, p. 4.
15 Robert M. W. Travers. An lntroduction to Educational Research,
4th ed. New York: Macmillan, 1978, pp. 256-257.
16 John C. Almack, Research und Thesis Writing. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1930, p. 57.
17 Joseph G. Brennan, The Meaning of Philosophy, 2nd ed. New York:
Harper and Row, 1967.
18 Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research, 2nd ed.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973, p. 11.
19 Morris R. Cohen and Ernest Nagel, An fntroduction to Logic und the
Scientific Method, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1934, p.
195.
20 Thomas Munro, Scientific Method in Aesthetics. New York: W. W.
Norton, 1928, p. 23.
21 Deobold B. Van Dalen, Understanding Educational Research: An
Introduction, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979, p. 18.
22 Carter V. Good, Essentials of Educational Research. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966, p. 19.
23 Phelps, "Critical Thinking, " p. 3 1.
24 Emanuel J. Mason and William J. Bramble, Understanding und

Conducting Research: Applications in Education und the Behuvioral
Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, p. 59.
25 John W. Best, Research in Education, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977, p. 3.
26 Donald A y , Lucy C. Jacobs, and Asghar Razavieh, Introduction to
Research in Education, 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1979, P. 8.
27 John Dewey, How We Think, Boston: D. C. Heatk 1933, p. 107.
28 Kelley, p. 24.
Chapter 2
1 Roger P. Phelps, "The Doctoral Dissertation: Boon or Bane?" College Music Symposium, Fall 1978, 18,2:82-93.
lntroduction, 3rd ed. New York: Longman, 1979, p. 46.
3 American Council of Learned Societies, 345 East 46th Street, New
York, NY 10017.
4 "Graduate Study in Music Education, " Journal of Research in Music
Education, Fall 1954, 2,2: 168.
Introduction, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979, p. 169.
6 Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff, The Modern Researcher, 3rd ed.
7 M. M. Chambers, "Selection, Definition, and Delimitation of a Doctoral Research Problem," Phi Delta Kappan. November 1960, 42,
2:7 1-73.
8 Chambers, p. 73.
9 Paul E. Koefod, The Writing Requirements for Graduate Degrees.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964, p. 74.
10 Carter V. Good and Douglas E. Scates, Methods of Research. New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1954, p. 5 1.
11 J. Francis Rummel, An lntroduction to Research Procedures in
Education, 2nd ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1964, p. 29.
12 John C. Almack, Research und Thesis Writing. Boston: Houghton

Mifflin, 1930, p. 48.
13 Tyms Hillway, Introductiotl to Research, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1964, p. 114.
14 Jacques Barzun, New Letters of Berlioz 1830-1868. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1954.
15 Hillway, p. 116.
16 Robert G. Petzold, "Directions for Research in Music Education, "
Music Educators Journal, January 1964, 50,5:40.
17 Koefod, p. 107.
Chapter 3
1 Daniel E. Griffiths, Research in Educational Adtninistration: An Appraisal und a Plan. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1959, p. 2.
2 Roger P . Phelps, "The Doctoral Dissertation: Bo6n or Bane?" College Music Symposium. Fall 1978, 18,2:83.
3 A committee, usually nurnbering three faculty members, selected by
the candidate and approved by the administrator of graduate programs at
a college or university, for the purpose of advising and guiding a student
in the organization and irnplementation of the research plan.
4 John W. Best, Research in Education, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs,
5 Donald T . Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, Experimental und
1966, PP. 13-24.
6 J. William Asher, Educational Research und Evaluation Methods.
Boston: Little, Brown, 1976, p. 2.
7 The term "research design" will be used in subsequent references to
thesis proposal, thesis outline, research agendum, or dissertation proposal, not only for consistency but also because it distinctly expresses
the nature and functions of the prospectus.
8 Frederick W. Whitney, The Elements of Research, 3rd ed. Englewood
Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1950, p. 123.
9 Utilitarian music designed essentially for amateurs, characterized by

simplicity of parts and length of movernents.
10 E. Paul Torrance, Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Columbus,
Ohio: Personnel Press, Xerox Education Center, 1966.
11 Willi Apel, ed., Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed., rev. and
enlarged. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
1969, P. 575.
12 J. Francis Rummel, An Introduction to Research Procedures in
Education, 2nd ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1964, p. 60.
13 Phelps, p. 88.
14 David R. Cook and N. Kenneth LaFleur, A Guide to Edidcational
Research, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1975, p. 25.
15 Ruth Coron, "Interdisciplinary Teaching in the Arts: A Videotape
Presentation, " unpublished document and videotape for the Alternative
Ed.D., New York University, 1974.
16 Undated mimeographed report prepared by the Office of the Dean,
School of Education, Health, Nursing and Arts Professions, New York
University .
Chapter 4
1 Donna Pucciani, "Olga Samaroff Stokowski: American Musician
and Educator, " dissertation for the Ph.D ., New York University ,
1979.
2 Marguerite V. Quattlebaum, ed., Subject Headings, 7th ed.
Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1966. Music entries, listed
between pages 862 and 869 of this edition, contain topics related to
various phases of music. Additional notations rnay be found under more
specialized topics, such as pianists. pages 982-986.
3 Barbara M. Westby, Sears List of Subject Headings, 10th ed. New
York: H. W . Wilson, 1972.
4 Books in Print: An Author-Title Series Index to the Publisher's Trade
List Annual. New York: R. R. Bowker, 194%.
5 Dewey Decimal Classification und Relative Index, 18th ed. Vol. 2.
Lake Placid, N.Y.: Forest Press, 1971, pp. 1421-1457.
Notes
348
6 For example, the first edition of this book, Roger P. Phelps, A Guide
to Research in Music Education (Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown,
1969), was classified as MT1 .P5 in the Library of Congress System.
7 John P. Immroth, A Guide to the Library of Congress Classifcations,
2nd ed. Littleton, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited 1971, p. 179.
8 Mary M. Ausman, "Classification of Music," mimeographed pamphlet, Queens College of the City University of New York, 1967, p. 1.
9 For additional suggestions on record cataloging, see William Shank
and Lloyd C. Engelbrecht, "Records and Tapes," in Manual of Music
Librarianship. Ann Arbor: Music Library Association, 1966, pp. 65-75.
10 Shank and Engelbrecht, p. 71.
11 For ready reference, this writer has made it a practice to carry in his
pocket (or bnef case) a 4" x 6" note pad to which are attached one or
two paper clips. Detached pages are then inserted between the backing
and last page of the pad and clipped to it until they can be filed in a
manila envelope. Sometimes it may be advisable instead to carry several
3" X 5" or 4" X 6" file cards that are held together by a mbber band.
12 Henry L. Smith, Educational Research: Princibles und Practices.
Bloomington: Educational Publications, 1944, p. 74.
13 M. Dale Baughman, "The Research Report: Introduction, " in Ralph
H. Jones, ed., Methodrs und Techniques of Educational Research. Danville, 111.: Interstate Publishers and Printers, 1973, p. 365.
14 George J. Mouly, The Science of Educational Research, 2nd ed.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970, p. 128.
15 Arvid J. Burke and Mary A. Burke, Documentation in Education,
4th ed., rev. New York: Teachers College Press, 1967, p. 60.
16 See Microlist, Rochester, N.Y.: Sibley Music Library Microprint
Service.
17 Vincent Duckles, Music Reference und Research Materials: An Annotated Bibliography, 3rd ed. New York: The Free Press, 1974.
18 Complete bibliographic information on these items is omitted here.
Refer to your library card catalog for complete information.
19 Included no author indexing and no book reviews between 1961 and
1969.
20 Emest Heman, "Dental Considerations in the Playing of Musical
Instmments, " Journal of the American Dental Association, September
1974, 891611-619.
Notes
349
21 Judith Murphy and Lonna Jones, Research in Arts Education.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
1978.
22 Ralph A. Smith and Christiana M. Smith, Research in the Arts und
Aesthetic Education. St. Louis: C E M R E L , 1978.
23 The Thirty-Fifth Yearbook, Part 11, 1936, and the Fifty-Seventh
Yearbook, Part I, 1958, were devoted exclusively to music education.
24 For additional references, see Duckles.
25 Jan LaRue and George W. Logemann, "EDP for Thematic
Catalogue, " Notes, Summer 1966, 22,4: 1180.
26 Paul Doe, ed., R.M.A. Research Chronicle No. 3. Birmingharn,
England: Royal Music Association, 1965.
27 Richard Schaal, Verzeichnis deutschsprachiger musikwissenschaftlicher Dissertationen, 1881 -1960. Kassel: Baremeiter, 1974.
28 Earl E. Borg, "A Codified Bibliography of Music Education Research at the Master's Level in Selected Institutions of the North Central
Association, " dissertation for the Ph.D., Northwestem University,
1964.
Chapter 5
1 John M. Vincent, Aids to Historical Research. New York:
2 Allan Nevins, The Gateway to History, rev. ed. Garden City, N.Y.:
Anchor Books, 1962, p. 14.
3 David H. Fischer, Historian's Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical
Thought. New York: Harper and Row, 1970, p. xv.
4 Allen M. Garrett, An Introduction to Research in Music. Washington,
D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1958, pp. 2-3.
5 Homer C. Hockett, The Critical Method in Historical Research und
Writing. New York: Macmillan, 1955, pp. 4-5.
6 Hockett, p. 9.
7 Louis Gottschalk Understanding History, 2nd ed. New York: Alfred
A. Knopf, 1969, p. 207.
8 Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff, The Modern Researcher, 3rd ed.
9 Robert J. Shafer, ed., A Guide to Historical Method, rev. ed.

Homewood, 111.: Dorsey Press, 1974, p. 41.
10 Emanuel J. Mason and William J. Bramble, Understanding und
Conducting Educational Research: Applications in Education und the
Behavioral Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, p. 30.
11 William W. Brickman, Research in Educational History. Norwood
Pa: Folcroft Library Editions, 1975, p. 108.
12 Richard Vallis, "A Study of Late Baroque Instrumental Style in the
Piano Concertos of Brahms," dissertation for the Ph.D., New York
University, 1978.
13 Brickman, pp. 3-5.
14 Brickman, p. 14.
15 William W. Cutler 111, "Oral History-Its Nature and Uses for
Educational History," History of Education Quarterly, Summer 1971,
11,2:184.
16 Stanley H. Brobston, "A Brief History of White Southern Gospel
Music and a Study of Selected Amateur Family Gospel Music Singing
Groups in Rural Georgia," dissertation for the Ph.D., New York University, 1977.
17 Lee B. Cooper, "Popular Songs as Oral History: Teaching Black
History Through Contemporary Audio Resources. " International Journal of Instructional Media, 1977-1978, 5,2: 185-195.
18 Barzun and Graff, p. 96.
19 Lacey Fosburgh 'World's Oldest Song Reported Deciphered, "
New York Times, March 6, 1974. p. 1.
20 Reinhard G. Pauly, "Some Recently Discovered Michael Haydn
Manuscripts, " Journal of the American Musicological S o c i e ~ Summer
,
1957, 10,2:97-103.
21 Harold C. Schonberg, "Byron Janis Discovers Chopin MSS in a
Chateau, " New York Times, December 21, 1967, p. 1.
22 Muriel Brooks, "ChopinlJanis," The American Music Teacher,
April-May 1979, 28,5:7-8. The waltzes were published in 1978 by
Envolve Music Group, Ltd., New York, NY 10019, under the title
ChopinlJanis: The Most Dramatic Musical Discovery of the Age.
23 Rufus A. Grider, Historical Notes on Music in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania from 1741 to 1871. Philadelphia: John L . Pile, 1873. Foreword by
Donald M. McCorkle, Winston-Salem, N.C.: Moravian Music Foundation, 1957, p. 57.

24 These trios have been reissued by Boosey and Hawkes, Oceanside,
N.Y., and recorded by the Society for the Reservation of Arnerican
Music Heritage Series, Kar1 Krueger, editor, on Record MIA 99, "Instrumental Music in Colonial America"; on Columbia ML-6141 by
rnembers of the Fine Arts Quartet; and on Odyssey 32160340 by members of the Fine Arts Quartet.
25 For additional information, see the microcard version of this writer's
doctoral dissertation, The History und Practice of Chamber Music in the
United States from Earliest Times up to 1875. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 1958, pp. 241-257, 579-580, 654-726.
26 Albert G. Rau and Hans T. David, A Cutalogue of Music by American Moravians (1742-1842). Bethlehem, Pa.: Moravian College and
Serninary for Wornen, 1938; New York: A.M.S. Press, 1970, p. 102.
27 Rau and David, p. 98.
28 Regarding these Michael partien, see this writer's doctoral dissertation, pp. 277-381, 820-851.
29 Grider, p. 9.
30 Donal Henahan, "Paganini's Concerto No. 3 Rediscovered, " New
York Times, January 14, 1971, p. 44.
31 Delores E. Keahey, "The Genoa Manuscripts: Recently Discovered
Trios of Johann Christian Bach," dissertation for the Ph.D., University
of Texas at Austin, 1977.
32 Robert J. Bagdon, "Musical Life in Charleston, South Carolina, from
1732 to 1776 as Recorded in Colonial Sources," dissertation for the
Ph.D., University of Miami, 1978.
34 Hockett, p. 26.
35 Walter C. Eells, "First American Degrees in Music," History of
Education Quarterly, March 1961, 1,1:36.
36 John G. Shea. Memorial of the First Century of Georgetown College, D.C. New York: P. F. Collier, 1891, p. 164, as quoted by Eells, p.
39.
37 Hockett, p. 14.
38 Fischer, p. 40.
39 Shafer, p. 123.
40 Henry W. Lanier, New York, N.Y. Personal letter to researcher,
March 17, 1949.
41 Aubrey H. Starke, Sidney Lanier. Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press, 1933, opposite p. 174.
42 Starke, p. 184.
43 Starke, p. 462.
44 Philip Graham, ed., Centennial Edition of the Works und Letters of
Sidney Lanier, Vol. VI. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1945, p. 389.
45 Hocketi, p. 8.
46 New York Herald Tribune, November 10, 1946.
47 E. Lebeau, Paris. Personal letter to researcher, April 7, 1949.
48 Harold C. Schonberg, "Music: American Oddities," New York
Times, September 24, 1968, p. 54.
49 Nevins, p. 159.
50 Gottschalk, p. 138.
51 Brickman, p. 95.
52 Barzun and Graff, p. 95.
53 Gottschalk, pp. 219-220.
54 Nevins, p. 300.
Chapter 6
1 David J. Fox, The Research Process in Education. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1969, p. 454.
Research," The New York Stute School Music News, March 1978,
41,7:31.
3 W. I. B. Beveridge, The Art of Scientific Investigation, 3rd ed. New
York: Vintage Books, 1957, p. 28.
4 Geoffrey Keppel, Design und Analysis: a Researcher's Handbook.
Englewood Cliffs, N. J .: Prentice-Hall, 1973, p. 4.
5 L. R. Gay, Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis und
Application. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1976, p. 161.
6 Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, Experimental und

1966, P. 2.
8 Everet F. Lindquisi, Design und Analysis of Experiments in Psychology und Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953, pp. 9-1 1.
9 William Wiersma, Research Methods in Education: An Introduction,
2nd ed. Itasca 111.: F. E. Peacock, 1975, p. 96.
10 Thomas J. Harris, "An Investigation of the Effectiveness of an
Intonation Training Prograrn upon Junior and Senior High School Wind
Instrumentalists, " dissertation for the Ed.D., University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, 1977.
I1 Clifford L. Colnoi, "An Exploratory Study of Different Modes of
Presenting Behavioral Principles and Their Effect upon the Cognitive
Understandings, Attitudes and Teaching Skills of Instrumental Music
Students, " dissertation for the Ph.D., Northwestem University, 1977.
12 Robert G. Petzold, Auditory Perception of Musical Sounds by Children in the First Six Grades, U.S. Office of Education Cooperative
Research Project No. 1001, 1966, ED 010 197.
13 Charles L . Spohn, Diagnosing und Correcting Individual Deficiencies in Learning Music, U.S. Office of Education Cooperative Research
Project OE 6-19-214, 1968, ED 019 292.
14 Annamaria Nucci, "The Use of Music in Individual Psychotherapy,"
dissertation for the Ph.D., New York University, 1977.
15 I. M. Hyde, "Effects of Music upon Electrocardiograms and Blood
Pressure, " in Max Schoen, ed., The Effects of Music. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1927.
16 Robert E. Dreher, "The Relationship Between Verbal Reports and
Galvanic Skin Responses to Music," dissertation for the Ph.D., Indiana
University, 1948.
17 William W. Sears, "A Study of Some Effects of Music upon Muscle
Tension as Evidenced by Electromyographic Recordings, " dissertation
for the Ph.D., University of Kansas, 1960.
18 John S. Mill, A System of Logic: Ratiocinative und lnductive. London: Longmans, Green, 1919, p. 253-266.
Notes
354
19 Madsen and Moore have developed a programmed workbook, Chapter 2 of which is entitled "A Programmed Guide to Mill's Canons. " See
Clifford K. Madsen and Randall S. Moore, eds., Experimental Research in Music: Workbook on Design und Statistical Tests, rev. ed.
Raleigh N.C.: Contemporary Publishing, 1978.
20 Philip J. Runkel and Joseph E. McGrath, Research in Human Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972, p. 104.
21 Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research, 2nd ed.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973, p. 399.
22 Kerlinger, pp. 400-40 1.
23 Campbell and Stanley, p. 34.
24 Kerlinger, pp. 404-405.
25 Kerlinger, p. 402.
26 Bmce W. Tuckman, Conducting Educational Research, 2nd ed.
27 Borg and Gall, p. 163.
28 Marilyn P. Zimmerman and Lee Sechrest, How Children Conceptually Organize Musical Sounds, U. S. Office of Education Cooperative
Research Project 5-0256, 1968, ED 028 200.
29 Jonathan F. Dzik, "An Experiment Comparing Two Methods of
Instruction to Determine Changes in Attitudes of Selected High School
General Music Students Toward Opera," dissertation for the Ed.D.,
New York University, 1976.
30 Robert M. W. Travers, An Introduction to Educational Research,
4th ed. New York: Macmillan, 1978, pp. 76-78.
31 Keppel, pp. 10-12.
32 Borg and Gall, pp. 182-188.
33 Edwin Gordon, Iowa Tests of Music Literacy. Iowa City: University
of Iowa, 1971.
34 Runkel and McGrath, p. 59.
35 Campbell and Stanley, designs used by permission of Rand McNally
and Co.
36 Campbell and Stanley, p. 5.
37 Campbell and Stanley, pp. 5-6.
38 Raleigh M. Drake, Drake Musical Aptitude Test, 2nd ed. Chicago:
Science Research Associates, 1957.
Notes
355
39 The reader is referred to Campbell and Stanley for a complete discus-
sion of the designs listed here.

40 Campbell and Stanley, pp. 61-62.
41 Gay, p. 186.
42 Gay, p. 187.
43 Kerlinger, pp. 378-394.
44 Kerlinger, p. 390.
45 Gay, p. 226.
46 The figures given in each category represent approximate percentages. They have been rounded off purposely to simplify the mathematical concepts used here.
47 Borg and Gall pp. 414-41 5.
48 X, signifies pitch scores on the Seashore Measures of Musical Talents; X2 denotes scores on the Kwalwasser Music Talent Test, Form A.
Carl E. Seashore, Don Lewis, and Joseph G. Saetveit, Seashore Measures of Musical Talents, rev. ed. New York: The Psychological Corp.,
1939; Jacob Kwalwasser, Kwalwasser Music Talent Test. Melville,
N.Y .: Belwin-Mills, 1953.
49 Tuckman. p. 170.
50 Curtis Hardyck and Lewis F. Petrinovich, Understanding Research
in the Social Sciences. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1975, p.
100.
51 Hardyck and Petrinovich, p. 128.
I
1
I
Chapter 7
1 Emanuel J. Mason and William J. Bramble. Understanding und Conducting Research: Applications in Education und the Behavioral Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, p. 3 1.
Introduction, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979, P. 284.
3 William Wiersma, Research Methods in Education, 2nd ed. Itasca,
111.: F. E. Peacock, 1975, P. 127.
4 Robert G. Petzold, "Directions for Research in Music Education,"
Music Educators Journal, January 1964, 50,5:39.
Notes
356
5 Emin H. Schneider and Henry L. Cady, Evaluation und Svnthesis of

Research Studies Related to Music Education, U.S. Office of Education
Cooperative Research Project E-016, 1965, ED 010 298.
6 Richard J. Colwell, A Critique of Research Studies in Music Education, U.S. Office of Education Research Project 6-10-245, 1969, ED
035 100.
7 Julian L . Simon, Basic Research Methods in Social Science: The Art
of Empirical Investigation. New York: Random House, 1969, pp.
53-54.
8 David R. Cook and N. Kenneth LaFleur, A Guide to Educational
Research, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1975, pp. 56-60.
9 George J. Mouly, The Science of Educational Research, 2nd ed. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970, p. 234.
Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966, P. 206.
11 Music und Art in the Public Schools, Research Monograph 1963M3. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1963.
12 Tyrone W. Tyler, "A Survey of Professional Reparation Programs
in Music in Predominately-Black Publicly Supported Institutions of
Higher Learning in the Southwestem States," dissertation for the Ed.D.,
New York University, 1978.
13 Claud A. Bosworth, "A Study of the Development and the Validation of a Measure of Citizens Attitude Toward Progress and Some
Variables Related Thereto, " dissertation for the Ph.D., University of
Michigan 1955.
14 Mouly, p. 280.
15 "A Survey of Music Practices in Nassau County, New York" unpublished committee report prepared by Walter E. ~ a t t h e w s ,West
Hempstead, N.Y., 1966.
16 Frank Liston, "An Analysis of Management Personnel Within the
Music Industry, " dissertation for the Ph.D., Northwesteni University,
1975.
17 Max D. Engelhart, Methods of Educational Research. Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1972, pp. 139-140.
Introduction, 3rd ed. New York: Longman 1979, p. 366.
Notes
357
19 Janice L. James, "The Music of Afqo-Americans in Elementary

Music Series Books: An lnvestigation of Changing Textbook Content,
1864 to 1970," dissertation for the Ph.D., Univers;ty of Southem Mississippi, 1976.
20 Garland M. Hawkins, "Urban Secondary General Music Teachers'
Opinions of Selected Behavioral and Expressive Objectives, " dissertation for the Ed.D., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1977.
21 T. C. Venable and Sharon Alger, "Trend Studies and Curriculum
Research," in Ralph H. Jones, ed., Methods und Techniques of Educational Research. Danville, 111.: Interstate Printers and Publishers, 1973,
PP. 123-125.
22 Harry R. Martinez, "The Development and Investigation of a Piano
Curriculum for lmproving Music Reading Skills in a General Music
Class, " dissertation for the Ph.D., Florida State University, 1975.
23 Gilbert Sax, Empirical Foundations of Educational Research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J .: Prentice-Hall, 1968, pp. 289-290.
24 Mouly, p. 349.
25 Geza Revesz, Analyse eine musikalisch hervorragenden Kindes.
Leipzig: 19 16. (The English version, The Psvchology of a Musical
Prodigy, was published in London by Kegan, Paul, Trench, Tmbner and
Co., Ltds., in 1925. A reprint has been issued by Greenwood Press,
Westport, Conn. 1970.)
26 Michael Walsh, "Emin Nyiregyhazi, " Stereo Review, July 1978,
41,1:58-63; Annalyn Swan, "Nine Wives and 700 Works Later," Tirne,
May 29, 1978, 111,22:89-90.
27 Sharon M. Lenz, "A Case Study of the Musical Abilities of Threeand Four-Year-Old Children," dissertation for the Ed.D., University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1978.
28 Marcene A. Huebner, "The Effect of Three Listening Methods and
Two Tempi on Musical Attitude of Sixth-Grade Students," dissertation
for the Ph.D., University of Maryland, 1976.
29 Jacob Kwalwasser, Exploring the Musical Mind. Boston: ColemanRoss, 1955.
30 John D. Hurn, "Music Education Majors' Responses to the F Scale
Analysis," dissertation for the
and MTAI: A Normative and Co~~elational
Ph.D., Ohio State University, 1975.
31 Mason and Bramble, p. 40.

32 Robert G. Petzold, Auditory Perception of Musical Sounds by Children in the First Six Grades, U.S. Office of Education Cooperative
Research Project 1051, 1966, ED 010 297.
33 Hazel M. Stanton, Measurement of Musical Talent: The Eastman
Experiment. Iowa City: University of Iowa Studies in the Psychology of
Music, No. 2, 1935.
34 Yoshihiro Obata, "The Band in Japan from 1945 to 1970: A Study of
Its History and the Factors Influencing Its Growth, During This Period, "
dissertation for the Ph.D., Michigan State University, 1974.
35 Peggy T. Trammell, "An Investigation of the Effectiveness of Repetition and Guided Listening in Developing Enjoyable Music Listening
Experiences for Second Grade Students," dissertation for the Ed.D.,
Texas Woman's University, 1977.
36 John E. Dudd, "The Predicting of Success as Defined by Graduation
Grade Point Averages, Graduation, and Music as an Occupation of
Freshmen Enrolled in the University of Michigan School of Music in
September, 1962: A Longitudinal Study in Admiskions," dissertation
for the Ph.D., University of Michigan, 1978.
39 Good, p. 226.
40 Neal F. Seipp, "A Comparison of Class and Private Music Instruction," dissertation for the Ph.D., West Virginia University, 1976.
41 J. Francis Rummel, An Introduction to Research Procedures in
Education, 2nd ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1964, pp. 103-104.
42 Bruce W. Tuckman, Conducting Educational Research, 2nd ed.
43 Charles D. Whitehill, "The Application of Flanders' System of
Interaction Analysis to General Classroom Music Teaching," dissertation for the Ph.D., West Virginia University, 1970. (See also this
writer's review of Whitehill's study in Bulletin of Council for Research
in Music Education, Winter 1973, 3 1:5 1-56.)
44 Jerry D. Pan, "Essential and Desirable Music and Music-Teaching
Competencies for First-Year Band Instructors in the Public Schools;"
dissertation for the Ph.D., University of lowa, 1976.
1L
.d
V
?,
$*
Y
45 Oscar K . Buros, ed., The Eighth Mental Measurements Yearbook,

Highland Park, N.J.: Gryphon Press, 1978. See Vol. i,pp. 173-184, for
reviews ot' music tests.
46 William E. Whybrew, Measurement und Evaluation in Music, 2nd
ed. Dubuque, Iowa: William C . Brown, 1971.
47 Paul R . Lehman, Tests und Measurements in Music. Englewood
Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968.
48 William A. Mehrens and Irvin J. Lehmann, Standardized Tests in
Education, 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973, p. 44.
Chapter 8
II9
3
5
gi

Research," The New York Stute School Music Nei8/s, March 1978,
41,7:31-32.
2 Samuel Gorovitz and Ron G. Williams, Philosophical Analysis: An
Introduction to Its Languuge und Techniques, 2nd ed. New York: Random House, 1969, p. 157.
3 Susanne Langer, Form und Feeling: a Theory of Art. New York:
Charles Scribners' Sons, 1953, p. 3.
4 John S. Brubacher, Eclectic Philosophy of Education, 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N. J .: Prentice-Hall, 1 962, p. 380.
5 Charles Leonhard, "Research, Philosophy and Esthetics," Journal of
Research in Music Education, Spring 1955, 3,1:24.
6 Bennett Reimer, A Philosophy of Music Education. Englewood Cliffs,
7 The Works of Aristotle, trans. by W. D. Ross, Vol. I. Chicago:
Enc.yclopaedia Britannica, 1952, p. 5 11.
8 John Hospers, An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis, 2nd ed.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967, p. 349.
9 Joseph G . Brennan, The Meaning of Philosophy, 2nd ed. New York:
Harper and Row, 1967, p. 199.
10 Mortimer J. Adler and Seymour Cain, Philosophy. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1963, p. 22. Illustration reproduced by permission
of Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Notes
360
11 Henry L. Smith, Educational Research. Principles und Pradices.

Bloomington, Ind.: Educational Publications, 1944, p. 10 1.
12National Leaders Speak for Music. Washington, D.C.: Music
Educators National Conference, 1967.
13 The Works of Aristotle, p. 522.
14 Brennan, p. 77.
15 George F. Kneller, Introduction to the Philosophy of Education, 2nd
ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1971, p. 26.
16 F. Bruce Rosen, Philosophic Systems in Education. Columbus,
Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1968, p. 19.
17 Rosen, p. 37.
18 Rosen, p. 73.
19 George F. Kneller, Existentialisni und Education. New York:
Philosophical Library, 1958, p. 147.
20 Lawrence Ferrara, "Referential Meaning in Music: A Conceptual
Model Based on the Philosophy of Martin Heidegger," dissertation for
the Ph.D., New York University, 1978.
21 Kneller, Existentialism. pp. 124-125.
22 Brennan, p. 3.
23 Hospers, p. 162.
24 Hospers, p. 163.
25 Gorovitz and Williams, p. 92.
26 Francis T. Villemain, Philosophic Research in Education. New
York: New York University Press, 1953, p. 3.
27 Villemain, p. 4.
28 Jerrold Ross, "The Development of a Comprehensive Philosophy for
Music in Elementary Education, dissertation for the Ph.D., New York
University, 1963.
29 Villemain, pp. 9-10.
30 Villemain, p. 11.
"
Chapter 9
1 David W. Ecker, Thomas J. Johnson, and Eugene F. Kaelin, "Aesthetic Inquiry," Review of Educational Research, December 1969,
39,5577.
+a
4
S8
2 Morris Weitz, "Research in the Arts and in Aesthetics: Some Pitfalls,

Some Possibilities," The Journal of Aesthetic Education, Apnl 1977,
11,2:12-13.
3 Harry S. Broudy, "Some Reactions to a Concept of Aesthetic Education," in Arts und Aesthetics: An Agenda for the Future, Stanley S.
Madeja, ed. St. Louis: CEMREL, 1977, p. 258.
4 .lournal of Aesthetics und Art Criticism, inside front Cover of each
issue.
5 Thomas Munro, Toward Science in Aesthetics: Selected Essays. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1956, p. 5.
6 J. B. Crozier, "Verbal and Exploratory Responses to Sound Sequences Varying in Uncertainty Level, " in Studies in the New Experimental Aesthetics: Steps Toward an Objective Psychology of Aesthetic
Appreciation, D. E. Berlyne, ed. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere, 1974,
pp. 27-90.
7 B. W. E. Bragg and J. B. Crozier, "The Development with Age of
Verbal and Exploratory Responses to Sound Sequences Varying in Uncertainty Level, " in Berlyne, pp. 9 1- 108.
8 Berlyne, pp. 2-4.
9 Monroe C. Beardsley, "Aesthetic Theory and Educational Theory, "
in Aesthetic Concepts und Education, Ralph A. Smith ed. Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 1970, pp. 9- 10.
10 Fredenck L. Whitney, The Elements of Research, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1950, p. 326.
11 Whitney, p. 324.
12 Brewster Ghiselin, ed., The Creative Process. New York: Mentor
Books, 1952, p. 16.
13 Edward Holmes, Life of Moiart. London: J. M. Dent and Sons; and
New York: E. P. Dutton, 1921, p. 255.
14 Stanley S. Madeja with Sheila Onuska, Through the Arts to the
Aesthetic: The CEMREL Aesthetic Education Curriculum, St. Louis,
CEMREL, 1977.
15 Monroe C. Beardsley, Aesthetics: Problems in the Philosophy of
Criticism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1958, p. 379.
16 Beardsley, pp. 388-389.
17 John Hospers, An Introduction to Philosophicul Analysis. 2nd ed.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: 1967, pp. 136-137.
18 Susanne K. Langer, Philosophy in a New Key, 3rd ed. Cambridge:

Harvard University Press, 1969, p. 207.
19 Langer, p. 219.
20 Georg W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of Fine Art, trans. by F. P. B.
Osmaston. London: G. Bell and Sons, 1920, pp. 27-28.
21 Munro, p. 28.
22 Ellyn Berk, "An Analysis and Comparison of the Aesthetics and
Philosophy of Selected Music Critics in New York: 1940- 1975, " dissertation for the Ph.D., New York University, 1978.
23 Donna Pucciani, "Olga Samaroff (1882-1948), Arnerican Musician
and Educator," dissertation for the Ph.D., New York University, 1979.
24 Beardsley, Aesthetics, p. 46.
25 Friedrich Kainz, Aesthetics thescience, trans. by Herbert M. Schueller. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962, pp. 261 -418.
26 Kainz pp. 260-265.
27 Kainz, pp. 265-268.
28 Kainz, pp. 268-27 1.
29 Kainz, pp. 27 1-274.
30 Kainz, pp. 274-280.
31 Kainz, pp. 280-332.
32 Kainz, pp. 332-412.
33 Kainz, pp. 412-418.
34 Whitney, p. 337.
35 Whitney, p. 343.
36 Whitney, p. 343.
37 Francis J. Kovach, Philosophy of Beaufv. Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press, 1974, pp. 172- 173.
38 Kovach, pp. 174- 176.
39 Kovach pp. 180- 18 1.
40 David W. Ecker and Eugene F. Kaelin, "The Limits of Aesthetic
Inquiry: A Guide to Educational Research " in Seventy-First Yearbook
of the National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1972, Part I, p. 267.
41 Reproduced by permission of the National Society for the Study of
Education.
42 Ecker and Kaelin, p. 176.
idl
43 Kenneth R. Beittel, Alternatives for Art Education Research.

Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown, 1973.
44 Beittel, p. 118.
45 Richard D. Altick, The Art of Literary Research. New York: W. W.
Norton, 1963, p. 3.
46 I . A. Richards, Principles of Litera51 Criticism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1961, p. 170.
47 This writer is indebted to Dr. Walter Kob, Princeton, N.J., for bringing Schenker to his attention, as well as for Kob's contributions to
concepts of musical analysis, which were treated in the first edition of
this book (Chapter 9).
48 Michael Mann, ' .Schenker's Contributions to Music Theory, " The
Music Review, Febniary 1949, 10,1:3-26.
49 Adele Katz, Challenge tu Musical Tradition: A New Concept of
Tonality. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1946.
50 Felix Salzer, Structural Hearing: Tonal Coherence in Music, 2 vols.
New York: Charles Boni, 1952.
51 Heinrich Schenker, Five Graphie Music Analyses, with a new intro.
by Felix Salzer. New York: Dover, 1969.
52 Mann, p. 20.
53 Maury Yeston, ed., Readings in Schenkerian Analysis und Other
Approaches. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977.
54 Eugene Narmour, Beyond Schenkerism. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1977.
55 Jan LaRue, Guidelinesfor Style Analysis. New York: W. W. Norton,
1970.
56 LaRue, p. 6.
57 LaRue. p. 7.
58 LaRue, p. 9.
59 Randall R. Dipert and R. M. Whelden, "Set-Theoretical Music
Analysis," Journal of Aesthetics und Art Criticism, Fall 1976,
35,1:15-22.
60 Dipert and Whelden, pp. 15-20.
61 Harry B. Lincoln, ed., The Computer und Music. lthaca, N.Y .:
Cornell University Press, 1970, pp. xii-xiii.
Notes
364
62 Max V. Mathews, with the collaboration of Joan E. Miller, F. R.

Moore, J. R. Pierce, and J. C. Risset, The Technology of Computer
Music. Cambndge: M.I.T. Press, 1969.
63 Leonard B. Meyer, "Some Remarks on Value and Greatness in
Music," in Monroe C. Beardsley and Herbert M. Schueller, eds.,
Aesthetic Inquiry: Essays on Art Criticism und the Philosophy of Art.
Belmont, Calif.: Dickenson, 1967, p. 27 1 .
Chapter 10
1 See Demar Irvine, Writing About Music: A Style Book for Reports und
Theses, und Doctoral Dissertations. New York: Simon and Schuster,
Press, 1968, Chapter 1 1 .
2 William G. Campbell and Stephen V. Ballou, Form und Style: Theses, Reports, Term Papers. 5th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978.
3 Janice L. Gorn, Style Guide for Writers of Term Papers, Masters'
Theses, und Doctoral Dissertations. New York: Sirhon and Schuster,
1973.
4 MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, und Dissert a t i o n ~ ,New York: Modem Language Association, 1977.
5 Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, und
Dissertations. 4th ed . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973.
6 Publication Manual of rhe American Psychological Association, 2nd
ed. Washington, D.C. : American Psychological Association, 1974.
Notes
365
4 Robert G . Petzold, "Auditory Perception of Musical Sounds by Children in the First Six Grades," U.S. Office of Education Cooperative
Research Project 1051, 1966, ED 010 297.
5 Thomas C. Collins, "A Survey of Music Education Materials and the
Compilation of an Annotated Bibliography, " U.S. Office of Education
Cooperative Research Project 5-1 3341, 1967, Ed 020 194.
6 Ronald B. Thomas, "A Study of New Concepts, Procedures, and
Achievements in Music Learning as Developed in Selected Music Education Programs, " U. S. Office of Education Cooperative Research
Project 5-0204, 1966, ED 010 300.
7 E m i n H. Schneider and Henry L. Cady, "Evaluation and Synthesis of
Research Studies Relating to Music Education," U.S. Office of Education Cooperative Research Project E-106, 1965, ED 0 10 298.
8 Roger P. Phelps, "Seminar in State Music Supervision, " U.S. Office
of Education Cooperative Research Project 7-8 124, 1967, ED 023 352.
9 Robert M. W. Travers, An Introduction to Educational Research, 4th
ed. New York: Macmillan, 1979, p. 19.
10 For a listing of these laboratones, write to Council for Educational
Development and Research, 15 18 K Street, Washington, DC 20005.
11 Travers, p. 20. See also Catalog of Selected Educational Development und Research Programs, Projects, und Products. Washington,
D .C .: Council for Educational Development and Research, 1974.
13 Marianna 0. Lewis, ed., The Foundation Directory, 5th ed. New
York: Foundation Center, 1975.
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
1 See Judith Murphy and Lonna Jones, Research in Arts Education,
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
1978.
2 Murphy and Jones, pp. 80-84.
3 Robert G. Petzold, "The Perception of Music Symbols in Music
Reading by Normal Children and Children Gifted Musically," U.S.
Office of Education Cooperative Research Project 554, 1959, ED 002
899.
1 Warren C. Campbell and James J. Heller, "The Contribution of the

Legato Transient to Instrument Identification." Paper presented at Research Symposium in the Psychology and Acoustics of Music, Lawrence, Kansas, Febmary 1978.
2 Warren C. Campbell and James J. Heller, "Convergence Procedures
for Identifying Music Listening Tasks," Seventh International Seminar
on Research in Music Education, Bloomington, Indiana, August 1978.
3 Warren C. Campbell and James J. Heller, "Judgments of Interpretation in String Performance. " Paper Presented at Research Symposium
on the Psychology and Acoustics of Music, Lawrence, Kansas, February
1979.
4 Edwin Gordon, Musical Aptitude Profile. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
1965.
5 Edwin Gordon, Iowa Tests of Music Literacy. Iowa City: University
of Iowa Bureau of Educational Research and Service, 1970.
6 Edwin Gordon, Prima? Measures of Music Audiation. Chicago:
G.I. A. Publications, 1978.
7 For a more complete analysis of the Musical Aptitude Profile, see
Oscar K. Buros, ed., The Eighth Mental Measurernents Yearbook, Vol.
I. Highland Park, N.J.: Gryphon Press, 1978, P. 184.
8 For a more complete review of the Iowa Tests of Music Literacy, see
Buros, 1978, pp. 182-183.
9 Edwin Gordon, Tonal und Rhythrn Patterns: An Objective Analysis.
Albany: State University of New York Press, 1976.
10 Edwin Gordon, Learning Sequence und Patterns'in Music, rev. ed.
Chicago: G.I.A. Publications, 1978.
11 Edwin Gordon, Pattern Sequence und Learning in Music. Chicago:
G.I.A. Publications, 1979.
12 Steven K. Hedden, "Meaning of the Concept of Music Teacher to
High School Musicians, " Journal of Research in Music Education,
Winter 1973, 21,4:366-371.
13 Steven K. Hedden, "Listening Skills in Secondary School Students," Iowa Journal of Research in Music Education, Summer 1976,
1:lO-17.
14 Mary K. Serafine, "A Measure of Meter Conservation in Music,
Based on Piaget's Theory," Genetic Psychology Monographs, May
1979 (in press).
15 See Alexis Greene, "The Coming Impact of Technology in the
Arts-Computer Violins and the Electronic Palette, " New York Tirnes,
February 26, 1978, D, pp. 1,22.
16 Available from the International RILM Center, City University of
New York, 33 West 42nd Street, New York, NY 10036.
Y
1
2f
Index
>
,I
5
t
'I
5
1
i
a posteriori, 234, 236, 250

a priori, 234, 236, 251
acknowledgments, 280, 281, 293
ACLS Newsletter, 110
Adkins, Cecil, 1 13
Adrian College, 137
adviser, 7 , 25, 31, 32, 34, 44-47
aesthetic 9, 10, 15, 18, 47, 54,
73, 90, 116, 146, 150, 239,
252, 255-278, 283
aesthetic experience, 257
aesthetic inquiry, 255-278
Alger, Sharon, 208
Almack, John C., 17, 48
Altick, Richard D., 27 1, 272
American Bandmasters Association, 340

American Council of Leamed
Societies, 34, 110, 322, 339
American Educational Research
Association, 11 1, 170, 221,
338, 339
Arnerican Educational Research
Journal, 110
Arnerican Journal of Psychology,
110
Arnerican Music Teacher, 109
American Musicological Society ,
113
Arnerican Organist, 109
Index
American Psychological Association, 170, 258

American String Teacher, 109
analysis. 68, 71, 72, 75, 76. 79,
8 1 . 234, 256
analytic proposition, 248. 249
ANCOVA, 181, 192
Ann Arbor Symposium, 287,301,
302, 338
ANOVA. 181, 191, 192
Antes, John, 133. 134
anthology , 15
APA Manual, 294,296,297,298,
300-302, 304, 307
Apel, Willi, 107
appendix, 64, 79, 8 1 , 282, 288
Aquinas, Thomas, 245
archive, 32, 35. 44, 47. 54, 90.
116, 134
argurnent, 21, 25 1
Aristotle. 21, 23, 235, 236, 244,
245
armonica. 143
arts, 10, 33, 83, 315, 316
Ary, Donald, 23
Asher, J. William, 63
assumptions, 18, 19, 21, 22, 50,
52, 64, 65. 72, 73, 82, 83,
252, 282
Austria, 132, 133
authenticity. 79, 138-143
axiology, 244-247
Bach, J. C., 135
Bach. J. S . , 135
Bachmann, Alberto, 108
Bagdon , Robert J., 135
Index
368
Baker's Biographical Dictionary
of Musicians, 107
Ballou, Stephen V., 295-304,
307
Baltimore, Md., 91, 139
band, 16, 23, 45, 213, 216. 228,
243
Band Encyclopedia, 108
Barlow, Harold, 108
Baroque. 126, 163, 245
Barzun, Jacques, 5. 43. 51, 124,
131, 145
bassoon, 19, I3 5, 305
Baughman, M. Dale, 102
Baumgarten, Gottlieb, 256
Beardsley. Monroe C., 257, 260,
263
beauty, 10, 255'
Becker, Charles, 133
Beethoven, 132, 143, 144, 172,
260, 264. 265
behavioral, 9, 18, 150, 154, 155,
158, 179, 208, 210, 211, 215.
227, 270
Beittel, Kenneth R., 270, 271
bell-shaped curve, 74, 184
Berger, Kenneth W., 108
Berk, Ellyn, 262
Berlioz, 5 1, 131, 145
Berlyne, D. E., 257
Bethlehem, Pa., 116, 134, 135
Beveridge. W. I. B., 151
bias, Selection, 171
Biber, Heinrich, 142
bibliography, 64, 78, 80-82, 84,
86, 87, 90, 95. 110, 117, 220,
282, 285, 286. 337, 339
369
Bibliography of Master's Theses

und Doctoral Dissertations
(Texas), l i 4
Bibliography of Research Studies
in Music Educxztion, 113
Biographie universelle, 107
Biography Index, 1 16
Black Music Research Newsletter,
109
Bland, John. !33
Blume, Friedrich. 107
Books in Print, 92
Borg, Earl E., 114
Borg, Walter R., 8, 3 1, 153, 160,
185, 207, 318
Boston, Mass., 116, 241
Boston Public Library, 112
Boston University, 137
Bosworth, Claud, 205, 206
Bragg, B. W. E., 256
Brahms, 126, 264
Bramble, William J., 20, 21, 126.
198, 212
Brennan, Joseph G . , 17, 237,
244. 248
Brickman, William, 126, 127,
136, 144
Britannica Book of the Yeur,
116
Brobston, Stanley H., 130
Brook, Barry S., 118
Broudy, Harry S., 256
Bmbacher, John S.. 235
Bmckner, Anton, 260
Bmscia, Kenneth, 281
Buckley Amendment, 170
Bukofzer, Manfred, 137
Bulletin, Council for Research in

Music Education, 33, 109
Bulletin, National Music Council,
109
Bureau of Education for the Handicapped, 320, 321
Burger, Agnes, 281
Burke, Arvid J.. 104
Burke, Mary A., 104
Buros, Oscar K., 228
Cady, Henry, 202, 31 8

call number. 94, 102
Campbell, Donald T . , 63, 152,
159, 171, 174-176, 178, 201,
229
Campbell, Warren, 336, 337
Campbell, William G., 295-304,
307
card catalog, 91-94, 96, 101
Cardiff Giant, 136
Carmen, 161
case study, 209, 210
Catalog of Early Books of Music,
112
Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance, 320
Catalogue of Allan A. Broirrn Collection, 112
causal-comparative, 201, 209,
21 1
cause and effect, 152, 156, 157
Centennicil Edition, 141
Center for Research Libraries, 113
central tendency , 181, 182
Chambers, M. M., 44-46
Charleston, S. C., 135, 136
Index
370
checklist, 215, 227

Chekov, Anton, 259
chi Square, 181, 192
Chicago, Ill., 113, 122, 160
Chopin, 65-68, 71-73, 75, 132,
146
choral, 15, 16, 21, 68, 127, 243
Choral Journal, 109
citation, 78, 91
City University of New York, 1 1 8
clarinet, 3, 135, 181, 210, 249,
305, 331
The Clarinet, 109
Clavier, 109
clearinghouse, 115
Cobbett, Walter W., 108
Cohen, Morris R., 18
College Music Society, 35
College Music Symposium, 33.
109, 296, 297
Collins, T. C., 318
Colnot, Clifford L., 154, 155
Columbia University, 128
Colwell, Richard, 202
committee, sponsoring. 401 62,
28 1
Complete Enc-yclopedicr of Populur Music und Juzz, 108
composition, 5, 10, 49
Comprehensive Dissertation
Index (CDI), 114
computer, 47, 50. 274, 275,
337-340
Computer Assisted Instruction
(CAI), 38, 173. 179, 208
Computer Music Journal, 109
Index
concerto, 126, 132, 135
Concerto Grosso in G Minor, 306
conclusions, 21, 22, 74, 282-284
confounding , 161, 173
Conn Corporation, 159
Connchord, 109
content analysis, 206-208
Contributions to Music Education, 109
control group, 152, 153, 160,
161, 165, 166, 335
Cook, David R., 79, 202
Cooper, Lee B., 130
Cooperative Research Act of
1954, 317
comet, 145
Coron, Ruth, 82
correlation, 201 :203, 209
counterbalanced design, 177
creative, 6, 12, 18, 39, 69, 255
Creative Process, 259
credibility, 79, 143- 149
criticism, 269, 270
criticism, extemal, 124, 136, 138,
139
criticism, internal, 124, 138. 143,
144
Crocker, Richard L., 131
cross-sectional, 213
Crozier, J. B . , 256
Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE), 1 15
Current Musicology, 109
Cutler, William W. 111, 128
Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber
Music, 108
-s,
?o
371
Dickinson, Alis, 113

Daniel, Ralph T . , 107
Danse des Moucherons, 139, 140 Dickinson, George S . , 99
Dickinson-Columbia Schedule, 99
Dartmouth College, 338
dictionary, 91. 136
Darwin, Charles. 2, 23, 24
Dictionary
of American Biogdata, sources, 78. 79
ruphy.
108
data, treatment, 78, 79
Dictionary of Musical Themes,
DATRIX, 114. 339
108
David, Hans T., 134
Dielman, Henry, 137
Davies, John B., 96, 286, 295,
Dipert , Randall R., 274
296, 308
Directory
of American Scholars,
Debussy, Claude, 263
108
deductive, 21, 22
Directory of Special Libraries,
deductive-inductive, 23. 24
112
definitions, 64. 68, 69, 84, 85.
dissemination, research, 4. 5 , 12,
282
24, 56
degree, master's, 5. 6
Dissertation
Abstracts InternadeLerma, D . R., 113
56,
114, 339
tional,
delimitation, 49, 52, 64, 69. 70,
Doctor of Arts (D.A.), 6, 14, 81,
84, 85, 282
82
Dempsey Joanne, 133
Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.),
Demer, Johann C . , 3
6 , 14, 82
Descartes, Rene, 245
descriptive, 9. 10, 1 5 , 4 7 , 5 4 , 7 3 , Doctorul Dissertations Accepted
by Americun Universities, 46
90, 150, 157, 176. 198-233,
Doctoral Dissertations in Ameri235, 236
can Music, 114
design, preexperimental, 171, 175
Doctorul Dissertutions in Music
design, research, 23, 57, 61,
und Music Educution, 113
63-65, 67, 73. 76, 78, 81-84,
Doctorul Dissertations: Music,
86
114
development, 203, 2 12
doctorate, nontraditional. 6 , 81
Dewey, John, 24, 121, 246, 267
documentary analysis. 201, 203
Dewey, Melvil. 96, 99
dodecaphonic, 1 53, 257
Dewey Decimal Classification,
Doe, Paul, 113
92, 95-98
Dohnanyi, Ernst von, 210
Dewey's five steps, 24
Don Quixote, 245
Diapason, 109
Index
Engelhart, Max, 4. 106
England, 15, 113, 133. 136. 137.
24 1
Englebrecht, Lloyd C . , 100
English hom, 265
epilogue, research. 280. 284. 285
epistemology 244-247
equivalent forms, 166. 172, 229
equivalent materials, 176
Early Music Book Series, 106
equivalent time-samples, 176
Eastman School of Music, I 15,
Eroica Syrnphony, 265
133, 213. 336
errors, group, 154
Ecker, David, 255, 269
errors, replication. 154
Ed. D., 6, 14, 80-82, 84, 85
errors, sampling, 154
Ed. D. Alternative, 80-82, 287, ethnography. 214. 21 5
300, 301
Ethnornusicology, 109
EDP, 112
Evanston, Ill., 337
Education Index, 108
existentialism, '243. 247, 248
Educational Music Magazine, 1 10 experimental. 2, 9, 1 1, 15, 47,
Educational Resources Informa54, 73, 76, 79. 90, 147. 150tion Center (ERIC), 106. 327.
197, 201, 234,235, 239,240.
240
252, 256, 283, 335
experimental aesthetics, 256. 257
Educational Technology, 1 10
experimental group, 152, 153,
Eells, Walter, 137
Eighth Mental Merisuretnents
160, 165, 166
Yecirbook, 228
Electronic Music Review, 110
F Ratio, 192
Elementary and Secondary Educa- F Scale, 21 2
tion Act of 1965 (ESEA), 3 17 facsimile, 49
Elmer, Minnie. 112
factorial design, 178, 179
Famsworth, Charles H., 122
embouchure, 20
empirical, 20, 150, 151, 235, 257 Fechner, Gustav, 256
Ferrara, Lawrence, 247
encyclopedia, 9 1 , 136
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 108
Fktis, Francois, 107
Encyclopedia of Educational Re- Field, John, 65-68, 71-73, 75
field study, 154, 158-160
search, 108
Encyclopedia of the Violin, 108
Fischer, Carl, 190
double bass, 205
Downes, Olin, 262
Drake Musical Aptitude Test. 172
Dreher, Robert E., 156
Drew, Clifford J., 4
Duckles, Vincent , 107, 1 12
Dudd, John E . , 214
Dzik, Jonathan, 161
1"i
373
Fischer, David, 122, 138

Fisher, Ronald A . , 152
Five Graphic Music Analyses, 272
Flanders. Ned, 226
Florida. 52, 53
flute, 139, 140, 165, 21 1, 266,
33 1
footnotes. 78, 293-303
format. 84, 85, 280, 281
formulation, problem, 25, 32, 34
foundation, private, 321 , 322
Foundation Directory, 321, 322
Fox, David J., I 50
France, 132, 135, 141. 142
Franklin, Benjamin, 35. 136.
141-143
Free Library of Philadelphia, 36
freedom, degrees of, 1 8 1 , 190,
191
funding, research, 315, 316
Gordon, Edwin, 332-334

Gordon, Roderick D.. 113
Gom, Janice L., 295, 297-300.
302-304. 308
Gorovitz, Samuel, 235, 249
gospel music, 130
Gottschalk, Louis, 124, 136. 144.
146
govemment documents, 9 1
Graff, Henry F., 5. 43. 124, 131,
145
Graham, Philip, 141
Gregory , Julia, 1 12
Grider, Rufus A., 133, 135
Griffiths, Daniel E., 61, 62
Grove's Dictionary of Music und
Musicians, 107
growth-and-development, 20 1,
213
Guide to the Perfortning Arts, 108
Guilford, J . P.. 258
Galileo. 22
Gall, Meredith D., 8. 31, 153,
160. 185, 207, 215, 318
Garrett, Allen M.. 123
Gaussian curve, 74, 184
Gay, L. R . , 151, 178
gebrauchsrnusik, 68
Georgetown University , 137
Georgia, 130. 139, 140
German, 113, 128, 146, 258
Germany. 127, 132, 133
gestalt. 23, 66, 67, 283
Ghiselin, Brewster, 259
Good, Carter V., 20, 46, 136,
204. 221
Goodman, Kenneth. 1 15
halo effect, 226

Handel, George F . , 262, 306
Hardyck, Curtis, 189, 192
harmony, 19, 153, 154
harp, 167
Harris, Thomas J.. 154
Harrison, F. L.. 107
Harvard Brief Dictionary of
Music, I07
Harvarrl Dictionary of Music, 107
Harvard Musical Association, 1 16
Harvey, William, 156
Hawkins, Garland M . , 208
Hawthorne Effect , 160
Haydn, Franz J . , 132. 133. 140
Index
374
Haydn, Michael, 132

Hedden, Steven, 334, 335
Hegel, Georg, 244, 26 1
Heidegger, Martin, 236, 247.
248
Heilakka, Edwin, 287
Heller. James, 33 1, 332
Herbart, J o h a ~ 156
.
Herman, Ernest, 110
hertz, 11, 153, 154
Hillway, Tyrus, 48, 51
Hilton, Ruth B., 108
historical, 9-1 1 , 15, 47, 54, 73.
79, 90, 116, 118, 121-149,
150, 198, 239, 256, 283
historiography, 121, 122. 124,
126, 136, 144, 147
history, 171, 172
Hockett, Homer C., 123. 124,
136-138, 141
Hopkins, Charles D., 4, 13
Hopper, Stella, 133
horn. French, 23, 135, 170,
305
Horn Cull. 109
Hospers, John, 236, 248, 249
Huebner. Marcene A., 21 1, 212
humanities. 255
Hurn, John D., 212
Hyde, I. M., 156
hypothesis, 24, 39, 50. 52, 55.
64, 65, 73-76, 83, 84. 153,
159, 161-164, 215, 226, 237,
255, 282
hypothesis, null, 74.75. 190, 192
hypothesis, research, 74. 75. 164
Index
idealism, 243-245
Illinois, 162
lndex to Early Music in Selected
Anthologies, 108
induction. 22, 23
inquiry, 25 1
instrument, research, 78, 83
instrument, string, 23, 47, 162,
249, 331, 332
instrumental, 16, 48, 53, 126,
154, 227, 241
Instrumentalist, 33, 109
instrumentation, 17 1, 172
instmments, brass, 6, 22
interaction analysis, 226
interlibrary loan, 104, 105
International Association of Music
Libraries, 339
Internutionul Cyclopedia of Music
und Musicians, 107
lnternutional Folk Council Yearbook, 111
lnternational lndex of Dissertcrtions und Musical Works in
Progress. 1 13
International Musicological Society. 339
International Repertory of Music
Literature (RILM), 108,
117
International Society for Music
Education, 11 1 . 334, 338
International Standard Book
Number, 95
lnternational Trornbone Association Journul, 109
375
Journal of Aesthetic Education,

110
Journal of Aesthetics und Art
Criticism, 110, 256
Journal of American Dental Association. 110
Journal of Applied Psychology,
110
Journul of Bund Research, I 09
Journul < f Church Music, 109
Journul of Educational Psychology, 1I0
Journal of Educationul Research,
110
Journul of Experimental Education, 110
Journal of Internutional DoubleReed Society , 109
Jacobs. Lucy, 23
Journal of Ja:: Studies, 109
James, Janice L., 207
Journal of Music Theory, 109
James, William, 246
Journal of Music Therupy, 109
Janis, Byron, 132
Journal of Reseurch in Music
Japan, 21 3
Education, 32, 109, 1 1 3
Jazz Index, 108
Jefferson, Thomas, 35, 136. 137 Journal of the American Musical
Instrument Society, 109
Jenkintown, Pa., 287
Journal of the American
job analysis, 206
Mi4sicological Society. 109,
John Henry Effect. 160
132
Johns Hopkins University , 9 1,
139
Kaelin. Eugene, 255, 269
Johnson, Harriett, 297, 298
Kainz,
Friedrich, 264-266
Johnson, Thomas. 255
Kant,
lmmanuel,
244, 258
Jones, Lonna, 1 11
Katz,
Adele,
7
1,
272
Jonestown. 172
Keahey, Delores E., 135
journal, 32, 33, 56, 109
Kelley, Tmman L.. 3. 7, 24
Journul of Acoustical Society of
Keppel, Geoffrey , 1 5 1 . I 63
America, 1 10
lnternational Trumpet Guild

Newsletter, 109
interpolation, 308
interrelationship, 209
intervention, 160, 170
interview, 47, 79, 128, 129. 215,
223, 224. 287, 303
intuitive, 260, 261
investigator. 5 , 11-13, 16, 17,20,
37-39, 47, 51, 56
Iowa City, Iowa. 133
lowa Journal of Research in
Music Education. 109
lowa Tests of Music Literacy,
169, 332
Italy, 132
Index 376
Kerlinger, Fred N., 18, 158-1 60,
179, 180
key punching, 79
Kierkegaard, Sren, 247
King Lear Overture, 5 1
Kinkle, Roger D., 108
Kneller, George F., 244,247, 248
knowledge, 18, 19, 54
Kodaly , Zoltan, 24 1
Koefod, Paul E., 45, 57
Kovach. Francis J., 267. 268
Kwalwasser, Jacob, 156. 212
laboratory. 150, 151, 154. 156,
158- 160
laboratory , regional, 3 18
LaFleur, N. Kenneth, 79, 202
La Mer, 263
Lang, Paul H., 262
Langer, Susanne. 23 5, 261
Lanier, Henry, 139
Lanier, Sidney, 91, 136, 139141. 143
Larson, Williarn S., 1 13
LaRue, Jan, 112, 273
Latin Square, 177
Leurning Sequetice and Patterns
in Music, 333
Lebeau, E., 141
Lehman, Paul, 228
Lehmann, Irvin J., 229
Lenz, Sharon M., 211
Leonhard, Charles, 23 5
Lesure, Francois, 132
letter, personal, 91, 287, 302, 303
library. 32. 35, 44, 47, 90, 91.
96, 100, 106
Index
Library of Congress, 92, 95, 96,
98-100, 112, 338
Likert Scale, 224, 225
limitations, 70
Lincoln, Abraham. 137
Lincoln, Harry, 274
Lincoln Center for the Performing
Arts, 91
Lindquist Everet, 154
list of figures, 280, 282
list of tables, 280, 282
Liston, Frank, 206
Liszt, Franz, 146
literature. 46, 64, 76-78, 82,
84-87, 282, 283
Lititz, Pa., 134
Logernarm, George, 1 12
London, 133
longitudinal, 159, 213, 336
Lowrie, Mattie, 137
Lukas and Ludwith Mood Scale,
155
Lynchburg, Va., 141
Lyric Music Series, 207
McAney, George, 128

McCall. W. A., 152
McCrath, Joseph E., 158. 171
Madeja, Stanley S., 254
Madsen. Charles H.. Jr., 4
Madsen, Clifford K.. 4
Maidstone Movernent, 241
main body, research, 280, 282284
Manhattanville. 24 1
Mann, Michael, 272
manual. style, 280
377
manuscript (MS), 49, 54, 73, 91.

105, 116, 117, 131, 132, 138,
139
margins. 291
Martinez, Harry R., 209
Mason. Emanuel J., 20, 21, 126,
198. 212
Mason. Luther W., 122
Master' s A bsrructs, 56
Master's Theses in the Arts und
Social Sciences, 113
matching, 165, 192
materials, resource, 90, 125
maturation. 171, 172
Mead, Rira, 113. 114
mean, 181-185, 191
measurernent. 15- 17, 20, 23-25,
30, 40
median, 182, 183, 185
Mehrens, Williarn A . . 229
meta-criticism. 269, 270
metaphysics, 236, 244, 256
meta-theory, 269. 270
metempiricai, 20, 15 1 , 240, 243
method, deductive, 21
method, definition of, 17
method, scientific, 17-20, 23-25.
30,40
methodology, 62, 64, 78-80,
82-84
Meyer, Leonard, 262, 275
Michael, David M., 134, 135
Michigan, 137
microcard, 106, 115
Microcard Edition, Inc . , 115
rnicrofiche, 105, 106
microfilrn, 105. 106
Microfilm Abstracts, 1 14
microforms, 105
Midwest Library Center. 117
Mill, J . S.. 157
Milliorzs for the Arts, 32 1
Millsaps, Daniel, 32 1
Minnesota National Luboratory
N e ~ !Bulletin,
s
110
Mitinesota Teacher Attitude Invetirory, 212
Missouri Jourtial of Research iri
Music Education, 109
Mitchell, Albert G.. 241
rnode, 182, 185
Modern Lnrlguage Association
Hutidbook (MLA), 295-299.
301 -304
Monticello, Va.. 36
Moravian, 116, 123. 133, 134
Morgenstern, Samuel, 108
mortality , experimental, 17 1, 172
Mouly , George J., 103, 203.
206
Mozart. W. A.. 143, 146. 259
multiple time-series, 177
multiple-treatment interference ,
174
Munro, Thomas. 18. 262
Murphy. Judith, 1 11
Mus. D., 6, 14. 82
museum, 32. 35. 44- 47
Music Ariulysis, 1 15
Music Article Guide, 108
Music Education Source Book,
111
Music Educators Journal, 33,
109, 116
Index 379
Music Educators National Conference, 35. 37. 111, 130. 170,
287. 301, 302, 305
Mirsic Index, 108
Music Journal, 109
Music Library Association, 100
Music Psychology Index, 108
Music Reference und Research
Materials, 107
Music Researchers Exchange
Newsletter, 109
Music Teachers National Association, 35, 11 1
Music. the Arts und Ideas, 262
Music Therapy Index, 108
Musical Analysis, 109
Musical Aptitude Profile, 332
Musical Quarterly, 109, 132
Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart (MGG), 107
tiachstuck, 69
NAC WPI Bulletin, 109
Nagel, Ernest, 18
Narmour, Eugene, 273
NASM. 205
Nassau County, N.Y., 206
Natiotial Directory of Grants und
Awards. 321
National Education Association
(NEA), 204
National Endowment for Arts and
Humanities, 320
National Institute of Education
(NIE), 317-320,323-327.339
National Leaders Speak for
Music, 242
National Research Act, 170

National Society for the Study of
Education (NSSE), 1 1 1
National Union Catalog. 108
Nazareth, Pa., 135
necrology , 115
Need for Study, 64, 76, 77
Nevins, Allan, 121, 128, 136,
144, 146, 147
New College Encyclopedia of
Music, 107
New Encyclopedia of Music und
Musicians, 107
New Music Horizons, 207
New York City, 52,91, 141, 142,
262
New York Post, 297, 298
New York State, 162
New York State Library System.
117
New York Times, 297, 298
New York Times Index for Necrology, 116
New York University, 6 3 , 6 4 , 8 2 ,
83
newspaper references, 286, 287
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 247
NIMAC, 123
nocturne. 65-69, 71. 72. 75
nonequivalent control group. 177
nonparametric, 18 1
Northwestern University. 337
note taking, 101, 102
Notes. 100. 109. 115
Nucci, Annamaria, 155, 156
Nyiregyhazi. Emin. 159, 2 10,
21 1
Obata. Yoshihiro. 213

Oberon, 265
objectlevent, 269. 270
objective, rehearsal, 9. 12, 118
oboe. 23, 55, 201, 202, 265, 331
observation, 18, 20. 174. 176,
201. 215, 226
Oglethorpe University , 139
Ohio, 156, 212
Ohio State University, 155
omnibus request, 21 9 , 220
one-group pretest-posttest, 175
one-shot case-study, 175
ontology, 244-247
Onuska, Sheila, 259
Opera, 48, 161, 262
ophicleide, 3
opinionnaire, 21 5, 222
oral, final, 56
Oral History, 128- 130
Oral History Association Newsletter, 110, 130
orchestra, 16. 45, 51-53, 216,
243, 336
Orff, Carl, 241
organization, 4, 13
oscilloscope, 11
ozalid, 206
Paganini, Nicolo, 135

Panouse, Count, 132
parametric , 181
Paris, 141, 142
Parker, James C. D., 116
Parr, Jerry D., 227
partien, 134, 135
Pattern Sequence und Learning in

Music, 333, 334
Pauly , Reinhard G., 132
Pearson r, 185, 187
Peirce, Charles, 246
percussion, 23
periodical, 91, 286, 296
Perkins, Charles C., 116
Perspectives in New Music, 109
Pestalozzi, Johann, 136
Petrinovich, Lewis F . , 189, 192
Petzold, Robert G . , 57, 155, 201.
213, 317, 318
Ph.D., 6. 14, 80-82, 84, 85
Phelps, Roger P., 9. 20, 31, 62,
77, 133, 187, 234. 281, 286,
287, 296, 297, 300, 301
Phi Delta Kappa, 110. 1 14
Phi Delta Kappan, 110
Philadelphia, 141 , 142
philosopher, 18, 19, 24
philosophical, 2, 9-11, 15, 19.
20, 47, 54, 73, 77, 90, 128.
150, 229, 234-254, 256, 258,
283
philosophical analysis, 248
philosophy, 19, 20
Philosophy of Beauty, 267
photocopying, 102, 104, 105
photostat, 105
Piaget, 161, 335
piano, 65-69. 71, 72, 139, 146,
205, 262, 287, 299. 305, 331
Piano Quarterly, 109
Pierrot Lunaire, 245
pilot study, 170, 171. 318, 336
placebo, 152, 153
Index
380
plan, formalized, 1. 4
Plato, 237, 238, 244, 245, 269
PMEA Bulletin of Research in
Music Education. 109
Popular Music Periodical Index,
108
population, 164-169, 171, 181,
189
postdoctoral, 8. 34
posttest, 63. 154, 166, 172, 173
Practical Applications of Music,
110
pragmatism, 243, 246, 247
Pratt, Waldo S., 107
preface, 280-282
premise. major, 21, 22
premise, minor, 21. 22
pretest, 63, 154, 166, 172-174,
335
pretest-posttest control group,
175, 176
Primury Measures of Music Audiafion. 333
probability, 125
problem, 20, 21, 24, 25, 30-32,
65-67, 79, 81, 84, 86, 129,
282
Proceedings of National Association cf Music Therapists, 11 1
project. 12, 32-34, 37
proposal, 21. 57, 61, 62. 80. 81
propotition, 21, 248
prospectus, research. 61
Psychological Review, 1 10
psychology, 77, 156, 338
psychology of music, 96, 285,
295, 296
Index
psychotherapy, 155
publishers, music, 49
Pucciani, Donna. 9, 262. 263
Puerto Rico. 287, 299
punctuation. 304-306
Putnam, Herbert, 98, 99
qualifications, personal, 64, 70,
81, 82
qualitative, 15-1 7, 200
quantitative, 15- 17, 199. 252
quartet, 141- 143, 264
quartile deviation, 183
quasi-experimental, 159. 176,
180, 201
questionnaire, 16, 17>47, 54, 79,
81, 208, 211,.215-219, 221223, 288
quotations, 12, 90, 102, 291
random numbers table, 168, 1 69
random selection, 63, 179
randomization, 152, 158. 159,
164. 174, 175
range, 183
ranking, 166
rating scale. 152, 215, 224, 226
rationale, theoretical, 16, 3 1
rationalism. 53, 234, 252
Rau, Albert G., 134
Razavieh Asghar, 23
reactive effects, 174
Real Lexikon. 108
realism, 243, 245, 246
reasoning, 17. 20
recital, 5
recommendations, 282-284
381
recordings, disc, 100

recordings, tape, 100
recurrent institutional cycle. 178
regression, 160, 171, 172
regression-discontinuity analysis,
178
Reimer. Bemett, 235
relationship, 181, 185, 209, 212
reliability, 78, 228, 229
research, action, 14, 15. 84
research, documentq, 135, 136
research, pure, 14, 15, 84
Research in Arts arid Aesthetic
Education, 111
Research in Arts Education, 1 11
research report, 275, 279, 280
Research Reports of Los Angeles
City School Districts, 110
Research Studies In Education,
114
resonant, 19
Resources in Education (RIE),
115, 327, 340
revelation. 261
Revesz, Geza, 159, 210, 21 1
review, concert, 91
Review of Ed~lcationalResearch,
110, 111
rhythrn, 82. 153, 155
Rich. Alan, 262
Richards, I. A., 272
Rienzi, 265
Rilke, Ranier, 248
RILM, 117, 118. 339, 340
RILM Abstracts. 339, 340
RISM, 107
Ritter, Frederic, 146
Rochester, N.Y., 133

Rosen, F. Bruce, 247
Ross, Jerrold, 250, 281
Rummel, J. Francis, 48, 72? 225
Runkel. Philip J . , 158, 171
Sachs, Curt, 108

Sadie, Stanley, 107
Saint Cecelia Society, 135
Salzer, Felix, 71, 272
Samaroff, Olga, 91, 262, 263
sample, 164, 165, 170, 202
sample. stratified, 169. 170
sample, systematic, 169
sample, volunteer, 170, 172
sampling, cluster, 169, 170
sampling, random, 166, 169
Sax, Gilbert, 209
Scates, Douglas, E., 46
Schaal, Richard, 1 13
Schenker, Heinrich, 71, 272, 273
Schiller, Joham von, 258
Schneider, Erwin, 202, 3 1 8
Schoenberg, Arnold, 45
Schonberg , Harold , 262
science, 18, 19
Scientijic American, 1 10
scordatura, 142
Sears, William W., 156
Seashore, Carl E., 156, 165
Seashore Measures of Musical
Talents, 165
Sechrest, Lee, 161
SEHNAP, 63, 183, 281, 287,
288, 300, 301. 303, 304
Seipp, Neal F., 222, 223
Index
382
Selected List of Master's Theses in Sonneck, Oscar G. T . , 98

Musicology, 1 13
source, primary. 80, 125, 126,
selection bias. 171, 172, 174,
285
340, 341
source, secondary, 80, 125, 126,
selection-maturation interaction:
285
171, 172
source, tertiary, 125
Selmer Bandwagon. 109
Southem Illinois University, 338
seminar, graduate, 32, 34
Spearman rho, 185. 187, 188
separate-sampie pretest-posttest,
speculative aesthetics, 257
177
Species, Origin of, 2
separate-sample pretest-posttest
Spinner, h o l d , 287, 303, 304
control, 177
Spinoza, 245
Serafine, Mary, 335, 336
Spohn, Charles, 155
serendipity, 1 , 2 , 131
sponsoring committee, 280, 281
Set theory, 274
standard deviation, 183-1 85, 187,
Shafer, Robert J., 125, 138
189, 191
Shank. William, 100
standard error of mean, 181, 1 89.
shawm, 3
190
shelflist, 94
standard Scores, 181, 189
Shetler, Donald, 33 6
Stanley, Julian C.. 63, 152, 159,
SHMRG, 273, 274
171, 174-176. 178. 201, 229
Sibley Music Library, 1 14, 115 ,
Stanton, Hazel, 213
133
Starke, Aubrey H., 140, 141
sic, 102, 290
State University of New York at
significance, 64, 76, 77, 8 1 .
Buffalo, 332
83-85
static-group comparison, 175
significance. level of, 190- 192
Srarisrical Methods for Research
significance, tests of, 181. 190
Workers. 152
Silvey, H. M., 113
statistics, 54
Simon, Julian L.. 202
statistics, descriptive, 181
skew, 185, 186
statistics, inferential, 18 1
skills, 13, 16, 20, 40
srimmu~igsi~olle,
264. 265
Slominsky, Nicolas, 107
Strauss, Richard, 245
Smith, Carlton S . , 133
Stravinsky, Jean, 248
Smith, Henry, 102, 239
study, field, 47
society, historical, 47
style, writing, 309. 310, 312
Solomon-Four-Group, 175, 176
subheadings, 292, 293
Index
383
Subjecr Headings, 92
subjects, research, 158, 164-167,
171-173
subproblem, 21. 64, 65, 67, 68,
78, 79, 8 1, 83-85. 282
subsidy, research, 8, 32, 33, 330
Sue, Eugene, 132
Sullivan, Sir Arthur, 2
Swner is icumen, 137
Summary, 282-284
superscripts, 290, 293, 294
survey, 83, 157, 199. 203-205,
207, 208
Sussmayer, Franz X., 146
Suzuki, Shinichi, 241
syllogism, 21, 22
symphony, 48, 336
synthesis, 234, 242
synthetic proposition, 248, 249
Szeryng, Hemyk, 135
r test, 181, 191

tablature, 142
table of contents, 280. 282
Taubman, Howard, 262
tautology, 249
Taylor, Zachary, 137
teachers, student. 155
teaching machine, 47, 62, 63
Technologv of Computer Music,
274, 275
telephone, 2
Terman, Lewis M., 156
test, standardized, 47, 54, 21 5,
228, 229
testing, 171, 174
Texas, 114
textbooks, 32
texture, 87
Themaric Caralog of Man~rscript
Collections, 112
theoretical, 20
theory, 14, 269. 270
theory, music, 2, 41, 45
thermofax, 105
Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors,
115
thesis, 5, 32, 33, 41, 56
thinking, critical, 20. 25, 30, 31,
77, 80, 234, 258, 260
thinking, reflective. 7 , 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 4 ,
25, 30, 31, 34, 45, 46, 121,
151, 234, 236, 258-262, 269,
283
Thomas, Ronald, 3 1 8
Thompson, Oscar, 107
Thomson, Virgil, 262
Thostenson, Marvin, 335
Three Trios. 133, 134
Thucydides, 123
timbre. 19, 155
Time, 116
time series , 1 76
title, 62-67
title page, 280, 281
Tonal und Rhyrhm Patterns, 333
tone, musical, 11, 20
topic, 7, 46
Torrance, E. Paul, 69
Torrance Test of Crearive Thinking, 69
Trammell, Peggy T., 213, 214
Travers, Robert M . W.. 15, 162,
163
Index
Index 384
validity, 78, 228
validity, extemal. 17 1, 174-176
validity internal, 171 - 175
Vallis, Richard, 126
Van Dalen, Deobold B., 19, 40,
199
van Gogh. Vincent. 248
variability , 181, 182
variable, dependent, 151 - 153,
158, 164, 170, 178, 192
variable, independent, 15 1 - 154,
158, 159, 161, 164. 170, 173,
174, 176, 178, 181
Ugarit, 131
variable, single, 47, 153
ultramicrofiche, 105, 106
variante, 18 1, 182, 189
UNESCO, 11 1
Venable, T . C . , 208
Union Catalog, 95
veridical. 264
United States, 53, 123, 202, 204, verifax, 105
205, 213,241
Verklrte Nacht, 145
University Microfilms, 114, 289, videotape, 82
339
Vienna, 133
University of California (Berke- Villarini, Awilda, 287, 299, 300
ley), 112, 131
Villemain, Francis T . , 250, 251
University of Connecticut, 33 1
Vincent. John M., 121
University of Iowa, 133, 334, 335 viola, 139, 332
UniversiQ of lolvo Studies in Psy- violin, 36, 62, 63, 132, 135, 142,
chology of Music, 111
305, 306
University of Maryland, 117, 340 violoncello, 133, 142, 332
University of Michigan, 214, 338 visit, personal, 47
University of North Carolina
voice research. 338
(Greensboro), 337
University of Texas (Austin), 335
Wagner, Richard, 265
Urbana, 111.. 115
U.S. Department of Health, Edu- Walpole, Horace, 1
Washington, George, 136
cation, and Welfare. 9
Washington. D.C., 115. 340
USOE, 11 1, 317-320, 323-327
trend, 214
trombone, 22, 163, 260
trumpet, 38, 45, 180, 181. 21 1,
265, 331
Tschaikowsky, Peter, 215
tuba, 205
T. U.B.A . Newsletter, 109
Tuckman, Bruce W., 160, 189,
224
Turabian, Kate. 295-297
Tyler, Tyrone W., 205
II
1I
I
I
I
1
I
I
385
Washington International Arts

Letter, 321
Water Music, 263
watermark, 139, 289
Weber, Carl Mana von, 265
Weitz, Morris. 255
Western Electric Corp., 160
Westrup, Jack, 107
Whelden, R. M., 274
Whitehill, Charles D . , 226, 227
Whitney , Frederick R., 67, 258,
259, 267
Who Was Who in America, 108
Who's Who in America. 108
Who's Who in American Education, 108
Who's Who in the East, 108
Whybrew, William, 228
Wiersma, William, 154, 201
Williams, Ron G.. 235, 249
wind-instrument, 162, 167

Wing, Herbert, 156
Winston-Salem, N.C., 116, 133,
134
wissenschuft. 18
Woodwind-Brass und Percussion,
33, 109
Woodwind Magazine, 110
Woodworth, Robert S., 152
Xerox, 105, 114, 287, 300, 301,
306, 339
X-rays, 1
yearbook, 111, 117
Yeston, Maury , 273
Z score, 189
Zimmerman, Marilyn, 161
Zimmerman, Woodford, 335

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Guide To Research in Music Education

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The Scarecrow Press, Inc.

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Copyright @ 1980 by Roger P. Phelps

This book is lovingly dedicated

dea]ing with musical analysis, has been replaced by one on

Steps in the Formulation of a Research

~rganizingthe Research Proposal

The Research Design

Obtaining Resource Materials

Formulating the Problem

Historical Research: A Chronicle of the Past

The Setting for Research in Music Education

Experimental Research: Purview of the Future

Other Sources of Subsidization for Research in

Designs for Conducting Experimental Research

Descriptive Research: An Account of the Present

Philosophical Inquiry: Rational Quest for Truth

Aesthetic Inquiry: A Search for Beauty

10. Writing the Research Report

11. Funding for Research in Music and Music

12. Music-Education Research: Today and Tomorrow 330

Purposes of Descriptive Research

1. The Setting for Research

Research in Music Education

The Setting for Research

so widely used today, were revealed in much the Same way to

The process of metamorphosis has extended to the tools and

Research in Music Education 4

The Setting for Research

research dissemination is almost universally a concomitant aspect

research in education and in the humanities. If research in music

Research in Music Education

The Setting for Research

cation as well as other disciplines find themselves faced with the

Research in Music Education

tion for pragmatic reasons, a gratifying trend is evident in the

The Setting for Research

Categories of Music-Education Research

Research in Music Education

The Setting for Research

one area at the expense of the others, so, by analogy, no person is

The Research Climate

Research in Music Education

The Setting for Research

erudite. Once the research is complete investigators should be

Research in Music Education

When matriculated, especially at the doctoral level, candidates

The Setting for Research

in acceptable minimum standards between them. The result is

Research in Music Education

The Setting for Research

sideration. This problem also is quantitative, and answers would

The Scientific Method

Research in Music Education

The Setting for Research

&imate success of a research project is often related to the way

In examining the logic of this syllogism one assumes that the

Research in Music Education

The Setting for Research 23

Major premise: A trombone is a brass instrument.

The major premise, of course, is true; the minor premise is only

generalizati~ns.On the basis of these specifics, generalizations