See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239167318

Pressure measurements in steel silos with

eccentric hoppers
Article in Powder Technology July 2010
DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2010.02.027

CITATIONS

READS

25

341

3 authors, including:
lvaro Ramrez-Gmez

Francisco Ayuga

Universidad Politcnica de Madrid

Universidad Politcnica de Madrid

58 PUBLICATIONS 350 CITATIONS

117 PUBLICATIONS 908 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate,

letting you access and read them immediately.

SEE PROFILE

Available from: lvaro Ramrez-Gmez

Retrieved on: 08 August 2016

Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Powder Technology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / p ow t e c

Pressure measurements in steel silos with eccentric hoppers

A. Ramrez a,, J. Nielsen b, F. Ayuga a
a
b

Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, BIPREE Research Group, Avda. Complutense s/n 28040 Madrid, Spain
Aalborg University, Danish Building Research Institute, Dr. Neergaards Vej, 15 DK-2970 Hrsholm, Denmark

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 28 July 2009
Received in revised form 8 February 2010
Accepted 20 February 2010
Available online 26 February 2010
Keywords:
Silo design
Hopper eccentricity
Phenomena
Flow regime
Patch loads

a b s t r a c t
It is known that concentric lling and discharge are the most recommended solutions in silo design.
However, different reasons such as costs, space problems and the client's specic requirements have a
signicant inuence on the nal design. Therefore, engineers sometimes need to make use of eccentric lling
and discharge solutions. These designs are usually related to phenomena such as unfavorable switches in the
ow regime, associated with extreme unsymmetrical pressure distributions around the silo wall, oscillations
of the load, etc., which may cause failures or instabilities of silo structures, involving then high costs for the
industry and, in the worst cases, accidents where human life may be endangered. Understanding about these
phenomena associated with hopper eccentricities is still needed.
This research work deals with pressure measurements on three steel silos with different hopper
eccentricities. The results not only conrm, at a qualitative level, phenomena that have also been described
in previous research, but also provide new knowledge concerning non-symmetric loads in wheat and maize
silos with conical hoppers of different eccentricities. Non-symmetric components of the pressures and shifts
in ow regimes have been studied and discussed in relation to load assessment for the design of silos.
2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Silos with different geometrical congurations are found in industries and farms. Circular cross-sections, square, slender aspect ratio,
squat, at-bottomed or with hoppers of different shapes are some
examples. Since the beginning of the 20th Century different solutions to
the design of silos have been dealt with by many researchers. Structural
failures, commonly seen in the industry, show a lack of knowledge
concerning the behaviour of the bulk solid in silos. The way in which
lling and discharge situations are taken into account in the design of
silos is important to avoid structural failures. Many studies [14] have
shown the signicant inuence of the lling method on the ow regime
developed during discharge, which is mainly based on the particle
packing of the bulk solid.
Nowadays, it is well-known that concentric lling and discharge is
the most desirable technical solution. Eccentric lling or discharge is
sometimes the reason for non-predictable ow regimes, denting,
oscillations of the load, patch loads as well as other unsymmetrical
pressure distributions [57].
Reasons such as to make better use of space, to cut costs or to full
specic requirements to the working conditions in industry may cause
the nal technical solutions to become non-symmetric structures.
Several authors have carried out experimental work in silos with
eccentric unloading since the earliest studies of Prante in 1896 [813]
Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +34 91 3365625.
E-mail address: alvaro.ramirez@upm.es (A. Ramrez).
0032-5910/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2010.02.027

and several methods for predicting loads when eccentric discharge is

present have been proposed considering the previous experiences
[1418]. However, there are still questions from silo designers about
the magnitude and distribution of loads generated when the discharge in silos is eccentric.
Numerical studies have contributed to the understanding of the
behaviour of the bulk solid [1926]. However, experimental information is still considered the best approach to understand what happens
inside the silo. This type of information is also needed to validate
numerical studies [27]. However, the number of experimental stations
at universities and research institutes is limited [2831]. The high cost
that is involved in the installation of test silos is the main restriction.
Tests have sometimes been carried out in silos present in the industries [3235]. Experiments in industrial facilities are not as easy
to control as in test silos in experimental stations. Model silos have
also been used. Here, care must be taken regarding the scale effect
[6,3638].
The present paper offers experimental information from three
medium-size steel silos in an experimental station. The aim has been
to study silo phenomena, especially differences in the irregularities of
the load distributions on the walls as a consequence of different
hopper eccentricity (concentric, half-eccentric and full-eccentric) and
of two very different kinds of stored materials, wheat and maize.
A circular cross-section was used in the design of these silos
because this is a common shape of silos found in farms and industries.
They were also designed with conical hoppers of different eccentricities because although there are experiments that aimed to study the

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

consequences of the eccentric unloading, most of them used atbottom silos, but a few have used silos with hoppers of different
eccentricities. Concerning the test materials, wheat is the most common agricultural material tested in medium-size or full-size silos,
so that results from tests carried out with wheat could be easily
comparable. By contrast, tests carried out with maize have been rarely
reported, and research concerning maize in silos with eccentric hoppers
has not been found by the authors. Furthermore, wheat and maize have
a very different mechanical behaviour.
2. Methodology
The silos were erected and instrumented at the outdoors experimental elds of the engineering school: ETSIA (Escuela Tcnica Superior
de Ingenieros Agrnomos) at the Universidad Politcnica de Madrid.
2.1. Test silo installation
The installation consists of three steel silos, a hopper for the
reception of grain, a screw feeder and a bucket elevator to ll and
discharge the silos. All of these components except the reception
hopper were supported on one concrete plate (Fig. 1).
Each silo consists of a conical hopper, a cylindrical part and a
conical roof with a chimney. Dust, which is always present when this
type of bulk solids is handled, escapes though the chimneys into the
air during lling and discharge processes. Each silo has a different
hopper eccentricity (concentric, half-eccentric and full-eccentric). The
cylindrical part has an aspect ratio of 2.63 (height 5.0 m and diameter
1.9 m), the height of the hoppers is 1.9 m and the diameter of its
circular outlet is 0.32 m. The cylindrical part was made using 4 sheets,
each bent and welded into collars, 1.25 m high, while the hopper
was made from only one sheet of metal. All the different parts that
compose the silo were welded together in order to avoid imperfections. Each silo is supported by means of four steel columns UPN 100,
welded to four base plates, 200 200 mm and 10 mm thick. The
anchoring of the silos to the foundation was made using two bolts
HILTI HST-M 16/100 for each base plate. Stiff rings were designed for
the junction between the cylindrical part and the hopper as well as
for the junctions between the different collars that make up the
cylindrical part.

The silos were externally painted to prevent them against

corrosion. The concrete foundation that supports the silo installation
is 5 5 m, square, and 0.3 m thick.
The granular materials transported to the experimental station
were initially received in an external reception hopper, while one of
the other silos was used as buffer in connection with the silo tests
carried out. The rate of lling was controlled by a gate with a handle
mounted just in front of a screw feeder connected to a bucket elevator
which reaches a 4-way valve placed at the top of the silos. Each way of
the valve corresponds to a tube. Three of these tubes are used to
introduce materials into the different test silos while the fourth one is
used to withdraw it from the silos to a lorry when the experiments
have concluded.
2.2. Instrumentation
The instrumentation of the test silos basically consists of a set of
12 normal pressure cells [39], a data-logger and a computer with
software ESAM v3.0 installed. The cells were manufactured by Vishay
Measurements Group Ibrica S.L. The data-logger together with the
software was also provided by that company.
The plate-type pressure cells were designed so that the measuring
principle of these cells is based on the deection of a circular plate made
of stainless steel with a diameter of 100 mm and 0.6 mm thick. Four
strain gauges were connected in a self-temperature-compensated full
Wheatstone bridge arrangement and mounted along a diameter of the
cell plate (Fig. 2).
The calibration and evaluation of the pressure cells as well as
validation of some initial measurements were carried out in previous
studies [39,40]. The main ndings from these studies were that
considerable measuring errors may appear due to lack of stiffness of
the plate of the pressure cell [41], imperfections due to the placement of
the measuring device in the silo wall [32] and a dilatancy effect [42] over
a shear zone located where the cells were mounted in the wall of the silo.
It was found that over-registrations of pressure might be as high as 20%
for wheat and at least 30% for maize, dependent on the stressstrain
state in the granular material nearest to the pressure cells. Therefore,
interpretation of tests in these facilities must be done with caution.
Also cells that measure shear stresses were designed for this
research work. However, many difculties were found working with

Fig. 1. Test silo installation.

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

Fig. 2. Sketch of pressure cell.

them and it was decided only to focus on readings obtained with the
normal pressures cells.
2.3. Test set-up
Two test sets were carried out with wheat and maize. Test Set I was
performed only in the silo with concentric hopper. Twelve pressure
cells were mounted along Generatrix A (see Fig. 3).

In Test Set II, tests were performed with normal pressure cells
mounted around the silo wall at three levels (levels 3, 4 and 10) in
each silo; four cells at each level and spaced 90 apart at generatrices
A, B, C and D (Fig. 4). Levels 3 and 4 are close to the bin-hopper
junction (transition) while level 10 is placed 1.8 m above it.
Once the cells were mounted in the silo wall, the connections
checked and the data acquisition program ready, tests were carried
out. Filling and discharge processes were 40 min each with a storage

Fig. 3. Horizontal cross-section of the test silos (left) and vertical cross-section with the location of pressure cells in the silo with concentric hopper (right).

10

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

Fig. 4. Horizontal cross-section of the test silos (left) and vertical cross-section with the location of pressure cells in the silo with half-eccentric hopper (right).

period in between. The storage period was 20 min with wheat and
maize in Test Set I and 20 min with wheat and 10 min with maize in
Test Set II. Four repetitions were carried out with wheat and three
with maize in Test Set I. Four repetitions were carried out in a row in
each silo and material in Test Set II. Analogue signals from the pressure cells were sampled at a chosen rate of 20 readings/s by the datalogger and the ESAM software. The readings (mV) were converted to
normal pressures (kPa) by means of calibration curves, obtained as
described in Ramrez [39].
Tests carried out with wheat were performed during summer
and tests carried out with maize were performed during the following autumn. Therefore, tests were carried out with exterior day
temperatures that ranged between 32 and 40 C for tests with wheat
and between 5 and 10 C for tests with maize. The moisture content of
the grains for wheat was 7% by weight and 1315% for maize,
determined by drying samples for 24 h in a stove at 105110 C.
3. Results and discussion
An extensive collection of data was obtained during the tests
carried out in these three silos. Seven tests in Test Set I and twenty
four tests in Test Set II, with results from 12 pressure cells measuring
pressures in each test, represent a collection of 372 graphs to show
individual pressure histories for each pressure cell and test. In order to
present the most signicant results, a selection of graphs from this
collection is given.
The most appropriate way to present loads on the silo wall was
found to be graphs that are taken from the pressure cell readings at a
specic time so that they represent a real loading case. However, it
is obvious that, especially during discharge, many different load distributions take place at different times, so considering the amount of
data collected, it was decided to base the discussion on one loading
case representing lling and storage and one loading case representing discharge for each of Test Sets I and II.
Loads for lling and storage are based on pressure measurements
registered 5 s before start of discharge. Loads for discharge were
represented by pressures measured 150 s after start of discharge.
However, in order to avoid the inuence of local uctuations, it was

assumed that only larger uctuations of the pressure over a period of

several seconds should be associated with pressure redistributions
within the whole silo. It was therefore decided to use an average of the
pressure cell readings taken during a time interval from 100 s until
200 s after start of discharge. The selection of that interval was chosen
after a visual observation of the pressure histories recorded for each
tests series [43].
3.1. Test Set I
Filling load distributions of wheat and maize are presented in
Fig. 5. Theoretical Janssen [44] and Walker [45] load distributions are
also presented for the cylindrical part and the hopper part
respectively. The physical parameters used to obtain these load
distributions for wheat and maize were obtained as the recommended
values of Annex E in the Eurocode [17] either as mean values or
extreme values. Finally, each of the two gures shows a Janssen load
distribution for which parameters were estimated by a non linear
regression analysis using the experimentally measured lling pressures in the cylindrical part of the silo. The corresponding parameters
estimated by the nonlinear regression were 0.23 (), 0.71 (K), and
9.27 kN/m3 () for wheat and 0.35 (), 1.11 (K) and 12.34 kN/m3 ()
in the case of maize.
Test values of those parameters for the actual materials were not
available. Values determined in a previous research study concerning
Spanish wheat (density: 8.2 kN/m3, internal friction angle: 21.4; wall
friction coefcient: 0.24) and maize (density: 7.4 kN/m3; internal
friction angle: 27.8; and wall friction coefcient: 0.26) [46] might
have been used, but those values were not considered more
representative than those used.
Discharge load distributions are presented in Fig. 6. Janssen [44]
and Walker [45] load distributions are again shown.
3.2. Test Set II
Results from Test Set II are shown in six graphs presented for each
tested material in Figs. 7, 8. These graphs include information from all
tests in the way that each point in the graphs shows the average value

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

11

Fig. 5. Load distributions along a vertical section in the silo with concentric hopper during lling with wheat (left) and maize (right).

of the representative normal pressures obtained at that point in each

of the repeated tests carried out in that series.
The graphs shown in Figs. 7, 8 show load distributions along the
circumference of the silo wall at levels 3, 4 and 10 for wheat and maize
and at each generatrix (A, B, C and D). The rst letter in the upper
right corner of the individual graphs indicates the stored material;
wheat (W) or maize (M), the second letter together with the number
indicates the eccentricity of the hopper; concentric (E0) half-eccentric

(E50) or full-eccentric hopper (E100) and the third letter indicates the
process carried out; lling (F) or discharge (D).
The upper graphs, WE0F, WE0D, ME0F and ME0D, all represent
cases with an axial symmetric silo. In spite of the symmetry, some
variation of the pressure was seen around the silo walls. The
remaining graphs represent cases where generatrices A and C are in
a plane of symmetry and generatrices B and D are symmetrically
opposite with respect to that plane. For wheat, the pressure
distributions are fairly well symmetric with respect to that plane,
but for maize that was not the case. These non-symmetric pressure
distributions are further discussed later in this paper.
3.3. Repeatability of the pressures registered
In comparing pressures for same cell from repeated tests, a fair
repeatability of the registered pressures was observed (Tables 1, 2).
Pressure histories from a typical series of tests in Test Set II are
shown in Fig. 9, which shows pressure histories for each test and each
level of pressure cells mounted in the silo wall. Also the results shown
in Figs. 5, 6 indicate the level of repeatability. It is seen that the
repeatability was slightly better with wheat than with maize, which
may be explained by a higher stiffness of maize (larger scatter) in
comparison with wheat.
With wheat, it was even only the pressure distribution obtained
from the rst test which seems to deviate somewhat from the other
three. The horizontal pressure in that test was higher than in the other
tests at the upper part of the silo (cylindrical part) during lling and at
the transition (hopper part) during discharge. This could be explained
by a systematic change (increase) in the internal angle of friction
and/or by a change (decrease) in the wall friction coefcient. These
changes may have been caused by a change in moisture content, disintegration of particles in the handling processes and/or the removal of
dust settled on the wall during a long period before testing.
A clear exception of a fair repeatability was found only in the case
of the silo with a half-eccentric hopper when wheat was being tested.
The pressure histories for that case are shown in Fig. 10.
An interpretation of the phenomena which occur in these tests is
given later in this paper.
3.4. Filling and storage: load distributions

Fig. 6. Load distributions along a vertical section in the silo with concentric hopper
during discharge of wheat (left) and maize (right).

It can be observed from Fig. 7 that there was a considerable nonsymmetric component of the pressure near to the transition (levels 3
and 4) while a fairly symmetrical load distribution was seen 1.8 m

12

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

Fig. 7. Results from Test Set II with wheat. Load distributions at levels 3, 4 and 10 around the silo wall at generatrices A, B, C and D.

above that transition (level 10). In Fig. 7 WE0F, the pressure at

Generatrix D in level 3 was about 40% higher than at the other
generatrices. This may be explained by a non-symmetrical lling
process of the silo caused by the orientation of the inlet tube in
relation with the orientation of the generatrices and also combined
with the different kinematics of the particles when they pass through.
This inlet tube is inclined and has too short a vertical part to ensure
the concentric lling, see sketch in Fig. 11. This means that the shape
of the surface of the wheat during lling will not be rotationally
symmetric [3] as it would be expected due to the rotational symmetry
of the geometry of this test silo. Studies such as those of Sugden [1],
Hartln et al. [3] or Munch-Andersen and Nielsen [4] show that the
manner in which a silo is lled can have a signicant inuence on the
pressure distributions. The particle packing is inuenced and as a
result inhomogeneity and anisotropy of the stored material will play
an important role in the pressure distribution.

Fig. 7, WE50F and WE100F, shows the inuence of the orientation

of the inlet tube together with the hopper eccentricity. The higher the
hopper eccentricity the higher the load observed at the transition on
the Generatrix A, which is in all cases the nearest to the eccentric
outlet of the silos with half-eccentric (E50) and full-eccentric hopper
(E100).
Fig. 8, ME0F, shows that lling pressures with maize were more
uniformly distributed around the silo wall in the silo with concentric
hopper than in the tests carried out with wheat in the same silo (Fig. 7,
WE0F) not only at level 10 but also at levels 3 and 4. An ovalisation of
the load at the cylindrical part was also noticed with the load at
generatrices A and C being slightly higher than at generatrices B and
D. This phenomenon is also observed in Fig. 8, ME50F and ME100F, at
the cylindrical part, but here a concentration of the load on Generatrix
B was seen in the hopper. This concentration of load is not found on
the Generatrix symmetrically opposite.

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

13

Fig. 8. Results from Test Set II with maize. Load distributions at levels 3, 4 and 10 around the silo wall at generatrices A, B, C and D.

The non-symmetric behaviour may be attributed to the eccentricity in the lling method, and showed that full symmetric loads shall
not be expected in any silo. It also showed that this effect changed
when the stored material was changed.
Non-symmetric pressure distributions such as those observed
for maize have also been observed in industrial silos dealing with
sugar [47]. A kidney-shaped pattern of radial movements of the
wall was found in model tests and conrmed with the tests
carried out in full-scale at Felsted. Pressures were lower along the
generatrix near the eccentric outlet and higher on the right and on
the left side. It was observed that wheat in the present study did
not follow this pattern. With wheat higher pressures were present
on the pressure cells in the generatrix near the outlet. This is
probably due to differences in the anisotropic behaviour of wheat
and maize similar to differences between wheat and barley as
described by Nielsen [48]. Pieper [9] observed that pressures for

wheat were more uniformly distributed on the silo walls than for
quartz sand.
Small and sudden increments of pressure were observed during
lling and storage. That corresponds with settlements of the stored
material that are more often registered during lling because of the
continuous loss of the mass-balance while the grain is still being lled
in, and less often registered during storage, where creep phenomena
play a role. These small increments of pressure were found slightly
higher when testing maize.
The observed phenomena can be compared with phenomena
observed by Hartln [3] and Nielsen [12] testing wheat and barley in a
silo with different inlet and outlet arrangements. They observed that
the greater the strength of the medium, the greater will be the nonsymmetric component of the pressure when using the same lling
and discharge conguration. This ts well with the results presented
here, where maize is a stronger material than wheat.

14

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

Table 1
Pressures (kPa) obtained in Test Set I with wheat (Generatrix A, concentric hopper).
Level
(cm)

Filling
Max

Cylinder
213 10.03
293 14.64
333 12.78
373 18.65
412 13.82
434 16.21
456 19.13
478 17.00
500 15.36

Discharge
Min

Average SD*

CV** Max

Min

Average SD

CV

7.80
12.50
11.60
13.64
10.55
12.56
13.24
10.61
12.58

8.56
13.11
12.22
16.23
12.61
14.07
16.93
15.12
14.26

0.12
0.08
0.05
0.13
0.11
0.11
0.15
0.20
0.09

4.71
15.05
10.72
12.67
18.75
22.59
20.27
29.05
37.78

5.84
15.23
11.26
14.18
21.31
23.6
21.29
29.77
41.65

0.22
0.01
0.04
0.11
0.13
0.04
0.08
0.02
0.10

Hopper
532 23.65 20.16 22.30
564 31.10 26.15 28.90
604 32.91 28.32 31.40

1.02
1.02
0.57
2.05
1.46
1.54
2.59
3.03
1.31

1.49 0.07
2.15 0.07
2.08 0.06

7.62
15.36
11.66
16.4
25.34
24.98
23.78
30.07
46.74

115.09 72.04 85.42

77.27 62.54 68.10
32.36 28.09 29.83

1.31
0.15
0.40
1.58
2.82
1.05
1.67
0.48
4.14

20.01 0.23
6.48 0.09
1.80 0.06

*SD Standard Deviation.

**CV Coefcient of Variation.

3.5. Discharge: ow regimes and load distributions

3.5.1. Flow regimes
Concerning the tests carried out in the silo with concentric hopper,
a mass ow was present during discharge of both stored materials as
indicated by the pressure histories registered on the cells mounted
along and around the silo wall (Tests Set I and II). Switches in the ow
regime were not observed among the tests carried out.
Concerning the tests carried out in the silo with half-eccentric
hopper, Fig. 9 shows that when maize was tested, a funnel-ow was
developed in this silo.
Furthermore, Fig. 10 illustrates the type of ow which occurred in
the different tests with wheat in the silo with half-eccentric hopper.
The pressure readings correspond to four pressure cells spaced 90
around the silo wall at levels 3 (below the transition), 4 and 10 (above
the transition). In Test 1 it is seen how some cells had a very stable
signal also during discharge, which showed that the stored material
next to those pressure cells was not moving, thus indicating a funnelow. Test 2 is a case where the ow started as mass ow and at a
certain stage during discharge suddenly switched into funnel-ow. In
Test 3 and Test 4 the pressure histories showed how pressures during
discharge oscillated on all cells, which is what happens in a mass ow
silo.
This was the only case where the ow type was different in the
tests of the same series carried out in a row whether for wheat or
maize. This phenomenon can be explained as a case where the value
of the inclination angle of the hopper in relation to the wall friction
coefcient are such that even minor changes (from wear of the
internal surface or deterioration of the particles) may cause a shift in
ow type between mass ow and funnel-ow.
Concerning the tests carried out in the silo with full-eccentric
hopper, different ow regimes were also detected when testing wheat
and maize. Fig. 7, WE100D, and Fig. 8, ME100D, shows very different
discharge pressures and indicates that mass ow and funnel-ow
were present when testing wheat and maize respectively in this test
silo. In this connection, it should be noticed that pressures registered
along the Generatrix A at the three monitored levels were lower in
relation to the pressures at the other generatrices B, C and D. In the
case of maize a ow channel was developed during discharge into the
bulk solid along this Generatrix which is closest to the outlet of this
test silo. Pressures registered in the other generatrices at the same

Table 2
Pressures (kPa) obtained in Test Set I with maize (Generatrix A, concentric hopper).
Level
(cm)

Filling
Max

Cylinder
213 11.24
293 18.17
333 23.81
373 21.09
412 20.44
434 22.73
456 24.16
478 12.79
500 11.18

Discharge
Min

Average SDa

CVb

Max

Min

Average SD

CV

8.56
12.1
14.99
13.04
18.38
18.27
16.14
9.6
9.93

10.34
15.80
19.29
17.62
19.42
20.14
19.06
11.21
10.37

0.15
0.20
0.22
0.23
0.05
0.11
0.23
0.14
0.07

10.26
19.37
18.57
21.09
33.45
19.86
20.98
13.49
17.62

6.76
16.00
13.8
13.04
23.91
17.1
19.91
10.47
14.69

8.14
17.16
16.54
17.62
29.05
18.28
20.45
11.63
16.37

0.23
0.11
0.15
0.23
0.16
0.08
0.03
0.14
0.09

Hopper
532 23.81 19.16 22.22
564 11.64 7.3
9.53
604 12.51 10.36 11.62
a
b

1.55
3.24
4.41
4.14
1.03
2.31
4.43
1.59
0.70

2.65 0.12 108.91 33.91 61.02

2.17 0.23 45.78 40.13 43.63
1.12 0.10 30.06 13.29 22.39

1.86
1.91
2.46
4.14
4.81
1.42
0.53
1.63
1.51

41.59 0.68
3.06 0.07
8.47 0.38

Standard Deviation.
CV Coefcient of Variation.

level (Fig. 12 [right]) as well as at the other levels remained without

uctuations during discharge because the movement of the particles
took place in the ow channel. It was also observed that horizontal
pressures in the ow channel were low.
Fig. 12 clearly shows the differences in pressure histories for mass
ow as developed when maize was tested in the silo with concentric
hopper (right) and funnel-ow as developed in the silo with fulleccentric hopper (left).
Flow regimes observed in these three test silos are summarized in
Table 3.
The observed phenomena in these silos can to some extend be
compared with phenomena observed in silos with wheat and barley
as tested by Hartln et al. [3] and Nielsen [12] where different ow
regimes were also observed depending on the type of unloading
tested. Also in tests carried out by Askegaard et al. [32] shifts in ow
type were developed as a consequence of barley changing moisture
content from 12% to 15%.
This means that minor changes of parameters of the stored
material or the silo wall, such as the wall friction coefcient, may
contribute to the development of different ow regimes.
These changes in ow types are associated to changes in load
distributions as found in the silo with half-eccentric hopper, and also
from one silo to another. The silos with concentric and full-eccentric
hopper, when testing wheat and maize, respectively represent nonsymmetric loading cases which may be severe for many silo
structures.
When these results are intended to be transferred to silos with
different sizes care should be taken. Despite the kinematics of the
particulate solid during ow is likely to have features as found in
small-size tests [49] it has been observed that ow patterns in model
and full-size silos do not always agree [50]. Therefore, in practical
engineering it shall always be considered if more than one type of
ow regime is likely to occur.
3.5.2. Load distributions
Shifts in ow, as observed in tests with wheat in the silo with halfeccentric hopper (see Fig. 10), explain the different types of load
distributions observed. Very small loads along the silo wall at
Generatrix A and signicantly larger and non-symmetrical loads are
found in Test 1 and Test 4 respectively as it would be expected in a
mass ow and a funnel-ow silo, respectively. These changes in load

Fig. 9. Load distributions from tests carried out with maize in silo E50. Generatrix A-Black (sensors P9, P14 and P16), Generatrix B-Blue (sensors P5, P7 and P10), Generatrix C-Green
(sensors P8, P12 and P15) and Generatrix D-Pink (sensors P6, P11 and P13) (see Fig. 4 for nomenclature).

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

15

16

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

distributions along and around the silo wall may represent severe
loading cases for a thin steel structure and be a hazard for the stability
of the silo structure [51,52].
Settlements of the stored material were also detected during
discharge, as well as during lling and storage, in this case when funnelow and non-fully developed mass ow were present, but no severe
change in load distributions were associated to that phenomenon.
3.5.2.1. Cylindrical part. The increase of roughness, caused by the local
imperfections introduced when mounting the twelve pressure cells
along the silo wall in Test Set I, was found responsible of the
appearance of a high peak of pressure during the discharge of maize at
a position 1 m above the junction between the hopper and the
cylindrical part (Fig. 6). This peak of pressure is usually found at the
junction when a mass ow is present, as it was seen in the case of
wheat. This indicates that an effective transition was taking place
above the conical part and that a semi-mass ow (mixed ow) regime
was developed during discharge.
In Figs. 7, 8 is seen how the loads shift from one side of the silo wall
to the other at level 10 for wheat and maize. Unsymmetrical loads
were then present around the silo wall during discharge despite of the
rotational symmetry of this part of the silo.
3.5.2.2. Hopper. The load distribution in the hopper varies signicantly
from the storage to the discharge situation. The highest value of the load
during these tests was found at the beginning of the discharge. In Figs. 5,
6 is seen that the load increases during discharge on a wall area from
about 1 m above to about 1 m below the transition around the silo
wall, and in the remaining part of the silo the load tends to decrease.
At the transition, the stiff body present at lling was deformed
during discharge resulting in large passive plastic deformations. In the
lower part of the hopper, the material is fully plasticized with an
effective modulus of elasticity which is almost zero, resulting in small
deviations from rotational symmetry.
The inuence of the hopper eccentricity was observed when
testing wheat and maize as seen in Figs. 7, 8.
During discharge the hopper loads at the transition became more
non-uniformly distributed when the silos with eccentric hoppers
were tested for wheat (see Fig. 7).
In the silo with half-eccentric hopper and the silo with fulleccentric hopper, it was observed that in one side of the silo
(Generatrix C) the load was relatively low above the transition and
high below the transition while the opposite case was found on the
other side of the silo (Generatrix A). This indicates that horizontal
forces were then balanced and that the non-symmetrical pressure
distribution to a large extent could be explained by an inclined
effective transition level in both silos.
In Fig. 8, when testing maize, the inuence of the hopper
eccentricity on the load distributions was noticed to systematically
cause low pressures in the generatrix near to the outlet as well in the
silo with half-eccentric as in the silo with full-eccentric hopper. The
systematic location of this reduction of the load means that a serious
loading case may occur.
3.5.3. Patch loads
In developing load models to be used in codes the starting point is
a theoretically based rule which covers the inuence of the most
important known parameters. In the Eurocode Janssens and Walkers
theories have been used. To cover redistributions of those loads as
seen in experiments the patch-load concept has been introduced.
Patch loads are concentrated loads which may appear at different
places at the silo wall and force the designer to ensure sufcient

17

robustness for non-symmetric load. Such patch loads shall be calibrated by results from tests. Some patch loads have to be considered
stochastic because they are associated to parameters outside control
at the design stage. However, some redistributions of more deterministic nature as small eccentricities in lling or discharge
arrangement may also be covered by patch loads.
The deviations from symmetry observed in Figs. 7, 8 during the
discharge of wheat and maize indicated that concentrated loads or
patch loads appeared along and around the silo wall in spite of the
rotational symmetry of the silo geometry. The most serious differences were seen at the transition.
In the individual tests, from which the results in these gures are
derived (see Fig. 13), these patch loads were even higher, especially in
tests with maize, which is related to the mechanical behaviour of
maize as bulk solid. In Fig. 13 are presented extreme cases of the patch
loads in individual tests carried out with maize and wheat; ME0D-1
and WE100D-4, Test 1 and Test 4 respectively. Fig. 13, ME0D-1, shows
the highest patch loads and the most extreme pressures found in these
tests. Fig. 13, WE100D-4, shows results completely different from the
results obtained in the other three tests developed in the silo with
wheat. The differences might be explained by a shift in the ow pattern
where a complicated ow pattern develops. A non-symmetrical semimass ow was developed in the cylindrical part causing an efcient
transition with large pressures to occur at level 8 on Generatrix A.
Short-time oscillations of the discharge pressure, which were
removed in the process of calculating of the representative discharge
pressures, were not observed to contain signicant components of
concentrated loads.
Load distributions obtained during the fourth repetition carried
out for wheat are shown in Fig. 14. Three times (0 min, 2 min and
4 min) one just before and two after the start of discharge of the
stored material were selected. The load distribution seen before
discharge (0 min) was considered to have been inuenced by
anisotropy in the stored material after the lling process and also
due to the inuence of the row of local imperfections introduced
when pressure cells were mounted. The different distributions found
during discharge were seen as a consequence of development and
closing of rupture planes in the stored material during discharge. The
gures illustrate that during a silo loading and unloading many
different pressure patterns occur, and the silo structure must be able
to resist them all. This also illustrates how the patch loads vary in
location and time, to a large extent of a stochastic nature, and how
important it is to have them correctly calibrated, because they often
represent the critical loading case for the silo structure.
3.5.4. Comments related to the validity of the results
Measuring errors will always be present in experimental work on
silos. In the following are discussed three subjects which have been
considered important for the tests described here. They are: the
pressure cell technique, the test silo design and the question of scale
effect.
When pressure cell techniques are used errors are mainly due to
the pressure cell design but sometimes errors are caused by
geometrical irregularities introduced when the cells are mounted.
An evaluation of the pressure cell performance of this research work
did not only determine the existence of considerable measuring errors
but also helped to understand the response of soft-cells mounted with
a recess in silo walls [53]. An interpretation based on relative values
was then considered a more reliable method to obtain valid information.
Therefore the changes in pressure distributions dependent on different
hopper eccentricities and different stored material (wheat and maize)
are considered more valid than the absolute values of pressures.

Fig. 10. Pressure distributions from tests carried out with wheat in silo E50. Generatrix A-Black (sensors P7, P8 and P15), Generatrix B-Blue (sensors P6, P9 and P12), Generatrix CGreen (sensors P14, P11 and P16) and Generatrix D-Pink (P5, P10 and P13) (see Ramrez [43] for nomenclature).

18

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

Table 3
Overview of types of ow found when three test silos with different hopper eccentricity
were tested with wheat and maize as stored materials.
Type of ow

Tested material
Wheat

Maize

Hopper eccentricity

Mass ow
Semi-mass ow
Funnel-ow

Fig. 11. Sketch of the movement of particles during the lling of the silo with concentric
hopper.

It was also concluded that the use of soft-cells like the ones in these
silos is not advisable due to difculties with the interpretation of such
results. However, after the validation, it has been remarkable which
amount of information it has been possible to extract mainly based on
relative values of the pressures. Phenomena such as oscillations of the
load, changes in unsymmetrical pressure distributions, patch loads,
inuence of the hopper eccentricity in the load distribution and ow,
etc., have been identied and discussed in the light of the results
obtained. This has contributed not only to the understanding of the
behaviour of the stored material in industrial or agricultural silos but
also to the design of experiments in test silos.
Concerning the test silo design one of the important items is the
interaction of the stored material with the silo structure. Does the test
silo represent another silo, maybe a concrete silo with a similar
geometry? The walls of a steel silo are subject to both stretching
(membrane forces) and bending. The actual silo is considered a
relatively stiff steel silo due to the stiffeners. Softer silos may then be
expected to be subject to smaller patch loads because deections will
release some of the extreme loads. A concrete silo will be even stiffer
and have another wall friction coefcient. This may change the ow
patterns with all the load consequences which have been seen in this
study.

0%

50%

100%

0%

X
X
X

50%

100%

It is known that care shall be taken if results are intended to be

transferred between silos of different size due to a size effect. One
reason for a size effect is a stochastic distribution of the initial void
ratio, ratio between the grain and silo size and pressure level [54]. A
model law is needed if the transfer of results is intended in a way that
scale errors are negligible. It has been concluded from studies with
test silos of different size that scale errors should be in general
expected and that their magnitude normally not will be known until
experimentally determined [55]. This means that even in transferring
results from one scale to another we need to introduce uncertainty
which we may have to deal with as stochastic elements. Studies have
shown scale effects, which are more signicant for discharge loads
than lling loads [56].

4. Conclusions
Loads in three test silos with different hopper eccentricities using
wheat and maize as stored materials have been studied.
Phenomena that frequently occur in the interior of this type of
structure were observed and discussed. Despite the measuring errors
found after evaluation of the pressure cell performance, the interpretation, based on relative values of the pressures registered, provided
a considerable amount of information concerning silo phenomena. For
example shifts of the ow regimes, oscillations of the load on the silo
wall, unsymmetrical pressure distributions showing different kidneyshapes depending on the type of material tested and patch loads along
and around the silo wall during discharge.
An exceptional case was found in the silo with half-eccentric hopper
when wheat was tested. In this case shifts were observed in ow
regimes associated with large load redistributions. This meant that small
changes in silo geometry, material properties or even in operating the
silo installation may have a signicant inuence on the loads in silos.
Other observations were related to the geometrical conguration
adopted in the design of the inlet tube and the imperfections

Fig. 12. Pressure histories at generatrices A, B, C and D (pressure cells mounted at level 4) when testing maize in the silo with concentric (left) and full-eccentric (right) hopper
(Test 1).

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

19

Fig. 13. Load distributions for single tests (see Fig. 8 for notation).

Fig. 14. Pressure distribution along the silo wall in the fourth repetition for wheat during the 4 earliest minutes of the discharge process.

introduced in the silo wall, where both inlet design and imperfection
affected the load distribution along the silo wall.
Non-symmetrical components of the load were also observed
around the silo wall during discharge despite the rotational symmetry
of this part of the silo. Furthermore, a considerable systematic nonsymmetric component of the pressure was identied in the hoppers
with different eccentricities which indicate the effect of the
eccentricity of the hopper on the load distributions.
The results not only conrm, at a qualitative level, phenomena that
have also been described in previous research, but also provide new
knowledge concerning non-symmetrical loads in wheat and maize
silos with conical hoppers of different eccentricities.
Loads in eccentric hoppers are not yet fully covered by the Eurocode,
so experiments carried out in test silo installations such as the present
one are of special interest. Designers of silos with eccentric lling and
discharge shall be aware of possible shifts in ow regimes associated to
large changes of loading cases. Patch loads, some of them of a stochastic
nature, as observed in the three silos during discharge are of special
importance to buckling analyses as part of a strength analyses for steel
silos and to design for bending strength in concrete silos.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the CICYT (Spanish Research and Technology
Commission) for nancing this research (AGL2005-07430-C02-01/
AGR) and S.A.T. Comercial Agropecuaria Alcarrea for providing the
test materials.

References
[1] M.B. Sugden, Effect of initial density on ow patterns in circular at bottomed
silos, Proceedings of the International Conference on Design of Silos for Strength
and Flow, University of Lancaster, September, 1980, pp. 1128.
[2] R. Moriyama, N. Hayano, T. Jokati, The effect of lling method on the ow pattern
in a bin, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Design of Silos
for Strength and Flow, Stratford on Avon, Powder Advisory Centre, September,
1983, pp. 317331.
[3] J. Hartln, J. Nielsen, L. Ljunggren, G. Martensson, S. Wigram, The wall pressure in
large grain silos, Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, 1984
(Document D2).
[4] J. Munch-Andersen, J. Nielsen, Pressures in slender grain silos, CHISA 1990, Second
European Symposium on Stress and Strain in Particulate Solids, Prague, August,
1990, (9 pp.).
[5] A.W. Jenike, Denting of circular bins with eccentric drawpoints, Journal of the
Structural Division, ASCE 93 (1) (1967) 2735.
[6] J. Nielsen, Pressures from owing granular solids in silos, Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical Physical,
and Engineering Sciences 356 (1998) 26672684.
[7] J.M. Rotter, Cylindrical shells: unsymmetrical solids loading and supports, in: C.J.
Brown, J. Nielsen (Eds.), Silos, Fundamentals of Theory, Behaviour and Design, E &
FN Spon, London, 1998, pp. 367377.
[8] N.I. Prante, Nessungen des getreidedruckes gegen silowandungen, Zeitschrift des
Verein Deutscher Ingenieure 40 (39) (1986) 11221125 (Germany).
[9] K. Pieper, Investigations of silo loads in measuring models, Transactions of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers 91 (1969) 365371.
[10] M. Reimbert, A. Reimbert, Silos, Theory and Practice, Lavoisier Publishing Inc.,
1987 (564 pp.).
[11] S.A. Thompson, J.L. Usry, B.D. Morse, Experiments with the eccentric unloading of
a model corrugated grain bin, Canadian Agricultural Engineering 30 (1) (1987)
165171.
[12] J. Nielsen, E.Y. Andersen, Loads in grain silos, Proceedings of the 11th Working
Session of the International Association for Shell Structures IAAS Committee of
Pipes and Tanks, Wroclaw, Poland, 16 November, 1981.

20

A. Ramrez et al. / Powder Technology 201 (2010) 720

[13] J.F. Chen, J.M. Rotter, J.Y. Ooi, Z. Zhong, Correlation between the ow pattern and
wall pressures in a full scale experimental silo, Engineering Structures 29 (2007)
23082320.
[14] A Guide for the Design and Construction of Agricultural Grain Bins, Farm Building
Information Centre, Stoneleigh, United Kingdom, 1981.
[15] Canadian farm building code: NRCC no. 21312 (1969), National Research Council
of Canada, 1969.
[16] Recommended practice for design and construction of concrete bins, silos, and
bunkers for storage of granular materials (ACI 313-77) (Revised 1983) and
commentary (ACI 313R-77), American Concrete Institute, 1983.
[17] EN 1991-4. Eurocode 1. Basis of design and actions on structures part 4: actions
on silos and tanks, European Committee on Standarization, Brussels, 2006.
[18] DIN 1055-6 (2005-03) Actions on Structures Part 6: Design Loads for Buildings
and Loads in Silo Bins, Deutsches Institut fr Normung, Berlin, 2005.
[19] U. Haeussler, J. Eibl, Numerical investigations on discharging silos, Journal of
Engineering Mechanics 110 (6) (1984) 957971.
[20] Z. Lu, S.C. Negi, J.C. Jofriet, A numerical model for ow of granular materials in
silos. Part 1: model development, Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 68
(3) (1997) 223229.
[21] M. Wjcik, J. Tejchman, Modeling of shear localization during conned granular
ow in silos within non-local hypoplasticity, Powder Technology 192 (3) (2009)
298310.
[22] J.M. Rotter, J.M.F.G. Holst, J.Y. Ooi, A.M. Sanad, Silo pressure predictions using
discrete-element and nite-element analyses, Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 356 (1747)
(1998) 26852712.
[23] F. Ayuga, M. Guaita, P. Aguado, A. Couto, Discharge and the eccentricity of the
hopper inuence on the silo wall pressures, Journal of Engineering Mechanics 127
(2001) 10671074.
[24] M. Guaita, A. Couto, F. Ayuga, Numerical simulation of wall pressure during
discharge of granular material from cylindrical silos with eccentric hoppers,
Biosystems Engineering 85 (2003) 101109.
[25] P. Vidal, E. Gallego, M. Guaita, F. Ayuga, Finite element analysis under different
boundary conditions of the lling cylindrical steel silos having an eccentric
hopper, Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64 (2008) 480492.
[26] Z. Wickowski, The material point method in large strain engineering problems,
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 193 (2004) 44174438.
[27] R. Goodey, C.J. Brown, M. Rotter, Verication of a 3-dimensional model for lling
pressures in square thin-walled silos, Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 17731783.
[28] J. Munch-Andersen, V. Askegaard, Silo tests with sand and grain, Symp. Reliable
Flow of Particulate Solids II, Oslo, Norway, 23-25 August, 1993.
[29] C.J. Brown, E.H. Lahlouh, J.M. Rotter, Experiments on a square planform steel silo,
Chemical Engineering Science 55 (2000) 43994413.
[30] Th. Schurich, Ch. Frll, G.G. Enstad, Full scale silo tests and numerical simulations
of the cone in cone concept for mass ow, Handbook of Powder Technology 10
(2001) 175180.
[31] J.F. Chen, J.M. Rotter, J.Y. Ooi, Z. Zhong, Correlation between the ow pattern and
wall pressures in a full scale experimental silo, Engineering Structures 29 (2007)
23082320.
[32] V. Askegaard, M. Bergholdt, J. Nielsen, Problems in connection with pressure cell
measurements in silos, Bygningsstatiske Meddelelser No.2, 1971.
[33] J. Nielsen, N.O. Kristiansen, Related measurements of pressure conditions in full
scale barley silo and in model silo, Proceedings of the International Conference on
Design of Silos for Strength and Flow, University of Lancaster, Powder Advisory
Centre, September, 1980.
[34] J. Nielsen, Pressure measurements in a full-scale y ash silo, Particulate Science
and Technology 2 (3) (1984) 237246.
[35] J.Y. Ooi, J.F. Chen, J.M. Rotter, Measurement of solids ow patterns in a gypsum
silo, Powder Technology 99 (1998) 272284.

[36] J. Nielsen, V. Askegaard, Scale errors in model tests on granular media with special
reference to silo models, Powder Technology 16 (1) (1977) 123130.
[37] J. Nielsen, N.O. Kristansen, Related measurements of pressure conditions in full
scale barley silo and in model silo, Proceedings of the International Conference on
Design of Silos for Strength and Flow, University of Lancaster, Powder Advisory
Centre, September, 1980.
[38] J. Munch-Andersen, J. Nielsen, Size effects in large grain silos, Bulk Solids Handling
6 (1986) 885889.
[39] A. Ramrez, J. Nielsen, F. Ayuga, On the use of plate-type pressure cells in silos. Part
1. Calibration and evaluation, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 71 (1)
(2010) 7176.
[40] A. Ramrez, J. Nielsen, F. Ayuga, On the use of plate-type pressure cells in silos. Part
2. Validation for pressure measurements, Computers and Electronics in
Agriculture 71 (1) (2010) 6470.
[41] V. Askegaard, Design and application of stress and strain cells with small
measuring errors, NDT International 14 (5) (1981) 271277.
[42] J. Much-Andersen, The boundary layer in rough silos, Transactions of Mechanical
Engineering 12 (3) (1987) 167170.
[43] A. Ramrez, Pressure measurements in full-scale silos with eccentric hoppers. PhD
dissertation. Universidad Politcnica de Madrid (2007).
[44] H.A. Janssen, Versuch ber Getreidedruck in Sillozellen, Zeitschrift des Vereins
Deutscher Ingenieure 39 (1895) 10451049.
[45] D.M. Walker, An approximate theory for pressures and arching in hoppers,
Chemical Engineering Science 21 (1966) 975997.
[46] M. Moya, F. Ayuga, M. Guaita, P. Aguado, Mechanical Properties of Granular
Agricultural Materials, Transactions of the ASAE 45 (2002) 15691577. J.B.
Burland, A case history of the failure of some silos during discharge, in: J.F. Chen,
J.Y. Ooi, J.G. Teng (Eds.), Structures and Granular Solids From Scientic
Principles to Engineering Applications, Taylor & Francis Group, London, 2008,
(327 pp.).
[47] J. Nielsen, Load distributions in grain silos inuenced by anisotropic behavior,
International Conference on Bulk Materials Storage, Handling and Transportation,
Newcastle, Australia, August 1983, 1983, pp. 2224.
[48] J. Tejchman, Scherzonenbildung und Verspannungseffekte in Granulaten unter
Bercksichtigung von Korndrehungen, Publication Series of the Institute of Soil
and Rock Mechanics, 117, University Karlsruhe, 1989, pp. 1236.
[49] J. Munch-Andersen, Scale errors in model silo tests, Proceedings of the 2nd
International Conference on Design of Silos for Strength and Flow, Stratfordupon-Avon, UK, 1-9 November 1983, 1, 1983, pp. 230271.
[50] P. Ansourian, On the buckling analysis and design of silos and tanks, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 23 (1992) 273294.
[51] J.M. Rotter, Guide for the Economic Design of Circular Metal Silos, Spon Press, New
York, N.Y, 2001.
[52] C.Y. Song, J.G. Teng, Buckling of circular steel silos subject to code-specied
eccentric discharge pressures, Engineering Structures 25 (11) (2003) 13971417.
[53] A. Ramrez, P. Ansourian, J. Nielsen, K. Rasmussen, F. Ayuga, Analysis of
measurements obtained by plate-type pressure cells having a recess
DEM simulation, Bulk Solids & PowderScience & Technology 4 (1) (2009)
3438.
[54] J. Tejchman, Scale effects in bulk solids during silo ow, The International Journal
of Storing, Handling and Processing Powder 13 (2) (2001) 165171.
[55] J. Nielsen, Centrifuge testing as a tool in silo research, in: W.H. Craig (Ed.),
Symposium on the Application of Centrifuge Modelling to Geotechnical Design,
Balkema, Rotterdam, 1984, pp. 475483.
[56] L. Pham, J. Nielsen, J. Munch-Andersen, Statistical characteristics of silo pressure
due to bulk solids, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Bulk
Materials Storage, Handling and Transportation. Wollongong 7-9 July, 1986.
132- 137. The Institution of Engineers, Australia National Conference Publication
No. 86/6, 1986.