FOR CONCRETE

Quantities of materials for the production of required quantity of concrete of

given mix proportions can be calculated by absolute volume method. This
method is based on the principle that the volume of fully compacted concrete is
equal to the absolute volume of all the materials of concrete, i.e. cement, sand,
coarse aggregates and water.

<img
style="background-image: none; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 0px; display:
inline; padding-right: 0px; border: 0px;" title="concrete-materials-calculationfor-any-volume" src="http://theconstructor.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/04/concrete-materials-calculation-for-any-volume.jpg"
alt="concrete-materials-calculation-for-any-volume" width="568" height="250"
border="0" />
The formula for calculation of materials for required volume of concrete
is given by:

<img style="background-image: none;

padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 0px; display: inline; padding-right: 0px;
border: 0px;" title="quantities-of-mateirals-for-concrete-formula"
src="http://theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/quantities-ofmateirals-for-concrete-formula.jpg" alt="quantities-of-mateirals-for-concreteformula" width="258" height="44" border="0" />
Where, Vc = Absolute volume of fully compacted fresh concrete
W =Mass of water
C = Mass of cement
Fa = Mass of fine aggregates
Ca = Mass of coarse aggregates
Sc, Sfa and Sca are the specific gravities of cement, fine aggregates and coarse
aggregates respectively.
The air content has been ignored in this calculation.
This method of calculation for quantities of materials for concrete takes into
account the mix proportions from design mix or nominal mixes for structural
strength and durability requirement.
Now we will learn the material calculation by an example.
Consider concrete with mix proportion of 1:1.5:3 where, 1 is part of cement,
1.5 is part of fine aggregates and 3 is part of coarse aggregates of maximum
size of 20mm. The water cement ratio required for mixing of concrete is taken
as 0.45.

Assuming bulk densities of materials as follows:

Cement = 1500 kg/m3
Sand = 1700 kg/m3
Coarse aggregates = 1650 kg/m3
Specific gravities of concrete materials are as follows:
Cement = 3.15
Sand = 2.6
Coarse aggregates = 2.6.
The percentage of entrained air assumed is 2%.
The mix proportion of 1:1.5:3 by dry volume of materials can be expressed in
terms of masses as:
Cement = 1 x 1500 = 1500
Sand = 1.5 x 1700 = 2550
Coarse aggregate = 3 x 1650 = 4950.
Therefore, the ratio of masses of these materials w.r.t. cement will as follows =

<img style="background-image: none; padding-top: 0px; paddingleft: 0px; display: inline; padding-right: 0px; border: 0px;" title="Ratio of
masses of cement, sand and coarse aggregates"

src="http://theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/clip_image004.jpg"
alt="Ratio of masses of cement, sand and coarse aggregates" width="94"
height="40" border="0" />
= 1 : 1.7 : 3.3
The water cement ratio = 0.45
Now we will calculate the volume of concrete that can be produced with one
bag of cement (i.e. 50 kg cement) for the mass proportions of concrete
materials.
Thus, the absolute volume of concrete for 50 kg of cement =

<img style="backgroundimage: none; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 0px; display: inline; paddingright: 0px; border: 0px;" title="Volume of concrete for 1 bag of cement "
src="http://theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/quantity-ofconcrete-calculation.jpg" alt="Volume of concrete for 1 bag of cement "
width="408" height="40" border="0" />
Thus, for the proportion of mix considered, with on3 bag of cement of 50 kg,
0.1345 m3 of concrete can be produced.
We have considered an entrained air of 2%. Thus the actual volume of concrete
for 1 cubic meter of compacted concrete construction will be = 1 -0.02 = 0.98
m3.
Thus, the quantity of cement required for 1 cubic meter of concrete =
0.98/0.1345 = 7.29 bags of cement.

The quantities of materials for 1 m3 of concrete production can be

calculated as follows:
The weight of cement required = 7.29 x 50 = 364.5 kg.
Weight of fine aggregate (sand) = 1.5 x 364.5 = 546.75 kg.
Weight of coarse aggregate = 3 x 364.5 = 1093.5 kg.
STEPS IN ANALYSING A BRIDGE

STEPS IN ANALYSING A BRIDGE

The analytical process for structure of bridges can be broken down to six main
steps:
1. Idealise the structure
2. Form a model
3. Idealise the loading in a form suitable for the model
4. Solve the resulting equation
5. Interpret the idealized results
6. Check these results so that they comply with initial assumptions and meet
any specific criteria.
The word idealized is used because the bridge engineer needs to be aware that he
is only analyzing an idealized model of the bridge and not the bridge itself.
1. Idealise the structure:
This is generally a process of simplification whereby the real bridge members are
replaced by simplified models. For example, beams may be replaced by line
elements. These line elements have length and stiffness but no depth or breadth.
They are thus idealization of real beams as shown below.

<img style="backgroundimage: none; border-bottom: 0px; border-left: 0px; margin: 0px auto;
padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; display: block; float: none; bordertop: 0px; border-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px" title="Idealise the
structure" border="0" alt="Idealise the structure"
src="http://theconstructor.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/01/clip_image0028.jpg" width="386"
height="142" />

<img style="backgroundimage: none; border-bottom: 0px; border-left: 0px; margin: 0px auto;
padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; display: block; float: none; bordertop: 0px; border-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px" title="Idealise the
structure" border="0" alt="Idealise the structure"
src="http://theconstructor.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/01/clip_image0042.jpg" width="400"
height="145" />
The bridge designer must remember that these lines do represent real beams with
breadth, depth and reinforcement. For they will have to return from one idealized
bridge design to the real one in order to select reinforcement and prestressing and
check compliance.
2. Form a model:
Once the idealized structure of line elements has been produced it must then be
allocated both stiffness and areas. The values to be calculated will depend on the
type of model that is being formed. A 2D beam only requires bending stiffness and
cross-sectional area to be calculated.
A 2D grillage model requires both bending and torsional stiffnesses but no area as
there are no axial load present.

<img style="backgroundimage: none; border-bottom: 0px; border-left: 0px; margin: 0px auto; padding-left:
0px; padding-right: 0px; display: block; float: none; border-top: 0px; border-right:
0px; padding-top: 0px" title="Bridge model" border="0" alt="Bridge model"
src="http://theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/clip_image006.jpg"
width="388" height="257" />
Fig: 2-D Grillage Model
Bending in beams leads to torsion in beams at 90degree.
A 3D space frame model will require bending and torsional stiffness and areas in
several directions. Nearly all the models will require the elastic modulus to be
supplied.
3. Idealise the loading:
In general, loading will have been specified as part of the design. The specification
is likely to be in terms of a codified loading that has been already idealized. Typical
examples for bridges in Britain are HA and HB loading as specified by the Highways
Agency code BD 37/88. Another example of idealization is office loading. Think of
the contents of a typical office: desks, chairs, filling cabinets, people etc. However
this is very inconvenient to analyse as individual components, so it is idealized as a
uniform loading as shown below.

<img style="background-image: none; border-bottom:

0px; border-left: 0px; margin: 0px auto; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px;

display: block; float: none; border-top: 0px; border-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px"
title="HB loaded vehicle" border="0" alt="HB loaded vehicle"
src="http://theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/clip_image008.jpg"
width="208" height="152" />
Fig: HB loaded vehicle

<img
style="background-image: none; border-bottom: 0px; border-left: 0px; margin: 0px
auto; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; display: block; float: none; border-top:
0px; border-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px" title="Idealization of office loading"
border="0" alt="Idealization of office loading" src="http://theconstructor.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/01/clip_image010.jpg" width="480" height="187" />
Fig: Idealization of office loading
Likewise, bridge loading is idealized into uniform line and point loads to represent
typical traffic behavior (of speed, weight, impact, bunching etc). fortunately most of
the idealization has been done by the code authors. Much of the remaining
idealization has been done of authors of the commercial computer programs.

<img style="background-image: none; borderbottom: 0px; border-left: 0px; margin: 0px auto; padding-left: 0px; padding-right:
0px; display: block; float: none; border-top: 0px; border-right: 0px; padding-top:
0px" title="loading on bridge" border="0" alt="loading on bridge"

src="http://theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/clip_image012.jpg"
width="228" height="245" />
Fig: Converting points loads to uniformly distributed loads.
For instance, grillages only take vertical loads at each node. It would be extremely
tedious to convert standard HA and HB loads into node loads for each load case by
hand. This tedium has been removed by commercial analysis programs which
contain pre-processors which do this automatically.
4. Solve the resulting equation:
If the model selected is a simple one, then the equations of structural analysis can
be solved by hand using such method as moment distribution or known coefficients
such as WL/8. However, if a method such as grillage or finite element analysis has
been used then a computer program will normally be used to solve the equations.
Typically the stiffness matrix method is used.
The use of computers has meant that much larger and more complex designs can
now be tackled without worrying about computation time and effort.
5. Interpretation of the idealized results:
The results obtained from the analysis will generally be moments, shears, axial
forces, torsions, deflections and rotations. These results are only applicable to the
idealized structure. The reverse of the idealization process needs to be applied.
For example, slab moments are shears need to be averaged out per meter width.
Grillage moments will have a sawtooth appearance which does not occur in real
structures.

<img style="backgroundimage: none; border-bottom: 0px; border-left: 0px; margin: 0px auto; padding-left:
0px; padding-right: 0px; display: block; float: none; border-top: 0px; border-right:
0px; padding-top: 0px" title="interpreting bridge analysis results" border="0"

alt="interpreting bridge analysis results" src="http://theconstructor.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/01/clip_image014.jpg" width="415" height="249" />

The grillage moments need to be smoothed by averaging to give true value. As with
the analysis the results need to be interpreted in relation to the true structure.
6. Checking the results:
The importance of this part of the procedure should not be underestimated. Only
simple hand checks are generally required, but they can be used to great effect to
confirm, the input data, the working of the model, the inclusion of all loading and
the other of magnitude of the results.
A typical example is the grillage analysis of a simply supported bridge deck. For a
typical load case, the total load applied to the grillage model is known. The support
reactions should then be summed together for that load case. The two total values
should be equal. If there is a significant difference between the load cases, this
implies that the load cases have not been applied to the modal properly.
A typical longitudinal beam can be viewed in isolation with a proportion of the deck
loading. The moments and shears obtained from the isolated beam should be
similar to those from the corresponding member in the grillage model. Again, if
there is a significant difference this implies that there is a problem with the model.
Only a few simple checks are required, and they can be selected at random from
the known load cases. Once the designer has satisfied themselves that they are
happy with the checks they can proceed with using the model results.
NOTE: HA & HB LOADING
HA loading consists of uniformly distributed loads combined with line loads. HB
loading, on the other hand represents a standard abnormal vehicle which could
weigh upto 180 tonnes on each axle.

Communism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the social movement and political ideology. For sovereign states
governed by Communist parties, see Communist state.

For other uses, see Communism (disambiguation).

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From each according to his ability,

to each according to his needs

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In political and social sciences, communism (from Latin communis, "common, universal")[1][2] is
a social, political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the
establishment of the communist society, which is a socioeconomic order structured upon the
common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money,[3][4] and
the state.[5][6]
Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism,
anarchism (anarchist communism), and the political ideologies grouped around both. All these
hold in common the analysis that the current order of society stems from its economic system,
capitalism, that in this system, there are two major social classes: the working class who must
work to survive, and who make up a majority of society and the capitalist class a minority
who derive profit from employing the proletariat, through private ownership of the means of
production (the physical and institutional means with which commodities are produced and
distributed), and that political, social and economic conflict between these two classes will
trigger a fundamental change in the economic system, and by extension a wide-ranging
transformation of society. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according
to this analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production.
Contents
[hide]

1 History
o

1.1 Early communism

1.2 Modern communism

1.3 Cold War

1.4 Dissolution of the Soviet Union

2 Marxist communism
o

2.1 Marxism

2.2 Leninism

2.3 MarxismLeninism, Stalinism, and Trotskyism

2.3.1 MarxismLeninism and Stalinism

2.3.2 Trotskyism

2.4 Libertarian Marxism

2.5 Council communism

2.6 Left communism

3 Non-Marxist communism
o

3.1 Anarchist communism

3.2 Christian communism

4 Criticism

5 See also

6 References

7 External links

History
Main article: History of communism
Early communism
Further information: Primitive communism, Religious communism and Utopian
socialism

The origins of communism are debatable, and there are various historical groups, as well as
theorists, whose beliefs have been subsequently described as communist. German philosopher
Karl Marx saw primitive communism as the original, hunter-gatherer state of humankind from
which it arose. For Marx, only after humanity was capable of producing surplus, did private
property develop. The idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece.[7]
In the history of Western thought, certain elements of the idea of a society based on common
ownership of property can be traced back to ancient times. Examples include the Spartacus slave
revolt in Rome.[8] The 5th-century Mazdak movement in Persia (Iran) has been described as
"communistic" for challenging the enormous privileges of the noble classes and the clergy,
criticizing the institution of private property and for striving for an egalitarian society.[9]

A monument dedicated to Karl Marx (left) and Friedrich Engels (right) in Shanghai,
China

At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, generally under the
inspiration of Scripture.[10] In the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic
communities and religious orders shared their land and other property (see Religious and
Christian communism).
Communist thought has also been traced back to the work of 16th-century English writer
Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia (1516), More portrayed a society based on common
ownership of property, whose rulers administered it through the application of reason. In the 17th
century, communist thought surfaced again in England, where a Puritan religious group known
as the "Diggers" advocated the abolition of private ownership of land.[11] Eduard Bernstein, in his
1895 Cromwell and Communism[12] argued that several groupings in the English Civil War,
especially the Diggers, espoused clear communistic, agrarian ideals, and that Oliver Cromwell's
attitude to these groups was at best ambivalent and often hostile.[12] Criticism of the idea of
private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such
thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French
Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine.[13]
Various social reformers in the early 19th century founded communities based on common
ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the religious
emphasis with a rational and philanthropic basis.[14] Notable among them were Robert Owen, who
founded New Harmony in Indiana (1825), and Charles Fourier, whose followers organized other
settlements in the United States such as Brook Farm (184147).[14] Later in the 19th century, Karl
Marx described these social reformers as "utopian socialists" to contrast them with his program
of "scientific socialism" (a term coined by Friedrich Engels). Other writers described by Marx as
"utopian socialists" included Saint-Simon.

In its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement of 19th-century Europe. As
the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the
proletariata new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions.
Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels. In 1848, Marx and
Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous
pamphlet The Communist Manifesto.[14]
Modern communism

Countries of the world now (red) or previously (orange) having nominally Marxist
Leninist governments

The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to state power of Lenin's
Bolsheviks, which was the first time any avowedly communist party reached that position. The
revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets,[15][16][17] in which the
Bolsheviks had a majority. The event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate
within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built
upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development. Russia, however, was one of
the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of
industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of
bourgeois rule.[18] Other socialists also believed that a Russian revolution could be the precursor
of workers' revolutions in the West.
The moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenin's Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before
capitalism was more fully developed. The Bolsheviks' successful rise to power was based upon
the slogans such as "Peace, bread, and land" which tapped the massive public desire for an end to
Russian involvement in the First World War, the peasants' demand for land reform, and popular
support for the Soviets.[19]

Vladimir Lenin after his return to Petrograd

The Second International had dissolved in 1916 over national divisions, as the separate national
parties that composed it did not maintain a unified front against the war, instead generally
supporting their respective nation's role. Lenin thus created the Third International (Comintern)
in 1919 and sent the Twenty-one Conditions, which included democratic centralism, to all
European socialist parties willing to adhere. In France, for example, the majority of the French
Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) party split in 1921 to form the French Section of the
Communist International (SFIC). Henceforth, the term "Communism" was applied to the
objective of the parties founded under the umbrella of the Comintern. Their program called for
the uniting of workers of the world for revolution, which would be followed by the establishment
of a dictatorship of the proletariat as well as the development of a socialist economy.
During the Russian Civil War (19181922), the Bolsheviks nationalized all productive property
and imposed a policy named war communism, which put factories and railroads under strict
government control, collected and rationed food, and introduced some bourgeois management of
industry. After three years of war and the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion, Lenin declared the New
Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, which was to give a "limited place for a limited time to
capitalism." The NEP lasted until 1928, when Joseph Stalin achieved party leadership, and the
introduction of the Five Year Plans spelled the end of it. Following the Russian Civil War, the
Bolsheviks, in 1922, formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or Soviet Union,
from the former Russian Empire.

Vladimir Lenin giving a speech

Following Lenin's democratic centralism, the Leninist parties were organized on a hierarchical
basis, with active cells of members as the broad base; they were made up only of elite cadres
approved by higher members of the party as being reliable and completely subject to party
discipline.[20] The Great Purge of 19371938 was Stalin's attempt to destroy any possible
opposition within the Communist Party. In the Moscow Trials many old Bolsheviks who had
played prominent roles during the Russian Revolution of 1917, or in Lenin's Soviet government
afterwards, including Kamenev, Zinoviev, Rykov, and Bukharin, were accused, pleaded guilty,
and executed.[21]
Following World War II, MarxistLeninists consolidated power in Central and Eastern Europe,
and in 1949, the Communist Party of China (CPC), led by Mao Zedong, established the People's
Republic of China, which would follow its own ideological path of development following the
Sino-Soviet split. Cuba, North Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Afghanistan, Angola,
Mozambique and the countries that were part of the former Yugoslavia were among the other
countries in the Third World that adopted or imposed a government run by a MarxistLeninist
party at some point. By the early 1980s almost one-third of the world's population lived in states
ruled by a self-proclaimed MarxistLeninist party, including the former Soviet Union and the
PRC.[citation needed]
Cold War
Main article: Cold War

USSR postage stamp depicting the launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1

Its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a
superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and
Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a leading role in many
independence movements.
MarxistLeninist governments modeled on the Soviet Union took power with Soviet assistance
in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland, Hungary and Romania. A MarxistLeninist
government was also created under Marshal Tito in Yugoslavia, but Tito's independent policies

led to the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the Cominform, which had replaced the Comintern, and
Titoism was branded "deviationist". Albania also became an independent MarxistLeninist state
after World War II.[22]
By 1950, the Chinese MarxistLeninists had taken over all of mainland China. In the Korean
War and Vietnam War, communists fought for power in their countries against the United States
and its allies. With varying degrees of success, communists attempted to unite with nationalist
and socialist forces against perceived Western imperialism in these poor countries.
Communism was seen as a rival of and a threat to western capitalism for most of the 20th
century.[23] This rivalry peaked during the Cold War, as the world's two remaining superpowers,
the United States and the Soviet Union, polarized most of the world into two camps of nations. It
supported the spread of their respective economic and political systems. As a result, the camps
expanded their military capacity, stockpiled nuclear weapons, and competed in space
exploration.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
Further information: List of communist parties, List of communist and anti-capitalist
parties with parliamentary representation and Dissolution of the Soviet Union

Communist Party of India is leading the state government in Tripura

In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union and relaxed central control, in
accordance with reform policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring). The
Soviet Union did not intervene as Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania,
and Hungary all abandoned MarxistLeninist rule by 1990. In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved.
At present, states controlled by MarxistLeninist parties under a single-party system include the
People's Republic of China, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam. North Korea currently refers to its leading
ideology as Juche, which is portrayed as a development of MarxismLeninism. Communist
parties, or their descendant parties, remain politically important in a number of other countries.
The South African Communist Party is a partner in the African National Congress-led
government. In India, communists lead the governments of three states, with a combined
population of more than 115 million. In Nepal, communists hold a majority in the parliament.[24]
The Communist Party of Brazil is a part of the parliamentary coalition led by the ruling

democratic socialist Workers' Party and is represented in the executive cabinet of Dilma
Rousseff.
The People's Republic of China has reassessed many aspects of the Maoist legacy; it, along with
Laos, Vietnam, and, to a lesser degree Cuba, has reduced state control of the economy in order to
stimulate growth. Chinese economic reforms started in 1978 under the leadership of Deng
Xiaoping; since then, China has managed to bring down the poverty rate from 53% in the Mao
era to just 6% in 2001.[25] The People's Republic of China runs Special Economic Zones dedicated
to market-oriented enterprise, free from central government control. Several other states run by
self-proclaimed MarxistLeninist parties have also attempted to implement market-based
reforms, including Vietnam.
The ruling stratum of the Soviet Union was, by Trotskyism, held to be a bureaucratic caste, but
not a new ruling class, despite their political control.
Marxist communism
Marxism
Main article: Marxism
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Marxism, first developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, has been the foremost ideology of
the communist movement. Marxism considers itself to be the embodiment of scientific
socialism; rather than model an "ideal society" based on intellectuals' design, it is a non-idealist
attempt at the understanding of society and history, through an analysis based in real life.
Marxism does not see communism as a "state of affairs" to be established, but rather as the
expression of a real movement, with parameters which are derived completely from real life and
not based on any intelligent design.[26] Marxism, therefore, does no blueprinting of a communist
society; it only makes an analysis which concludes what will trigger its implementation, and
discovers its fundamental characteristics based on the derivation of real life conditions.
At the root of Marxism is the materialist conception of history, known as historical materialism
for short. It holds that the key characteristic of economic systems through history has been the
mode of production, and that the change between modes of production has been triggered by
class struggle. According to this analysis, the Industrial Revolution ushered the world into a new
mode of production: capitalism. Before capitalism, certain working classes had ownership of
instruments utilized in production. But because machinery was much more efficient, this
property became worthless, and the mass majority of workers could only survive by selling their
labor, working through making use of someone else's machinery, and therefore making someone
else profit. Thus with capitalism, the world was divided between two major classes: the
proletariat and the bourgeoisie.[27] These classes are directly antagonistic: the bourgeoisie has
private ownership of the means of production and earns a profit off surplus value, which is
generated by the proletariat, which has no ownership of the means of production and therefore no
option but to sell its labor to the bourgeoisie.

Historical materialism goes on and says: the rising bourgeoisie within feudalism, through the
furtherance of its own material interests, captured power and abolished, of all relations of private
property, only the feudal privileges, and with this took out of existence the feudal ruling class.
This was another of the keys behind the consolidation of capitalism as the new mode of
production, which is the final expression of class and property relations, and also has led into a
massive expansion of production. It is, therefore, only in capitalism that private property in itself
can be abolished.[28] The proletariat, similarly, will capture political power, abolish bourgeois
property through the common ownership of the means of production, therefore abolishing the
bourgeoisie, and ultimately abolishing the proletariat itself, and ushering the world into a new
mode of production: communism. In between capitalism and communism there is the
dictatorship of the proletariat, a democratic state where the whole of the public authority is
elected and recallable under the basis of universal suffrage;[29] it is the defeat of the bourgeois
state, but not yet of the capitalist mode of production, and at the same time the only element
which places into the realm of possibility moving on from this mode of production.
An important concept in Marxism is socialization vs. nationalization. Nationalization is merely
state ownership of property, whereas socialization is actual control and management of property
by society. Marxism considers socialization its goal, and considers nationalization a tactical
issue, with state ownership still being in the realm of the capitalist mode of production. In the
words of Engels: "the transformation [...] into State-ownership does not do away with the
capitalistic nature of the productive forces. [...] State-ownership of the productive forces is not
the solution of the conflict, but concealed within it are the technical conditions that form the
elements of that solution".[30] This has led some Marxist groups and tendencies to label states such
as the Soviet Union, based on nationalization, as state capitalist.[31]
Leninism
Main article: Leninism

Vladimir Lenin, 1920

"We want to achieve a new and better order of society: in this new and better society there must
be neither rich nor poor; all will have to work. Not a handful of rich people, but all the working
people must enjoy the fruits of their common labour. Machines and other improvements must
serve to ease the work of all and not to enable a few to grow rich at the expense of millions and
tens of millions of people. This new and better society is called socialist society. The teachings
about this society are called 'socialism'."
-Vladimir Lenin, "To the Rural Poor" (1903); Collected Works, Vol 6, p. 366

Leninism is the revolutionary theories developed by Vladimir Lenin, including the organizational
principles of democratic centralism, Vanguardism and the political theory of imperialism.
Leninist theory postulates that, with the strongly determined will of the Bourgeoisie to establish
Imperialism, socialism will not arise spontaneously through the natural decay of capitalism, and
that workers by themselves, who may be more or less sedated by reactionary propaganda, are
unable to effectively organize and develop socialist consciousness, therefore requiring the
leadership of a revolutionary vanguard organized on the basis of democratic centralism. As a
result, Leninism promotes a Vanguard party in order to lead the working-class and peasants in a
revolution.
Although the creation of a vanguard party was outlined by Marx and Engels in Chapter II:
"Proletarians and Communists" of The Communist Manifesto[citation needed], Lenin modified this
position by changing the role of the vanguards to professional revolutionaries, who were to hold
power post-revolution and direct the national economy and society in developing world
socialism.

After disposing of the Bourgeois dictatorship through socialist revolution, Leninists seek to
create a socialist state in which the working class would be in power, which they see as being
essential for laying the foundations for a transitional withering of the state towards communism
(Stateless society). Instead, Leninism advocates the concept of democratic centralism as a
process to ensure the voicing of concern and disagreement and to refine policy. Generally, the
purpose of democratic centralism is "diversity in ideas, unity in action."
MarxismLeninism, Stalinism, and Trotskyism
MarxismLeninism and Stalinism
Main articles: MarxismLeninism and Stalinism

Joseph Stalin

MarxismLeninism is a political ideology developed by Stalin,[32] which according to its

proponents is based in Marxism and Leninism. The term describes the specific political ideology
which Stalin implemented in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and, in a global scale, in
the Comintern. There is no definite agreement between historians of about whether Stalin
actually followed the principles of Marx and Lenin.[33] It also contains aspects which, according
to some, are deviations from Marxism, such as "socialism in one country".[34][35] Marxism
Leninism was the ideology of the most clearly visible communist movement. As such, it is the
most prominent ideology associated with communism.
MarxismLeninism refers to the socioeconomic system and political ideology implemented by
Stalin in the Soviet Union and later copied by other states based on the Soviet model (central
planning, single-party state, etc.), whereas Stalinism refers to Stalin's style of governance
(political repression, cult of personality, etc.); MarxismLeninism stayed after de-Stalinization,
Stalinism did not. However, the term "Stalinism" is sometimes used to refer to Marxism
Leninism, sometimes to avoid implying MarxismLeninism is related to Marxism and Leninism.

Maoism is a form of MarxismLeninism associated with Chinese leader Mao Zedong. After deStalinization, MarxismLeninism was kept in the Soviet Union but certain anti-revisionist
tendencies, such as Hoxhaism and Maoism, argued that it was deviated from. Therefore, different
policies were applied in Albania and China, which became more distanced from the Soviet
Union.
MarxismLeninism has been criticized by other communist and Marxist tendencies. They argue
that MarxistLeninist states did not establish socialism but rather state capitalism.[31] The
dictatorship of the proletariat, according to Marxism, represents the rule of the majority
(democracy) rather than of one party, to the extent that co-founder of Marxism Friedrich Engels
described its "specific form" as the democratic republic.[36] Additionally, according to Engels,
state property by itself is private property of capitalist nature[37] unless the proletariat has control
of political power, in which case it forms public property.[38] Whether the proletariat was actually
in control of the MarxistLeninist states is a matter of debate between MarxismLeninism and
other communist tendencies. To these tendencies, MarxismLeninism is neither Marxism nor
Leninism nor the union of both, but rather an artificial term created to justify Stalin's ideological
distortion,[39] forced into the CPSU and Comintern. In the Soviet Union, this struggle against
MarxismLeninism was represented by Trotskyism, which describes itself as a Marxist and
Leninist tendency.
Trotskyism
Main article: Trotskyism

Trotsky, Lenin and Kamenev at the II Party Congress in 1919

Trotskyism is a Marxist and Leninist tendency that was developed by Leon Trotsky, opposed to
MarxismLeninism. It supports the theory of permanent revolution and world revolution instead
of the two stage theory and socialism in one country. It supported proletarian internationalism
and another Communist revolution in the Soviet Union, which Trotsky claimed had become a
"degenerated worker's state" under the leadership of Stalin, rather than the dictatorship of the
proletariat, in which class relations had re-emerged in a new form.
Trotsky and his supporters, struggling against Stalin for power in the Soviet Union, organized
into the Left Opposition and their platform became known as Trotskyism. Stalin eventually
succeeded in gaining control of the Soviet regime and Trotskyist attempts to remove Stalin from

power resulted in Trotsky's exile from the Soviet Union in 1929. Trotsky later founded the
Fourth International, a Trotskyist rival to the Comintern, in 1938.
Trotsky's politics differed sharply from those of Stalin and Mao, most importantly in declaring
the need for an international proletarian revolution (rather than socialism in one country) and
unwavering support for a true dictatorship of the proletariat based on democratic principles.
Libertarian Marxism
Main article: Libertarian Marxism

Libertarian Marxism refers to a broad scope of economic and political philosophies that
emphasize the anti-authoritarian aspects of Marxism. Early currents of libertarian Marxism,
known as left communism,[40] emerged in opposition to MarxismLeninism[41] and its derivatives,
such as Stalinism, Maoism, and Trotskyism.[42] Libertarian Marxism is also critical of reformist
positions, such as those held by social democrats.[43] Libertarian Marxist currents often draw from
Marx and Engels' later works, specifically the Grundrisse and The Civil War in France;[44]
emphasizing the Marxist belief in the ability of the working class to forge its own destiny
without the need for a revolutionary party or state to mediate or aid its liberation.[45] Along with
anarchism, Libertarian Marxism is one of the main currents of libertarian socialism.[46]
Libertarian Marxism includes such currents as Luxemburgism, council communism, left
communism, Socialisme ou Barbarie, the Johnson-Forest tendency, world socialism,
Lettrism/Situationism and operaismo/autonomism, and New Left.[47] Libertarian Marxism has
often had a strong influence on both post-left and social anarchists. Notable theorists of
libertarian Marxism have included Anton Pannekoek, Raya Dunayevskaya, CLR James, Antonio
Negri, Cornelius Castoriadis, Maurice Brinton, Guy Debord, Daniel Gurin, Ernesto Screpanti
and Raoul Vaneigem.
Council communism
Main article: Council communism

Council communism is a far-left movement originating in Germany and the Netherlands in the
1920s. Its primary organization was the Communist Workers Party of Germany (KAPD).
Council communism continues today as a theoretical and activist position within both left-wing
Marxism and libertarian socialism.
The central argument of council communism, in contrast to those of social democracy and
Leninist communism, is that democratic workers' councils arising in the factories and
municipalities are the natural form of working class organization and governmental power. This
view is opposed to both the reformist and the Leninist ideologies, with their stress on,
respectively, parliaments and institutional government (i.e., by applying social reforms, on the
one hand, and vanguard parties and participative democratic centralism on the other).

The core principle of council communism is that the government and the economy should be
managed by workers' councils composed of delegates elected at workplaces and recallable at any
moment. As such, council communists oppose state-run authoritarian "State socialism"/"State
capitalism". They also oppose the idea of a "revolutionary party", since council communists
believe that a revolution led by a party will necessarily produce a party dictatorship. Council
communists support a worker's democracy, which they want to produce through a federation of
workers' councils.
Left communism
Main article: Left communism

Rosa Luxemburg, inspiration of left communism

Left communism is the range of communist viewpoints which criticizes the political ideas of the
Bolsheviks at certain periods, from a position that is asserted to be more authentically Marxist
and proletarian than the views of Leninism held by the Communist International after its first and
during its second congress.[41]
Left communists see themselves to the left of Leninists (whom they tend to see as 'left of capital',
not socialists), anarchist communists (some of whom they consider internationalist socialists) as
well as some other revolutionary socialist tendencies (for example De Leonists, who they tend to
see as being internationalist socialists only in limited instances).[citation needed]
Although she died before left communism became a distinct tendency, Rosa Luxemburg has
heavily influenced most left communists, both politically and theoretically. Proponents of left
communism have included Amadeo Bordiga, Herman Gorter, Anton Pannekoek, Otto Rhle,
Karl Korsch, Sylvia Pankhurst and Paul Mattick.

Non-Marxist communism

The dominant forms of communism are based on Marxism, but non-Marxist versions of
communism (such as Christian communism and anarchist communism) also exist.
Anarchist communism
Part of a series on

Anarcho-communism

Concepts[show]

Anti-authoritarianism

Anti-capitalism

Anti-statism

Proletarian internationalism

Class consciousness

Class struggle

Classless society

Common ownership

Commons

Commune

Consensus democracy

Co-operative economics

Direct democracy

Egalitarian community

Free association

Anarchy

Free store
"From each according to his
ability,
to each according to his need"

Mass strike

Gift economy

Market abolitionism

Mutual aid

People[show]

Joseph Djacque

Peter Kropotkin

Mikhail Bakunin

Carlo Cafiero

Emilio Covelli

Errico Malatesta

Emma Goldman

Luigi Galleani

Ricardo Flores Magn

Alexander Berkman

Buenaventura Durruti

Volin

Sbastien Faure

Nestor Makhno

Murray Bookchin

Albert Meltzer

Organizational forms[show]
Theoretical works[show]
Related topics[show]
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Anarchism
Autonomism

Main article: Anarchist communism

Peter Kropotkin, main theorist of anarcho-communism

Anarchist communism (also known as libertarian communism) is a theory of anarchism which

advocates the abolition of the state, private property, and capitalism in favor of common
ownership of the means of production,[48][49] direct democracy and a horizontal network of
voluntary associations and workers' councils with production and consumption based on the
guiding principle: "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need".[50][51]
Anarcho-communism differs from Marxism rejecting its view about the need for a State
Socialism phase before building communism. The main anarcho-communist theorist Peter
Kropotkin argued "that a revolutionary society should "transform itself immediately into a
communist society,", that is, should go immediately into what Marx had regarded as the "more
advanced," completed, phase of communism."[52] In this way it tries to avoid the reappearance of
"class divisions and the need for a state to oversee everything".[52]
Some forms of anarchist communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are egoist and strongly
influenced by radical individualism,[53][54][55] believing that anarchist communism does not require a
communitarian nature at all. Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of
reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.[56][57][58]
To date in human history, the best known examples of an anarchist communist society,
established around the ideas as they exist today, that received worldwide attention and
knowledge in the historical canon, are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution and
the Free Territory during the Russian Revolution. Through the efforts and influence of the
Spanish Anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War, starting in 1936
anarchist communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia, as well as
in the stronghold of Anarchist Catalonia before being brutally crushed by the combined forces of
the authoritarian regime that won the war, Hitler, Mussolini, Spanish Communist Party
repression (backed by the USSR) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the

capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself. During the Russian Revolution, anarchists
such as Nestor Makhno worked to create and defendthrough the Revolutionary Insurrectionary
Army of Ukraineanarchist communism in the Free Territory of the Ukraine from 1919 before
being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921.
Christian communism
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this
section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may
be challenged and removed. (January 2016)

Christian communism is a form of religious communism centred on Christianity. It is a

theological and political theory based upon the view that the teachings of Jesus Christ urge
Christians to support communism as the ideal social system. Christian communists trace the
origins of their practice to teachings in the New Testament, such as the Acts of the Apostles at
chapter 2 and verses 42, 44 and 45:
And they continued steadfastly in the apostles' doctrine and in fellowship ... 44 And all that
believed were together, and had all things in common; 45 And sold their possessions and goods,
and parted them to all men, as every man had need.
42

King James Version

Christian communism can be seen as a radical form of Christian socialism. Also, because many
Christian communists have formed independent stateless communes in the past, there is a link
between Christian communism and Christian anarchism. Christian communists may not agree
with various parts of Marxism, but they share some political goals of Marxists, for example
replacing capitalism with socialism, which should in turn be followed by communism at a later
point in the future. However, Christian communists sometimes disagree with Marxists (and
particularly with Leninists) on the way a socialist or communist society should be organized.
Criticism
Main articles: Criticism of communism and Anti-communism
See also Criticisms of Marxism and Criticisms of socialism for a discussion of
objections to socialism in general.

The government's forced collectivization of agriculture is considered a main reason

for the Soviet famine of 19321933.

Many people have criticized socialism and by extension communism,[dubious discuss] stating that the
two systems would distort or remove price signals,[59][60] slow or stagnate technological advance,[61]
reduce incentives,[62][63][64] and reduce prosperity,[65][66] as well as on the grounds of its feasibility[59][60]
[61]
and its social and political effects.[67][68][69][70][71]
Criticism of communism can be divided into two broad categories: those concerning themselves
with the practical aspects of 20th century Communist states, and those concerning themselves
with communist principles and theory.
The categories of criticisms mentioned above are discussed in separate articles:

Criticisms of communist party rule is an article dealing with criticisms of the

practical policies implemented by 20th century governments claiming to
follow the ideology of MarxismLeninism (these are usually called
"Communist states" in the West).

Criticisms of Marxism is an article dealing with criticisms of Marxist theory

itself.

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