1 1 Biology is the study of life and living organisms

Objectives
To understand that living things differ from You may see other similar lists of these characteristics
non-living things using slightly different words. You can remember
To be able to list the characteristics of living things this particular list using the word RINGER. It gives
To understand that energy must be expended to Ringer’s solution its name. This is a solution of ions
maintain life and molecules that physiologists use to keep living
tissues in – it keeps the cells alive.
As well as the characteristics in the ‘ringer’ list,
The dawn of life
living things have a complex organisation that is
Scientists believe that the Earth was formed from an
not found in the non-living world. A snowflake or a
enormous cloud of gases about 5 billion years ago.
crystal of quartz is an organised collection of
Atmospheric conditions were harsh (there was no
identical molecules, but even the simplest living cell
molecular oxygen, for example), the environment
contains many different complex substances
was very unstable, and conditions were unsuitable
arranged in very specific structures.
for life as we know it.
Living things also show variation – the offspring
Many scientists believe that the first and simplest
are often different from one another and from their
living organisms appeared on Earth about 2.8 billion
parents. This is important in adaptation to the
years ago. These organisms probably fed on molecules
environment and in the process of evolution.
in a sort of ‘soup’ (called the primordial soup)
which made up some of the shallow seas on the
Earth at that time. A question that has always
How the characteristics of life depend
on each other
intrigued scientists, philosophers and religious
Each of the characteristics of life is linked to the
leaders is:
others – for example, organisms can only grow
What distinguishes these first living organisms
if they are nourished. As they take nourishment
from the molecules in the primordial soup?
from their environment, they may also produce
In other words, what is life? waste materials which they must then excrete.
To respond to the environment they must organise
Characteristics of living organisms their cells and tissues to carry out actions. Because
You know that a horse is alive, but a steel girder is of the random nature of reproduction, they are
not. However, it is not always so obvious whether likely to show variation from generation to
Characteristics and classification of living organisms

something is alive or not – is a dried-out seed or generation.

a virus particle living or non-living? To try to
answer questions like this, biologists use a list Depending on energy
of characteristics that living organisms show. The organisation in living things and their ability to
Living organisms: carry out their life processes depends on a supply of
energy. Many biologists today define life as a set of
Respire
processes that result from the organisation of matter
show Irritability (sensitivity to their
and which depend on the expenditure of energy.
environment) and movement
In this book we shall see:
Nourish themselves
how energy is liberated from food molecules and
Grow and develop
trapped in a usable form
Excrete
how molecules are organised into the structures
Reproduce. of living organisms
The opposite page gives more detail of the how living organisms use energy to drive their
characteristics of life. life processes.

6
R espiration is the process by
which living cells release energy
from organic molecules. The
form of respiration that releases
the most energy uses oxygen.
Many organisms have gaseous
exchange systems that supply
their cells with oxygen from
their environment.

I rritability (or sensitivity) is the

ability to detect changes in the
environment either inside or
outside the organism, and to
respond to them. These responses
often involve movement.

N utrition supplies an organism

with the food it needs for
respiration, growth, repair and
reproduction. Plants make their
foods using the process of
photosynthesis, whilst animals
obtain their foods ‘ready-made’
by eating them.

G rowth and development are

the processes by which an
organism changes in size and in
form. For example, as a young
animal increases in size (as it
grows), the relative sizes of its
body parts change (it develops).

E xcretion removes the waste

products of processes such as
respiration and nutrition from
the organism’s body.

R eproduction is the generation of

offspring – new individuals. An
organism may simply split into
two, or reproduction may be a

Characteristics and classification of living organisms

more complex process involving
fertilisation. Reproduction makes
new organisms of the same
species as the parents. This
depends on a set of chemical
plans (the genetic information).
contained within each living
organism.
1 Approximately how many years passed between
the formation of the Earth and the appearance
of the first living organisms?
2 What sort of molecules do you think might have
been present in the primordial soup?
3 RINGER is a word that helps people remember
the characteristics of living organisms. Think of
your own word to help you remember these
characteristics.
4 Suggest two ways in which reproduction is
essential to living organisms.

7
 1 2 The variety of life

Objectives
To appreciate why classification is necessary
To understand the use of a key
To be able to name the five kingdoms, and describe
their distinguishing characteristics
To understand the hierarchy of classification
To know why a binomial system of nomenclature
is valuable
put all living organisms into categories. The science
of placing organisms into categories on the basis
of their observable characteristics is called
classification. There are so many different types of
living organism (i.e. an enormous variety
of life) that the study of these organisms
would be impossible without an ordered way
of describing them.

The need to classify living things Classification keys

Variation and natural selection lead to evolution.
Evolution, and the isolation of populations, leads to
the development of new species (see page 220).
Each species has different characteristics, and some
of these characteristics can be inherited by
successive generations of this species. Observing
these inherited characteristics allows scientists to
Taxonomists (people who study classification) place
organisms into groups by asking questions about
their characteristics, such as ‘Does the organism
photosynthesise?’ or ‘Does the organism contain
many cells?’. A series of questions like this is called
a classification key. Examples of such keys are
shown below.

This kind of key, with only two answers to

each question (in this case, YES or NO), is
called a dichotomous key (‘dichotomous’
means branching). It can be written as a All living organisms
branching or spider key, using the same The five kingdoms
questions: Bacteria
Protoctistans
1 Does the organism have cells with a definite nucleus?
Plants
Fungi
YES NO Animals

2 Is the organism made up of many different cells?

It is a bacterium
NO YES
Characteristics and classification of living organisms

3 Is the organism a heterotroph?

It is a protoctistan
YES NO
4 Does the organism have cell walls and
does it feed by external digestion?
It is a plant
YES NO Branching keys
are easy to use, but
It is a fungus It is an animal take up a lot of space
when fully drawn out.
YES Go to question 2 For this reason the
1 Does the organism have cells with a definite nucleus?
NO It is a bacterium listed form of a
YES Go to question 3 dichotomous key is
2 Is the organism made up of many different cells?
NO It is a protoctistan usually used for
YES Go to question 4
3 Is the organism a heterotroph? identification of
NO It is a plant organisms outside
Does the organism have cell walls and does it feed by YES It is a fungus
4 the laboratory.
external digestion? NO It is an animal

A key may be used to place an organism in one of the five kingdoms.

8
Five Kingdoms
Using the key opposite, it is possible to place any
living organism into one of five very large groups.
These groups, distinguished from one another by
major and obvious characteristics, are called the
five Kingdoms. Each of these kingdoms contains an
enormous number of different species, and keys can
be used within a kingdom to place any individual
species into further groups. The diagram below
shows the names of these groups, and how the lion
is classified within the Animal Kingdom. The
sequence of kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,
genus and species is called a hierarchy of
classification.
Notice that each classification group is given a
name. Lions belong to the class Mammalia and the
order Carnivora, for example. The final two group
names are written in italics – this is a worldwide
convention amongst scientists. The lion is called
simba in Swahili, león in Spanish and leu in
Romanian but is known as Panthera leo to
scientists in each of these countries. This
convention of giving organisms a two-part name
made up of their genus and species was introduced
by the Swedish biologist Carolus Linnaeus. He gave
every organism known to science a two-part name
based entirely on the body structure of the
organism. This binomial system of nomenclature
is still in use today (binomial = ‘two name’). New
species today may be given names based on
characteristics such as chromosome number or gene
sequence, which Linnaeus knew nothing about.
The pages that follow describe the characteristics
that distinguish living organisms in some of the
most important phyla and classes.

Kingdom (Animalia) All animals are ingestive

On moving down the
hierarchy of groups,
note that there are ...
More similarities
and
fewer differences
between the members
Family (Felidae)
Genus (Panthera)
Species Other species
Panthera leo
heterotrophs.
Phylum (Chordata) Other phyla
All chordates have a
notochord (becomes the
Class (Mammalia) Other classes backbone).
All mammals have fur and
Order (Carnivora) Other orders
mammary glands.
All carnivores have well
Other families
developed carnassial
(flesh-cutting) teeth.
Other genera
All Felidae have
retractable claws.
All Panthera (big cats)
can roar but cannot purr.

All lions can mate and

produce fertile offspring
with other lions. The

Characteristics and classification of living organisms

English scientist John Ray
used this feature to define
the term ‘species’.

The hierarchical classification of the lion

1 The scientific names for the weasel and mink are
Mustela nivalis and Mustela vison, respectively. Both
of these animals belong to the order Carnivora, as do
the fox (Vulpes vulpes) and otter (Lutra lutra). The
otter, mink and weasel all belong to the family
Mustelidae.
a Which feature must they have in common to
belong to the order Carnivora?
b Which two animals are most closely related?
c Which animal is the most different from the other
three?
d Suggest one feature that places all of these
organisms in the Animal Kingdom.
2 The scientific name for the human is Homo sapiens.
Try to find out the meaning of this name.

9
 1 3 Bacteria and viruses

Objectives
To know the structure of a typical bacterial cell
and a typical virus
Cocci (singular
To know the requirements for bacterial growth coccus) are
To know how bacteria reproduce spherical
bacteria
To understand some of the ways in which bacteria Staphylococcus Pneumococcus
and viruses affect human activities (causes boils) (pneumonia)
To understand why viruses do not fit into the five
kingdoms of living organisms

Bacilli (singular
bacillus) are rod-
Bacterial structure shaped bacteria
Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are single-celled
Lactobacillus Salmonella typhi
organisms that have no true nucleus. Bacterial cells (sours milk) (typhoid)
do not contain organelles like those found in typical
animal and plant cells (see page 23), but are able to
carry out all of their life processes without them. A
few can photosynthesise, but most feed off other Spirilli (singular
organisms. They may be parasites, feeding off spirillum) are
living organisms, or saprotrophs, feeding off dead spiral bacteria

organisms. Treponema Vibrio

(syphilis) (cholera)
Bacteria are very small, usually about 1–2 ␮m in
length, and so are only visible using a high- Bacterial shapes.
powered microscope. The structure of a typical
bacterium is shown in the diagram below.
Bacteria exist in a number of different shapes, some Requirements of bacteria
of which are shown below. Shape can be used to Bacteria have certain requirements that their
classify bacteria. environment must provide. An understanding of
these requirements (see page 272) has been
Glycogen grains
important in biotechnology and in the control of
Characteristics and classification of living organisms

may be a food store

Cytoplasm contains enzymes and
food molecules but no organelles.
0.1 ␮m
disease. If the environment supplies these needs, the
Slime coat is present bacteria can multiply rapidly by binary fission
in some species.
(see page 164). In this process each bacterium
divides into two, then each of the two divides again
Cell wall does not
and so on, until very large populations are built up.
contain cellulose. A bacterial colony can quickly dominate its
environment, making great demands on food and
Cell membrane
oxygen and perhaps producing large quantities of
waste materials.

Flagella – may be Main DNA strand Plasmids are small

one (flagellum) is not contained rings of DNA, The generation time (time taken for each cell to divide into two)
or several, which inside a nucleus. can be as little as 20 minutes under ideal conditions. One E. coli
carrying only a
cell in the human gut could theoretically become 272 cells in
beat to move few genes.
24 hours – this number of cells weighs about 8000 kg!
bacterium
Bacteria have a cell wall but do not have a nucleus or organelles.

10
The importance of bacteria
Virus and bacteria compared
Bacteria are important to humans in many ways.
Virus Bacteria
Some are pathogenic – they cause disease (see
page 258). All pathogenic bacteria are parasites. Covered by Protein coat Cell wall
Cell membrane No Yes
Some are involved in nutrient cycles (see Cytoplasm No Yes
pages 240–3). Genetic material DNA or RNA – DNA – enough for
Some are exploited by humans in food only a few genes several hundred genes
production and in biotechnology (see page 48). Living or Non-living unless Living
non-living? in host
Bacteria are probably the organisms that carry out
the largest number of different activities, and are the Viruses and bacteria also differ in the method of nutrition: all
viruses are parasitic, but some bacteria feed as parasites, some as
most numerous organisms on Earth. There may be as
3 photosynthesisers and some feed like animals (as heterotrophs).
many as 5000 undiscovered bacterial species in 1 m
of woodland soil, and more bacteria live on or in
your body than all of the humans that ever existed!
Coat of
spiral protein
Viruses
RNA
When the five-kingdom system of classification was
devised, no one was able to find a place for the
group of organisms called the viruses. This is
cut-away view
because viruses do not show the typical features of
living things – respiration, nutrition and TMV (tobacco mosaic virus) infects
reproduction, for example – unless they are inside the leaves of tobacco plants.

the cells of another living organism. In other words,

all viruses are parasites and therefore cause harm to RNA
their host. Some taxonomists have suggested that Influenza virus,
viruses belong in a sixth kingdom. There is great cut-away view
variation in the structure of viruses, but they all Protein
outer coat
have certain common features. The structure of a
typical virus is shown below.
Most viruses cause disease – they may infect
humans, domestic animals or plants.

Genetic material – may be 1 Look at the diagram of bacterial shapes. Make a

DNA or RNA, but always a dichotomous key that would enable a biologist
single strand.
to distinguish the different bacterial types on the

Characteristics and classification of living organisms

Protein coat – protects the
single strand of nucleic acid.
Made of many subunits.
Spikes – may contact and
recognise the cell to be
infected.
basis of their structure.
2 Make a table to show which of the following
structures are present in:
a an animal cell b a plant cell c a bacterial cell.
Write ⫹ if the structure is present and ⫺ if it is
absent.
Cell wall, slime capsule, cell membrane, nucleus,
chloroplast, mitochondrion, DNA, cytoplasm
3 Why is it difficult to classify viruses into one of
the five kingdoms of living organisms?
4 If ten bacteria landed on a bowl of soup, and
reproduced every 30 minutes, how many would
be present after 5 hours?

A typical virus has genetic material and a protein coat, but

cannot carry out its life processes. It has no cytoplasm.

11
 1 4 Fungi

Objectives
To know the structure of a fungus
Spores
To understand the methods of nutrition used Sporangium
by fungi
To appreciate the impact of fungi on the lives
of humans
Vertical hypha

Fungal cells have a common structure

The fungi are a very large group of organisms. They
range in size from single-celled yeasts to enormous Hyphae
fungi whose underground parts may occupy an area of the Spores are
mycelium dispersed
greater than a football or hockey field. when
sporangium
Fungal cells have a cell wall made of a mixture of
bursts open.
substances including chitin. The cytoplasm contains
many organelles, since the fungus manufactures
digestive enzymes. It feeds by saprotrophic (‘dead-
feeding’) nutrition, as illustrated below.

Reproduction in fungi
Single-celled yeasts reproduce asexually by binary
fission (see page 164), but all other fungi reproduce
by the production of spores, as shown above right. Spore lands on food source – it can
germinate and a new mycelium can develop.

Spore formation in a pin mould fungus

Characteristics and classification of living organisms

One section of the

Cross wall hypha may contain
several nuclei

Cell wall
Vacuole
Hypha
Cytoplasm may
release digestive
The mycelium is made up of enzymes
branching hyphae, and
penetrates throughout the food Insoluble
Soluble
source. The food may be the compounds Digestive
products of
remains of an animal or plant. in food enzymes digestion
source
absorbed by
fungus by
diffusion or
active transport
Saprotrophic nutrition involves external digestion by enzymes.

12
Requirements of fungi Single cell of a fungus such as yeast
Fungi have very similar requirements to those of
bacteria, that is:
a moist environment, so that they can absorb the
soluble products of digestion of their food source Cell wall containing
chitin.
in solution
a warm environment, so that enzymes can work Cell membrane
at their optimum temperature
Cytoplasm, containing
a nutrient source to provide the raw materials organelles and many
and energy required for growth vacuoles with digestive
enzymes
Fungi do not require light since they do not rely
on photosynthesis for the production of food
Nucleus
compounds. This means that fungi are rarely
found in light environments, since such
environments are usually too warm and dry for Yeast is a single-celled fungus.
fungal growth.
Parasitic fungus
Parasitic fungi Feeding mycelium
Fungi may also feed by parasitic methods. These penetrates to vascular
fungi produce digestive enzymes, but only once bundles of the host tree.
they have killed the host and can no longer obtain
soluble foods directly from its tissues. An example
of a parasitic fungus is shown right.

The importance of fungi

Fungi have a number of effects on the lives of
humans, for example:
They are decomposers, and play a vital role in
nutrient cycles (see page 240). Only the reproductive
hyphae are visible on
Their decomposing action may destroy materials. the outside of the tree
Wooden buildings, in particular, are at risk from clumped together to
form a bracket.
wet and dry rot.
Mould fungi consume food which might
otherwise be eaten by humans.
Fungi may be agents of disease, as in athlete’s

Characteristics and classification of living organisms

foot for example.
The best of both worlds!
They may themselves be a source of food, for A bracket fungus
example mushrooms. eventually weakens and
kills its host. It then feeds
Fungi are used in biotechnology – the brewing as a saprotroph on the
and baking industries (see page 50) are entirely dead remains of the tree.
dependent on the activities of yeast, for example.

1 Suggest why toadstools are likely to be found in dark areas of woodland where green plants are very limited.
2 Some fungi are saprotrophs, and secrete enzymes onto their food source. Suggest three such enzymes and name
their substrates and products.
3 List, with examples, four ways in which fungi affect the lives of humans.

13
 1 5 Plants

Objectives
To recall that all plants are autotrophs, and are Fungus or plant?
able to absorb light energy to drive photosynthesis
Fungus Plant
To understand some of the steps in the adaptation
of plants to life on dry land Nucleus in cell Yes Yes
Cell wall Yes, but not made Yes, made
To recall the characteristics of the four main
of cellulose of cellulose
plant groups Movement No No
Chlorophyll present No Yes
Method of nutrition As saprotroph By photosynthesis
Plants are autotrophs or parasite
As autotrophs, plants manufacture food molecules
from simple, inorganic sources by the process of
photosynthesis using light as a source of energy.
Plants all contain the light-absorbing pigment to absorb water from cold soil). They do not rely on
chlorophyll (or similar molecules which perform the insects for pollination (flying insects are uncommon
same function) inside cells which have a definite in cold areas) – conifers reproduce using structures
cellulose cell wall. called cones.

Adaptations to life on land Angiosperms

The first plants lived in water, but as living
organisms evolved, plant forms developed that
could live on land. The classification of plants into
groups follows this sequence of evolution.
The Plant Kingdom may be divided into four main
groups (phyla): algae, mosses, ferns and seed
plants.
Seed plants
Algae, mosses and ferns all depend to some extent
on a moist environment, especially for the transfer
of gametes. The seed plants have proper roots, stems,
Characteristics and classification of living organisms
The angiosperms or flowering plants are the most
successful of plants – they have evolved into many
species and have colonised almost every available
habitat. More than 80% of all plants are
angiosperms (plants with enclosed seeds). Many
features of the lives of flowering plants are covered
elsewhere in this book (see pages 60–73, 86–93, 160
and 186–199, for example). The diagram at the top
of the opposite page summarises these features, and
emphasises the adaptations of flowering plants to a
successful life on land, including warmer habitats.

Two groups of angiosperms

leaves, vascular tissues and waterproof coverings,
There are two major subgroups within the
and their gametes can be transferred without a
angiosperms. In one group there is a single
film of moisture. As a result the seed plants are able
cotyledon in the seed (see page 195) – these are the
to live and reproduce in dry environments.
monocotyledons. In the other group there are two
The two groups of plants that dominate our fields, cotyledons – these are the dicotyledons. There are
woods and gardens are the conifers (cone bearers) other differences between monocotyledons and
and the angiosperms (flowering plants). dicotyledons, as shown in the diagram on the
next page.
Conifers
The conifers dominate the landscape in colder
climates where flowering plants cannot compete.
Conifers have needle-like leaves with a very thick
cuticle which prevents water loss (it is very difficult

14
Angiosperm adaptations
Growth, particularly of reproductive structures, can be very rapid.
For example, pollination, pollen tube formation and fertilisation
may take only one hour (compared with one year in some conifers),
and some bamboos can grow 1m per day.

The ovary protects the ovules and developing

Flowers – the colour, pattern, shape, scent
or nectar of the flower may attract insects,
birds or mammals. These animals transfer
pollen from male to female flower parts
much more efficiently than wind or water.
embryo, particularly from drying out.
(‘Angiosperm’ means ‘enclosed seed’)
Endosperm is a store of nutrients for the developing
plant embryo. It does not develop until after fertilisation
so that food stores are not wasted, as they might be in conifers.

Large leaf surface allows high

rate of photosynthesis to supply Fruits are formed from ripened ovaries.
energy for growth and fruit Their specialised shapes, colours, smells and textures aid seed
production. However, water losses dispersal by wind, water and animals.
by evaporation and diffusion
through stomata are high.

Stomata with guard cells regulate loss of water vapour and

exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between plant and
atmosphere
Xylem vessels have
no end walls and
Waterproof cuticle reduces water loss to atmosphere
conduct water efficiently.
Vascular system transports water, ions and organic solutes

Roots form beneficial associations with other Specialised supporting tissues (air has a low density and does
organisms. For example, legumes such as peas not offer support as water does)
and beans form root nodules with nitrogen-
fixing Rhizobium bacteria. See page 242. Extensive root systems anchor the shoot systems and
absorb water and ions

Monocotyledons and dicotyledons – two groups of angiosperms (flowering plants)

Seed Seedling Mature leaf

One seed
leaf
Monocotyledon e.g. maize One Parallel
cotyledon veins

Characteristics and classification of living organisms

Dicotyledon e.g. pea Two Two seed Branched
cotyledons leaves veins

1 Name the four different plant groups. Why are algae 2 Seed plants are well adapted to live and to reproduce
confined to water, whilst ferns are well adapted to in dry environments. What major adaptation allows
life on land? reproduction on dry land?

15
 1 6 Invertebrate animals

Objectives
To know the difference between a vertebrate
animal and an invertebrate animal Annelids
Annelids such as the earthworm have a long
To be able to describe the main characteristics of
four invertebrate groups – annelids, nematodes, segmented body and chaetae.
molluscs and arthropods Single segment Clitellum – used to bind two worms
Mouth can bite together during sexual reproduction.
To be able to distinguish between different classes
of arthropods off pieces of
fallen leaves
To understand the importance of metamorphosis
in insects
Anus
Vertebrates and invertebrates
All animals share one characteristic – they feed on
organic molecules (see page 76). Members of the Chaetae (bristles) are found on each
segment – used during movement.
Animal Kingdom can be divided into two large
groups based on whether they have a backbone as Cross-section of
worm, showing Long, cylindrical body
part of a bony skeleton. Animals with a backbone covered with a mucus layer
chaetae
are called vertebrates and those without a backbone helps to stop drying out
are called invertebrates.
Molluscs
Four groups of invertebrates are described here: Molluscs have a hard shell protecting a soft body
with no limbs.
Nematodes Snails have a
Shell - hardened by calcium
Hookworms are nematodes with bodies that are carbonate. Protects the soft body
single, coiled shell.
of the snail from predators and
specialised for feeding and reproducing; often they from drying out. The whole body
are parasites inside the gut of another animal. can be withdrawn into the shell.

Eye on tentacle

Mouthparts to
Mouth with sucking mouthparts
scrape at vegetation
Characteristics and classification of living organisms

for drinking blood Foot – muscle with a slimy covering so that

snail can move by creeping over the surface.
Has long muscles for wriggling Arachnids are arthropods with four pairs of legs and no wings.
movements
Annelid, nematode or mollusc?
Long, thin body so not washed Annelid Nematode Mollusc
out of host’s intestine
Body Hard, slightly Soft, not Soft – shell helps
covering waterproof waterproof to save water
Body covered with mucus to resist Segments Yes No No
attack by host's digestive juices visible
Movement Uses chaetae Wriggles but Creeps on foot
Large sex organs to produce many (bristles) to lives in from place
sperm and eggs move from one place to place
place to place
Feeding Herbivores Mainly Mainly herbivores –
Anus
method parasites some carnivores

16
Arthropods
The arthropods are the most numerous of all
Insects
e.g. housefly, mosquito (page 274)
animals, both in terms of the number of different
species and the number of individuals in any one The body is segmented, with the
segments grouped into
species. The insects are arthropods that show an head thorax and abdomen.
interesting adaptation in their life cycle called Compound eyes
metamorphosis that allows them to use the detect food Two pairs of
and avoid wings for flying
resources of their habitat to the maximum. predators (rear set may
Antennae: be absent
Apart from insects, the arthropod phylum includes sense or not used
chemicals for flying).
three other classes: in the The adult
environment blowfly is
Crustacea Mouthparts: highly
adapted for
Crabs are slightly unusual because many of their very specialised
locomotion
for feeding
segments are tucked under their body. e.g. piercing by (aids dispersal)
mosquitoes and reproduction.
Hardened, serrated edge to claw:
can hold onto slippery food, and
Three pairs of legs, Metamorphosis (means ‘change
break open shells of molluscs
attached to the thorax. of body form’) allows different
Jointed limbs: flexible Eyes: important sensors Allow walking
to help with feeding in aquatic environment stages which:
movements, over do not compete for the same
food or to avoid food sources
predators. can be highly specialised for
different functions. The larva
Carapace: a thick, is adapted for feeding and
Gills under shell: hardened shell for growth, and the adult for
allow uptake of protection against locomotion and reproduction.
oxygen from water predators

Arachnids
Myriapods
Head and thorax are combined into Powerful, piercing jaws
Antennae: these are important Mouthparts: these are one body part, the cephalothorax. – all spiders are predators
sense organs in the modified legs! Have hard
millipedes' dark, damp edges for biting vegetation Simple eyes (but more than one
environment. They can (millipedes) or other animals pair) help to detect prey
'sense' chemicals and the (centipedes)
Four pairs of legs attached towards
level of moisture in the
the rear of the cephalothorax. Allow
environment chasing prey or holding onto web
Hard exoskeleton: protection
against predators Abdomen
Many body segments:
Walking legs: have many
body is flexible for
joints and internal muscles, Spinneret which produces
movement and
and allow movement over long, thin strands of silk.
wriggling around
rough surfaces (The word arachnid comes
and under leaves
and stones from the Greek goddess Spider silk is so strong and thin that it
Body covering: waterproof,
Arachne who was skilled has been used to make the cross hairs in
helping animal to live on land
at spinning.) the telescopic sights of rifles.

1 Copy and complete the following paragraph. Characteristics and classification of living organisms

All animals have one common characteristic – . The invertebrates are animals that do not have .
Examples of important invertebrate groups are , which are very clearly segmented with bristles called
to aid in movement; , which have a soft body inside one or two hard shells; and , which are the most
numerous of all.
2 The arthropods include four classes – insects, arachnids, crustaceans and myriapods.
a List three features that all of these classes possess.
b List three features that only insects possess.
c Compare insects and spiders under the headings ‘Number of legs’, ‘Number of body sections’, Number of wings’
and ‘Type of eyes’.
3 Insects are the most abundant of all animals on land. Many of them show an adaptation called complete
metamorphosis. What does this term mean, and how does it help to explain why there are so many insect species?

17
 1 7 Vertebrate animals: five classes

Objectives
To know the characteristics of the vertebrates Fish
To understand how different classes of vertebrates Scales Lateral line contains sense
show increasing adaptation to dry land covered in mucus help organs to detect vibration
streamlining for
To know the five classes of vertebrate, and to swimming
provide examples of each

If asked to name an animal, most people would

probably name a mammal because these are the
most familiar animals to us. Mammals are just one
Operculum covering gills: gills
class of the phylum Chordata. The chordates are have a large surface area for gas Fins for movement and
often called the vertebrates, although strictly exchange stability
speaking there are a few chordates that aren’t
vertebrates. Vertebrates have a hard, usually bony, Amphibians
internal skeleton with a backbone. The backbone is Nostrils leading
made up of separate bones called vertebrae which to lungs which
are used for Moist skin
allow these animals to move with great ease. gas exchange (also usedfor
gas exchange)
There are five classes of vertebrates, which, like the
Wide mouth as adult
members of the Plant Kingdom, show gradual amphibians are all Four limbs,
adaptations to life on land. The classes are fish, carnivorous with hind
limbs webbed:
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. walking and
swimming

Vertebrates

All have a backbone

Do they have smooth skin?

Characteristics and classification of living organisms

YES NO

Fish, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals

Scales on skin?

Amphibians
YES NO

Vertebrates can Fish, Reptiles Birds, Mammals

be separated into
classes based on
their skin! Are scales dry? Feathers on skin?

YES NO YES NO

Reptile Fish Birds Mammals

18
Reptiles
Dry, scaly skin -
limits water loss
Tail can be used
for swimming,
as in crocodiles

Limbs efficient
for crawling
and climbing

Mouth has teeth or

bony ridges The crocodile has the typical dry scaly skin of reptiles, and the eyes
to aid feeding on the top of its head and its sharp, pointed teeth adapt it for
catching prey in water.

Birds
Forelimbs are Nostril, leading to lungs which The heron has typical bird features of feathers and a beak. It is well
modified as wings. are the organs of gas exchange adapted to capture fish and frogs as it has large eyes to spot its
prey, a long pointed beak to grab its prey and large feet for walking
over soft, muddy ground.

Mammals are endothermic vertebrates that have

the characteristics shown in the diagram below.
Beak: very light A wide range of adaptations has allowed mammals
Feathers, vital for flight since no bone or to colonise many habitats as diverse as the polar
and for endothermy teeth wastes and the Arabian desert.
(they give excellent
insulation against
heat loss)
Humans are mammals
Scales on legs: feet ideal Humans show the typical mammalian
for perching characteristics of hair, mammary glands and a
diaphragm, for example. Humans, though, are

Characteristics and classification of living organisms

Mammals
Pinna on ear – can be moved Whiskers are unique amongst all animals in that the adaptations
for maximum efficiency in sensitive to touch
they show allow them to modify their environment
sound detection. and vibration.
so that it is suitable for human occupation. As a
result humans have been able to live and work in
Fur – body
covering which
many habitats – no animal has a wider range.
allows Human adaptation has allowed advanced
endothermy as a development of the brain, and of all the complex
means of
keeping a activities that the brain can coordinate. The human
constant body brain is extremely sensitive to changes in
temperature.
Mouth: contains teeth which
temperature. Human adaptations include many that
allow mammals to use a wide are concerned with the fine regulation of blood
variety of foods (page 42)
temperature (see page 130). Other features that
make humans very special mammals include an
Penis – an organ of the male that upright posture, freeing the hands for complex
enables efficient internal fertilisation. movements including the use of tools.

19
 Questions on characteristics and classification

1 South Uist is a small island which provides one of the few remaining summer
habitats for a bird called the Corncrake (Crex crex). It lives in grass fields,
which are cut in the late summer for hay, where it feeds on insects, worms and
seeds. South Uist provides a good habitat because there are plenty of grass
fields where the Corncrake can nest and there are few predators.

However, a small mammal called the Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) was

released onto the island. The Hedgehog also has few natural predators and will
feed on the eggs of Corncrakes, as well as on insects and worms. The number
of Hedgehogs on South Uist has risen rapidly to 10 000 while Corncrakes are
becoming endangered as their numbers worldwide are falling.

a State two features which birds and mammals have in common.

b State two features which distinguish birds from mammals.
(IGCSE 2004 [part])
2 Use the key to identify the five fish shown in the drawings. Write down the
letter of each fish and its name.
(SEG June 1992)
Characteristics and classification of living organisms

20
 Keys and classification
LIVING ORGANISMS A key enables identification of an organism by
*the FIVE KINGDOMS observation of its characteristics. Close observation
1 allows a series of questions (the branch points in
this key) to be answered, eventually leading to
Made up of Made up of the organism being studied.
single cells many cells
2 3
Cells have an
Cells have Cells have Cells have
obvious cell wall
no obvious an obvious no cell wall
12
nucleus nucleus ANIMALS*
Cells contain chlorophyll in Cells do not contain
BACTERIA* PROTOCTISTANS* chloroplasts (so organism chlorophyll (so organism
e.g. Salmonella e.g. Plasmodium feeds by photosynthesis) feeds by absorption)
PLANTS*
FUNGI* e.g.
bread mould
4 13
6 7
Organism has Segmented body Soft body with Organism has No separate Stem, leaves Stem, leaves
hard exoskeleton, with chaetae no limbs – covered internal skeleton, root, stem but no roots and roots
jointed limbs, (bristles) by shell non-segmented body and leaves
segmented body VERTEBRATES MOSSES
ARTHROPODS ANNELIDS MOLLUSCS ALGAE
14
e.g. earthworm e.g. snail
yourself as a mammal.

Spores Seeds
5 8 produced produced

Three body Two pairs of Two body No covering on Skin covering FERNS SEED PLANTS
segments (head, antennae segments (head– skin (smooth, e.g. oak tree
thorax, abdomen). thorax, abdomen). moist skin)
Three pairs of legs. Four pairs of legs.
c In what way are humans special mammals?

Two pairs of wings. No wings AMPHIBIANS 9

Antennae e.g. frog
b Name two additional characteristics of mammals.

Scales on skin No scales on skin

INSECTS CRUSTACEANS SPIDERS
10 11
e.g. mosquito e.g. crab e.g. tarantula
Dry skin Moist
(mucus-covered skin) Feathers Fur/hair
REPTILE Gills Beak Mammary glands
e.g. lizard Fins Wings
MAMMAL
3 a What are you? Follow the branch points at 1, 3, 4, 8, 9 and 11 to identify

FISH BIRD e.g. human

e.g. stickleback e.g. thrush

Characteristics and classification of living organisms

21