The Ancient Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)

Forest near Cuauhtemoc la Fragua, Puebla,

Mexico

David W. Stahle,* Matthew D. Therrell,* Jose Villanueva Diaz,** and Eladio Cornejo
Olviedo***

*Tree-Ring Laboratory
Department of Geosciences
Ozark Hall 113
University of Arkansas
Fayetteville, AR 72701
USA
479-575-3703
dstahle@uark.edu
**Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales y Agropecuarias (INIFAP)
Km 6.5, Margen Derecha Canal Sacramento
Gomes Palacio, Durango 35140
Mexico
jvilladi@raspa.inifap.conacyt.mx
***Departamento Forestal
Universidad Autonoma Antonio Narro
Buenavista, Saltillo, Coahuila 25315
Mexico
cor61@prodigy.net.mx

March 2003

The Ancient Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) Forest near

Cuauhtemoc la Fragua, Puebla, Mexico
This paper describes a small forest of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in the
Sierra Madre Oriental of Puebla, Mexico, only 30 km north of Pico de Orizaba. This
unique forest near Cuauhtemoc la Fragua includes Douglas-fir trees over 500 years old
that have enormous scientific, socioeconomic, and environmental significance. The
annual growth rings in the old trees and dead logs found at the Cuauhtemoc site have
been used to develop long, exactly dated tree ring chronologies, an accurate calendar of
tree growth and climatic conditions starting in prehispanic times and running
continuously to the present (i.e., A.D. 1474-2001). These chronologies can be used to
reconstruct precipitation, stream flow, and crop yields for central Mexico. We believe
that this small forest deserves the special recognition of the Mexican government, and we
propose a conservation management plan for these valuable natural archives of climate
and environmental history that will involve the cooperation of the federal, state, and ejido
governments. This proposal has the specific endorsement of colleagues in government
agencies and universities in Mexico.
Douglas-fir is the most important commercial timber species in the world. This
species is heavily managed for wood production in the temperate latitudes of North
America, and is now grown commercially in many areas worldwide. The natural
distribution of Douglas-fir ranges across western North America from Canada to Mexico.
In Mexico, Douglas-fir is most commonly found in the higher elevation conifer
woodlands of the Sierra Madre Occidental (Figure 1). A few isolated and highly disjunct
populations can also be found at high elevation in the Sierra Madre Oriental extending
from Coahuila to Puebla (Martinez 1963), and the southernmost known stand was
recently discovered in the Sierra Madre del Sur of Oaxaca (Debreczy and Racz 1995;
Castellanos and Acevedo 1998). The small populations of Douglas-fir in the mountains
of Queretaro, Hidalgo, Veracruz, Tlaxcala, Puebla, and Oaxaca are all less than 50ha in
size, and all are found on relatively cool and moist north-facing slopes. These
populations are believed to represent refugia of the formerly more extensive distribution
of Douglas-fir in the highlands of Mexico during the last ice age.
Unfortunately, all populations of Douglas-fir in central and southern Mexico are
threatened by human encroachment and climate warming. In fact, CONBIO and
CONAFOR have declared Douglas-fir to be a threatened species throughout Mexico (?).
The small stands in Queretaro, Hidalgo, Veracruz, and Tlaxcala have all been heavily
impacted by wood cutting, grazing, and fire. The regeneration of Douglas-fir at these
sites is also very poor, and the species may disappear entirely from these locations in
central Mexico in the next 50 years. Ironically, the two southernmost stands in Puebla
and Oaxaca are in much better condition, and the ejido Santa Catarina de Iztapeje in
Oaxaca is now doing an excellent job of managing their Douglas-fir stand near Pena
Piedra (also referred to as Corral de Piedra and Cerro la Pena). They deserve the support
an encouragement of state and federal government for the continued protection of this
ecologically and climatologically significant forest resource.
The Cuauhtemoc la Fragua site in Puebla may be the finest stand of large oldgrowth Douglas-fir left in the entire Republic of Mexico (Figure 2). It is certainly the
most outstanding Douglas-fir stand we have studied in Mexico, considering the

impressive size and great age of the trees, the isolation and overall ecological integrity of
the stand.
The Douglas-fir near Cuauhtemoc la Fragua are found in three separate forested
canyons that descend westward from the high ridgelines that separate Puebla from
Veracruz, and only 16km northwest of the summit of Pico de Orizaba (Figure 2). The
southernmost stand is the largest and most intact of the three stands, and is located in
Barranca la Pena at approximately 3100m (Figure 2). This canyon woodland is
approximately 6km south-southeast of Cuauhtemoc la Fragua, and can be accessed by a
rough four-wheel drive road and short walking trail. Douglas-fir are found in the canyon
floor and lower slopes of a 2 km reach of the main drainage of Barranca la Pena, and
along the lower sections of two side drainages that join the main canyon from the south.
No roads penetrate this canyon woodland, and the closest access is from the four-wheel
drive road that ends at the edge of the canyon on the north (Figure 2).
These conifer woodlands (Figure 3) are dominated by Abies religiosa,
Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinus pseudostrobus, and other pines and oaks (Quercus sp.).
The Douglas-fir trees in Barranca la Pena are up to 1m in diameter and over 30m tall
(Figure 4). Human disturbances are evident at this site, but are not severe. These human
impacts include a few cut stumps, cut marks on some of the A. religiosa, and the seasonal
grazing of sheep and goats. The regeneration of Douglas-fir appears to be low, due in
part to the seasonal grazing pressure. Most of the mature canopy-dominant Douglas-fir
appear to be in good health (Figure 4). A large fire recently burned through the lower
portion of this stand (probably in 1998), and many large Douglas-fir appear to have been
killed, particularly in the lower elevation portion of the stand. Many large Douglas-fir
logs litter the forest floor, and are an important source of tree-ring and paleoclimatic data.
The forest floor is relatively well covered with mosses, grasses, succulents, and shrubs,
which together attest to the relatively low intensity of the seasonal grazing practiced by
local people.
The middle site is located in the drainage immediately upstream from
Cuauhtemoc la Fragua (to the east), along the small creek called Agua de Sabinal which
is the source of the water supply aqueduct for the town (labeled simply as "Acueducto" in
Figure 2). This site is in a large forested ravine easily visible to the east from the center
of Cuauhtemoc la Fragua, and the ruins of the small church and settlement of Apizaquito
are near the north side of Agua de Sabinal. Douglas-fir are sparsely distributed in the
valley bottom along some 3km of Agua de Sabinal, starting only 2km east of
Cuauhtemoc. The northernmost of the three Douglas-fir sites is located in Barranca
Ixtecla approximately 1km north of Agua de Sabinal. The Douglas-fir trees at these two
sites tend to be fewer, smaller, and more disturbed by human activities than the excellent
stand in Barranca la Pena some 5km to the south.
These three Douglas-fir woodlands are owned by the ejido Cuauhtemoc la Fragua,
and Senor Mariano Gabriel Roman is a local resident with expert knowledge about all
three locations. Dr. Eladio Cornejo Olviedo of Universidad Autonoma de Antonio Narro
in Saltillo, Coahuila, conducted field research at these Douglas-fir forests for his masters
thesis, and is one of the scientific authorities on the area.
We believe that the Douglas-fir at Cuauhtemoc la Fragua deserve the careful
protection of the local residents, the ejido, the state of Puebla, and the federal government
of Mexico. This is particularly true for the southernmost stand in Barranca la Pena that

remains in the best condition. The conservation management of this stand would require
that no logging of any species be allowed in the forested canyon and slopes adjacent to
the Douglas-fir, that grazing of stock animals be eliminated, and that the use of fire be
strictly controlled. To achieve these goals an education campaign should be initiated in
the area, and ideally the local residents and ejido should be compensated for the loss of
access to these resources. To help ensure the regeneration of Douglas-fir and the overall
ecological integrity of this site, it might be cost effective to construct fencing over
portions of the site to exclude free ranging stock animals.
The old Douglas-fir at Cuauhtemoc la Fragua are sensitive monitors of
environmental variability, and their annual growth rings can be dated to the exact
calendar year of formation (Figure 5). No other tree species in central Mexico are known
to produce such sensitive, reliable, and long chronologies of environmental history, with
the possible exception of ahuehuete (Taxodium mucronatum). A 528-year long tree-ring
chronology has been developed from 85 Douglas-fir trees and logs from the Cuauhtemoc
woodlands. This chronology provides an accurate and detailed calendar of rainfall for
central Mexico. Although this is just one location, the Cuauhtemoc tree-ring chronology
is significantly correlated with instrumental rainfall records averaged across central
Mexico (r = 0.51; P < 0.001 for February through May rainfall totals). When combined
with other Douglas-fir tree-ring chronologies now available for central Mexico, the
correlation with spring-early summer precipitation increases to r = 0.67; P < 0.001. This
relationship is strong enough to allow the tree-ring reconstruction of past rainfall over
central Mexico, and it should provide important insight into the interannual and decadal
variability of surface water supplies in central Mexico.
The Cuauhtemoc tree-ring chronology is also very highly correlated with maize
yields averaged over the four-state region of Puebla, Tlaxcala, Mexico, and Veracruz.
Maize production in the highlands of central Mexico is critically dependent on early
season rains in April, May, and June. Drought during this early growing season can
severely curtail yields because the plants may not have enough time for full maturation
before the onset of freezing weather in the fall, even if the summer rains of July, August,
and September are adequate. The Cuauhtemoc tree-ring chronology is also very sensitive
to early season rainfall, and for this reason the correlation between tree growth and maize
yield is extraordinarily high and statistically significant (r = 0.79; P < 0.001, for 19802001). Given this excellent relationship, the Cuauhtemoc tree-ring chronology has been
used to develop a reconstruction of maize yields covering the last 528 years. This
reconstruction is presented in Figure 6, and provides the first continuous quantitative
estimates of annual food production during the late prehispanic, colonial, and modern
eras of Mexican history.
The ancient trees at Cuauhtemoc la Fragua are a unique and important natural
library of environmental and socioeconomic history. We believe that these trees are
vitally important to the Mexican people as an aesthetic resource, for the watershed
protection, and for the long climate and water supply records that they provide. We
recommend that special attention be devoted to the protection of Douglas-fir and the
associated species at the outstanding site near Cuauhtemoc la Fragua, Puebla.

References Cited
Castellanos Bolanos, J.F., and R. Acevedo Rodriguez, 1998. Bosque relicto de abeto en
Oaxaca. INIFAP Produce Junio-Julio, p.4.
Debreczy, Z., and I. Racz, 1995. New species and varieties of conifers from Mexico.
Phytologia 78(4):217-243.
Florescano, E., (editor), 1980. Analisis Historico de las Sequias en Mexico. Secretaria
de Agricultura y Recursos Hidraulicos: Comision del Plan Nacional Hidraulica, Mexico
City.
Florescano, E., 1986. Precios del Maiz y Crisis Agricolas en Mexico: 1708-1810.
Ediciones Era, Mexico City.
Fritts, H.C. Tree Rings and Climate. Academic Press, London.
Gibson, C., 1964. The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule. Stanford University Press, Stanford,
CA.
Martinez, M., 1963. Las Pinaceas Mexicanas. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de
Mexico, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City.
Stokes, M.A., and T.L. Smiley, 1968. An Introduction to Tree-Ring Dating. University
of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Therrell, M.D., D.W. Stahle, J. Villanueva Diaz, E. Cornejo Olviedo, 2003. Maize yield
in central Mexico: 1474-2001. (Manuscript submitted for publication).
1986; Gibson 1964).

UNITED STATES

BELIZE

Douglas-fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii)
in Mexico

GUATEMALA

Figure 1. The natural distribution of Douglas-fir in Mexico (X = Martinez 1963, Debreczy

and Racz 1995, and colleagues at INIFAP; polygons from Fowells 1965). The stands of
Douglas-fir in central and southern Mexico are all very small (50 ha) remnants of a larger
distribution during the Pleistocene. The ancient Douglas-fir stand near Cuauhtemoc la
Fragua, Puebla, includes trees 400- to 500-years old.

Figure 2. The northwest portion of the Coscomatepec, Puebla y Veracruz, 1:50,000 scale topographic
map (indicie de hojas adyacenties E14B46: INEGI). Cuauhtemoc la Fragua (here referred to as
Cuauhtemoc (San Jose)) is located on the west edge of the map, and the three barrancas with Douglas-fir
are located to the east and southeast of Cuauhtemoc (red polygons). The latitude/longitude coordinates
and elevation for the three sites, from south to north, are 19o10.36N 97o18.71W, 3100m; 19o12.07N
97o18.25W, 3125m; and 19o12.66N 97o18.45W, 3150m (elevations are approximate). The best stand
is located in Barranca La Pena, just north of El Campamento, near the southern edge of this image.

Cuauhtemoc la Fragua, Puebla

Figure 3. Ancient Douglas-fir in the 400- to 500-year age

class codominate Barranca La Pena, approximately 6km southsoutheast of Cuauhtemoc la Fragua, Puebla (view south). The
old-growth conifer woodlands in the barranca have not been
heavily disturbed by human activity, but agricultural fields
have been cleared on the more level ridgelines above the
barranca.

Cuauhtemoc la Fragua, Puebla

Figure 4. Ancient Douglas-fir in Barranca La Pena near Cuauhtemoc la

Fragua, Puebla. These exceptional trees are up to 1m in diameter and
30m in height. Annual tree-ring chronologies developed from small core
samples (5mm diameter) taken from these trees provide a detailed history
of rainfall, streamflow, and crop yields for central Mexico over the past
528 years.

Douglas-fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii)
Cuauhtemoc la Fragua, Puebla
1526

1600

1650

Figure 5. Annual growth rings of Douglas-fir seen on a highly polished cross

section cut from a dead log on the forest floor at Cuauhtemoc la Fragua, Puebla.
The central ring (or pith) dates to A.D. 1526. The annual rings are a couplet of
earlywood and latewood, and can be dated to the exact calendar year of formation
with dendrochronology (Stokes and Smiley 1968; Fritts 1976). Note the extended
sequence of narrow rings and suppressed growth during the severe drought of the
mid-to late-16th century.

1980

Anomaly (kg ha-1)

4000

Maize Yield in Central Mexico

Drought, Frosts, Famine
1594,97,98,99,1604

"El Ao del Hambre"

1785-1786

2000

1990

2000

r = 0.79

0
-2000

Obs

Recon

Nine Years of
Drought,1891-1902

2000

-2000

-4000

Megadrought,
Famine, Pestilence

1500

1600

Shortages
Severe Drought, Famine
Most Years 1692-1713 of Rain, 1830s

1700

1800

National Drought
1950s

1900

2000

Year
Figure 6. The old Douglas-fir near Cuauhtemoc la Fragua have been used to
reconstruct maize yields in central Mexico for the past 528 years (a). The
annual (red) and decadally-smoothed (black) estimates of maize yield are
plotted from A.D. 1474 to 2001 (Therrell et al., 2003). Note the strong
agreement between the observed (black) and reconstructed (red) maize yields
during the calibration period from 1980 to 2001 (b). The seven most severe
and prolonged periods of poor maize yield reconstructed after 1500 are
indicated, along with descriptions of drought and famine in central Mexico
from historical sources (Florescano 1980, 1986; Gibson 1964).