Precalculo2 6

6.
-,--J
ThP Unit C i rciP ,Jnd Mt'<l'UrPm<nt oi Anglp,
CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES
In this
chapter, we introduce a family of transcendental functions known as the circular functions of

angles. We shall discuss the graphs of these functions and the algebraic relationships between these
functions. Through the use of algebra, we will produce some identities for the circular functions. We
shall make a list of such identities and eventually complete the list in the next chapter. Finally, we shall
relate circular functions to the functions of angles in right triangles, commonly known as trigonometric
functions of angles.
The discussion in this chapter is divided into six sections.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.1
The Unit Circle and Measurement of Angles

Circular Functions of Angles
Evaluating Circular Functions
Trigonometric Functions of Angles
Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions
Graphs of Other Circular Functions
THE UNIT CIRCLE AND MEASUREMENT
In
this section, we shall describe a circle (a unit circle, in

particular) and then study two units of measures for angles.
These two measures are "degrees" and "radians". We
shall also relate the arc length of a circular sector to the angle
subtended by the arc of the circular sector at the center of
the circle. The relationship between an angle and the arc
length intercepted by it, as well as the concept of angular
speed will also be explored.
OF
Objectives
ANGLES
,.._ ,.
In this section we shall learn about:

A.
B.
The Unit Circle;
Angle and its Measurement;
C. Arc Length of a Sector and circular

coordinates; and
0. The Relationship between Linear

and Angular Speeds.
A. THE UNIT CIRCLE

A circle consists of points that are equidistant from a fiXed point
called the center. Let the center of the circle be at the origin and let
r be its radius. (Figure 6.1) . LetP(x,y) be any point on the circle.
This means that the distance of P(x,y) from the origin (0, 0) is r.
Using the distance formula, we get
(x-0)2
(y-0)2
=r
Squaring both sides gives (x

or
0)2 + (y 0)2 = ,Z
-
r +I = ?.
This is the equation of the circle of radius r centered at the origin.

In
general, the equation of the circle of radius r centered at the

point (h, k) is (x- h)2 + (y- k)2 = ,Z
Figure
6.1
345
CHAPTER 6:
Cir<"ul.u F um1ions oi Angl<'s
Unit circle
The circle with center at the origin and radius 1 is called the unit circle. The equation of the unit circle
isr+i = L
B.
ANGLE AND ITS MEASURE MENT
Suppose OA is the initial position of a ray (Figure 6.2(a)). If

we rotate the ray around the point 0 in a counter clockwise
direction and stop in the po sition OB(Figure 6.2(b)), then the
"amount" of rotation of the ray is measured by the angle
between the rays o.A and mi.
Notation:
Figure 6.2(a)
The angle between rays OA and OBis denoted by LAOB.
Terminology
The starting position OA of the ray is called the initial side and the ending
position OBis called the terminal side of LAOB.
Definition:
/B
oA
A given angle is said to be in its standard position if its initial side coincides with the positive x-axis.
Positive Angle
An angle traced from the initial side to the terminal side by moving in
a counter clockwise direction is a positive angle (See Figure 6.3).
Figure
6.3
Negative Angle
An angle traced by moving the initial side to the terminal side in a
clockwise direction is a negative angle (See Figure 6. 4).
Figure 6.4
Notation:
We shall denote angles by the Greek letters a(alpha), j3(beta), "{(gamma), and 9(theta)
Measurement of an Angle
We can measure an angle either in degrees or in radians.

1. DEGREE S
The complete movement of the segment 01 around a

circle is 360 degrees (Figure 6.5 (a)). If the complete
movement is divided into 360 equal parts, then each
part measures one degree (Figure 6.5 (b)) and is
abbreviated as 1.
(a)
Figure 6.5
346
(b)
6.1
EXAMPLE 1
a. A 30 angle
b. A 45 angle
(a)
(b)
Note
EXAMPLE2
a.
b.
c.
180
0
d. A -90 angle
Figure
e. A 270 angle
r ,
l
(d)
(c)
6.6
Each degree has 60 minutes and each minute has 60 seconds.
(e)
In short, 60'
1" and 60"
1'.
Draw each angle with the initial side along the positive x-axis.
a. 120
Solution:
c. A 180 angle
b. -270
c. 450
Let OA be the initial side. Now move in the

counter clockwise direction and trace 120
degrees (Figure 6.7(a)).
(a)
Let OA be the initial side. For a negative

angle we move in clockwise direction and trace
270 (Figure 6.7(b)).
Let OA be the initial side. For positive angles

we move in the counter clockwise direction.
Since one complete movement of OA is

360. after one complete revolution we trace
an additional 90 (Figure 6.7(c)).
Two angles in the standard position are called
coterminal angles if they share the same
terminal side.
_,..
L
(b)
450
(c)
Figure
6.7
Look at the previous example. Angles -270 and 450 from Example 2b and 2c above
are coterminal. as you can clearly see from the Figure 6.7 b) and c); they share the same
terminal side - positive y-axis.
As another example. the angle 30 is coterminal with 390 and also with -330.
Note that to find the coterminal angle with a given angle we can add or subtract 360
from the given angle as many times as we want.
We conclude that there are infinitely many angles that are coterminal with a given angle.
347
CHAPTER 6:
Circular F unc
ti ons oi -\ngle
EXAMPLE3
Find an angle between 0 and 360 that is coterminal

a.
Solution:
b.
a.
420
b.
-600
here, we subtract 360, so 420-360 = 60
To find the coterminal angle
To find the coterminal angle here, we
EXAMPLE4
Write the angles 42
Solution:
Since each minute is
25' 40" as
:o
add 360, so (-600) + 360 = -240
a decimal to the nearest one-thousandth of a degree.
of a degree and each second is
(1)0
420 25' 40" = 420 + 25
60
(
1
+ 40 3600
= 42 + .417 + .01
= 42.428
where the answer is rounded to 3
77
The exact answer 1s 42
180
.
with
decimal places.
:00
42 + 25(60 J +401 J
42 + 12+ 90
42 + +w 44
42 42180
of a degree,
77
*.
360
2. RADIANS
measure of an angle is more natural and useful in the study of circular functions and calculus
than is the degree measure. We defme the radian measure of an angle as follows:
The radian
6.8, the initial side OA = radius of the circle

= r and OB is the terminal side of the angle 8. Let the arc length
AB be s. The radian measure of the angle 8 is defined by the ratio
of the arc length s and the radius r of the circle.
In Figure
In short,
Figure 6.8
8 = -.
r
Remark:
1 radian
the angle subtended at the center of a circle by
an arc whose length is equal to the radius of the circle.
Figure
6.9 shows
EXAMPLES
an angle of
1 radian. The arc length= radius.
Find the radian measure of each angle in Figure 6.10.

B
Fleure 6.10
348
(2Sr
\JA
Figure 6.9
6.1
Solutions:
a.
The radian measure of a in Figure 6.10 is given by the ratio of the arc length AB' and the
radius of the circle. Therefore, in this case
a
b.
2 radi ans.
(2 1t
Therefore, 90
= 1t
arc length
rad.ms
arc length AB
radius
Conversion Factors
;O
To convert radians to degrees:
Radians
If the radian measure of an angle is given in terms of
.
= 1t radians.
(!!OJ=
3.
radians
(:)
1 0
1 80
1t
I radian
"
1t, then just replace
1t
simplify to get the degree measure of the angle.
1800
- 3
600
Convert 120 to radians.
Solution:
We multiply 120 by the fac1Dr

Therefore, 120=
3 7t
3(1 00)
radians =
2
7.
EXAMPLE &
a.
(Degrees)
3 radians =
Solution:
2 (2n a)
To convert degrees to radians:
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 9
1.
1t
21t (radius)
- radians.
2
2. 1 o =
1. 180 = 1t radians
1t
2 (circumference)
Observations:
6.
Circumference
Similarly, the radian measure of the angle in Figure 6.10(c) is given by
180 =
Note
r---..
To fmd the radian measure of the angle in Figure 6. 10 (b), we need the arc length AB .
Since angle AOB is 90, so the arc length AB is one-fourth of the circumference of the
circle=
c.
; radians.
Convert to degrees.
a.
1 radian
We multiply 1 by the factor

decimal value. This gives
and obtain, 120

10
b.
180
1t
2700
( O)
1
with 1ao and
;.
2.3 radians
and then simplify by replacing 11: with its approximate
349
CHAPTER 6:
Circular F unc
ti ons oi -\ngle
( 180
1
1t
180
3.1416
57 3
Thus, 1 radian""' 57.3.
b.
Simllady,
, (.
2.3 radians=
180
7t
2.3
)c l
)0
( (2.3) 180
3_1416
Therefore, 2.3 radians;::; 131.78.
= 131.78
c. ARC LENGTH OF A SECTOR AND CIRCULAR COORDINATES
s
If we solve the formula 8 =- for s, we gets = r 8.
r
* This formula gives the arc length of the sector of a circle
of radius r and the central angle 8 (Figure 6.12).
A sector of a circle with

central angle e is the
shaded region in the
following figure.
Arc Length of a Sector
The arc lengths of a sector, of the circle of radius

r, with the central angle 8 radians is given by
s = r8
Remark:
EXAMPLE 10
Figure
6.12
Figure
6.11
The central angle ()must be in radians.
Find the arc length of each sector in Figure 6.13.
(a)
eA
(b)
Fleure 6.13
Solutions:
a.
In
b. In
Figure 6.13 (a), s = r8 = (5 m)
1 .05 m.
Figure 6.13 (b), frrst we write 150 in radians as
150 = 150 .
180
Nows = (2 in)
()
S1t
6
1t
fS1t l ..
l6
= 3 in
5.24 in
Circular Coordinate System
A coordinate system can be set up on a unit circle with radius equal to 1. Let the starting point of
the coordinate system be A(1, 0) on the positive x-axis (Figure 6.12a and Figure 6.12 b). The
350
6.1
positive direction is counter clockwise. For any real number t > 0, we say that on a unit circle a
point B, whose arc length from A is t units, has circular coordinate t, if the arc is measured in a
positive direction from A, and - t, if the arc is measured in a negative direction from A.
In Figure 6.12a, point B has a circular coordinate of t, and point C has a circular coordinate of
-t. We can use a Cartesian coordinate system in the same picture so that the center of the circle
coincides with the origin. A good intuitive way to think about circular coordinates can be as follows.
We can imagine that the real lineR is a flexible string, and we can wrap it around the circle starting
with the point A (see Figure 6.12 b to visualize it). Thus, we can pick any real number (point) ton
the line (string), wrap the string around the circle and see where our point t lands. If we wrap the
string in the positive (counter clockwise) direction, we end up with the point B = B(x, y) and the
central angle AOB having the arc length of s = t units (or s = t). In this case B has a circular
coordinate t. If we wrap the string in the opposite (clockwise) direction, we will end up at the point
C = C(x, -y) and the central angle AOC (symbolized as - e on the picture).
R
Figure 6.12a
Figure 6.12b
Let e be the radian measure ofthe angle AOB (Figure 6.12).

Sinces=re, and for a unit circler= 1, we haves = El. This shows that the radian measure of the
central angle is equal to the circular coordinate of B.
Consider the following Figure 6.13(c)
The radian measure of the angle AOB.
= Circular coordinate of B.
7r
6
The radian measure of the angle AOC.
= Circular coordinate of C.
7r
3
The radian measure of the angle AOD.
= Circular coordinate of D.
2"Tr
=
3
Figure 6.13(c)
D. THE RELATIONSIDP BETWEEN LINEAR AND ANGULAR SPEEDS
Consider a wheel of radius r with center at 0. The line joining the center, 0, and a point P on the rim
is called a radial line (Figure 6.14).
351
CHAPTER 6:
Cir<"ul.u F um1ions oi Angl<'s
Suppose this wheel is rotating at a constant rate about an axis

perpendicular to the wheel and passing through 0. Further,
suppose that the radial line OP turns through an angle f) radians
in time t. The angular speed of the wheel is denoted by the
Greek letter ill (omega) and is given by
e
ill =
t
Figure 6.14
In other words, the angular speed is the angle (in radians) swept
in one unit of time.
If point P travels a distance sin time t (Figure 6.15), then the

linear speed of point P is denoted by v and is given by
s
v-t .
Figure 6.15
Relationship between Linear and Angular Speeds
s= r 8,
e
= rt
t
=>
=>
v= r ill
Thus, we have the following relationship between the linear and angular speeds.
Relation between Linear and Angular Speeds
For an object that travels at a constant rate along a circular path of radius
r, the linear speed v and the angular speed w are related as
v= r
EXAMPLE 11
Each wheel of a bicycle is of radius 1.5ft . If the wheels ar e making two revolutions per
second, how fast is the bicycle moving on the road?
Solution:
The angular speed
m=
two revolutions/sec
ill = 2(21t)/sec
= 4n:/sec
Therefore, v= rill = 1.5 (41C)= 61C ""' 18.85 ft./sec ""' 12.85 miles/hr.
(44ft/sec= 30 miles/hr)
EXERCISE 6.1
In exercises (1-12), draw the angle with initial side along the positive x-axis (standard position).
1. 45
2. 150"
3. -60
4.
-150"
5. 270
7.
-360"
8.
390"
9. 510
10. -390"
11. 750"
In exercises (13-20), write the angle as a decimal to the nearest one-thousandth of a degree.
13. 57 25'
17. 81 32' 42"
352
14. 76 10'
15. 30 45"
16. 85 42"
18. 45 35' 50"
19. 25 50' 40"
20. 118 52' 36"
6. 300
12.-765
6.1
In
exercises (21-30), convert to the radian measure.
21.
45
22. -60
26.
- 135
27. 300
23. 150
28. -390
In exercises (31-38), convert to the degree measure.

31.
1.22 radians
35.
-4.27 radians
5n:
.
32. 6radians
40.
42.
43.
30. 750
29. 410
- :1t
33. -3 radians
34. 3.42 radians
37.
38. 12.73 radians
In exercises (39-44), find the radian measure of the angle ().

39.
25. 108
24. 240
111t
6 radians
5.2
41.
44.
22.5
15.5
In exercises (45-54), find the arc length of the sector whose central angle() and radius rare indicated.
45.
49.
53.
55.
1t
= '3 and r = 6
1t
46. 8 = 4 and r = 2
50. 8
= 120 and r = 5
= 4.2 radians and r = 2.1 54.
47. 8 = and r = 2.5
= 150 and r = 1.5 51. 8 = 42 and r = 2
48. 8 = 1.3 radians and

52. 8 =
=3
71t
6 and r = 3.5
= 300 and r = 4
If a nautical mile is the arc length intercepted on the surface of the earth by a central angle of one minute, find
the number of feet in one nautical mile. (Assume that the radius of the earth is 2.09
7
10 feet.)
56.
Find the measure of the central angle made by an arc length of 56485 yards on the surface of the earth, assuming
7
that the radius of the earth is 2.09 x 10 feet.
57.
One end of a cable is attached to a circular drum of radius two feet and
the other end of the cable is attached to a heavy piece of equipment;
the equipment can be pulled by rotating the drum about its axis. If the
equipment is to be moved approximately 5 inches, find the number of
degrees the drum must be turned.
58.
Drum
Equipment
A stone is stuck in the tread of a tire of a bicycle. If the radius of the bicycle tire is 18 inches, find the distance
moved by the stone in
revolution of the tire.
59.
The latitude of Washington, D.C. is 38 54' north of the equator. Assume that the radius of the earth is 4000 miles,
and estimate the land distance from the equator to Washington, D.C.
60.
A city is south of the equator. If the land distance of the city from the equator is 2560 miles, find the latitude of the
city. Assume that the radius of the earth is 4000 miles.
353
CHAPTER 6:
In exercises (61-68), the rate of rotation of a wheel and its radius are given, imd (a) the angular speed in radians per
second (b) the linear speed in fUsee.
4 revolution/sec, r = 2 ft.
64.
6 revolutions/sec, r = 9 inches.
67.
1200 rpm, r =8ft.
69.
A car is moving at the speed of 60 miles per hour. If the radius of its wheels (up
70.
71.
62.
12 revolutions/sec, r = 5ft.
61.
65. 1500/sec, r = 8 inches
68. 1400 rpm, r= 6 inches
63.
revolution/sec, r =4ft.
66. 1800/sec, r = 2 ft. 6 in.
the angular speed of the wheels in radians per minute.
to tire tread) is 2.5 feet, find
An automobile is moving at the speed of 40 miles per hour. If the radius of its wheels (up to tire tread) is
1.5 feet, find (a) the rpm of the wheels (b) the angular speed of the wheels in radians per minute.
A boy is riding a bicycle at the speed of 10 mph. The diameter of each wheel is 26 inches. Find the rpm of each
wheel.
72.
In a ski resort, a big wheel of radius 6 feet pulls the cable as shown
in the diagram. Find the rpm of the wheel, if the cable chairs are
moving at a speed of 5 mph.
Writing Exercises
73.
How
74.
Explain the difference between the angular and linear
75.
Explain what is meant by the circular coordinate of a point on a unit circle.
are
two measures 'degrees' and 'radians' of angles related?
speeds.
6.2 CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES

Objectives
Ill' Ill'
A.
B.
C.
Circular Functions of Angles;
Evaluating Circular Functions;
and
Signs of Circular Functions of

Angles.
In this section, we shall generate functions, called circular function,
that take angles as their inputs. To be able to write precise

expressions for these functions, we consider angles traced by
radial lines in a unit circle. The resulting circular functions are
named as sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant, and
cotangent. We shall refer to them as trigonometric functions,
which is more conventional, after we put all our knowledge about
these functions together in Section 6.4.
A. CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES

Inchapter 4, we learned how to generate functions. We use the same procedure to generate circular functo
i ns.
Step
We draw a circle. Let the radius of the circle be 1 and

its center be at the origin. Let P(x, y) be any point on
the unit circle. We have a right triangle OMP with legs
having lengths x andy and hypotenuse 1 (the same as
the radius). Then by the Pythagorean theorem, we have
(horizontal side)2 +(vertical side)2
(radius)2
Hence x2 +I= 1 (See Figure 6.16).
354
Flgare 6.16
6.2
Step 2
Step 3
Crculdr F uncti o n '> of Ang iPs
Let LAOP= 8 (radians) (Figure 6.16). The circular coordinate of P is 8.

Suppose that 8 is changing, i.e. the point P is moving along the unit circle.
y
(b)
(a)
(c)
Figure 6.17
We see that the height PM (Figures 6.17(a), (b) and (c)) is changing as 8 changes. In
other words, the height PM depends upon the angle 8. We introduce the sine function
to describe this dependency. Therefore, the sine function depends on the angle 8 and its
output is the height PM. We write this as
sine( B)= PM= y.
The abbreviation for sine is "sin" so sin( 8)= y.

We also observe from Figures 6.17(a), (b) and (c) that the horizontal distance OM
changes as 8 changes. This means OM depends on 8. We introduce the cosine function
to describe this dependency. We write this as
cosine($)= OM= x
The abbreviation for cosine is "cos" so cos( 8)= x
Similarly, we can generate four other circular functions. We list all six circular functions
with abbreviation in the following:

If P(x, y) is any point on the unit circle and
LAOP= 8 (radians) (Figure 6.18), then
sine( B) = sin( B)= y,
cosine($) = cos( B)= x.

tangent( B)
cosecant( B)
secant( B)
tan(8) = l..., (x
csc(8) =
= sec( 8) =
cotangent($)= cot ( 8)=
0)
Y, (y * 0)
1
Figure 6.18
, (x * 0), and
Y, (y * 0)
X
355
CHAPTER 6:
Circul.1r F unctions oi AngiPs
Remarks:
sin(B)= y-coordinate of the point whose circular coordinate is 8,
1.
or where the tenninal side of the angle e intersects the unit circle.
cos(8) = x-coordinate of the point whose circular coordinate is e

or where the terminal side of the angle e intersects the unit circle.
2.
'
sin (0)
.
cos(e)
3.
tan(B)=
4.
csc(B)=
5.
For each circular function, the input is an angle (measured in radians) and the output is a real number.
6.
7.
sin(B)
,sec(B)=
cos(O),
and cot(O)=
Since 7!- + y2 = 1 , so (cos(8)) + (sin(8))
- 1 sin (6) 1
-1cos (6) 1
tan(O).
= 1.
B. EVALUATING CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
the next four examples we evaluate circular functions for the special angles such 0, , : ,
3 and 2.
Compute the values of six circular functions of angle
0
2
We
trace
the
angle
0
with
the
initial
side
of
the
anglecoordinates
in the standard
position
(positive
x-axis).
The
of
the
point
where
the
terminal
side
meets
the
unit
circle
0)
(Figure
Now we use the ns write each value.
sin(O) y-coordinate 0
cos(O) x-coordinate
y - coordnateate _!! = 0
tan (O) x-coordi
esc(0) sin(O) 0 undefined
sec(0) cos(O)
cot(O) tan(O) 0 undefined(=)
Now we trace angle with the side ofthe angle in the
standard position.
where6.2the0).
terminal
side meetsThethecoordinates
unit circle of the(0,point(Figure
In
will
7r
all
7r
all
EXAMPLE 1
a.
Solutions:
as
b.
a.
are
definitio
can
6.19).
Figure 6.19
=1
(=)
1
=- = 1
1
b.
(1,
to
7r
P(O, 1)
initial
are
356
1)
Figure 6.20
6.2
Therefore, by definitions ofthe circular function, we get

sin ()
cos () x
() = !
=
= y = 1,
= 0,
tan
1. = 11= sec (1t)2 =

esc ('Ttl2 l= sml
()
2
1t
1,
cot () = since x
0,
EXAMPLE2
Solution:
0 and
y=
1 =1
cosl 2 )
1.
r 1t
Crculdr F uncti o n '> of Ang iPs
undefined ( )
undef"med
oo
),
and
Evaluate six circular functions for .

Let
al sidepoints
ofthe angle
the tenninaltheside.initiThe
and andare on thebe
unit circle and
: (Figure 6.21). Since
is
isosceles,
or
x
This
means
that the coordinates of the point are
(x, x). Since the point P(x, x) is on the unit circle,
therefore,
its
coordinates
must
satisfy
the
equati
o
n
of the circle. This gives
_x2+_x2=1 or 2_x2= 1 or _x2= _!2
or x (choosing the positive root because Pis in the first quadrant). Thus,
the coordinates of the point ( , J. we
fimclions
for the angle 4 . The values
all
--
--
OA be
LAOP =
OB = PB
OBP
OP
y.
Figure 6.21
P are
1t
are:
Now
can evaluate
all circular
tan()== 1
J2
=I
357
CHAPTER 6:
EXAMPLE 3
Solutions:
Evaluate circular functions of = .

Figure 6.22(a) shows the angle LAOP . The point
P(x, y) is the point where the tenninal side of the
angle : the unit circle. We need to find the
coordinates
the point
Let Q(x,the -y)x-axisbe
the
reflection(x,ofy)theofpoint
P(x, y)P.through
(Figure 6.22). Obviously, the angle LAOQ = and
consequently the angle LPOQ = 3 or
Since
the
sides
OP
and
OQ
of
the
triangle
OPQ
are
equal,
bei
n
g
equal
to
radius
so
LOPQ = LOQP.
By the fact that the sum of the angles of a triangle is or radians, we conclude that
LOPQ = LOQP = and the triangle OPQ is anequilateraltriangle. For an equilateral triangle,
all sides are equal therefore PQ and y 21 (PQ) 21 .
Using this value ofyin the equation of the circle gives
all six
(a)
meets
(b)
1t
Figure 6.2l
60.
each
180
=1
----+>
>
1,
1t
il
=3
4
= J3
X
2
(x is positive in the first quadrant)
Now we know the coordinates of the point P ( , ).

Hence, by the definitions, the values of the circular functions for the angle
are
358
are:
6. 2
EXAMPLE4
Solution:
1t
Evaluate all six circular function of 8 = 3 .
y
1t
F1gure 6.23 shows the angles LAOQ = 6 and
LAOP = 7t
3
subtracting
Since LAOQ = 7t = LPOB (by

6
- ).
rc/6
DOP is congruent to
COQ. Therefore, DO = OC and PD = CQ.

Thus Q is the reflection of P in the straight line
f)= 7t
4
or
y =X.
From Example
3, the coordinates of the point Q are
Consequently, the * coordinates of the point P are
(, ) .
( 1 J3
2 .
l2,
By using the definitions, we now evaluate each circular function for
The reflection of the point

Q(x, y) through the line y
is !!he point P(y, x).
. These values
are
and
Remark:
We summarize the results of Examples 1, 2, 3, and 4 in the form offolU1wing mini-table.
MiDi'lllble
0
EXAMPLES
sin
cos
tan
- - - - 7t
1
2
..fi
.J3
./3
..fi
1
-
.fj
J3
undefined (oo)
(- , j
2
2
1t
7t
2
2
7t
Memorizing Aid
Memorize the second row.

Note
.JO
2
and 1
14
2
Write values in the second row

in the reverse order to get the
third row of the table. Divide
values of the second row by the
values of the third row to obtain
the values of the last row of the
table.
2 \
y is a point on the unit circle in the third quadrant. Let 9 be the radian
3
measure of the angle in standard position with P on the terminal side, so that 9 is the circular
coordinate of P. Evaluate all the circular functions of 9.
Suppose
359
CHAPTER 6:
Solution:
Figure 6.24 shows the position of the point
P(- , )
y .
To find the y-coordinate of the point
P, we use the fact that the point is on the unit

circle. Therefore, its coordinates must satisfy the
equation of the circle. This gives:
y2=
->
y= -
=1
- 94
.f.!. 35_
5
=9
(In the third quadrant y is negative.)

Thus, the coordinates of the point P
are
Using the definitions, we have

sin(8)=y=-
(2
l-
5]
-3, -3 -
.J5
- .... :13
tan( 8)= . . = .=2
X
-2/
y
Figure 6.24
COS ( 8)= X=
1
=
csc ( 8) =
sin(8)
cot ( 8)=
C.
2
-3
3
.J5
1
2
=
tan(B)
.J5
SIGNS OF CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES
The following examples will establish a criterion for determining the sign of a circular function when the
angle is in the first, second, third, or fourth quadrant.
EXAMPLE &
Indicate the signs of sin( 8), cos( 8), and tan(8) if the terminal side of the angle 8 (with
the initial side in the standard position) is in the
a.
Solutions:
a.
first quadrant
b. second quadrant
c. third quadrant
Let OP be the terminal side of the angle 8 (Figure 6.25(a)).

Since P(x, y) is in the first quadrant, bothx andy are positive
d. fourth quadrant
y
numbers.
Consequently,
sin(8)= y > 0,
cos(8)= x > 0, and tan(8)= L > 0 .

X
Thus, sine, cosine, and tangent of the angle 8 are all positive
ifthe terminal side of the angle is in the first quadrant
360
Figure 6.25(a)
6.2
Crculdr F uncti o n '> of AngiPs
Let OP be the terminal side of the angle f)

(Figure 6.25(b)). Since P(x, y) is in the
second quadrant, x is a negative number and
y is a positive number.
b.
Consequently,
sin(fJ) = y > 0, cos(fJ) = x < 0, and
c.,
d.
Remark:
Figure 6.25(b)
S imilarly, we can show that only thetangent is positive when the terminal side ofthe angle is
in the third quadrant and only the cosine is positive when fJis in the fourth quadrant.
Since the above results are very important in determining the signs of circular
functions for a given angle 8, we write them in a form that is easy to memorize.
All
Students
Take
Calculus,
where
means that all circular junction are positive in the first quadrant.
A
S
means that only sine is positive in the second quadrant.
means that only tangent is positive in the third quadrant.

means that only cosine is positive in the fourth quadrant.
Note
tan(fJ) = 1._ < 0 .
1.
This rule applies only to sine, cosine and tangent.
2.
Since coterminal angles share the same terminal side, the value of any circular
For each of the other three functions,
consider their reciprocals.
function for any given angle e is same as its value for its coterminal angle.
For example,
sin (30) = sin (390) =sin (-330") or cos 120 = cos 480".
EXERCISE
6.2
In exercises (1-19), f'md the exact values of the six circular functions for the given angle e, if they exist, using the
unit circle approach. Do not use a calculator.
31t
e-- 1.
e = 1t
6.
e=
1t
__
2.
G = - 180"
3.
e = 270
4.
7.
e--1t.
- 3
8.
e = 390
9.
91t
11. e = 4
12. G = 300
13. e= -330
16. e = -300"
17. G =
131t
3
18. e = 6
231t
5.
G = 51t
2
G = -30"
10. G = 420
15. G =
14. G = 120
51t
19. G = -480"
In exercises (20-40), the initial side of the angle 8 is in the standard position and P(x, y) is the point where the
terminal side of the angle meets the unit circle. Find the values of the six: circular functions of angle 8.
23.
... 2
( ,.... ,....)
...
p -3 -' --3 -
361
CHAPTER 6:
Circul<tr Functions of Angles
( )
p () 4 l
28. ( )
29. p(- )
3.2. P(x,- n
33. ( )
( , )
37. ( 153)
( -)
(41-52),
41. (sinl )r +(cosl )r =1
1+(t.m(\\2)) =Ilsecl: )r
1+(cot(_:\\2
)) =IlcsclI_:)r
47. () l ) l )
49. 2(coalo )r -1=cosl )
51. 3sinl0)-4(sinlo)J
53.
values angle
cos =i
values
= .
24.
P -3 4
lS.
5' 5
9>
35.
P -
38.
In exercises
P x.
.y
34.
P x,-
45.
cos 0 =sin j
=sin
Write three
54.
x,
40.
.,
( )
p-
,.
of
) for which
44.
tan
2sin 4
so.
Describe how each circular function is defined.
55.
56. Use the unit
57. Prove that s + =1
TbiDk Conc:eptually
circle to explain why sin( 0)
co 2 e
sin2 )
in 60) ::f:. sin(90).
3 +s (
,- .
()
cot
of angle ) for which sin )
Write four
\?.
()I
cos 4
\\2
=sin
5
13
Pis in quadrant IV
y
4.2. (sinlo)r +(coslo)r =1

)2
1+(
46. 1+( (\\))2=lcI sclI))2
48. l ) l ) (i)
1-2(sinl:)) =cosl )
5.2. (coslo)J-(sinlo)J=cos(1)
Writing Exercises
362
P x,-
p is in quadrant n
P -2
,, -
verify the statements by substituting the values of the circular functions.
43.
2sin
30.
Pis in quadrant m
P x.
_2_ _12
13' 13
>
27. ( )
31. ( )
26. p( )
( )
( )
36. (Jf l
39. (-; J
6.3
In
EvALUATING CIRCULAR FuNCTIONS

the previous section, the mini-table listed the exact values of the
circular functions for only a few special angles. In this section, we
shall show how to use the mini-table to evaluate a circular function
for other angles. We shall also learn how to approximate the value
of a circular function by using a calculator.
Objectives
1)1.
In this section we shall learn
about:
A. The Reference Angle; and
B.
The Exact Values of Circular

Functions.
A. THE REFERENCE ANGLE

The mini-table has angles between 0 and 90. Before we attempt to refer to the table for exact values
of circular functions, we must devise a way to relate a given angle to one of the angles in the table.
For this, we introduce the following idea of the
reference angle.
The Reference Angle

e is in its standard position, then the acute angle
that the terminal side makes with the x-axis is called the reference angle of
e. The measure of the reference angle is always positive.
If the initial side of an angle
EXAMPLES:
1.
The reference angle of 120 is obtained by first drawing

the angle and then determining the acute angle between
the terminal side of the angle and the x-axis
(Figure 6.26). Since

angle is
2.
60.
The reference angle of
Figure 6.26
225 is 45, because the acute
angle between the terminal side of the angle and the

x-axis is
3.
1800-60 = 120, the reference
45 (Figure 6.27).
The reference angle of
111t
.
ts
1[.
because the acute
angle between the terminal side of the angle and the

x-axis is 21t -
1t = .
(Figure 6.28).
363
CHAPTER 6:
Cirrul,u F unct ions of Angle
B. THE EXACT vALUES OF CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
We note that the circular functions are defmed for angles that are measured in radians. To compute
circular functions of an angle given in degrees we must convert it to its equivalent radian measure. We
generally do this conversion mentally. For an angle e, the exact value of a circular function is computed
Y
as follows:
Find the exact value of cos(150).
EXAMPLE 1
Solution:
Step 1
Trace the angle with the initial side in the

standard position (Figure 6.29(a)).
Step 2
Compute the reference angle (Figure 6.29(b)).

In this case the reference angle is 30.
Step 3
Use the mini-table to find the value of the

circular function for the reference angle.
Figure 6.29(a)
In this example,
Figure 6.29(b)
By knowing the quadrant in which the terminal side of the angle lies (Step 1) and by using
Step 4
the scheme
In
.J3
we fmd cos(30) = 2
*
c
, we affix the appropriate sign to the answer in Step 3.
this case, the terminal side of the angle is in the second quadrant, and the cosine is negative in the
.J3
second quadrant. The exact value of cos(150) = -2.

Find the exact value of:
EXAMPLE2
Solutions:
a.
a.
sin(225)
b. tan(225)
We trace the angle 225 with the initial side in

the standard position. (Figure 6.30 (a)).
The reference angle is 45 (Figure 6.30 (b)).
(Since 225 - 180 = 45)
sin(45) =
(From the mini-table)
Since the terminal side of the angle is in the third

quadrant, the sine is negative. Thus, the exact
value of sin(225) is -
b.
384
tan 45 = 1
In this case, the tangent is positive. Therefore, tan (225) = 1 .
Figure 6.30(a)
y
225
Figure 6.30(b)
..
6 !
Ev.tlu.Jting Circul.tr Functions
EXAMPLE 3
a. esc (- 120)
Solutions:
a.
Figure 6.31 (a) shows the angle -120.

The reference angle is 60 (Figure 6.31 (b)),
since -120 - (- 1 80) = 60.
1
1
csc(60o) = sin (600) =
J3
Since the terminal side of the angle is in the third

quadrant, the sine is negative and therefore
cosecant is negative. Thus, the exact value of
Figure 6.31(a)
2
2 _3
.
esc (-120) ts - o = ---
'\ 3
b.
1
sec(60o) =
cos (600)
In
=2 .
the third quadrant, the cosine or secant is negative. Therefore, sec (-120) = -2.
lT
Solutions:
a.
1
1
2

tm
a. cos
EXAMPLE 4
Figure 6.31(b)
r-
b.
Figure 6.32(a) shows the angle
tm
tanlT
;.
The reference angle (Figure 6.32(b)) .
lS
1t!
"
67t- 1t 1t
57t
=
3
3
=3
Figun: 6.32(a)
1
cos 3 = cos(60) =
.
2
Since the terminal side of the angle is in
the fourth quadrant, the cosine is positive.
Thus, the exact value of cos
(s;)
is
;.
Sr./3
Figure 6.32(b)
365
CHAPTER 6:
b.
EXAMPLE 5
(1t
tanlJ \j =tan(60o)=J3
Since the tangellt is negative in the fourth quadrant, so tan
(s;) = - .J3 .
y
Find the exact value of sin(1050).
Solution:
Theangle is lm:ger than36()0. Therefore, first we find the

numberofcompleterevolutions. Forthis, we divide 1050
by 360. The quotient is 2, and the remainder is 330.
Hence 1050 2 360 + 330. This shows that the angle
of 1050 consists of2 complete revolutions of360 and

then an angle of 330. Thus, sin(1050) sin(330).
These two angles are coterminal. Now use the above
steps.
Ffpre 6.33(a)
Figure 6.33( a) shows the angle 330.
=
= .
The reference angle for 330 is 30,

since 30 360- 330. (Figure 6.33(b) ) .
sin(30)
F'JgUR 6.33(b)
The sine is negative in the fourth quadrant, so

sin(330)
=-
oo the
= .
=
side
. Thus, sin(1050)
The above example shows that if an angle 6 can be written as 6 360 X k + a, where k is
an integer and a < 360, then T(e) T(a) for any circular function T, since the angle a
and angle e share
same terminal
and thus they are coterminal angles.
EXAMPLE&
Use a calculator to detennine an approximate value of each.
Solution:
a.
a.
b. esc (175.52)
cos (73.25)
Since the angles are in degrees, select

'Degree' in the MODE-menu.
the function
sin,
cos, or tan.
.288196268134
"".29
Since there is no cosecant key, first we find sin (175.52) and then invert the answer with
x1 key. This gives
sin(175.52)"" .078111101158.
Therefore, csc(175.52) "" (.0781111)"1 "" 12.8.
366
On many calculators, the

angle is entered followed by
Press "cos" followed by 73.25. Now press ENTER. It displays

cos 73.25
b.
6 ..
!
EXAMPLE 7
Solutions:
a.
Use a calculator to determine an approximate value of:

a. tan (2)
b. sec (1.3)
In this example. the angles are in radians, therefore, select 'Radian' in the MODE menu.
Press tan 2 and press ENTER.
Therefore. tan(2) "" -2.19

h
Solution:
It
displays tan 2 = -2.18503986326.
First, compute cos (1.3). We get cos 1.3
.267498828625.
Now use x- 1 key to invert the above answer, we get

sec (1.3)
EXAMPLE S
= 3.738334127
or
sec (1.3) ., 3.74
Find all angles in [0, 360) that have sin (8) =
.-
Since sine is negative, the terminal side of the angle is either in the third or fourth quadrant
(Figure 6.34).
y
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.34
From the mini-table, the sine is
when the angle is 60. This means that the reference
angle in the above figure is 60 (Figure 6.35).

y
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.35
By reading the angles in Figures 6.35(a) and (b), we get two angles.
180 + 60
240 and 360 - 60
300, respectively .
Thus. the angles in [0. 360) that have a sine of
.-
-23- are
240 and 300.
367
CHAPTER 6:
EXAMPLE 9
Solution:
Use a calculator to find all possible angles e in [0, 360) for which cos e = 0.7385.
Round the answers to 2 decimal places.
Since cosine is positive, the terminal side of the angle is either in the first or fourth quadrant
(Figure 6.36).
Fiaure 6.36
Tofindanangleforwhichcosineis .7385, weuseacalculatoras fullows:

Select 'Degree' in the MODE-menu. EXIT from the MODE-menu.
*
the rec iprocal of cos

Instead the c o s
Press cos-1 and enter .7385 at the blinking cursor.
Press ENTER.
The display shows the angle as 42.3962051351
Thus, cos-1 .7385 = 42.3962051351 o
,.
does not represent

-1
x.
key
reverses the c o s i n e as
=
.7385
cos-1
follows
o.
cos
42.4
a
a
The
This means that the reference angle is 42.4 (Figure 6.37(a) and (b)).
studied
.7385
in depth later.
fun c t i o n
will
be
(a)
Flaare 6.37
(b)
Reading the angles (in counter clockwise direction) gives 42.4 in Figure 6.37(a) and
360 - 42.4 = 317.6 in Figure 6.37(b).
Thus, the approximate angles that have a cosine of .7385 are 42.4 and 317.6.
EXAMPLE 10
In Figure 6.38, the area under the curve y = sin(x)

from x = 0 to x =
can be approximated by the
sum of the areas of the shaded rectangles. Find the

estimated area.
tr.'/6
!C'/3
Figure 6.38
Solution:
368
The height of the first rectangle = the value of the function at
!C'/2
- , = sinlfn;6 \j = 12
6 ..
!
(7t)
( )
1t
The height of the second rectangle = the value of the function at 3 = sin
The height of the third rectangle = the value of the function at
)
l6
= sin
J3
3 = 2.
=l
By applying the formula that the area of the rectangle equals (base) (height),
we get the area of the first rectangle = (base) (height) =
We get the area of the second rectangle = (base) (height) =

We get the area of the third rectangle = (base) (height) =
1t
_'31t 1t 31t + '37t
=
+
12
12 u + 6
1t (3
(1t
'It
= li
_'3J
l6
+ 3)
12
(Tt y
.J3Jc
2 =u
l6
Therefore, the estimated area under the curve

= sum of the areas of the three rectangles
(1t
1)
=6
'It
:;:; 124
EXERCISE 6.3
In exercises (1-21), find the reference angle of the given angle.
1.
8.
15.
60"
41t
3
-280
1t
2.
9.
16.
3.
21t
3
150"
41t
10.
330
17.
21t
4.
120"
5.
108
11.
225
12. -'lJ:I.J>
13.
18.
400
19.
20. fJ}ff
6.
-i1t
-165
71t
14.
4
21. 1538
7.
31t
In exercises (22-40), find the exact values of the circular functions.

22.
24.
26.
28.
30.
a. tan
(210)
a. sin (300)
a. cos (-120)
a. sec(585)
a. sin (600)
32.
a.
34.
a.
sin (1t )
sm. c4
51t )
sec (210)
b. cot (300)
b. tan (-120)
b. tan (585)
b. cos (600)
b.
b.
b.
cos (4;)
sin (210)
c. cos (300)
c. cot (-120)
c. sin (585)
c. cot (600)
c.
cos C)
cot (135)
25. a.
(-45)
27. a. sec (-210)
29. a. sin (480)
31. a. cot(-390)
7
33.
a. cos (- :
23. a.
tan
35.
a.
tan
)
( 11t )
-3
cos (135)
b. csc(-45)
b. cot(-210)
b. cot (480)
b. csc(-390)
esc (135)
c. sec (-45)
sin (-210)
c. sec (480)
c. cos (-390)
b.
b.
b.
c.
c.
esc (- 7:)
cos (-3
- ] 1t
369
CHAPTER 6:
36.
38.
40.
Cirrul,u F u nct ions oi Ang le'
l ln )
sm. (6
(4
a. sin )
a.
a.
sin (1830)
b.
cos (lln)
6
cos (--4.-3n.)
b. cos (-1830)
b.
37.
a.
39.
a.
sm. (--6Cn )
b.
esc ( -ln)
-2
b.
cos (-l_n-)
cot ( -Jn)
-2
In exercises (41-54), use a calculator to determine an approximate value ofthe circular functions.
41.
46.
51,
sin(59.32)
42. tan (175.15)
cos (120 35' 20") 47. sec (310.35)
esc (1.2)
52, sin (45 37')
43.
48.
53.
cot (85.41 )
cos (2.15)
tan (185 25' 35")
cos (160.21 ) 45. esc (190.37)

49. sin (3.7)
50. sec (5.3)
54. cos (280 15' 32")
44.
In exercises (55-79), find all e in [0, 360) for which the circular function is equal to the indicated value.
58. tan(8) = -1
56. sin ( 8 ) = 59. csc(8) =
57. sec(8) = 2
sin(8) = .!.2
61. cos(9) = -1
63. sin(9) = 0
62. sin(8) = 1
60.
sec(8) = -J2
65. esc (8) = J2
67. esc (8) = -J2
66. cot (8) = -1
64. tan (8) = .fi
68.
sec (8) = --, 3' 69. sin(8) = .5725
70. cos(8) = -.2317
71. cot(8) = 4.3172
72. sec(8) = 1.9813 73. sin(8) = -.2781
74. cos(8) = .4312
75. tan(8) = -5.6183
79. tan(8) = 11.6219
78. sin(8) = -.3784
76.
sec(8) = -8.2713 77. csc(8) = 6.1125
80.
Refer Figure 6.39. The area under the curve
y = cos(x) from x = 0 x = i can be approximated
by the sum of the areas of the shaded rectangles. Find the
estimated area.
55.
to
to
81.
82.
Refer to exercise 80. Suppose the end points of the bases of rectangles are at
n n n 5n n
0, 12n , 6,
4, 3, 12, 2. Now estimate the area under the curve.
Refer Figure 6.40. The area under the curve
y = sin (x) from x = 0 x = i can be approximated
by the sum of the areas of the shaded rectangles. Find the
estimated area.
J!igore 6.39
to
to
Writing Exercises
83. Explain the use of "reference angle".

84. Describe the procedure of evaluating a circular function of an angle.
370
J!igore 6.40
--
3'
6.4
Trigonometric Functions oi Angles.
6.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES

Pythagoras, a Greek mathematician, discovered the famous
relationship between the squares on the sides of a right triangle.
Trigonometry (trigonon, meaning triangle, and metria meaning
measurement) involves the study ofright triangles but focuses on the
ratios ofthe sides of a right triangle. In this section, we shall show
that the functions of angles (measured in radians) that are defined in
tenns ofthe ratios ofthe sides of a right triangle are the same as the
circular functions defined in Section 6.2.
A.
Objectives
Ill' Ill'
A.
B.
c.
The Trigonometric Functions;

Functions; and
Applications of Trigonometric
The Area of a Triangle.
THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Suppose ilOBA has a right angle at B, and e is the measure of LAOB in radians.
Figure 6.39
0:
Let us study the ratio of the side AB opposite
to the angle 8
and the hypotenuse OA in Figure 6.39. Clearly, the ratio
: depends upon the angle 8
; that is, the ratio
: is a
function of 8. Let us label this as the first trigonometric

function T1 In short, T1(8) =
:.
Ffp:re 6.40
Assume that the initial side OB of the angle 8 is in the standard position and the vertex 0 is at the origin.
We superimpose a unit circle as shown in Figure 6.40.
In Figure 6.40, the triangles OAB and OPM are similar. So, we have
T1(8) =
: = : = i = y = sin 8
(Section 6.2).
Therefore, the trigonometric function T1 is the same as the circular function "sine".
More generally, for a right triangle LlABC with right angle at B (Figure 6.41), we can show that the
trigonometric function defined by the ratio of the side CB adjacent to the angle LC and the
hypotenuse CA is equal to the cosine function.
371
CHAPTE R 6:
Cir cul d r F unctiom of Angk'
We summaries the trigonometric functions as follows:

Trigonometric Functions of Angle e.
side opposite to angle e

.
sm(B) =
hypotenuse
cos( B) =
AB
AC
side adjacent to angle e

BC
=
AC
hypotenuse
tan ( B) =
side opposite to angle e AB

=
side adjacent to angle e BC
esc( & ) =
hypotenuse
side oppositetoangle e
hypotenuse
sec( 8) =
side adjacent to angle e
AC
AB
AC
BC
B
Figure 6.41
side adjacent to angle e BC

=
cot( B) =
side opposite to angle e AB
Note
We have assumed that the angle 8 is measured in radians.
When
the angle 8 is given in
degrees we instinctively use its radian equivalent without explicitly pointing that out in our
calculations. We shall continue to assume that the angle 8 is measured in radians in the following.
Fundamental Identities:
AB
1.
2.
AB
sin(8) AC
= tan(())
=
=
cos(O)
BC
BC
AC
sin(())
esc(B) .
AB = AB =
AC
3.
4.
sin(90 - 8)"'
Similarly,
AC
.1 1
r
ta
n
u
y,
= sec(()).
cos(O)
A
"' cos(()), Figure 6.42.
cos(90 - 8)"' sin(8).

The slope of a line with inclination ()
(the angle
that line makes with the positive direction of the
x-axis) can be expressed using a trigonometric
function of 8:
Slope of AB =
Rise
BC
.
tan(G), see FJgure 6.43.
"'
"'
Run
AC
The slope of a line with inclination e = tan e.
372
Figure 6A:Z
Figure 6.43
6.4
EXAMPLE 1
Determine all the six trigonometric functions of the indicated angles in each right triangle
in Figure 6.44.
L}
'
a.
c.
b.
Figure 6.44
Solutions:
a.
Tr i gonom<'tr K Fun<tion' oi Angle'
Let the length of the other leg of the triangle be x (Figure 6.44(a)). By the
Pythagorean theorem, we have
52
= 32 + Xl
>
25 = 9 + Xl
>
16 = Xl
--> .J16 = x --> x = 4
Now we can find the value of all six trigonometric functions of angle e. These are:
1
side opposite -3
.
sm(8) - hypotenuse - 5
side adjacent 4
cos (8) 5
hypotenuse
csc(O) = sin (8) = 3
side opposite 3
tan(O) = side adjacent = 4
sec( O) = cos(8) = 4
1
4
cot(8) = tan(S) = 3
Let the length of the other leg of the triangle be x (Figure 6.44(b)). By the Pythagorean
theorem we get
-->
169 = 25 + Xl
--> 144 = Xl
--> .Jt44 = X --> x = 12
Thus, the values of all six trigonometric functions of the angle a are:
side opposite - 12
.
sm(a) - hypotenuse - 13
side adjacent 5
cos (a) - hypotenuse - 13
side opposite 12
tan(a) = side adjacent = 5
c.
13
1
esc (a) = sin(a) = 12
1
13
sec (a) = cos(a) = 5
1
5
cot(a) = tan (a) = 12
Let the length of the hypotenuse be x (Figure 6.44(c)).

By the Pythagorean theorem we get
r = 22 + 52 = 4 + 25 = 29
--> X = .j29
373
CHAPTE R 6:
Circu l d r F unctio m of Angle
Therefore,
side opposite
2
.
sm(j)) = hypotenuse = .../29
1
.../29
esc (j)) = sin(j)) =
2
side opposite 2
=
tan(f3) side adjacent = 5
1
5
cot(j)) = tan(/3 ) = 2
1
.../29
=
sec ((3) = cos
(j)) -5-
side adjacent
5
cos ((3) = hypotenuse = .../29
EXAMPLE2
Given that 8 is an acute angle and sec ( 8) =

functions of the angle 8.
Solution:
If sec ( 8) =
; , then cos (8) =
; , find the values of all the trigonometric
We use a right triangle with hypotenuse of length 5
and side adjacent to the angle 8 of length 2. By using the Pythagorean theorem, we get
2 + ;?52 = 2
n
s
25 = 4 + x2
21 = ;?-
J2i
=X
Figure 6.45
Now we can evaluate all six trigonometric functions of angle 8.

sin( 8) =
side opposite J2i

hypotenuse = 5
1
5
csc(8) = sin(8) = J2i
1
5
sec(8) = cos(8) = 2
side adjacent 2
cos (8) = hypotenuse = 5
side opposite
tan( 8) - side adjacent

_
J2i
1
2
cot( 8) = tan (8) =
J2i
The next example shows how the definition of a trigonometric function can be extended
to angles other than acute angles.
EXAMPLE 3
Given that 1t < 8 <

angle 8.
Solution:
3; and cos (8) = , find all the trigonometric functions of the

-
First we disregard the sign in cos ( 8) =
and complete the right triangle
(Figure 6.46) where the hypotenuse is 5 and side adjacent to the angle is 2. By the
Pythagorean theorem, we have
52 = 22 + ;?25 = 4 + x2
21 = ;?-
J2i
374
=X
Figure 6.46
6.4
With each ratio obtained from this right triangle, we affix the sign according to the fact
(
31t
that the terminal side of the angle is in the third quadrant 1t < e < 2 . Thus we have:
side opposite
.J2i
.
sm(8)
= hypotenuse = - 5
= - 52
(cosine is negative in the third quadrant)
_
tan(8) -
side opposite J2j

- 2
s1'de ad'acent
sec(8) =
cos(8)
Solution:
1 = 5
-2
1 = 2
J2j
cot(8) = tan (e)
(tangent is positive in the third quadrant)
EXAMPLE 4
Given that e is an acute angle and cos ( 8) = u, find the other trigonometric functions of
the angle 8 in terms of u.
Because the angle 8 is acute, the terminal side of the angle is in the first quadrant.
Consequently, the values of all trigonometric functions are positive. We use the fact that
u side adjacent
cos ( 8) = u = - = ---h-= ypotenuse and complete the right triangle (Figure 6.47). By the
1
Pythagorean theorem we have:
11
_
_
_
_
12 = + x2
1 - u2 = x2
J1- u2 = x
x
8
L___
__d
u
Figure 6.47
By the definition, the other trigonometric functions of angle 8 are:

side opposite
.
_
sm(8) hypotenuse
cos ( 8) = u (given)
tan( 8) =
EXAMPLE S
- 2
= J1 1 u = v1-u
sde oosite
stde adJacent =
.Jh1
u
Given that e is an acute angle and tan (8) =
functions of the angle e.
Solution:
sin(S) = - J2j
(sine is negative in the third quadrant)

side adjacent
cos ( 8) = hypotenuse
csc(8) =
1
sin(8) = J1-u2
1
1
sec(8) = cos(8) = u
1
u
cot(8) = tan(8) =
J1 - u2
csc(8) =
, fmd the values of all the trigonometric
3
sine
We know that tan (8) = 5 and tan 8 =
cose
375
CHAPTER 6:
C1rrulc1r Fun< tion< oi AngiP'
Refer to the Figure 6.41; let AB = 3 and BC = 5. Then, by the Pythagorean theore
we have AC2 = 32 + 52 = 34 and AC =
J34
3
5
Thus, sin e = J34 and cos e = J34
The other four trigonometric functions can be found as in the above examples.
EXAMPLE&
Solution:
Solve the right triangle (that is, find all the sides and the angles) in Figure 6.48.
By using the Pythagorean theorem we fmd the other leg, x, of the right triangle.
52 = 32 + il
25 = 9 + _x2
3
n
(} s
16 = il
Now we find e for which the sine is
i.e.
We use a calculator to compute 8 = sin-1

Therefore, e "" 36.87
solve sin ( 8) =
()
or sin-1(0.6) "" 36.87
The other (complementary) angle is 90 - 36.87 = 53.13.

Thus, we have found all the sides and angles of the given right triangle.
B. APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
In
EXAMPLE7 The
the following examples we will show how to use the trigonometric

functions in applied problems involving right triangles.
angle of elevation * of the top of a building from a
point on the ground 200 ft away from the base of the
building is 51. How tall is the building?
Solution:
Let AB
= x.
The angle of elevation of an

object is the angle between
the horizontal and the line
of sight of the object above.
Objea
o\
200
Figure 6.5'0
Multiply both sides by 200.
\. ....
...
,.
s'}'
,_ of .D.ID
..,,_,
_
..,_
\';t,;,n...uom
,_,
G.U.U
n
\
'91.,---
.
side opposite
x
o
Smce tan(Sl ) =
, we get
=
Sl'de ad'
Jt 200
378
The Angle of Elevation
In
Figure 6.50, the length

of the side AB represents
the height of the building
and the length of the side
BCis 200 ft.
horizontal
6.4
Trigonometr ic Functions oi Angles
By using a calculator, we approximate x as

200 (1.235) ""
247 "" X
Thus, the height of the building is approximately 2A7 ft
EXAMPLES
At the instant when a helicopter is 1000 feet above the

surface (of a lake) it measures the angle of depression *
of a boat to be 22. How far is the boat from the point
on the surface directly below the helicopter?
Solution:
Figure 6.51 shows the

positions of the helicopter
(H) and the boat (B) at the
given instant It is given that
HA = 1000 ft. Since the
angle of depression (LSHB)
is 22, the angle LHBA is
also 22 (alternate angles).
The Angle of Depression
The angle of depression of

an object is the a n g l e
between tbe horizontal and
the line of sight of the
ohject below.
horizonlal
.;t
In this right triangle MIAB, let BA=.x.
The cotangent
function of22 gives:
Cot (22) =
l;()()
Multiply by 1000 .
=x
.x = 1000 cot 22
1000 cot (22)
Use a calculator for an approximate value of cot 22.

X "" 1000 X 2.47509 ft.
"" 2475.09 ft
C. THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE
Find the area of a triangle if two sides and the angle between them are given.
EXAMPLE 9
Solution:
Find the area of a triangle with two sides of lengths a and b and C denotes the angle
included between these sides.
Figure 6.53 shows the triangle ABC with
A
the side BC of length a and the side AC of length
b. The angle between the sides AC and BC is
given to be C. Let AM be the height (altitude) of
the triangle. From the right triangle AMC,
sin(C) =
Multiplying both sides by b.
b sin(C) = AM.
This gives the area of the triangle ABC as
Area=
Figure 6.53
(Base)(Height)
377
CHAPTE R 6:
=
=
=
(BC)(AM)
(a) (b sin (C))
sin(C)
ab
Thus, the area of the triangle ABC is

Remark:
ab sin (C).
Since this is an important result, we record it as follows:
If the lengths of two sides of a triangle are a and b and the angle between
them is 8, then,
Area of the triangle =
sin 8
ab sin 8
= half the product of the lengths of two

given sides times the sine of the angle
between them.
EXAMPLES:
1.
Find the area of an equilateral triangle of side 6 in.

Solution:
2.
6 6 sin 60 = 18 sin 60 = 18
In an isosceles triangle the equal sides are of length
is soo. Find the area of the triangle.
Solution:
EXAMPLE 1 0
Solution:
A=
A=
= 9../3 in2
10 in and the angle included between the sides
10 x 10 x sin 50 = 50 sin 50 = 50(0.766) = 38.3 in2.
A billboard at the top of a building is being

illuminated by a projection light L that is 100 feet
from the base of the building (Figure 6.54).
Determine how tall the billboard is if the lower
and upper angles the projection lamp makes with
the horizontal are 32 and 48. respectively.
In Figure 6.55,
ON = y and MN = height of the

billboard = x. In the right triangle NOL, we have
ON
y
tan 32o =
=
OL 100 '
Multiplying by 100 gives
100 tan 32 = y
100 (.625) y
62.5 y
Figure 6.54
:X:
y
:::
:::
378
Figure 6.55
6.4
In the right triangle MOL, we have

OM ON + ML
tan 48 = .
=
OL
OL
--,.
y
100
Trigonometric Functions oi Angles.
62.5 X
100
Multiplying by 100 gives
100
tan
48 "" 62.5 + X
100(1.1106) "" 62.5 + X
111.06 "" 62.5 + X

111.06 - 62.5
48.56 "" X
Therefore,
a.
EXAMPLE 11
b.
Solutions:
"" X
the height of the billboard is approximately 48.6 feet.
Find the slope of a line whose inclination 8 =
Find the inclination 8 for a line whose slope is 1.
The slope = tan
a.
(;)
,/3
1t
b. Iftan(8) = 1, then 8 =
EXERCISE 6.4
In exerclst'B (1-16), find the valufS of the sb: trigonometric: fonetioll8 of the indicated angle.
1.
s.
l.
L__j 3
4
6.
9.
3.
7.
10
10.
'
1'
Jii.,/1
11.
8.
13
1l.
13.
14.
15.
In exercises (17-36), find the values of the remaining trigonometric functioll8 of the angle.
17.
20.
7r
sin(8) = 3 0 < 8 < 2
tan(a) = -1, 2 < a < n

7r
18.
sin(O) =
21.
csc(8 ) = T 2 < 8 < n
, 0< 8 <
28
7r
19.
l2.
1t
tan(/3) = 2, 0 < [3 < 13
371:
sec(a) = s , 2 < a < 2n

379
CHAPTE R 6:
23.
26.
29.
32.
35.
3
cos(x) = 51 1r < x < 21t
cot(e ) = 4, sin (e ) < 0
csc(y) = --43- , cos(y) 0
sin(8) = u, 0 < 8 < i
cot(a) = p, 0 < a < 2
-
24.
27.
>
30.
33.
1t
36.
31t
cot(/3) = 8, 1r < f3 < T
esc (a) = 7, cot(a) < 0
cos (8) = --- , sin(8) < 0
tan(8) = v, 0 < 8 < 21t
esc (/3) = q, 0 < f3 < 21t
25.
28.
37.
38.
50
41.
45.
49.
60
42.
46.
8.2
10.7
57.
58.
34.
60.
61.
62.
380
50.
"l
43.
47.
40.
51.
17.5
44.
48.
23
LS
1.2
52.
4.5
17.5
6.2
20
54.
55.
56.
feet from the base of a tower, the angle of elevation ofthe top of the tower 52.
37.
From a point on level ground 100

is
How high is the tower?
From a point on the ground 150 feet from the base of a tall building, the angle of elevation of the top of the building
is 80.4 Find the height ofthe building?
A 50-ftladder is used to reach a window which is 30 feethigh. Find (a) the angletheladdermakes with the ground level
and (b) the distance between the wall and the base of the ladder.
A wire holds a radio transmitter antenna and is attached to the antenna at a distance of 60 feet from the ground. If
the length of the wire is 90 feet, find the angle the wire makes with the ground
A wire 115 feet long holds a radio transmitter antenna and makes an angle of72 with the ground. Find the distance
from the ground, to the point of the antenna where the wire is attached.
A 40 ft ladder leans against a vertical wall which is 50 feet high and the foot of the ladder is 6 feet from the base ofthe
wall. At what distance from the ground does the top of the ladder touch the wall ? Also find the angle of elevation of
the top of the wall from the foot of the ladder.
o.
59.
LJ"
210
20.6
31.4
53.
'
39.
31.
In exercises (37-56), solve the right triangle (find all the sides and angles).
sin (9) = - 21 ' 31t2 < e < 21r

tan (/3) = sin (/3) < 0
sec(a) = 37 cot(a) < 0
sec(u) = x, 0 < u < 21t
6.4
63.
A surveyor wants to measure the width of a river. He stands across from a tree on
the other bank of the river. From there he walks along the straight river bank 200
feet and sights the tree to determine the angle it makes with the bank. He measures
this angle to be 43. How wide is the river?
1s:
200
64.
65.
66.
67.
After measuring the width of the river in Exercise 63, the surveyor spots a big
concrete structure on the opposite bank of the river. To determine how far it is
from the tree he sights the structure and finds that the line of sight makes an angle
32 with the straight bank. Asswning that he is already 200 feet from a point
across from the tree, find the distance between the tree and the concrete structure.
i:z
200
A boy 1 ,000 feet from the point directly below the location of the balloon determines that the angle of elevation is
approximately 53. What is the altitude of the balloon?
A boy finds that the angles of elevation of a balloon from two points on the ground with distance 30 feet apart are
35 and 50. Find the altitude of the balloon.
A small plane maintains its ascent at an angle 15 with the runway. If it travels at a constant speed of 150 ft/sec, find
its altitude after 30 seconds.
If its
68.
An airplane moving at a constant speed ascends at an angle of 25 with the runway.

1150 feet, find its speed.
69.
From the top of a lighthouse, which is 100 feet above the surface of the water, a ship is spotted If the angle of
depression is 15, find the distance between the ship and the base of the lighthouse.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
altitude after 20 seconds is
From the top of the lighthouse in Exercise 69, the observer sights two ships. If the angles of depression are 3 and 8,
find the distance between the ships.
From a point, the angle ofelevation to the peak of a mountain is 5. From another point 20 miles closer to the mountain,
the angle of elevation is 11 . What is the approximate height of the mountain?
A flagpole stands atop a tall building. The angles of elevation of the top and the bottom of the flagpole from a point
85 feet away from the base ofthe building are 74o and 72 respectively. Determine the height of the building. How long
is the flagpole?
From a point on the ground, the angles of elevation of the top and the bottom of a 20 ft. flagpole atop a building
are 55 and 52 respectively. How tall is the building?
A tall billboard is mounted at the top of a platform. It is kept erect from behind
by two steel beams, one attached to the top and the other to the bottom of
the billboard. Both beams are attached to an anchor 25 feet from the base of
the platform. The top and bottom beams make angles of 53 and 20 with the
ground respectively. Estimate the height of the billboard.
25 ft.
75.
From the top of a mountain 2500 feet above sea level, two ships are sighted lying in a plane vertical to the
mountain top. If the angles of depression of the ships are 25 and 22, find the distance between the ships.
76.
A building A is 150 feet away from a building B. From the top of building A, the angle of elevation of the top of the
building B is 48 o and the angle of depression of the foot of the building B is 58 o . How tall is building B?
77.
Find the area of a triangle with two sides of length 20 and 12 and the angle between these sides of 47.
78.
Find the area of a triangle with two sides of lengths 17.1 and 14 inches and the angle between these sides of 38.3.
79.
Find the area of an isosceles triangle whose equal sides are of lengths 9.8 in and the angle included between them
is 44.
381
CHAPTER 6:
80.
Circular Functions oi Angles
F'md the area ofan equilateral triangle of side 7.2 in.
81.
F'md the area ofaregular quadrilateral inscdbed in a circle ofradius 10.2 in.
82.
Find the area of a regular pentagon inscribed in a circle of radius 10 inches.
83.
Find the area of a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle of radius 4 inches.
84.
Find the area of a regular octagon inscribed in a circle of radius 8 inches.
In exercises (85-92), find the slope of the line whose Inclination (8) with positive direction of z-uis, Is given.
BS.
8 - 30
89.
8 =-
1t
86.
8 :;;: 80"
90.
8=
s
1t
87.
8 :;;: 125
91.
8 =-
1t
88.
8 :;;: 155
92.
8 =g
51t
In exercises (93-lOO)J f"md the iodination {8) of the line whose slope iJ given.
93.
slope = J3
94.
slope = J2
97.
slope =
1
,{j
98.
slope =
3
95. slope - 2
96.
slope = - 5
,.....
J2
99.
slope = -1
100. slope =
32
--
Writing Exercises
101. Distinguish between an angle of elevation and an angle of depression.
102. Explain the use of trigonometric functions in solving right triangles.
6.5
GRAPHS oF THE SINE AND CosiNE FUNCTIONS
Objectives .. ..
A. The graph of the Sine function;

B.
The graph of the Cosine function;
C.
The Behavior of Sine and Cosine

functions near their Zeros; and
D. The graphs of y
and y
= a
In this section. we shall discuss the behavior of the sine and

cosine functions by drawing their graphs. We shall also
introduce important concepts such as amplitude, period, and
phase shift of functions
a
sin(bx + c) and
c).
sin (bx- c)
a cos(bx - c).
A. THE GRAPH OF THE SINE FUNCTION
Figure 6.56 shows the unit circle. The initial side ofthe angle e
is in the standard position and OP is the terminal side of the
angle. Recall that sin( 8) = PM = y.
Since P(x, y) stays on the unit circle, y lies between -1 and
1, (as we have already observed before). We record this as:

-1 sin e 1
382
cos (bx +
Gr,lphs oi th<> Sin<' ,mel CosinP Fun<tion'
6. 5
Observation #1
Since - 1 ::; sin ( 8) ::; 1, the graph of

y = sin (x) will lie between the horizontal
lines y = - 1 and y = 1 (Figure 6.57).
0
By watching the y-coordinate of the point P as it moves

along the circle, we notice that the y-coordinate equals
zero when the angle is 0, 1t, 21t, . . . . Thus, we have
made the second observation.
Observation #2
- - - - -
-1
- - - -
Figure 6.57
The zeros of the sine function or the x-intercepts of the graph are at 0, n, 21t,
37t, . . . (when the input is an integral multiple of 1t). We plot these zeros on the
x-axis for the graph ofy = sin(x) (Figure 6.58).
y
- 21!
-31!
-1t
-1
1t
21!
31t
Figure 6.58
They-intercept ofthe graph ofy = sin(x) is given by replacingx with 0; it is zero. Thus, we have the
next observation.
Observation #3
They-intercept of the
Observation #4
The graph of y = sin(x) attains its

* maximum value 1 when x is
sine function is zero.

Once again, watch they-coordinate of the point P(x, y) (Figure 6.59) and record its value when it
1t
71t
. 1t 57t 91t
becomes maximum (= 1). We notice that y = 1, when 8 1s
or . . . We
I, T, T
-2 , -2 ,
record this as follows:
. .,
'
We plot the po ints
71t
2 '
-21!
- 1!
Figure 6.59
1 (1!/2, 1) (51!/2, 1)
- - - - - - -
-3 1!
in figure 6.60.
(-31!/2, 1)
P(n/2. I ) maximum value of y
2 ' 2 ' 2 ' 2 ' "'
( } (s; 1} (-7 ; I)
,1
- - - - - - - -
1!
21! 31!
-1
Figure 6.60
383
CHAPTER 6:
Circul.u Fum lions oi Angl<'s
Similarly,
Observation #5
The graph of y = sin (x) attains its

minimum value - 1 when x is
1t 1t 31t 71t
.. ,
2 ' 2' 2
2 ,.
We plot the points

See Figure 6.61.
--
(;-, ) (7;- ) ( 1) .
-
1 ,
-1 , -
'
"
P(}. -1)
Figure 6.62
y
(-31t/2, 1) 1
_ _ _
-31t
_.
-2rt
_ _ _
It
- - -
(-51t/2, -1) (-rt/2, -1)
(51t/2, 1)
- --- ---
-1t
- - - -
(1t/2, 1)
minimum value of y
2rt
4-
3rt
- - - -
(31t/2, - 1 )
(71t/2, -1)
Figure 6.61
By joining the points by a smooth curve, we get the graph ofy = sin(x) (Figure 6.63).
y
(-5 -rt/2, - 1 ) (--rt/2, - 1 )
(31t/2, - 1 )
(71t/2, - 1 )
Figure 6.63
By examining the above graph, we see that it consists of repetitions

of the part between 0 and 2n (Figure 6.64). We will refer to this
part of the graph as the basic sine curve or the basic sine cycle.
Note
We may recall how we "wrapped" the string of real numbers R around the
unit circle (Section 6.1, Figure 6.12b), which makes it clear that we can talk
Figure 6.64
about the sine of any real number (we can wrap the string in both directions
- positive and negative). Conclusion: domain of the sine function is R.
The repetitive character of the sine graph is expressed as sin(x + 21t) = sin(x). We say that the
sine function is a periodic function with period 2n.
For a periodic function, with m and Mas its minimum and maximum values we define the amplitude
of the function by
amplitude =
M-m
2
. 1 - (- l
2
. (x), the amplitude IS
. function
. y = sm
=2
=
For the sme
2
384
(lrt/2, - 1 )
'
l.
6. 5
We summarize the above discussion as follows:

The Graph ofy = sin (x)
y
1.
TheDomain ofsin (x) isR.
2.
The Range of sin (x) is the interval [- 1. 1].
(rr.fl, 1)
The amplitude is 1 .
4. The period is 2n , which happens to equal 2 times the
distance between two consecutive zeros of the function
sin(x).
5. Figure 6.65 shows the basic sine cycle. To draw the
cycle, divide the length of the period on the x-axis into
four equal parts, namely, OA, AB, BC, and CD. The
cycle reaches its maximum height at one quarter mark A,
minimum height at the third quarter mark C and has
x-intercepts at the beginning 0, middle B, and end D.
3.
Remark:
(31tfl, -1)
Figure 6.65
It would be good to memorize the basic sine cycle for future use.
B. THE GRAPH OF THE COSINE FUNCTION
The graph of the cosine function y = cos(x) can be obtained either by repeating the method that was
used for the sine function or we can write
Note
""
This result was shown in section 6.4A for acute angles 9.
It will be extended to all real numbers in chapter 7, Section 3.
Then we can use the translation and reflection of the sine graph. We prefer the second approach. First,
we reflect the graph ofy = sin(x) through the y-axis and obtain the graph ofy = sin(-x), (Figure 6.66(a)).
y
sin (-x)
(a)
Now we draw the graph ofy = sin

(Figure 6.66(b)).
(-( ))
x-
Fignre 6.66
sin(- (x
(b)
by translating the graph ofy = sin(-x),
n"/2))
units 1o the right

385
CHAPTER 6:
Circul.u Functions oi Angl<'s
Thus, the graph of the cosine function y = cos (x) is as shown in (Figure 6.66(b)).
We see that the graph of the cosine function also consists of repetitions of the part between 0 and 21r.
We summarize as follows:
The Graph of y = cos(x)
y
1. The Domain of cos (x) isR.

2. The Range of cos (x) is the interval [-1, 1] .
(21t, 1)
3. The amplitude is 1 .
4. The period is 2 n: , which happens to equal 2 times the distance
(1t, -1)
between two consecutive zeros (x-intercepts) of the function

cos(x).
5. Figure 6.67 shows the basic cosine cycle. To draw the cycle,
divide the length of the period on the x-axis into four equal parts,
namely, OA, AB, BC, and CD. The cycle reaches its maximum
height at the beginning 0 and end D, reaches its minimum at the
middle, and has x-intercepts at the first and third quarter marks.
Remark:
EXAMPLE 1
Solutions:
a.
b.
386
Figure 6,(fl
We should memorize the basic cosine cycle for future use.
Sketch the basic cycle of the following functions.

a.
y = -sin (x)
b.
y = 2 cos(x)
y = sin(x) + 2
c.
We recall that the graph of y = -f(x) is

obtained by reflecting the graph ofy =f(x)
through the x-axis. In this case, we reflect
the graph of y = sin(x) through the x-axis.
We show the graph the basic cycle of
y = -sin(x) in Figure 6.68.
Since the minimum and maximum values of
cosine function cos (x) are - 1 and 1,
respectively, the minimum and maximum
values of 2cos (x) are - 2 and 2.
Consequently, the amplitude of the graph of
y = 2 cos (x) is 2. Now we draw the graph
of the basic cycle of y = 2 cos (x)
(Figure 6.69).
Figure 6.68
y
2
-2
Figure 6.69
6. 5
Remark:
We may use vertical stretching by a factor of 2 to draw the graph ofy = 2

cos (x). The part of the graph above the x-axis is stretched upward and the
part of the graph below the x-axis is stretched downward.
c.
We recall that the graph of y =f(x) + c

is obtained from the graph of
y = f(x) by a vertical translation by c
units. Thus, we draw the graph of the
basic cycle of y = sin (x) + 2 by lifting
the graph of y = sin (x) two units
vertically up (Figure 6.70).
Figure 6.70
C.
THE BEHAVIORS OF SINE AND COSINE FUNCTIONS NEAR THEIR ZEROS

(X-INTERCEPTS)
y
Behaviors of the Sine Function near its zeros.
We will use the graph of the sine and cosine functions to

describe their behaviors close to their x-intercepts. This is
equivalent to "zooming in" near x-intercepts. By looking at
the graph (Figure 6.71) near x = 0, we see that the graph of
y = sin x resembles the graph of the line y = x. We can check
our conjecture by evaluating the sine function for some
x-values near x = 0.
Figure 6.71
The values in the following table values support the conjecture.

.1
.1
.01
.01
.001
.001
Thus, sin(x) "" x near x = 0. Similarly, the behavior of

the sine function near x = 1r is given by the line
y = - 1 (x - n) (Figure 6.72). In general, the behavior of
the sine function near the zero x = n 1t (n is an integer)
resembles the line y = (- lt (x - n n). For future use,
we record the result as follows:
Behavior of the sine Function near its zero
The graph of the sine function y = sin(x) near

x = n 1t resembles the graph of
y = (- 1)n (x
.0001
.0001
y = -(x- 1t)
Figure 6.72
x = n 1t
n 1t)
where n is an integer.
Similarly, we can estimate the behavior of the cosine function near its zeros (x-intercepts).
387
CHAPTER 6:
Behavior of the cosine function near its zeros
x = (2n
7t
1) 2
The graph of the cosine function y = cos (x) near

x = (2n +1)
2 resembles the graph of

1t
y = ( - 1)'+1 x - (2n + I)
integer.
D.
ToE GRAPHS OF
, where
is an
Figure 6.73
y = a sin (bx
c) and y = a cos (bx
Let us proceed to draw the basic cycle ofy = a sin (bx - c),
as in the case of y = sin(x)
Observation #1
y = - 31!/2
y = -( + 31!/2)
c)
a > 0. We shall use the same procedure
The outputs y of the function y = a sin(bx - c) lie

between and
* because the outputs of the sine
function are between - 1 and 1. In other words,
-a a,
- 1 sin (bx - c) 1 , a > 0,

-a a sin (bx - c) a
a -;-a) = a . To make sure that the amplitude is

non-negative, we indicate that the amplitude ofy = a sin(bx - c) is lal.
the amplitude of the graph is

Observation #2
The zeros of the sine function occur at 0, n,

2n,. . . . Hence to fmd the zeros of the
function y = a sin (bx - c), we set bx - c = 0,
bx - c = 7t, bx - c = 2 1t, etc. Hence
x=
c 7t+ c 21t + c
. . .. are the zeros of
,
b
b
b
y = sin (bx + c). Since the period of the cycle
is twice the distance between two consecutive
zeros of the function so the period of
y = a sin(hx - c) is 2
()= :
clb + 1!/b
-r--4
---._--
0
c/b + 2Trlb
c/b
Figure 6.74
(Figure 6.74).
Also we see that the starting point of the basic cycle is at x =

graph of the basic cycle has shifted (translated) by
instead of x = 0.
In other words the
units. This shift is called the phase shift.
With the phase shift (starting point of the cycle), the period, and the amplitude known, we can draw the
graph of the basic cycle of y = sin (bx - c). Therefore, we stop the procedure here. We can reach
the same conclusion when dealing with y = cos (bx - c). Now, we summarize the above as the following
step-by-step procedure to draw the graph of the basic cycle of y = a sin (bx - c) or y = a cos (bx - c).
388
6. 5
To draw the graph of y

Step 1
=a
sin (bx - c) or y
Find the amplitude.
=a
cos (bx - c)
y
Amplitude = I al
Step 2
Find the period.
Period = twice the distance between

two successive zeros
Figure
Find the phase shift (starting point (SP)).

Set the angle bx - c = 0 and solve for x: x =
Step
Step 5
6.75
c
b
Divide the segment of the x-axis between SP and TP into four equal parts. Label each
moving
EXAMPLE2
Solution:
Period
4
, SP +
Period
2
, SP +
3 Period
4
( l.e., eep
Now, draw the basic cycle of the sine function for y = a sin(bx - c) and the basic cycle
of the cosine function for y = a cos (bx - c).
Sketch the graph of the basic cycle of y = 3 sin (2x).
Amplitude = 131 = 3
2 7t
Penod = T = 1t
Phase shift (starting point)

2x = 0
x=O
Terminal point = 0 + 1t = 1t
! (Period) from one partitionpointto the next until you arrive at the terminal point).
Find the terminal point (TP) of the cycle. The x-coordinate of the terminal point is given
by x = starting point + period (Figure 6.75).
partition pomt and compute SP, SP +
Step 6
TP
-a
- 21t
(b > 0)
b
Step 3
SP
The partition of [0, 1t] is

1t
+ 4
or
1t 1t 37t
0, 4 ' 2 ' 4 ' 1t
'0
37t
1t
2 ' 0 + 4 ' 1t
o. 0
The highest point of the sine cycle is at
(, )
3
We draw the basic sine cycle (Figure 6.76).
Figure
6.76
and the lowest point is at
( 3) .
,-
389
CHAPTER 6:
With a Graphing calculator

Let
y "" 3 sin (2x). Graph y1 on the suitable range and verify the highest and lowest
points1 by using ZOOM-IN and
TRACE.
EXAMPLE 3
Solution:
Sketch the graph of the basic cycle of = 2 cos - 1t).

Peno. d = 321t
Amplitude = 121 = 2
point= 3 321t = 1t
Phase shift (s point)
- 1t = or = 3
Period = ll(321t ) = 61t
The partition of rL31t . 1t1J is
1t
1t
1t
21t
3 3 + 6 3 + 6 3 + 6 , 1t
1t323
1t 21t 6
51t 1t
The highest points of the cosine cycle are at (, 2 ) and (1t, 2). The lowest point is
at (2, -2) The complete cosine cycle is shown in (Figure
(3x
tarting
3x
1(
Terminal
1t
1t
31t
1t
Figure 6.77
or
6.77).
With a Graphing calculator
Let yl = 2 cos (3x -1t). Graph yl on the suitable range and verify the highest and lowest
points by using ZOOM-IN and TRACE.
EXAMPLE 4
Solution:
Sketch the graph of the basic cycle of

Amplitude= 1--} 1 = -Phase shift (s g point)
2x + 7t = O or 2
tartin
x=-
390
1t
- --sin
(2x
1t) .
Peno. d = 221t = 1t
pomt. = - 2
Terminal
1t
+ 1t =
1t
6.5
Graphs of the Sine <1nd Cosine Functions.
.
. n of r 1t nlJ 1s
The parti.tio
-2 , 2
1t
2'
1t
L.
1t
'
1t
L.
1t .
L. .
First, we draw with dotted lines (Figure 6.78) the
J:l'lpre 6.78
basic sine cycle of 3 sin (2x + n) , then reflect the graph though the x-axis. Thus, the
graph of y = -
With a Graphing
let yl
-l 3)
EXAMPLE 5
Solution:
} sin(2x
n) is as shown in Figure 6.78.
calculator
sin (2x + 7t). Graph yl on the suitable range. Verify the highest and lowest points of the graph.
By using a sine function find a formula representation of the graph in Figure 6.79.
Qearly, a fonnula representation ofthe graph will be ofthe

form y = a sin(b:t - c). Let us find a, b, and c. The
(
21t
4 gives the
y-coordinate of the highest point
amplitude as 4. Therefore
= 4.
lT,
The period ofthe cycle is 4 times the distance CD,

21t
51t
between 3 and 6 (Figure 6.80).
21t
21t , so b
. by --,;
But thepen' od Is
. gven
-
21t
=
T
b=3
(21tl3, 4)
{ltr/3, 4)
-4
Flgare
6.80
Fmally, theperiod.AB (Flgure 6.80) is divided into four equalparts andthelocation ofthestarting
point A is givenby
31t
1t
= 6 = -z
Therefor,e
b
1t c 1t
= 2, 3 = 2 ,
31t
=2
Thus, a formula representation of the given graph is y = 4 sin
l(3x - 231t l .
391
CHAPTER 6:
Check With a Graphing Calculator
( ).
Let yl = 4 sin 3x -
Graph yl on the suitable range. Use ZOOM-IN and TRACE
to verify the given highest point and the x-intercept.
EXAMPLE &
By using a cosine function find a formula

representation of the graph in (Figure 6.81).
Solution:
By looking at the graph we see that the basic

cosine cycle has been lifted vertically up one
unit. Therefore. we are looking for a formula
representation of the form
y= a
FigUN 6.81
... (1)
cos (bx - c) + 1
Clearly. the amplitude is 1 . Therefore.

a = 1. Since the period of the complete cycle is
twice the distance AB (Figure 6.82). the period
21t
.
.
'
' gven
by b .
1s 2(3) = 6 . But the penod 1s
21t
1t
therefore. b = 6 or b = 3 .
Figure 6.82
Divide the interval (period) between the starting point (S) and terminal point (T) into four
equal parts.
Each part =
This
1
3
1
(AB) = (3) = .
2
2
2
gives the location of the starting point S as c
3
= 2 or -1t- = - 2 or
'b
3
Therefore
1t
-- .
By using the values of a. b. and c in (1). we have a formula representation of the given
( 1t
1t
graph as y = cos
x+2 + 1.
Note
EXAMPLE 7
we can graph
392
1 and verify that the graph is the same as in Figure 6.81.
Use a sine function to fmd a formula representation of the numerical (table) form of
the function:
X
Solution:
lJ
cos(x+f) +
-2
- 1 .5
-1
- .5
.5
1 .5
2.5
- 1.21
-2
- 1.21
3 . 12
3.12
- 1 . 12
-2
First. by plotting the points and connecting them.

we arrive at a graphical form of a data (table).
6. 5
The graphical form is shown in Figure 6.83.
Let a formula representation of the graph

(Figure 6.83) be y = a sin (bx - c) + d.
By looking at the graph (Figure 6.83) we see that
the maximum and minimum heights are 4 and -2,
respectively.
This gives the amplitude =
4 - (- 2 )
2
= 3.
l!ignre 6.83
y
The middle horizontal line of the cycle is at the

height of 3 units above lowest point or
y = -2 + 3 = 1 .
--0+----+---- x
Let us label S and A as the starting and highest

points, respectively (Figure 6.84). Clearly, the
period is four times the horizontal distance
between S and A.
lbis gives the period to be 4.
But the formula for the period gives
Figure 6.84
: = 4 or b = .
Since the starting point S of the cycle is at x = 0, so there is no phase shift; hence
c = 0. Also, we see that the graph of the basic sine cycle has been raised one unit
vertically up; so d = 1.
Thus, by substituting the values of a, b, c and d, we conclude that a formula
representation for the given data (table) is y = 3
EXAMPLE 8
sin
(;x)
1.
A person recorded his blood pressure with a digital blood pressure kit.
The data collected is shown in the following table:
t(min)
.001
.002
.003
.004 .005
Pressure
129.6
137
140
138
a.
b.
.006
.007
.008
132 122.5 1 12.6 104.6
.009
.01
100
101
Use a sine function to describe the fluctuations in his blood pressure.

Assuming that person's blood pressure changes with the same period as that of the
heart, determine the rate at which the person's heart is beating.
Solution:
a.
We plot the points using the rectangular

coordinate system with time t represented on the
horizontal axis and the blood pressure P
represented on the vertical axis (Figure 6.85).
Let P = a sin (bt - c) + d be the function that
describes the data. From the data, the amplitude
y
140
130
y
120
120
1 10
100
.001 .003 .005 .007 .009

Figure 6.85
393
CHAPTER 6:
Max-2 Min = 140 -2 100 = 20

The period= 2(interval between the t-values for maximum and minimum)
= 2(.009 - .003) = 2(.006) = .012. Since the period is given by 2; , b1t = .012
orb= .2 = 523.6. The starting pointS is ! (Period) units to the left of .003.
This gives the location of S as t = .003 - 41 (.012) = .003 - .003 = 0 or = 0
(no phase shift).
Clearly,
sine
haswebeenclaim thatvertithecally
up 120thatunits,
therefore
= 120.
With= 20 sinb,the(523.6
and cycle
known
function
describes
the
data
is
t) 120.
Since
the
period
is=
.
0
12,
each
heart
beat
takes
about
*
.012 minutes. This means that in one
*minute there are .02 heart beats. Thus, the person's
heart is beating at the ratio of 83.3 beats per minute.
a
----:
=--
a,
b.
lifted
Number of oscillations
(cycles) per unit time

=
1
period
Check With a Graphing Calculator
Let y1 = 20 (523.6x) + 120. Evaluate the functiony1 at t = .001, .002, .003, . . . and verify
the observed values of the blood pressure.
EXERCISE 6.5
In exercises (1-37), imd the period and amplitude of the function.
1.
f(x) = sin (2x)
4.
h (x) = -4 cos
7.
h(x) = 2 cos(2x - 1t)
2. f(x) = -sin l.
8. f(x) =
1t \
1t
15. f(x) = - -3- sm x- 3 + 2
394
4-
--
6. g (x) =
14. g(x) = - 6 cos
(
(
4n:
x-
3
1t
1{
16. K(x) = 2 sin 4x + 3
sin (4x + 1)
( I)
( 6)
9. k(x) = -3 sin rrx -
cos (3x + 9)
11. f(x) = 1 - sin (x)
g(x) = 2 COS(1tX - 2) + 1
1 .(
3. g(x) = 2 cos l.
5. f(x) = -3 sin (3x)
10. g(x) = 9 cos(Sx - 3)

13.
%) + 2
1t
8
12. h (x) = -5 sin
1f. x
3
6. 5
17.
18.
19.
2
0
20.
21.
-12 -8 -4 0
23.
12 16
24.
y
2
W2.2)
d "
"\
"
-3 2 -1
1 2 3
\J
-S
22.
y
2
-2
25.
y
3
1.5
X
-3
/(<) = a lin (h)
27.
26.
-J.S
28.
y
2.S
{30!18,1)
X
-2.S
f (<) = a lin (bx)
30.
29.
y
f (<) = a 0011 (h)
31.
3.2
X
-
2.S
32.
33.
y
5
f(<) = a lin (b;o;)
(3, -2)
f (;o;) = " lin (b;o;)
34.
.:t
a sin(bx)
35.
.:t
a cos (bx)
0
0
.25
2
5
0
.75
-2
.8
-1.9
1
0
1.25
2
0
2
5
1.41
.8
.62
1
0
1.5
- 1.41
2
-2
25
3.5
-1.41
1.41
4
2
395
CHAPTER 6:
36.
.:t
a cos(bx)
37.
.:t
.25
2.12
1
-4.33
1.5
-5
a sin(bx)
.75
-2.12
1
-3
1.25
-2.12
2
-4.76
1.5
0
35
25
4
4.33
1.75
2.12
45
5
5
4.33
In exercises (38-49), sketch the graph of the basic cycle of the function.
38.
f(x) "" -cos(x)
39.
g(x) "' cos(-x)
40. g (x) "" 2 sin (x)
41.
f(x) "' -2 cos (x)
42.
h (x) "" cos(x) + 1
43.
h (x) = sin(x) - 2
44. f(x) = sin (-x)
45.
g(x) = sin(-x) + 3
46.
g (x) = 2 - sin(x)
47.
f(x) "" cos (-x) - 1
48. h (x) "" 1 - cos(x)
49.
h (x) = 2 - sin(-x)
In exercises (50-69), (a) find the amplitude (b) find the period, (c) find the phase shift, and (d) sketch the graph of the
basic cycle of the function.
51.
g(x) "" sin 2x +
g(x) "" cos (2x + 21t)
54.
g (x) "" -2 sin (3x)
55.
h (x) "" -3 cos (2x)
56.
g(x) "' -3 cos (1tx)
57.
f(x) "' 5 sin(1t.:t)
58.
h (x) "' 2 sin(1tx - 21t)
59.
f(x) = -4 cos(21tx + 1t)
60.
h (x) = cos (21t.:t + 41t)
61.
g (x) = sin(1t x - 41t)
62.
j(X) ;;;;; --2 Sill
63.
f(x) ""
65.
h (x) = --3- sm x-1t)
66.
g (x) = 1 + sin(3x - 1t)
69.
. x
f(x) "' 2 + sm 2 + 3
50.
f(x) "" cos 2x +
53.
68.
( 1t)
X -
2 . (
e )
x 1t
g (x) = 1 - cos T 6
cos(3x
52. f(x) "' sin (2x - 1t)
7!)
64. f(x) "' -2 cos( x-1t)

67.
( n)
h (x) = 2 - cos (3x + 1t)
In exercises (70-86), f"md the function that matches the graph or the numerical (table) data.
70.
71.
72.
f ((c) = a ootJ (bx- c)
73.
on.. -2>
75.
74.
y
(.5,1.5)
/(>;) = a sin (bx- c)

(1, -3)
396
6. 5
77.
76.
79.
80.
('V
(3,3)
(31)
(2,2
82.
Tr
8
84.
-3
1
a sin(bx - c) + d
85.
a cos(bx - c) + d
86.
5Tr
8
9Tr
T
a sin(bx - c)
1
4
.75 .8 1
0 -.31 -1
13Tr
8
-2
.002
BP
138.53
.0024
3.25
1.41
17Tr8
-3 0
3
-2 -1 0 1
3 5 3 1
3
1 45 23
4
-1 1 3
.0028
139.94 139.47
3
0
1.25
0
2
3
In the emergency room of a hospital, a machine records a patient's blood pressure

t/min
(114,1)
0 5 1 15 2 25
0 -2 0 2 0 -2
a cos(bx - c)
-1 0 5 fJ
-1 -1 1 .81
a cos(bx - c)
81.
a cos(bx - c)
83.
a om (bx-c)+ d
78.
Y.
.004
.006
JXJl
123.63 92.37 81.47
JXJ72
8053
Use a sine function to describe the fluctuations in the patient's blood pressure.
as
follows:
.0074
80.06
.008
81.47
In exercises (87-88), find (a) the vertical distance PQ and (b) the coordinates of the midpoint (M) of the segment PQ.
Writing Exercises
89.
Explain (a) the period (b) the amplitude of a graph that repeats its basic cycle.
90.
Describe the behavior of the sine graph near its zeros.
91.
Describe the behavior of the cosine graph near its zeros.
397
CHAPTER 6:
Circular Functions o( Angles
GRAPHS OF OTHER CIRCULAR FuNCTIONS
6.6
Objectives
In this section, we
shall investigate the graphs of the remaining

circular (trigonometric) functions, namely, tan(x), cot(x), sec(x)
and csc(x). Since these functions can be written as rational
expressions of sine and cosine functions, we shall use the step
by-step procedure we developed in Chapter 4 for graphing the
rational expressions of polynomial functions.
Ill' Ill'
A.
B.
The graph of y a tan (bx
D.
The graph of y a cot (bx
- c);
The graph of the Tangent Function;
C.
- c);
The graph of the Cotangent Function;
E.
The graph of y a esc (bx - c);
The graph of the Cosecant Function;
G. The graph of the Secant Func

t ion; and
F.
H. The graph of y a sec (bx - c).
A.
THE GRAPH OF
THE TANGENT FUNCTION
sin(x) s
. .
.
t
e y = tan(x) =
. mce 1t 18 a rational e
xpressJ. on
We wn
cos(x)
in rerms ofthe sine and cosine functions, we use the same method
for
(Section 4.6).
as we used
Step
-31r/.2 -nt.2
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
graphing rational expressions of polynomials
Find the zeros of the function.

sin x
function y =
COS X
of y =
sin(x)
cos (x)
of the
ttJ2
I
I
I
I
I
37tl2
I
I
I
I
I
are given by the zeros of the
numerator, that is, when sin(x) =

zeros
The zeros
0.
Fiaure 6.86
Therefore, the
are . . . ,-27t, -1r, 0, 1t, 21r ...
We plot the zeros in Figure 6.86. We also observe that the points that make the denominator
Stq 2
0 should be excluded from the domain of tan (x).
Draw an approximate shape of the graph near each zero.
Near x = 0
*
sin(x)
We wnte Y-
cos(x) - cos(x)
We use the fac t that the

approximate shape ofthe sine
graph near x = 0 resembles
the graph ofy = x.
(Why? Because sin(x) "'" x near x = 0.)
,. 1 near x = 0. Therefore, y ,. x near x = 0.

Thus, we conclude that the approximate shape of the tangent function near x = 0 is given by
Since cos
0 = 1,
cos x
the line y = x. We draw a small segment of this line near x = 0 (Figure 6.86).
Near x =
1t
Now we write y = tan(x) =

sin x ""' (-1)" (x Therefore
398
y=
1r)
sin(x)
cos(x)
sin(x)
cos(x) "'"
(-V ,x - 1t)
cos(x)
(section 6.5). Also cos(x)
-(x-1t) -(x-1t)
""' cos(x) ""' - 1
because
""' -1
x-1t.
near x = n 1t,
near x =
1r, because cos
1t = -1.
6.6
Gr.Jphs
oi oth('f Circ ul.lr F uncti on
We draw a small segment of the line y = x - 1C near x = 1t(Figure 6.86).

Similarly. we show the approximate shapes near other zeros.
Step 3
sin(x)
Find all vertical asymptotes. The vertical asymptotes ofy = tan(x) = cos(x)
the zeros of the denominator cos(x).
Smce cos(x) = 0 at x =
.
2 . x = 2 . x = 2 . . . . so the vertical asymptotes of the

k
1t
graph ofy = tan(x) are the lines x =form (Figure 6.86).

Step 4
So1ve the mequ

ality
*
In
are located at
. x = .
3
- -
. . . . We draw these lines in dotted
p(x)
> 0.
q (x)
sin(x)
sin(x)
our case. we solve cos(x) > 0. The ratio cos(x) is
positive when sine and cosine are of the same signs.
TTC
This helps us to shade in the 'reject regions' (Figure 6.87).

Step 5
Use the fact that each part ofthe graph gets closer to the asymptote(s) in its vicinity and complete
the graph. Thus, the graph ofy =tanxis shown in Figure 6.88. By examining the above graph we
see that it consist of repetitions of the part between
- to . We shall refer to this part of the
graph as the basic tangent curve or the basic tangent cycle (Figure 6.89).
y
y
Figure 6.87
Figure 6.88
Clearly, from Figure 6.88, the period of the tangent function is 1t. For our future use we should
memorize the following:
The graph of y
1. Period = 1t
= tan (x)
1t
2. Asymptotes are x = 2 , x =
2 ...
31t
3. Figure 6.89 shows the basic cycle of the tangent graph. The
x-intercept of the cycle is at x = 0 and the two vertical
asymptotes are at x =
- i and 2 .
1t
1t
+-
---
- rrl2 I
I
I
I
I
-.
--
Figure 6.89
399
CHAPTER 6:
B.
Cir<u ldr Function' oi Angh'
THE GRAPH OF
y = a tan (bx - c)
When we use the above procedure on a more general tangent function

like y = a tan (bx - c), we note the following.
The graph of y = a
.
1. Penod
1t
= b
tan
(bx - c), a > 0
c
2. Phase shift = b = x-intercept
3. Asymptotes of the basic cycle are located at distances of half

the period on both sides of the phase shift (Figure 6.90).
Solution:
( )
Sketch the graph of the basic cycle of y = 2 tan 3x-
EXAMPLE 1
1. Period =
2. Phase shift =
x=
1
6- 2
Figure 6.90
3. Asymptotes of the basic cycle are:

1t
l/31t
I
I
I
I
I
+-
= 6 - 6 = 0 and
1t
---
1t
---
13
I
I
I
I
Figure 6.91
( ).
Figure 6.91 shows the graph of the basic cycle of y = 2 tan 3xCheck with a Graphing Calculator
Let
yl = 2 tan(3x - ). Graph yl on a suitable range and verify the above graph.
c. THE GRAPH OF THE COTANGENT FUNCTION
(!
Either we use the same step-by-step procedure as we used for graphing the tangent function or we write
y = COt (x) =
:g;
sin
=
cos
( 1t
)r tan( ) tan(-(X- l)
-X
-x
-X
and then reflect and translate the
graph of y = tan(x). We shall use the second method.

We first reflect the graph of the tangent function y = tan(x) through the y-axis and obtain the graph of
y = tan(-x) (Figure 6.92(a)).
400
Gr.Jphs oi oth('f C i r cui.Jr Functi on
6.6
I
I
I
I
I
311
121
+-F=x
(a) y
The graph of
-It
n:
I
I
I
I
tan (x)
tan(-( ))
x-
!\
=>
Figure 6.92
I
I
I
I
(b/
(-(.t -J)
is obtained by 1nutslating the graph of
the right (Figure 6.92(b)). Thus, the graph of the cotangent function
Figure 6.92 (b).
= tan (-x),
y =
uoits to
cot(x) is as shown in
As before, we see that the graph consists of repetitions of the part between 0 and TC. We will refer
to this part of the graph as the basic cotangent cycle. Clearly, the period of the cotangent function isn.
Here is the summary of the above.

The graph y
1. Period =
= cot(x)
TC
2. Asymptotes are x
0, x =
TC,
x = 2TC.
3. Figure 6.93 shows the basic cycle of the cotangent
graph. The x-intercept of the cycle is atx =

the asymptotes
are
x = 0 and x =
TC.
and
Figure 6.93
By using the above procedure on a more general cotangent function like y = a cot (bx - c), we note the
following.
D.
The Graph of y = a cot (bx

1. Period =
2. Phase shift =
c), a > 0
y
3. Asymptotes are located at x =
c
c 1t
and x = b +
b
b
c
.
. .
The x-mtercept 1s m the rm' ddle at x = b
1[
2b .
Figure 6 .94 shows the basic cycle of the graph.
Figure 6.94
401
CHAPTER 6:
Cir<ul.u fun<tion' oi Angh''
l(X
1t
Sketch the graph of the basic cycle of y = 3 cot 3 .
6
EXAMPLE2
Solution:
1. Period =
1t
= 31t .
T
3
1t
2. Phase shift = 2 .
3. Asymptotes are located at x =
x=
1t
1t
and
2
77t
= .
l'lgare
37t
2+
2 The x-intercept is halfway
between the asymptotes. Figure 6.95 shows the
graph of the basic cycle of y = 3 cot

Check With A Graphing Calrulator
"' Let yl
3cot
(Xl3-61t) .
(j -).
Graph yl on a suitable range and verify the
x-intercept in the above graph.
E. THE GRAPH OF
We write
y=
csc(x)
cotangent functions.
6.,5
or
yl =
------.ul
1C)
THE COSECANT FUNCTION

=
(
l
1 \
sin(x) and use the same procedure as we used for the tangent and
Step 1
There are no zeros of the function, because the numerator can never become zero.
Step
Finding the shape near the zeros is not applicable, because there are no zeros of
the fimction.
Step 3
The vertical asymptotes are given by the zeros of the denominator, that is when sin (x) = 0.
Thus, x = 0, n, 2n, 3n, . . . are the vertical asymptotes of the graph.
Step
We determine approximate shape of the graph near each vertical asymptote.
Near x = 0
Since sin (x) = x, near x = 0, the graph of
Y=
y =
1
near x = 0 resembles the graph of
sin(x)
-1X
, which is one of th e basic rational
functions. Its graph looks like (Figure 6.96(a)).

402
Figure (i.!l6(a)
6.6
Graphs oi other Circular Functions
Near x = 1t
The graph of y =
by
y = (-1)
1
(x
1
sin(x)
_ 1(
, near x = 1t is given
-x-1
1t
Near a zero x = nn of
f(x)
sin(x) the
function f(x) = (-1)"
(x - nn).
=
whose graph
is obtained as follows:
y
(b)
(c)
Fi1ure 6.96
(d)
y
By the same reasoning we can find the approximate
shapes ofthe graph near the other vertical asymptotes.
We show these approximate shapes in
Step 5
Step 6
'
Figure 6.96(e).
Since -
1
1
sin(x) , so lcsc(x)l .
" J!
I
Fi1ure 6.96(e)
Now we complete the graph (Figure 6.97).
!r
II
II
and 21t is repeated. We call this the basic cycle of
y = csc(x). Let us superimpose the basic cycle af the sine function (dotted) (Figure 6.97). We observe
We see that the part of the graph between
that the asymptotes af the cosecant function are at the zeros of the sine function.
Graph of y = esc x
Step 1
The period of y = esc x is the same as
the period of y = sin x = 21t.
Step 2
The basic cycle of y = esc x is shown in
'\
Figure 6.97. It is possible to imagine that the
basic cycle of y = esc x is the reflection of the
basic cycle of y = sin x in the lines y =
___ _
between 0 and n stretches vertically upwards

vertically downwards to infinity.
to infinity and the part of the basic cycle of y = esc x between
Step 4
No part of the graph lies between y = -
Step S
Fi1ure 6.97
because the part of the basic cycle of y = esc x
No x-intercepts.
.,---- --' I
I
\1
I
and
y = -1. However, that would be misleading
Step 3
1
I
I
I
I
and y =
The vertical asymptotes are x = 0 , 7t, 27t, . . .
1r and
2n stretches
.
403
CHAPTER 6:
F. THE GRAPH OF y = a csc (bx - c)

y=a
The above facts can be used draw the graph of csc(bx- as follows:
The period of csc(bx - equals the period of sin (bx - which is ;
The phase shift of csc(bx - is given by bx - or x .
The basic cycle lies between phase shift and phase shift period.
No x-intercepts.
No part of the graph lies between and
Draw dotted graph of sin(bxDraw dotted vertical lines (asymptotes) at the x-intercepts of the graph in Step
Atup each
poi
n
t
of
the
height
on
the sine graph, draw a parabola-shaped graph that opens
height, draw a parabola-shaped graph that opens down.
. And each point ofthe
Sketch the graph of the basic cycle of esc l( x - 21t) .
to
c)
To draw the graph of y = a esc (bx - c)

y=a
Step 1
y= a
Step 2
Step 3
y=a
c)
Step 5
Step 6
y = -a
y=a
Step 7
y = a.
c) .
6.
minimum
y=
EXAMPLE 3
21t
We draw the graph the basic cycle of sin (21tx - )

Ampl
i
t
ude:
None,
the
graph
goes
t
o
infinity
both
verti
c
ally
upwards
and
vertically
downwards.
Peno. d
y=3
Phase shift: x .
of
on
1.
2.
21t
1t =
Z
211:
5.
6.
omt =
The partitioning ofthe interval
]
4'
4.
r1 5
lS
4'
__
- = 0 gives =
Terminal P .
y=
1.
3.
404
maximum
Step 8
Step 1
Step 4
Solution:
c)
c)
1=
y = -]_
4.
1 3
5
' 4 ' 1
2
Figure shows (in dotted) the basic cycle of

6. 98
Figure 6.98
Y=3
sin(
21tx -
) .
6.6
Step
We draw (dotted) vertical asymptotes at x = , x = ! and x = (Figure

Now we draw the graph of the basic cycle of y = esc (2m: ) by drawing a
"parabola shaped cup" where there is a "cap" shape and vice versa (Figure
6. 98) .
Step 3
6 . 98) .
G.
THE GRAPH
OF THE SECANT FUNCTION
The
method
we
used
for
graphi
n
g
the
cosecant
function
can
also
be
used
for
the
secant
functi
o
n.
However, to avoid repetitions, we write
= sec(x) = cosl(x) = . =esc(+ - ;))
sm(-2 - x)
and obtain
secant functi
from the graph of the cosecant function by using appropriate
reflecti
ons theandgraph
translatiofothen. We
this onfollows:
We
reflect
the
graph
of
the
cosecant
function
y
= csc(x) through the y-axis and obtain the graph of
y = csc(-x) (Figure
Y
do
as
6 . 99(b)) .
y
- --.: !\Tt/2 T\
:_
,
I 3 Tt/2 I
---+--t--+-:-+-i--T:-'-+----. x
I
I
I
I
= ese(r)
(a)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
-""....
----,.../
Figure 6.99
= ese(-x)
(b)
By translating the graph of y csc(-x) by units to the right, we get the graph of
y (+ ;)) (Figure
jl
Thus
Fi
g
ure
shows
the
graph
of
the
secant
functi
o
n
,
= sec(x).
we superi
mpose
theuregraph ofwetheobserve
cosine
yfuncti
o
n
y
=
cos(x)
(dotted
in
Fi
g
that
the
asymptotes
of
the secant function at the zeros
ofgraph,
the cosi
nparabola-shaped
e function. Alsographs
, in thethatcaseopenofupthe cosecant
the
drawn
at theparabola-shaped
points where thegraph
cosithat
ne graph
becomes
maxi
mumat
and
opens
down
drawn
the points where the cosine graph becomes minimum.
= esc
6.100).
6 . 100
If
--
6. 100),
as
are
'I
I
I
.J _ _ _ l.
are
are
Figure 6.100
405
CHAPTER 6:
H.
THE GRAPH OF y = a sec (bx - c)
graph of y =Thea cossteps(bx-are outlandinedtheinobservations

made in objective draw the graph
ofiWen Exampl
yuse= athesec(bxthe following box, and the procedure is explained
e
c)
G to
c).
4.
To draw the graph of y
=a
sec(bx
c)
Draw a dotted graph of y = a cos(bxDraw dotted vertical asymptotes at the x-intercepts of the graph in step
Atparabola-shaped
each point ofgraphthethatmaximum
height
onpoithent ofcosine
graph draw
a
opens
up.
At
each
the
height
on the cosine graph, draw a parabola-shaped graph that opens down.
Sketch the graph of the basic cycle of y = sec(3x ).
We draw the graph of the basic cycle
ofy = cos(3x + ) .
Amplitude
: vertically
None, theupwards
graph goes
on to
both
and
vertically
downwards.
21t
------- 1----Penod = 3.
Phase .
Step 1
c).
1.
Step 2
Step 3
minimum
EXAMPLE 4
Solution:
Step 1
1.
infinity
---------- x
.!.
6
shift:
3.
!.
6
'j!. !.
2
Figure 6.101
l3x+2 = 0 gives x=-6J
'
nl
.po - 6 + 3 = 2
mt=
e partitionmg ofthe mterva1rL-6, 2lJ 1s - 6 , , 6 , 3 ,
The graph ofthe basic cycle ofy =2 cos (3x + } drawn in dotted (Figure
We draw the vertical asymptotes at x = x 3 (Figure
3 Now draw the basic cycle ofy = 2 sec( +)as shown in Figure
4.
Terminal
5.
Th
1t
21t
1t
1t 1t
1t
1t
1t
1t
2.
6.
0,
Step 2
Step
we
Note
406
Verify the graph with a graphing calculator.
3x
1t
6.101).
6.1 01.
6. 101 ).
6.6
ExERCISE 6.6
In exercises (1-34), sketch the graph of basic cycle of the function and show the asymptotes and the zeros of the
function.
1.
f(x) = 2 tan(x)
2.
5.
f(x) = tan(2x)
6.
9.
13.
h(x) = secl 2 )
f(x) = 3 sec(2x)
10.
14.
g(x) = -3 tan (x)

f(x) = tan l
g(x) = 2 sec (3nx - n)
18.
20.
f(x) = sec (21tX- n)
21.
23.
g(x) = co{x )
26.
29.
32.
h(x) = 4 sec (x + )
f(x) = esc( x
)
f(x) =-esc( )
rr
-n
Writing Exercises
35.
36.
37.
f(x) = sec(3x)
g(x) = 5 sec(nx)
17.
3.
g(x) = -2 cot (x)
4.
h(x) = 3 cot(x)
7.
g(x) = cot(2x)
8.
g(x) = cot(4x)
11.
15.
h(x) = cscl )
f(x) = 2 esc (21tX)
f(x) = 4 tan (x + )
ftx) = tan (x-)
12.
16.
g(x) =csc(3x)
g(x) = 3 esc (2x)
19.
g(x) = 2 esc (2nx + n)
22.
g (x) = 3 cot (x- )
24.
f(x) = esc (3nx-n)
25.
h(x) = 2 tan(2x-n)
27.
h(x) = 2 cot (3x + n)
28.
g(x) = tan (I+Jr)
30.
33.
g(x) = sec( )
f(x)= - cot l )
31.
34.
g(x) = - 21 sec(2nx
n)
g(x) = -31 tan (2x + n)
Describe the relationship between the graph of y = a sin (bx- c) and y = a esc (bx - c).
Describe the behavior of the tangent function near x = 0.
Describe the behavior of the cotangent function near x = 0.
Think Conceptually
38.
State the domain and range of secant and cosecant functions. Explain how did you find them.
407
CHAPTER 6:
Circul.u Functions oi Angl<'
6.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The "amount'' ofrotation of a ray is measured by an

The starting position
of
an
angle
ray
is
cal
l
ed
the
and
the
ending
ray
is
called
the
of the angle.
is traced
by
movi
n
g
from
the
i
n
iti
a
l
side
to
the
terminal
side
in
a
direction.
is
traced
by
movi
n
g
from
the
initi
a
l
side
to
the
terminal
side
in
a
direction.
angle is measured in and in
complete movement of the ray with the end flxed, around a circle measures
the lengths subtends an angle 8 at the center of a circle of radius then the radian measure
of the angle 8 is given by 8 =
To convert
(Degrees) ( )
To convert
(Radians )0
The
of a sector of a circle ofradius with central angle 8 is given by s = 8.
For
v
and antheobject that travels atarea constant
related asratev =along a circular path of radius the
P(x, then
is a thepointcircular
on thecoordinate
unit circleofwithiscenterwhere
at the origin
andthe positive= x-axis.
8 , measured
in
radians,
is
along
The
are deflned as:
sin(8) cos(8) x, tan(8) csc(8) , sec(8) - , and cot(8)
The
for circular functions
csc(8) = sin(8 )'
sec(8) = cos(8) '
cot(8) = tan(8 ) , and (sin(8))2 (cos(8))2 =
angle.
initial side
terminal side
A positive angle
counter- clockwise
A negative angle
clockwise
degrees
An
If
radians.
OA,
arc
360.
r,
!_ .
r
8.
degrees to radians:
1 0
11t80
radians to degrees:
9.
10.
11.
arc length
angular speed ro
If
rro.
y)
e,
circular functions
= y,
12.
= -
408
are:
OA
=- ,
fundamental identities
radians
r,
linear speed
LAOP
six
= -.
6. 7
13.
The
Mini-table
0
14.
Ch.1pt<>r Summ,uy
sin ()
cos ()
tan ()
1t
1t
1t
1t
-1
J2
-
J3
-
1
2
J3
undefined
J2
-
J3
2
J3
3
If the inwith
itial thesidex-axis
of angleis called
8 is intheits standard position,ofthen8. the acute angle that the terminal side
makes
Tothedetermine
the
circular
of
an
angle
8,
trace
angleThen
8 andusedetenni
e the quadrant
in whichforitspositi
terminal
side
resides.
the folnlowing
simple scheme
vevalues.
reference angle
15.
sign of a
means all are positive

S means Sine and Cosecant are positive
T means Tangent and Cotangent are positive
C means Cosine and Secant are positive
TTC
16.
function
Figure 6.102
The
ofangleangle
8 in a atright triareandefiglened
with right angle at and the vertex
8=
angle
to
angle
side
adjacent
to
8
. side opposite
--=-Cos(8)
sm(8)
hypotenuse
hypotenuse
angl188- = AB ' esc(8) = side opposite
hypotenuse
tan(8) = sidesideopposite
adjacent angle
to angle - AB '
side
adjacent
angle
8
hypotenuse
sec(8) = side adjacent
cot(8
)
= side opposite angl1 8- =
to angle 8 '
8
The
with inclination 8 given by
The
ofan object the angle between the horizontal and the line of sight of the
object
The
of
an
object
is
the
angle
between
the
horizontal
and
the
line
of
sight
of
the object
trigonometric functions
B,
ABC,
as
C,
-7----
to
BC
AC '
AC
BC
AC
BC
to
BC
AB '
Recall that Trigonometric Functions of angle e in a right triangle ABC, are same as the Circular Fun -
tions of the angle
17.
18.
19.
defined using a circle of radius AC (hypotenuse of the triangle ABC)
slope of a line
angle of elevation
above.
is
tan
e.
is
angle of depression
below.
409
CHAPTER 6:
20.
Circul.u Functions oi Angl<'
The
is
half
the
product
of
the
lengths
of
two
given
sidesareatimofesthethetriangle
sine oftheABCanglise between
thesinsides
.
That
is,
the
(
)
(C),
where C is the angle made by sides of lengths b.
The graph of the
off(x) = sin(x) is given in
Figure
area of a triangle
112 ab
a&
21.
(1tl2,
0
(31C/2, -1)
basic cycle
6. 103 .
22.
23.
1)
Figure 6.103
The
of the basic sine function and the is
The
ofj(x) = cos(x) is given in
Figuregraph of the
The
of the basic cosine function is and the is
The behavior of the sine function near a zero x = is given
by f(x) (xFor the graph ofj(x) sin(bx- or cos(bx- the
is .
is the is ; and the
The graph ofhasthethebasicperiodcycle x-iof nthetercept
tangentat xfunction
and
the vertical asymptotes x = (Figure
For the basic cycle of the graph of
where the period is the phase
shiftts. b , andthe vertica asymptotes are x = b - and x = b
The graph of the basic cycle of the cotangent function
has the period x-intercept at x = and
the vertical asymptotes at x and x (Figure
For the basic cycle of the graph of
the period is the phase is and the vertical asymptotes
amplitude
period
is 1
21t.
basic cycle
6. 1 04.
24.
25.
amplitude
=
26.
(-1Y
amplitude
27.
Ia I,
n1t).
=a
29.
phase shift
6.105).
Figure 6.105
1t,
cot(x)
- rt/21
I
I
I
I
I
I
= 0,
1t,
410
c),
f(x) = a tan (bx - c),
f(x)
30.
c)
period
Figure 6.104
f(x) = tan(x)
21t .
n1t
28.
period
shift
1t
2b
a > 0,
c
1t.
2b
1t
6. 106) .
f(x) = a cot (bx - c), a > 0
Figure 6.106
31.
32.
The graph of basic cycle of/(x) = csc x is given in

Figure 6.107.
b.
34.
6.8
The graph of the basic cycle of f(x) = a csc(bx - c) is

related to the graph of f(x) = a sin (bx - c) as follows:
a.
33.
y
I
\li: ____:!_ _
1[/2
lrt/2
,_
-+
11t-+
I-21t-.
0
__
__
The vertical lines at the x-intercepts of the graph of

f(x) = a sin (bx - c) are the asymptotes of
f(x) = a esc (bx - c).
---17"\
_i_
1/ \1
I
I
I
I
Figure 6.107
At each point ofthe maximum/minimwn height on the sine graph, the parabola shaped graph
opens in the opposite direction.
The graph of basic cycle of/(x) = sec x is given in Figure 6.100 in Section 6.6.
The graphs of the basic cycles of/(x) = a sec (bx - c) andf(x) = a cos (bx - c) are also related
in the same way as the relationship between the graphs of cosecant and sine functions.
CHAPTER REVIEW
In exercises (1-4), convert to radian measure.
1.
135
155
3.
32
4.
- 280"
7.
2.7
8.
- 3.2
In exercises (5-8), convert to the degree measure.

5.
51t
6.
7rc
In exercises (9-12), find the arc length of the sector whose central angle (8) and radius (r) are given.
11. e
10.
9.
150, r = 2
12.
The latitude of Honolulu is 21 19' north of the equator. If the radius of earth is approximately 4000 miles,
estimate the land distance between the equator and Honolulu.
14. The latitude of city is 40 25' 35" south of the equator. Find the land distance between the equator and the city.
Assume that the radius of the earth is 4000 miles.
15. A boy is riding a bicycle at the speed of 15 mph. If the diameter of the wheels is 28 inches, find the rpm of the
wheels.
If a wheel is making 8 revolutions per second and its radius is 7 ft., find (a) the angular speed in radians per
16.
second, and (b) the linear speed in ft./sec.
13.
In exercises (17-20), the initial side of the angle 8 is in the standard position and P(x, y) is the point where the
terminal side of the angle meets the unit circle. Find the values of the six circular functions of angle e.
17.
p( ) is in the second quadrant

x,
18.
P( { , y) is in the first quadrant
411
CHAPTER 6:
19.
(-, )
is in the third quadrant
20.
( )
x,
is in the fourth quadrant
In exercises (21-26), find the exact values of the function.
( ln)
21. sec (405)
22. sin -
23. tan
()
3 1t
24. cos
( :1t )
1
25. esc(- 1 140)
26.
cot (- 840)
In exercises (27-31), find all e in [0, 360] for which the circular function has the indicated value.
sin ( B) =
27.
J3
tan(8) = 6.4513
28.
29.
11
cos( B) = .4781 30. csc(O) = 2
31. sec( B) = - .J3
In exercises (32-35), find the values of sin(9), cos(O), and tan (9)
32.
12 31t
sec(9) "" 5,
< G< 1t
34.
csc(O) = x, O < 8 < 2"
33.
1t
35.
sec(O) =
2 , sin (O)
>
3
1
L___d
In exercises (36-39), solve the right triangle.

36.
37.
40.
38
2_5
39.
4.2
A part of a vertical chimney comes out of the top of an industrial building. From a point 100 feet from the base
of the building, the lines of sight to the top of the chimney and top of the building make angles 42 and 38 with
the horizontal ground, respectively. Find the height of the chimney above the top of the building.
41.
A helicopter measures the angle of depression of a car to be 35. If the helicopter is 1500 feet above the road,
how far is the car from the point on the road directly below the helicopter.
42.
Find the area of the regular hexagon inscribed in a circle of radius 10 inches.
43.
Find the area of a regular pentagon inscribed in a circle of radius 7 inches.
In exercises (44-47), (a) find the amplitude (b) find the period, (c) find the phase shift, and (d) sketch the graph of the
basic cycle of the function.
412
( )
( I)
44.
f(x) = - 2 cos 2x +
45.
g(x) = 3 sin 4x
46.
g(x) = 1 + 2 sin(3x - n)
47.
h (x) = - 1 - cos (3x + 1t)
In exercises (48-51), imd the function that matches the graph or the numerical (table) data.
In exercises (52-59), sketch the graph of the basic cycle of the function and show the asymptotes and the
function.
zeros of the
( -1! )
( )
+
52.
f(x) = 3 tan
55.
f(x) = -2 esc
58.
f(x) = csc(3x
Writing Exercises
1C
x-
n)
53. g(x) = -
cot
(+1! )
56.
h(x) = cot (2x - n)
59.
g(x) = -2 sec (3x - n)
60.
Describe completely the behavior of the sine function.
61.
Explain the relationship between the graph of y =
6.9
1.
54. g(x) = 3 sec
Convert
1t X
57. f(x) = -20tan(;rr x + 2;rr)
a cos (bx - c) and y = a sec(bx
CHAPTER TEST
a.
( + 1t )
c).
radians to degrees.
b. Convert 330 degrees to radians.

2.
If central angle of the sector of a circle of radius 5 is 32,

find the perimeter of the sector.
3.
The wheel of a tractor is 6 feet in diameter and moves at 10 tpm. How fast is the tractor moving on the road?
4.
Find the exact value of the function.
( )
-
c.
5,
sec
Given that tan(x) = u, find sin(x) and cos(x) in terms of u (assume that 0 < x <
).
413
CHAPTER 6:
6.
9
1
Solve the right triangle.
25
7.
A police car is in pursuit of a car with a suspect on a straight highway. A police helicopter is following the two
cars and is flying 1200 feet above the road. At a particular instant, the angles of depression from the helicopter
to the police car and suspect's car are 32 and 21 respectively. How far apart are the cars?
8.
Find the area of a regular pentagon inscribed in a circle of radius 8 feet.
9.
Find the (a) amplitude,

a.
10.
11.
(c) phase shift, and sketch the graph of the basic cycle of the function.
b.
g(x) = -2 sin (3x + n)
Find a cosine function that describes the function:
d + co (bx -
c)
Sketch the graphs of the basic cycle of the function and show the asymptotes and zeros of the function.
a.
414
( )
f(x) = 3 cos 2.:t -
(b) period,
1
f(x) = 2 tan(2x - n)
( )
g(x) = 2 csc 2x +
Answ<'rs
SECTION 6.2
=0
I, sin (7t)
3.
cos (1t) = - 1
tan (1t) =
esc
(1t)
is undefined
rs1t)
II.
sin lT = 1
)
cos lT = O
(h
rTsn) is undefined
l
esc
e21t) =
rsrr
sec lT
f
r )
9rr
(1
25.
19.
tan (6) =-4./5
(-480) Jf
cos (-480) =
tan (- 480) = .f3
2
esc (-480) = - ./3
sec (-480) = -2
1
cot (-480) = J3
8
sin (6) = - J7
cos (6) -2
4
= .fi
tan
sin
27.
= -
(6)
1
2
21.
1
. 6= 2
)
n)
l -3
r n
1
cos l -3 = = 2
r
tan
- ./3
rl -3n ) = - J32
rn
sec l -3) = 2
rn 1
cot l 3) = - J3
esc
15.
sin
(5:) = 5
)
)
tan 4 = - 1
l
)
esc l "4 = J2
fsn
rsn
fsrr
r51t )
sec l 4 = - J2
crt
rs1r
l4
e=
-1
J[
.fi
cos 6 = -
1
tan 6 = ./3
tan G = -
esc (6) = 2
esc e = - .fi
sec (6) =
sec e
.f3
cot (6) = J3
sin (6) =
Jf
-1
cos (6) = 2
tan (6)
=-.f3
cos l 4 = - ,fi
./3
cos e = T
29.
23. sin
sm
./3
- 3 ) = -T
(-330) =
cos (-330) = Jf
1
tan (-330) = J3
esc (-330) = 2
(-330) = ./32
cot (-330) = J3
.
Sln
sec
1
-2
1
cos (6) = -9
.fi
(91t
1t
)
) .fi
cot l 4 = 1
r 9rr
sec l4 =
sec
.fi
)
cos l 4 = .fi
(91t
csc l4 =
5n )
r 31t
tan lT) = .f3
31t ./3
esc c3 ) =
3
lT) =2
I3n
cot lT) = J3
4
sin (6) = "[5
13.
n)
is undefined
fiJn
7, SID
f9
e1t) J32
)
cos l3 = 2
sin
1
-2
tan l 4 = 1
cot lT = 0
17.
f9n
sin l 4 =
(-30) =
cos (-30) .J3
2
tan (-30)
J3
esc (-30) = -2
2
sec (-30) = J3
cot (-30) = J3
.
Sin
sec
cot (1t) is undefined
tan
s.
-1
sec (1t) = - 1
9.
(270) =-1
cos (270) = 0
tan (270) is undefmed
esc (270) =
(270) is undefined
cot (270) = 0
sin
3
3
= .fi
cot e = -
31.
-5
sin (6) = IT
-2
5
tan (6) = IT
1
cos <e) = u
A."Zl
AnswNs
esc ((\)
sec ((\)
.rs
= -9
cot (()) = -
33.
cot (6) = .fi

T
./5
35.
.fi
=3
esc (6) =
39.
sin (9) =
x =
Jf
37.
Case (I)
J[ ,
./2
sec (6) =
-1
./3
cot (6) =
12
= 13
,P
. .
hes m quatrant I Case (II):
-13
U
12
12
. .
= - 13
, P lies
m quatrant II
tan <6> =rr

5
tan (6) = -
5
sec (6) = - 4
esc (6) =
13
4
cot (6) = 3
sec (6) =
13
esc (6) = 5
sec (()) =
tan ((\) = ,fi
-2
12
cos (6) =- 13
esc (6) =
.fi
sec (6)
12
cos (6) = 13
3
=4
cot (6) =
P lies in quatrant I
cos (9) = 3
-13
esc (6) = -5
sm
5
esc (6) = -3
.fi
= .fi
Case (I)
= -53
2
./3
5
. (v)
" = 13
sm
tan (6)
4
sec (6) = 3
cot ((\)
.
sm ((\)
esc (6) =
cot (6) =
4
cos (9) = - 5
=4
cos (())
.fi
=----g
1
sec (6) = -2
Jf
sin (e) =
tan ((\)
esc (6)
cot (9) =
Case (ll)
./2
sin (6)
Jf ,
= - Jf
P lies in quatrant IV
.fi
./2
53.
esc (9) =-
.fi
.fi
5
12
12
cot (6) =-s
12
cos (()) = 3
13
sec (6) = -12
13
12
x =
" =
(v)
13
sec (9) =
J2
3
.fi
.fi
./2
tan (9) =- .fi
cot ((\) =- ./2
SECTION 6.3
I,
15.
60
3.
so
17. 0
25, a. - 1
29. a.
33.
a.
39.
a.
.J3
2
.J3
-2
51. 1.08
65. 45 and 135
75.
A.28
30
19.
b.
-./2
b.
- -/3
no
7.
11
b.
c.
- -/3
31. a.
-./3
b. -2
./3
b. 0
41.
53. .10
55. 30" and 150"
225 and 315
7:1, a.
-2
69.
77.
a.
.86
b.
43.
IL
23. a. -1
c. Ji.
35.
67.
9. ooo
15
21. 82"
b. 2
100.1 and 280.1

o
s.
2
.080
9.4 and 170.6 79. 85.1"and 265.1
c. .f2
.J3
c. 2
2
45. -5.56
71.
- ./2
u. !!....
c. 2
57. 60 and 300 59. 240 and 300
34.9 and 145.1"
b.
- ./3
37. a.
45
.J3
-2
b.
47
1.54
61. 180"
49. -0.53
63. 0 and 180"
13.0 and 193.0" 73. 196.1 o and 343.9
81.
1.12
Answ<'rs
SECTION 6.4
1.
sin (9) = 5
3.
cos (9) = 5
3
tan (9) = 4
5
11.
15
cos (6) = IT
17
esc (9) = 8
7
19.
13.
22
cot (6) = 2./2
cos (6) = .J3
.J3
sin (6) = ./2
15.
1
sin (6) = .fi
1
cos (6) = .fi
tan (6) = 1
tan (6) = 1
esc (9) = .fi
esc (9) = J2
sec (9) = .fi
sec (9) = J2
cot (6) = 1
cot (9) =
.fi9
sin () = J5
21.
./2
sin (9) = 2.
28
cos (9) = - .fii5
esc $) = -
3
tan (9) = -
sec () = .J5
sec (6) =
sin (a) = 7
cos (a) =
29.
4./3
7
--
tan (a) = -
23.
sec (a) = -
cot (e) = - -/3
cot (a) = -4./3
4./3
7
4./3
sin (y) =
28
.fi75
77
esc () =
sec (y) =
31.
cot (y)
- 25
./6
1
.
SID
(a) = - 2M
7-
cos (a) = 7
3
- .fi
4
.fi
2./6
cot () = 2J6
.fi
cos (y) = 4
tan (y) =
sec () = -5
.fii5
sin () = - 2
tan <> =
.fi75
cot (6) = --
cot () = 2
-2
2
sec (e) = .J3
cot (6) = 3
tan (6) = 5
27.
cos (6) =
3
.fi
cos (6) = .fi9
J5
J13
J13
sec (6) = -
.fi
cot (6) = 3
1
cos () = J5
2./2
esc (9) =
sec (9) = .fi
cot (9) = 2
2./2
cos (9) = -
esc (6) =
,/29
15
tan (6) =
tan (9) = 2
esc (9) = 3
sec (9) = .fi9
cot (9) = 8
25.
(6)
cos (9) = J13
tan (9) = .fi
JU
""J'2
csc (9) =
sec (9) = IT
tan (6) =
sin
sin (9) = J13
7.
tan (6) = IT
sec (6) =
./2
. (9) = 3
sm
4
.fi
cos (9) = 4
./2
./2
cot (6) = 3
sin (9) = i7
esc (9) =
tan (9) =
sec (6) =
cot (6) = 3
17.
7ii
11
sec (9) = 4
cos (9) =
5.
JU
esc (9) = -
esc (9) = 3
9.
3
JU
sin (9) =
.fi
= _3
2M
tan (a) = -3
esc (a) = - 2./W

cot (a) =
-2 3
./W
A.29
AnswNs
r-:;
33. sin (0) =
35.
v1+v2
cos (0)
J1
csc (O) =
esc (a) = Jp2 + 1

+ "2
sec (a) =
sec (O) = J1 + ..?-
cot (0) = -;
tan (a) =
2.2, a = 61.3 and (3
47.
a =
53.
a = 37.5,
61.
109.4ft.
cos (a) =
f3 = 52.5 and
63.
Jpz + l
Jp2 + 1
p
49.
a =
= 1 3.5
ss.
a = 45, a = 3 and
65.
1,327 ft.
75. 826.7 ft.
77. 87.8 uni
89.
91
93.
414
41.
a = 68,
43.
a = 65, A = 71 and B = 32.8
a =
= 396.3
= 162.2
= 20.8 and B = 17.3
f3 = 35.97, a = 54.03 and

127.9 ft.
59.
a.
= 7.66
9 = 36.9 ,
69. 373.2 ft.
71. 3.18 miles 73.
83. 4.6 in2
85.
97.
56.3
and
150 and
57,
1205.77 ft.
95.
= 336.1
51.
81. 208.1 in2
60
./3
a = 58,
= 3 .J2
67.
79. 33.4 in2
100
3!1.
61.9, f3 = 26.9 and a = 63.1 o
28.7
and
a = 60, b =
45. (3 = 40, A
186.Sft.
_
_
_
so
.J3
37.
99.
30
b. x = 40ft.
172.7 ft.
ff1. - 1 .43
.J3
135
SECTION 6.5
1. 1,
15,
29.
3. 2, 41t
1[
5. 3,
271'
7. 2,
1[
3 Jt
17,
24
19.
2, 4
21, 5, 2
23. 2 ' 2Jt
2.5, 3 7t:
31. 3.2 ' 5
33.
371'
5 ,
2
35. 2 . 4
37.
39.
41.
11. 1, 2'1r
9. 3 . 2
25, 1 .5 , 6
43.
-2
-3
y y= sinc;.-) +3
47,
y
If
2 a T2 a
3
I/ '\. y = sin(x) - 2
'\./
y
49.
27.
5,6
-I
45.
13. 2, 2
-t:---f-/
-. '
\.
/
:..___
2 ---l
51.
a.
b.
_,
A.30
-=1
..
__
-JT
rr
1 --r
___
c. 4 d.
7t
y=am( +f)
-------- - - - - - -
0.!!.
. ;J.f- x
+
"7--
-
------
53.
a.
b. 1[
c. -1! d.
f
1-----y=,cos(2x+2)
--
-_!"1._..).:::-_;;:_-:y- - '
--
-I ----
55.
a.
b.
7t
c. 0 d.
1,
IT
Answ<'rs
57.
b.
a.
c.
d.
59.
a.
b.
c.
X
3
63. a.
b.
-::..!!.L.
21r
69.
a.
65. a. 3
y
y=fcoo (3x+-.)
0
...
. . . LL . .
..!!.. ..!!..
b. 47t
c.
b.
21r
c. 3 d.
1r
SECTION 6.6
9.
4 d.
"!":\
y = sin (u - 4-.)
- -- -
b.
--
21r
zrv ;
---;<+
..
----+
--

.. ..
x
6 3
-3 -6
f(x) sin (x )+2

=
f(x)
8. COS
- lr
cos (x -;)
X - sin X
b.
(l cosx+sinx )
X,
I
I
I
I
I
I
r
I
I
I
I
I
I
o
o
o
o
o
I
o
o
o
o
o
o
: w. : ..
f(x)
2 cos
(x+ )
81.
f(x) -} cos(lr x-:)
85.
f(x) 2 cos (27tX- 1t) + 1
y = -2 cot(x)
:
:
3.
c.
d.
87.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
3 --
83.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
67. a. 1
- 2 --
79.
----
:--oi:-a
=- x
b.
77.
1.
a.
y=-flin(3;o; - -.)
2
3"""
-21r
3-
61.
-- ---7,---
d.
-2
7.
.X
0 :
:
'
''
I
13.
15.
..!_1b'
4
.
:2
'
(V i
2
.
. -------
I \:
A.31
Anwrrs
17.
2
-2
..
.
..
I
..
r-fJ
;,; 2 siii(2JU + It)

_i
..
41
..
..
..
.
27.
,
. . (h-
y =2cot (3x + It)
i\
. I I "
' !X If
T : -.
..
..
...
-z
..
..
..
T:
\}..'
2!1.
: q,
.,
l
-
X
6
-1:
l
-2
'
,.
..
l'"'{
..
..
..
..
..=Q..
l
31.
r i '
eJ=y U. II.
I
\
\ :
:)
.. 0 21 , 1 J '.l
:
2
... . . . . ... .' :
I
..
..
12'*\IC
.
.
..
!\
y=cot,+ t
..
23.
; y 2ca:(2JU+ It)
25.
21.
2
1
:-)
-2
l
..
..
1:
'\
}'.
.
..
..
.
i
..
1
l
,=--coo(l.<
2
-----
,
,
.
.:\..: 1 , f
4

r
..
..
..
.
.
I
)lox
'/
l
..:(2,1'
ey -2
lf)
33.
CHAPTER REVIEW 6.8
1.
3n
4
3.
17. sin <e>
cos <e>
tan (e) =
esc
A.32
(e) =
l!n:
l!J.
-.fii
5
-2
J2l
5
2
sec (e) =
- .fii
cot (&) =
.fii
-2
7.
5.
45
sin (e) =
cos <e> =
-2./2
-
154.7
9.
21.
2.72
11.
5.24
.f2
./3
23.
1,488.2 mi 15. 180.1 rpm
13.
13
-
25.
150 and 210
-3
29.
61.4 and 298.6
2./2
33.
sin (e) =
esc (6) =
- 3
2./2
7
Jill
35. sin (e) = """"22" cos (&) = - 22 , tan (e) =
sec (e) =
-3
YT.
cr. =
41.
2,142.2 ft
tan
(e)
2l2
cos (e) =
- ./89 .
cot (&) =
5
- J89
.
31.
54", A = 6.5, and B = 4.7

43.
240 and 300
27
39.
116.5 in2
tan (e) = -
5
8
Jill
= 36.4, cr. =
53.6, and c = 5.2
.<)
Answ<'rs
45.
a. 3,
d.
b.
If
y
c.
If
8
2Tr
47. a. 1, b. 3 ,
d.
If
49.
c.
-::
,
+
-+
-::<
....,...
. -::
,..
___,
...
-3
3
-I
-3
-2
53.
55. y
....
lf)
1f)
, !2
I
I
I
cos (lx
rr)
51.
f(:x) =
59.
3 sin (lx - n:)
"
I
(
1
:
:
=-2csc l lfr -
\)t
2
2
I
I
I
. - . . . - . . II . . . .
(
II , \ l = -2 sm X
II
-2
t y
I,
. l 11
:
I ' I
)ll X
0
p 2 15
-
..........
-2
f(:x) =
57.
- - - - -
(u+2n)
rr
!-
I
I
:
-2
=2!1eC(3x-)
:I :
(3.:< - )
2 5
I
'
.
0
'
. . . . . . . . .
:'
oy = -2 cm
3 J f23:16
----
"
'il
-----
CHAPTER TEST 6.9

I,
9.
b.
22.5
a.
a.
l l n:
6
3.
s.
2.1 mi/hr
b.
sin (:x)
II, a.
u
J1+ ri
Il
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
, cos :x =
I
y=
J1+u2
t lan(2J< - Jt)
7.
1205.7ft.
b.
Chapter 7
SECTION 7.1
1. cos :X
15.
17.
COS :X
3.
5.
- 2 cos :x sin :x
41. cos2 :X
17.
19. 1 + sin e
43.
51. 1 + sin :x cos :x
2 sin :x
2
sin :x
COS :X
1+sin6
1-sine
---
7.
19.
31. sec2 e csc2 e
1-
cose
4 sec2 e
9.
cos2
13. 4 + 8 sin
11.
21. 4 cot :x esc :x 23. 2 esc :x

33. 2 sec e
45. sin e (cos2 e - sin2 6)
47.
53. sin :X + cos :X
55.
(1 +
35.
sin2 :x) (cos2 :x)
2 sin :x - 3
57.
1+ e
3cos:x- 2
1 - COS :X
cos e
25. sin e + cos e
37. cos2 e
49.
59.
39.
- cos
:X
9 (sin2 e - cos2 6)
tan & - 3
2 - tan e
A.33

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6.

ThP Unit C i rciP ,Jnd Mt'<l'UrPm<nt oi Anglp,

CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES

chapter, we introduce a family of transcendental functions known as the circular functions of

The Unit Circle and Measurement of Angles

THE UNIT CIRCLE AND MEASUREMENT

this section, we shall describe a circle (a unit circle, in

In this section we shall learn about:

The Unit Circle;

Angle and its Measurement;

C. Arc Length of a Sector and circular

0. The Relationship between Linear

A. THE UNIT CIRCLE

Using the distance formula, we get

Squaring both sides gives (x

This is the equation of the circle of radius r centered at the origin.

general, the equation of the circle of radius r centered at the

Cir<"ul.u F um1ions oi Angl<'s

ANGLE AND ITS MEASURE MENT

Suppose OA is the initial position of a ray (Figure 6.2(a)). If

The angle between rays OA and OBis denoted by LAOB.

a counter clockwise direction is a positive angle (See Figure 6.3).

An angle traced by moving the initial side to the terminal side in a

clockwise direction is a negative angle (See Figure 6. 4).

We can measure an angle either in degrees or in radians.

The complete movement of the segment 01 around a

ThP Unit C i rciP ,Jnd Mt'<l'UrPm<nt oi Anglp,

Each degree has 60 minutes and each minute has 60 seconds.

1" and 60"

Let OA be the initial side. Now move in the

Let OA be the initial side. For a negative

Let OA be the initial side. For positive angles

Since one complete movement of OA is

Find an angle between 0 and 360 that is coterminal

here, we subtract 360, so 420-360 = 60

To find the coterminal angle

To find the coterminal angle here, we

Write the angles 42

Since each minute is

add 360, so (-600) + 360 = -240

a decimal to the nearest one-thousandth of a degree.

of a degree and each second is

420 25' 40" = 420 + 25

6.8, the initial side OA = radius of the circle

the angle subtended at the center of a circle by

an arc whose length is equal to the radius of the circle.

1 radian. The arc length= radius.

Find the radian measure of each angle in Figure 6.10.

To convert radians to degrees:

If the radian measure of an angle is given in terms of

1t, then just replace

simplify to get the degree measure of the angle.

Convert 120 to radians.

We multiply 120 by the fac1Dr

To convert degrees to radians:

Similarly, the radian measure of the angle in Figure 6.10(c) is given by

ThP Unit C i rciP ,Jnd Mt'<l'UrPm<nt oi Anglp,

We multiply 1 by the factor

and obtain, 120

with 1ao and

and then simplify by replacing 11: with its approximate

Thus, 1 radian""' 57.3.

c. ARC LENGTH OF A SECTOR AND CIRCULAR COORDINATES

A sector of a circle with