Space Environment & It's Effects On Space Systems

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V. L. Pisacane

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Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

SPACE ENVIRONMENT AND ITS EFFECTS ON

SPACE SYSTEMS
Chapter 7
Neutral Environment
by
V. L. Pisacane

Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

VLPisacane,2012

TOPICS

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Introduction
Earth Atmosphere
Atmospheric Models
Planetary Atmospheres
Propagation
Atomic Oxygen
Aerodynamic Forces
Effusion

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INTRODUCTION 1/2

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

An atmosphere is the layer of gas that surrounds a celestial body

The planets were formed with atmospheres primarily of hydrogen and helium
On

the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) the thermal
velocities of the atmosphere due to the solar wind was greater than the escape
velocity of the gravitational field so the lighter constituents were loss

Mercury has essentially no atmosphere while the other terrestrial planets have
retained the heavier molecular constituents such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
oxygen, ozone, and argon

The

outer or gaseous planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) being

farther from the Sun and more massive were able to retain much of their the
lighter molecular constituents such as hydrogen and helium

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INTRODUCTION 2/2

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Over time, the atmospheres of the terrestrial planets evolved, primarily by

release of trapped volatiles by outgassing through bombardment of the
surface by particulates and volcanic actions

As

the distance from the center of a planet increases, the atmospheric

pressure and density decrease approaching the interplanetary environment
without a sharp discontinuity

In the case of the Earth, 50% of the mass of the atmosphere is below 5 km
altitude and 75% is below 11 km

Planetary atmospheres absorb energy from the Sun, redistribute atmospheric

constituents, and together with any electrical and magnetic forces present
produce the planets climate

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EARTH ATMOSPHERE
Lower Atmosphere 1/2

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Earth atmosphere divided into 5 distinct layers

Troposphere

Extend 9 km at poles to 17 km at equator

Heated by Earth so temperature decreases
Temperature decrease ~6.5 K/km
Contains 90% of the total atmosphere mass
Upper boundary is tropopause

Stratosphere
Extends from tropopause to ~ 50 km
Temp increases by UV absorption in Ozone layer
99% of total mass in Stratosphere and
Troposphere
Upper boundary is stratopause

Mesosphere

Extends from stratopause to 80-85 km

Temperature decreases with altitude
Most meteoroids burn up in Mesosphere
Constituents in an excited state from solar
radiation causing ionosphere
Upper boundary is mesopause
Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth
VLPisacane,2012

EARTH ATMOSPHERE
Lower Atmosphere 2/2

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Thermosphere
Extends from mesopause to 200-300 km
Temperature increases to 1800 K
Small change in solar activity can cause large
change in temperature
Upper boundary is thermopause or exobase

Exosphere
Extends from thermopause/exobase upwards
Sometimes considered outer layer of
thermosphere
Temperature is essentially constant
Density so low particles travel ballistic paths
and may escape

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth
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EARTH ATMOSPHERE
Upper Atmosphere

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Thermosphere extends from 80-85 km to

altitude where temperature is constant
typically 200-500 km

Exosphere

extends from thermopause to

outer space

Thermopause

In lower thermosphere temperatures rise

rapidly with altitude

Above 200 300 km temperature remains

relatively constant

Temperature varies significantly between

day and night and between the minimum
and maximum solar activity
Thermopause

http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosph
ere/thermosphere_temperature.html&edu=high
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Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

EARTH ATMOSPHERE
Homosphere and Heterosphere

It

is possible to stratified
atmosphere by composition into
regions: the homosphere and
heterosphere separated by
turbopause or homopause

the
two
the
the

Turbopause/homeopause ~80-100 km
Homosphere is the well-mixed region

of the atmosphere lying below the

turbopause
that
has
constant
constituents

Heterosphere is the region above the

homopause or turbopause with

significantly variation in composition
as a function of altitude

Hydrogen

and helium, being lighter,

are found in the upper heterosphere
while nitrogen and oxygen, being
heavier are found in the lower
heterosphere

Figure 7.6 Vertical structure of the atmosphere

Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

78

Source unknown

VLPisacane,2012

EARTH ATMOSPHERE
Composition Homosphere

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Lower atmosphere (< 80 km) constituents are constant due to turbulent mixing
Region from 0-~80 km is known as the homosphere
Gas

Volume

Molecular Mass

Nitrogen (N2)
780,840 ppmv (78.084%)
0.78084x2x14.007 = 21.8745
Oxygen (O2)
209,460 ppmv (20.946%)
0.20946x2x15.999 = 6.7023
Argon (Ar)
9,340 ppmv (0.9340%)
0.009340x39.948 = 0.3734
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
390 ppmv (0.039%)
Total = 28.9502 29 kg kmol-1
Neon (Ne)
18.18 ppmv (0.001818%)
Helium (He)
5.24 ppmv (0.000524%)
Methane (CH4)
1.79 ppmv (0.000179%)
Krypton (Kr)
1.14 ppmv (0.000114%)
Hydrogen (H2)
0.55 ppmv (0.000055%)
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
0.3 ppmv (0.00003%)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
0.1 ppmv (0.00001%)
Xenon (Xe)
0.09 ppmv (9106%) (0.000009%)
Ozone (O3)
0.0 to 0.07 ppmv (0 to 7106%)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
0.02 ppmv (2106%) (0.000002%)
Iodine (I2)
0.01 ppmv (1106%) (0.000001%)
Ammonia (NH3)
Trace
Not included in above dry atmosphere:
Water vapor (H2O)
~0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 1%-4% at surface
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Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

EARTH ATMOSPHERE
Composition of Heterosphere
Maximum solar
activity

Note: Different
scale length for
each species

Minimum solar
activity
Turbopause

From Pisacane Ed
Fundamental of space
systems, Oxford Press,
2005
Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

Source unknown
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VLPisacane,2012

EARTH ATMOSPHERE
Pressure and Density Equations

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Assume hydrostatic equilibrium

dp
p dh A pA rg(Adh) 0
dh

dp rg dh

From the perfect gas law

Mg
RT
dp

p
dh
pr
RT
M
Integration with H defined as the scale height
Mg
h h0 p0 exp h h0
p p0 exp
H
RT

RT
Mg

Density follows as
r

where
`

pM p0M
Mg
h h0 r0 exp h h0

exp
RT
RT
H
RT

T = temperature constant with height h, K

g = acceleration of gravity assumed constant, m s-2
M = molecular mass, kg-kmol-1
p = pressure at height h
po = pressure at height ho
R = universal gas constant, J kmol-1 kg-1
r = density at height h
ro = density at height h0
H RT/Mg, scale height
h = height

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Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

EARTH ATMOSPHERE
Earth Scale Height

Problem:

Determine the scale height of

the Earths atmosphere
Solution: Scale height is given by Eq. 7.47
as
H

RT
Mg

where at the surface of the Earth

M = 29 kg kmol-1
T = 273.15 K (0oC)
g = 9.8 0665 m s-2
R = 8314.472 J kmol-1 K-1

Consequently
H

8314.472 273.15
8.0 km
29 9.80665

Since

temperature decreases fater than

the decrease in g in the stratosphere the
scale height decreases from the value at
the Earths surface

Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

7 12

Source unknown

VLPisacane,2012

EARTH ATMOSPHERE
Pressure and Density with Lapse Rate

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

If the temperature as a function of altitude is approximated by

T T0 Lh h0

the pressure and density is given by

L
p p0 1 h h0
T0

Mg

RL

L
r r0 1 h h0
T0

where

p0eh / H L0

Mg

1
RL

r0eh / H L0

L = lapse rate, K m-1

T0 = temperature at height h0, K
T = temperature at height h, K
g = acceleration of gravity, m s-2
M = molecular mass, kg-kmol-1
p = pressure at height h
po = pressure at height ho
R = universal gas constant, J kmol-1 kg-1
r = density at height h
ro = density at height h0
H RT/Mg, scale height

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VLPisacane,2012

EARTH ATMOSPHERE
Lapse Rate

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Several lapse Rates are employed

Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate (DALR) 10 K km-1
Adiabatic process no transfer of heat or mass across
the boundaries
Temperature changes within air parcel only caused by
increases or decreases of internal molecular activity
Dry air parcel rising cools at rate of 10 k km-1
Dry air parcel sinking cools at rate of 10 k km-1

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) 5.5 K km-1

Rising air parcel containing water vapor will cool at dry
adiabatic lapse rate until it reaches condensation
temperature, or dew point
Condensation releases latent heat in parcel and thus
cooling rate of the parcel reduces
SALR depends on temperature and pressure but in
middle troposphere is between 5 and 6 K km-1

Environmental Adiabatic Lapse Rate (EALR) 6.5 K km-1

Actual lapse rate is function of actual temperature
Standard model temperature gives ~ 6.5 K km-1
http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfjps/1400/atmos_struct.html
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ATMOSPHERIC MODELS
Selected Available Models

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

US Standard Atmosphere

HarrisPriester Model
Jacchia Reference Atmosphere 1977
Atmospheric Handbook

COSPAR international Reference Atmosphere (CIRA) Model

Mass-Spectrometer-Incoherent-Scatter (MSIS)-90 Model
NRL Mass-Spectrometer-Incoherent-Scatter Empirical (MSISE)-00 Model
Just a few of the models that are available

Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

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ATMOSPHERIC MODELS
Model Input Parameters

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Source unknown
Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

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ATMOSPHERIC MODELS
U. S. Standard Atmosphere

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

The standard atmosphere gives the average pressure, temperature, and air density
as a function of altitudes

It is a piece-wise continuous with 7 regions

Sea level pressure = 101,325 N/m2 (1 bar = 100,000 N/m2)
Sea level temperature = 288.15 K
Sea level density =1.225 kg/m3
M = molecular mass of air = 28.9644 kg kmol-1
Geometric height, z, actual physical height above mean sea level
Geopotential height, h, where g0h = gdz = potential energy, g0=9.8 m s-2 in MKS

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VLPisacane,2012

ATMOSPHERIC MODELS
Jacchia Reference Atmosphere Model

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Jacchia Reference Atmospheres were published in 1970, 1971, and 1977

Density, temperature, and composition are given for altitudes 90 2500 km
Effects include

season
latitude
local time (diurnal bulge)
solar activity
geomagnetic activity
atmospheric rotation
atmospheric tides
Earth oblateness on altitude
semi-annual and seasonal-latitudinal effects
Model are based mostly on satellite drag data
Assuming diffusive equilibrium, the atmospheric profiles are defined by the
exospheric temperature
Outputs
Temperature,
Mean molecular mass
Density
Number densities of the major gas constituents (N2, O, O2, Ar, He, and H)

Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

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ATMOSPHERIC MODELS
COSPAR international Reference Atmosphere CIRA-86 Model

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Source unknown

Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

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VLPisacane,2012

ATMOSPHERIC MODELS
NRL-MSISE Reference Atmosphere

Mass-SpectrometerIncoherent-Scatter models:
MSIS-86
MSISE-90
NRLMSISE-00

NRLMSISE-00

represents
improvements over the
earlier MSISE-90 model by
including additional drag
and accelerometer data
from spacecraft

Inputs

and outputs of the

NRLMSISE-00 model are
given

Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

INPUTS
Year, day, UT sec
Altitude
Geodetic latitude
Geodetic longitude
Local apparent solar time
F10.7 81 day average
F10.7 prior day daily value
AP magnetic index day

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

OUTPUTS
He number density
O number density
O2 number density
N number density
N2 number density
Ar number density
H number density
Anomalous oxygen
number density

AP magnetic index 3 h before current

Total mass density
time
AP magnetic index 6 h before current
Exospheric temperature
time
AP magnetic index 9 h before current
Temperature at altitude
time
AP magnetic index average of eight 3
hours indices from 12 to 33 h before
current time
AP magnetic index average of eight 3
hours indices from 36 to 57 h before
current time

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VLPisacane,2012

ATMOSPHERIC MODELS
NRL-MSISE Sample Result Lower Atmosphere

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Source unknown

Day = 172
Geodetic Latitude(Deg) = 60
Local Apparent Solar Time(Hrs) = 16
Daily F10.7 Flux for Previous Day = 150
Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

UT(Sec) = 29000
Geodetic Longitude(Deg) = 120
81 day Average of F10.7 Flux = 150
AP=Magnetic Index (Daily) = 4
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VLPisacane,2012

ATMOSPHERIC MODELS
MSIS-90e Density Distribution

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Source unknown
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ATMOSPHERIC MODELS
NRLMSISE-00 Model Example 1

Model

NRLMSISE-00
F10,7 prev day 70.0 10-22 W m-2 Hz-1
F10.7 81 day average 60.0 10-22 W m-2 Hz-1
Daily Ap 15.0

Average Density (cm-3)

Average Front Flux (cm-2 s-1)
Average Back Flux (cm-2 s-1)
Front Fluence (cm-2)
Back Fluence (cm-2)

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment
2.8822E+05
2.1229E+11
1.5933E+04
6.6948E+18
5.0246E+11

Conditions

Sun at equator
Sun in orbital plane
Orbit
Altitude: 1000 km circular
Inclination: polar
Epoch: 0h UT 21 Mar 2014 (Vernal Equinox)
Period: 1.75 h r
Rev per day: 13.72

Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

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1 revolution

VLPisacane,2012

ATMOSPHERIC MODELS
NRLMSISE-00 Model Example 2

Model

NRLMSISE-00
F10,7 prev day 70.0 10-22 W m-2 Hz-1
F10.7 81 day average 60.0 10-22 W m-2 Hz-1
Daily Ap 15.0
Conditions
Sun at Tropic of Cancer, 23.44 deg North
Sun orthogonal to orbital plan
Orbit
Altitude: 1000 km circular
Inclination: polar
Epoch: 0h UT 21 June 2014
Period: 1.75 h r
Rev per day 13.72

Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

7 24

Average Density (cm-3)

Average Front Flux (cm-2 s-1)
Average Back Flux (cm-2 s-1)
Front Fluence (cm-2)
Back Fluence (cm-2)

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment
2.6291E+05
1.9362E+11
1.9209E+04
6.1061E+18
6.0576E+11

VLPisacane,2012

PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES
Planetary Scale Heights
Recall

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

h h0
r r0 exp

* Surface defined by pressure of 1 bar = 100 kPa where 1.01325 bar = 1 atm pressure
Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

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PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES
Planetary Compositions
Planet

Mercury

Venus

Earth

Mars

Jupiter
Saturn

Uranus

Neptune

Surface Pressure (bars)

Surface temperature (K)

Major Constituents

10-15

440

42% Oxygen
29% Sodium
22% Hydrogen
6% Helium
0,5% Potassium
< 1% Trace elements

92

737

96.5% Carbon Dioxide

3.5% Nitrogen
Trace elements

288

78.08% Nitrogen
20.95% Oxygen
0.9% Argon
Trace elements

.01

210

95% Carbon Dioxide

3% Nitrogen
1 % Argon
1 % Oxygen
<1% Trace elements

Unknown

165 @ 1 bar

89.8% Hydrogen
10.2% Helium
Trace elements

134 @ 1 bar

96.3% Hydrogen
3.25% Helium
Trace elements

76 @ 1 bar

82.5% Hydrogen
15.2% Helium
2.3% Methane
Trace elements

72 @t 1 bar

80.9% Hydrogen
19.0% Helium
1.5% Methane
Trace elements

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Space Environment and its Effects on Space Systems

7 26

Chapter 7
Neutral
Environment

Source:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/pl
anetary/factsheet/

1 bar = 100 kPa where

1.01325 bar = 1 atm
pressure
VLPisacane,2012

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