Lecture 44

Theory of Computation
Lecture #43
Sarmad Abbasi
Virtual University
Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)
1 / 21
Space Complexity
Recall that our goal was to prove that
Theorem
NL = co-NL.
We simplified this problem by observing that
Theorem
PATH is NL-complete (with respect to logspace reducibility).
2 / 21
Space Complexity
Thus our goal was just to prove that
Theorem
PATH is in NL.
Thus by showing that only one problem belongs to NL we could show
that two complexity classes were equal.
3 / 21
Space Complexity
In the previous lecture we studied an non-deterministic algorithm. The

algorithm almost did the job. But it required an extra piece of
information.
1
We are given an input graph G = (V , E) and two vertices s and t.
We are told a number c. This is the number of vertices in G that

are reachable from s.
The TM will reject all inputs where s is connected to t.
At least one branch of M will accept if s is not connected to t.
4 / 21
Space Complexity
The previous algorithm tells us that given a graph G = (V , E) and a

source s if we can compute in LOGSPACE a number of vertices
reachable form s then we can solve the PATH problem in
non-deterministic LOGSPACE.
5 / 21
Space Complexity
Now, our task is a bit simpler. But we notice that it is even simpler than
we thought. What we want is an non-deterministic algorithm that does
the following.
1
On input G and s.
At least one branch of M should output a number c the number of

nodes reachable from s.
All other branches should reject.
6 / 21
Space Complexity
Today we will design this algorithm. Let us start. We first break up the
problem into simpler pieces (by now you should be used to of this!
Given a graph G and a vertex s let us define:
Ri = {v : there is a path from s to v of lenght at most i}.
and define
ci = |Ri |.
7 / 21
Space Complexity
R0 is the set of all vertices reachable from s via path of length 0.
and so on..
What we want to do is to find out the value of cn .
8 / 21
Space Complexity
Let us now note that c0 = 1 and in fact, the only vertex reachable from
s in 0 steps is s itself. Now, suppose we can design an algorithm that
does the following.
Given ci as an input it at least one of its branch computes ci+1
correctly and all other branches reject.
Then we can use this algorithm to eventually come up with an
algorithm that computes cn from c0 .
9 / 21
Space Complexity
This algorithm is going to be a simple loop.

1
ci = 0.
for i = 1, . . . , n 1
Compute ci+1 from ci .
if the computation succeeds continue.
Output cn .
A few things about the algorithm. The indices are only there for clarity.
We can forget the previous ci s so the space requirements are
logarithmic.
10 / 21
Space Complexity
Now we show how we can compute ci+1 from ci . For that let us try to
see why a vertex will be in Ri+1 . We observe that a vertex x is in Ri+1
if and only if
1
It is in Ri or
There is a vertex w Ri and (w, x) is an edge in the graph.
Lets start with a simple idea and then refine it. We will use the
previous ideas again and again.
11 / 21
Space Complexity
What we want to do is to count the number of vertices in Ri+1 . There is

a simple way to do this....
1
count = 0;
For each vertex v V
if v Ri+1 count = count+1;
The only problem is to check if v Ri+1 . We do not know Ri+1 .
12 / 21
Space Complexity
Now, given a vertex v V all we want to do is to check if v Ri+1 . We

can use the previous observation and do this job as follows:
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3
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For each w V
If w Ri then
if w = v or (w, v ) an edge then v Ri+1 .
v 6 Ri+1 .
This idea does not work! We do not know Ri but we do know its size ci .
So, we do something cleverer.
13 / 21
Space Complexity
We are given non-determinism at our disposal. So, we can use it over

and over again. Let us try something.....
1
For each w V
Guess if w Ri
Check if w Ri if not reject.
4
5
if w = v or (w, v ) an edge then v Ri+1 .

v 6 Ri+1 .
The problem is how do we check if w Ri . Here we use our old trick.
14 / 21
Space Complexity
Note that our subset Ri can be specified by n-bits

(r1 , . . . , rn )
where ri = 1 if and only if i Ri . Suppose we could guess a bit vector
(r1 , . . . , rn ).
15 / 21
Space Complexity
Consider the following program.
1
count = 0;
For w = 1, . . . , n
Guess rw {0, 1}
If rw = 1 then
l = s;
For j = 1, . . . , i
guess a vertex z
if z = l or (z, l) E then l = z;
if l 6= w then reject.
10
count = count+1;
11
if count 6= ci reject;
16 / 21
Space Complexity
A simplified version of this program is as follows.
1
count = 0;
For w = 1, . . . , n
Guess rw {0, 1}
If rw = 1 then
verify if there is a path of length i from s to w.
if verification fails reject.
count = count+1;
if count 6= ci reject (the guess of rv s was wrong);
17 / 21
Space Complexity
Now we can use this program to finish our task.
1
count = 0;
For w = 1, . . . , n
Guess rw {0, 1}
4
5
6
If rw = 1 then
verify if there is a path of length i from s to v .
if w = v or (w, v ) E then v Ri+1 we can set a bit b = 1.
if verification fails reject.
count = count+1;
if count 6= ci reject (the guess of rv s was wrong);
10
if b = 1 then v Ri+1 else it is not.
18 / 21
Space Complexity
This non deterministic program has the following property.

1
On input v and the number ci .
At least one of the branch outputs a number b {0, 1} such that

b = 1 if and only if b Ri+1 .
All other branches reject.
Critically we can use this program to count the size of Ri+1 . This is
what we wanted to show.
19 / 21
Space Complexity
Lets look at this program again. It is a highly non-deterministic

program. But it only uses counters! It is one of the most wonderful
programs and has only theoretical implications. Lets revisit it. Now, we
will not use indicies anymore to make it clear that only counters are
used.
20 / 21
Space Complexity
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C = 1; ( c0 = 0 we know that)
For i = 1, . . . , n 1
C has ci = |Ri | and we want to compute D = ci+1
D = 0;
For v = 1, . . . , n (For each vertex lets check if it is in Ri+1 )
b = 0;
count = 0;
For w = 1, . . . , n
guess rw {0, 1}
if rw = 1
verify if there is a path of length at most i from s to w.
If verification fails reject.
else count = count+1;
if v = w or (v , w) E then b = 1;
if count 6= C reject.
D =D+b
C=D
21 / 21
Space Complexity
At the end of the algorithm we have computed cn . Its value is stored in

D. Note that one of the loop is not shown in this program. The loop
that guesses the path of length at most i. Thus this is a program with
four nested loops! It is quite complicated.
22 / 21
Space Complexity
Once we have computed cn we know how many vertices are reachable

from s. Now, we can use the program of the previous lecture to write
our non-deterministic program that we require. This ends our proof.
23 / 21

Lecture 44

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Lecture 44

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Theory of Computation

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Recall that our goal was to prove that

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Thus our goal was just to prove that

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

In the previous lecture we studied an non-deterministic algorithm. The

We are given an input graph G = (V , E) and two vertices s and t.

We are told a number c. This is the number of vertices in G that

The TM will reject all inputs where s is connected to t.

At least one branch of M will accept if s is not connected to t.

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

The previous algorithm tells us that given a graph G = (V , E) and a

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

At least one branch of M should output a number c the number of

All other branches should reject.

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

R0 is the set of all vertices reachable from s via path of length 0.

R1 is the set of all vertices reachable from s via path of length 1.

R2 is the set of all vertices reachable from s via path of length 2.

R3 is the set of all vertices reachable from s via path of length 3.

What we want to do is to find out the value of cn .

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

This algorithm is going to be a simple loop.

Compute ci+1 from ci .

if the computation succeeds continue.

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

There is a vertex w Ri and (w, x) is an edge in the graph.

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

What we want to do is to count the number of vertices in Ri+1 . There is

For each vertex v V

if v Ri+1 count = count+1;

The only problem is to check if v Ri+1 . We do not know Ri+1 .

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Now, given a vertex v V all we want to do is to check if v Ri+1 . We

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

We are given non-determinism at our disposal. So, we can use it over

Check if w Ri if not reject.

if w = v or (w, v ) an edge then v Ri+1 .

The problem is how do we check if w Ri . Here we use our old trick.

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Note that our subset Ri can be specified by n-bits

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

verify if there is a path of length i from s to w.

if verification fails reject.

if count 6= ci reject (the guess of rv s was wrong);

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

if verification fails reject.

if count 6= ci reject (the guess of rv s was wrong);

if b = 1 then v Ri+1 else it is not.

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

This non deterministic program has the following property.

On input v and the number ci .

At least one of the branch outputs a number b {0, 1} such that

All other branches reject.

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Lets look at this program again. It is a highly non-deterministic

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

At the end of the algorithm we have computed cn . Its value is stored in

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)