An external electric current hooked up to an electrochemical cell will make the electrons go

backwards. This process is called electrolysis. This is used, for example, to make something
gold plated. You would put the copper in a solution with gold and add a current which causes
the gold ions to bond to the copper and therefore coating the copper. The time, current, and
electrons needed determine how much "coating" occurs. The key to solving electolysis
problems is learning how to convert between the units. Useful information: 1 A=1 C/sec;
96,500 coulombs can produce one (1) mole of e-; the electrons needed is determined by the
charge of the ion involved

A galvanic cell, or voltaic cell, named after Luigi Galvani, or Alessandro Volta
respectively, is an electrochemical cell that derives electrical energy from spontaneous
Potentialconsists of two different metals
redox reactions taking place within theStandard
cell. It generally
E half-cells
(volts) separated by a porous
connected by a salt bridge, or individual
membrane.Example Problem: If you are trying to coat a strip with aluminum and you
-3.04

Cathode (Reduction)
Half-Reaction
Li+(aq) + e- -> Li(s)
K+(aq) + e- -> K(s)
2+

-2.92

Ca (aq) + 2e -> Ca(s)

+

-2.76

Na (aq) + e -> Na(s)

2+

-2.71

Mg (aq) + 2e -> Mg(s)

3+

-2.38

Al (aq) + 3e -> Al(s)

-1.66

2H2O(l) + 2e -> H2(g) + 2OH (aq)

-0.83

2+

-0.76

3+

-0.74

2+

Fe (aq) + 2e -> Fe(s)

-0.41

Cd2+(aq) + 2e- -> Cd(s)

-0.40

Ni2+(aq) + 2e- -> Ni(s)

-0.23

Zn (aq) + 2e -> Zn(s)

Cr (aq) + 3e -> Cr(s)

2+

-0.14

2+

-0.13

3+

-0.04

4+

Sn (aq) + 2e -> Sn(s)

Pb (aq) + 2e -> Pb(s)
Fe (aq) + 3e -> Fe(s)
2H (aq) + 2e -> H2(g)

0.00

2+

Sn (aq) + 2e -> Sn (aq)

2+

0.15

Cu (aq) + e -> Cu (aq)

-

0.16

ClO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + 2e -> ClO3 (aq) + 2OH (aq)

-

0.17

AgCl(s) + e -> Ag(s) + Cl (aq)

0.22

Cu2+(aq) + 2e- -> Cu(s)

0.34

ClO3-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2e- -> ClO2-(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

-

IO (aq) + H2O(l) + 2e -> I (aq) + 2OH (aq)

0.35
0.49

A standard half-cell, used in electrochemistry, consists of a metal electrode in a 1 olar

(1 mol/L) aqueous solution of the metal's salt, at 298 kelvin (25 C).
Cu+(aq) + e- -> Cu(s)

0.52

I2(s) + 2e- -> 2I-(aq)

0.54

ClO2 (aq) + H2O(l) + 2e -> ClO (aq) + 2OH (aq)

3+

2+

Fe (aq) + e -> Fe (aq)

2+

0.77

Hg2 (aq) + 2e -> 2Hg(l)

+

0.80

Ag (aq) + e -> Ag(s)

2+

0.80

Hg (aq) + 2e -> Hg(l)

-

0.59

0.85
-

ClO (aq) + H2O(l) + 2e -> Cl (aq) + 2OH (aq)

0.90

2Hg2+(aq) + 2e- -> Hg22+(aq)

0.90

NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 3e- -> NO(g) + 2H2O(l)

0.96

Br2(l) + 2e -> 2Br (aq)

+

1.07

O2(g) + 4H (aq) + 4e -> 2H2O(l)

27

1.23

3+

Cr2O (aq) + 14H (aq) + 6e -> 2Cr (aq) + 7H2O(l)

-

Cl2(g) + 2e -> 2Cl (aq)

4+

1.36

3+

Ce (aq) + e -> Ce (aq)

-

1.44

2+

MnO4 (aq) + 8H (aq) + 5e -> Mn (aq) + 4H2O(l)

+

1.33

1.49

1.78

Co (aq) + e -> Co (aq)

1.82

S2O82-(aq) + 2e- -> 2SO42-(aq)

2.01

O3(g) + 2H+(aq) + 2e- -> O2(g) + H2O(l)

2.07

H2O2(aq) + 2H (aq) + 2e -> 2H2O(l)

3+

2+

F2(g) + 2e -> 2F (aq)

2.87

Newtons Law of Cooling

dT/dt = k(T R)
where T is the temperature of
the object at time t, R is the
temperature of the surrounding
environment (constant) and k is
a constant of proportionality.
What this law says is that the
rate of change of temperature is
proportional to the difference
between the temperature of the
object and that of the
surrounding environment.
remember that t is the variable.
The other letters, R, k, C, are all
constants. In order to find the
temperature of the object at a
given time, all of the constants
must first have numerical
values.