STRATIGRAPHIC AND PETROGRAPHIC CHARACTERIZATION OF HS

EPITHERMAL Au-Ag MINERALIZATION AT THE TV TOWER

DISTRICT, BIGA PENINSULA, NW TURKEY

by

Graham M. Leroux
B.Sc., the University of Victoria, 2010

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE

in

The Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies

(Geological Sciences)

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

(Vancouver)

April 2016

Graham M. Leroux, 2016

Abstract
The Biga Peninsula in northwestern Turkey is part of the Western Tethyan Metallogenic Belt, known to be
one of the most prospective belts for porphyry and epithermal style copper and gold deposits in the world.
However, the limited spatial extent of mineral tenure boundaries around many deposits encumbers the
correlation of geological and structural features beyond tenure boundaries and to a district and regional
scale. High sulphidation epithermal Ag-Au-Cu and Au-Cu porphyry deposits in the Biga Peninsula are
hosted by two temporally discrete magmatic rock formations and are structurally reconfigured by
neotectonic faulting. New geological mapping between epithermal and porphyry deposits in the central
Biga Peninsula, coupled with petrographic characterization and geochronological constraints on
magmatism and mineralization, is used to correlate the Kkda and Kirazl high sulphidation epithermal
Au-Ag-Cu deposits across the TV Tower District and regionally. Identifying prospective magmatic
formations and relating structural controls on ore mineralization to regional structures will increase the
probability of new discoveries.

ii

Preface
In Chapter 1, a review of conceptual and theoretical literature relevant to the current project is
summarized by the author. Chapter 2 is based on work conducted in the field in the anakkale Province
of Northwestern Turkey and at the University of British Columbias Vancouver campus research facility by
the author who was responsible for collecting field data and analyzing that data after laboratory analysis.

Geochemical data was produced from field samples by ACME Labs in Vancouver. Analysis of that data
by the author was carried out using ioGAS computer software. Lithological and structural data collected
in the field was analyzed and presented using ArcGIS, OpenStereo and CorelDraw.

40

Ar/39Ar

geochronological analytical work was carried out by Janet Gabites at the Pacific Center for Isotopic
Research (PCIGR) at The University of British Columbia.

This project benefitted from the collaboration of Pilot Gold Inc. and Alamos Gold Ltd. geologists: Dr. Moira
Smith, April Barrios, Will Lepore, Hakan Boran and Methap Ozcan; they were fundamental in establishing
a scientific baseline for advancement in field research. Dr. Aleksandar Mikovi from the Mineral Deposit
Research Unit (MDRU) accompanied me in the field for five days in July of 2013 and two days in July 2014.
All the fieldwork for this thesis was conducted by the author during two seasons: April 1 Sept 1, 2013
and June 4 Aug 29, 2014.

Results contained in this thesis have been presented and published under sponsorship confidentiality until
May 1, 2016 as follows:

Technical Reports:
Smith, M., Lepore, W., Incekaraolu, T., Boran, H., Barrios, A., Leroux, G. M., Ross, K., Byksolak, A.,
Sevimli, A., and Raabe, K., [submitted], High Sulphidation Epithermal Au and Cu-Au Porphyry
Mineralization at the Karaayi Target, Biga Peninsula, Northwestern Turkey: Economic Geology, p.
1-35.

Leroux, G. M., Smith, M., Barrios, A., Raabe, K., Lepore, W., Mikovi, A. and Hart, C. J. R., 2013, Structural
and Geological controls on Epithermal Mineralization at TV Tower and Kirazl Projects, anakkale
Province, Northwestern Turkey (Field Report): In: Mikovi, A., and Hart, C. J. R. (eds.) Mineral

iii

Deposit Research Units Western Tethyan Metallogeny Project: 1st Technical Meeting Report, Izmir,
Aug 23-25, 2013, p. 97 126.

Leroux, G. M., Smith, M., Barrios, A., Raabe, K., Lepore, W., Mikovi, A., and Hart, C. J. R., 2014, Broadcast
from TV Tower: Prospective Volcanic Stratigraphy for Epithermal Mineralization in the Central Biga
Peninsula, NW Turkey (Field Report): In: Mikovi, A., (eds.) Mineral Deposit Research Units
Western Tethyan Metallogeny Project: 2nd Technical Meeting Report, Sofia, Aug 24-28, 2014.

Leroux, G. M., The TV Tower Au-Ag-Cu district of the central Biga Peninsula: Stratigraphy, structural
architecture and timing of hydrothermal activity: In: Mikovi, A., (eds.) Mineral Deposit Research
Units Western Tethyan Metallogeny Project: Final Technical Meeting Report, Istanbul, Sept 1-2,
2015 p. 85 89.

Posters:
Leroux, G. M., Smith, M., Barrios, A., Lepore, W., Mikovi, A., Hart, C. J. R. and Raabe, K., 2014, Geological
Map and Structural Interpretation of TV Tower and Kirazl Prospects: Gold in the Biga Peninsula,
NW Turkey: at: Poster Sessions, AME BC Mineral Exploration RoundUp, January 26, 2014.

Leroux, G. M., Hart, C. J. R., Hart, Mikovi, A., Smith, M., Barrios, A., and Lepore, W., 2015, Stratigraphic
Mapping and Petrography of Kkda and Kirazl Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits, NW Turkey: at:
Poster Sessions, AME BC Mineral Exploration RoundUp, January 26 29, 2015.

Leroux, G. M., 2015, Petrographic Characteristics and Stratigraphic Correlation between Kkda and
Kirazl High Sulphidation Au-Ag-Cu Epithermal Prospects, NW Turkey: at: the Mineral Deposit
Research Units Western Tethyan Metallogeny Project: Final Technical Meeting, Istanbul, Sept 1-2,
2015.

Leroux, G. M., 2015, MAP: Geology of the Kkda and Kirazl Epithermal Ag-Au Deposits and the
Columbaz Au-porphyry Deposit, Central Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: at: the Mineral Deposit
Research Units Western Tethyan Metallogeny Project: Final Technical Meeting, Istanbul, Sept 1-2,
2015.

iv

Presentations:
Leroux, G. M., 2013, Structural and Geological Controls on Epithermal Mineralization at TV Tower and
Kirazl Projects, anakkale Province, Northwestern Turkey: at: Mineral Deposit Research Units
Western Tethyan Metallogeny 1st Technical Meeting, Izmir, August 23-25, 2013.

Leroux, G. M., 2015, Prospective Volcanic Stratigraphy for Epithermal Mineralization in the Central Biga
Peninsula, NW Turkey: at: the Mineral Deposit Research Units Western Tethyan Metallogeny
Project: 2nd Technical Meeting, Sofia, Aug 24-28, 2014, and at: Student Presentations, AME BC
Mineral Exploration Roundup, January 28, 2015.

Leroux, G. M., 2015, The TV Tower Au-Ag-Cu District of Central Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: Stratigraphy,
Structural architecture and timing of hydrothermal activities: at: Mikovi, A., (eds.) Mineral
Deposit Research Units Western Tethyan Metallogeny Project: Final Technical Meeting, Istanbul,
Sept 1-2, 2015 p. 90 - 96.

Table of Contents

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... ii
Preface ......................................................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. viii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... ix
List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................................... x
Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter 1....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Justification and Objectives ................................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Epithermal Systems: Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................... 3
1.4 Regional Geological Setting ................................................................................................................ 6
1.4.1 Regional Tectonic Setting ............................................................................................................. 7
1.4.2 The Biga Peninsula Basement ...................................................................................................... 9
1.4.3 Cenozoic Magmatism ................................................................................................................. 10
1.5 Mineral Deposits in the Biga Peninsula ............................................................................................ 13
Chapter 2 Metallogeny of the TV Tower District, NW Turkey ................................................................. 17
2.1 Geological and Metallogenic Setting of the TV Tower District ......................................................... 17
2.1.1 Volcanic Rocks ............................................................................................................................ 20
2.1.2 Intrusive Rocks ........................................................................................................................... 25
2.1.3 Local Stratigraphy Epithermal and Porphyry Mineralization ..................................................... 27
2.2 Hydrothermal Alteration................................................................................................................... 31
2.2.1 Residual acidic alteration: vuggy quartz .................................................................................... 32
2.2.2 Advanced Argillic Alteration: Quartz, alunite, dickite and kaolinite .......................................... 34
2.2.3 Sericite, chlorite alteration ........................................................................................................ 34
2.2.4 Phyllic Alteration: Quartz, sericite and pyrite ............................................................................ 34
2.2.5 Propylitic Alteration: Chlorite, epidote, calcite, pyrite and magnetite ...................................... 35
2.2.6 Argillic Alteration: Kaolinite, Illite and white clay ...................................................................... 35
vi

2.2.7 Supergene Alteration: Clays and iron oxides ............................................................................. 36

2.2.8 Calcite, Gypsum and Barite Veining ........................................................................................... 37
2.3 Texture and Mineralogy of the Ag-Au HS Epithermal Mineralization .............................................. 37
2.4 Geochemistry .................................................................................................................................... 47
2.4.1 Chemical classification of magmatic rocks................................................................................. 47
2.4.2 REE and multi-element characterization ................................................................................... 49
2.4.3 Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Alteration ................................................................................ 49
2.5 Structural Characteristics of the HS Epithermal and Porphyry Mineralization ................................ 52
2.5.1 Aspects of Structural Analysis .................................................................................................... 52
2.5.2 Local Structural Setting .............................................................................................................. 53
2.6 Timing of Magmatism and Au-Ag-Cu Mineralization in the Central Biga Peninsula ........................ 58
2.6.1 Methodology .............................................................................................................................. 58
2.6.2 Geochronological Constraints on Magmatism and Mineralization ........................................... 58
2.7 Discussion.......................................................................................................................................... 61
2.7.1 Space-Time Relationship of Magmatism and Mineralization in the Biga Peninsula ................. 61
2.7.2 Stratigraphy and Mineralization Correlation ............................................................................. 63
2.7.3 Paragenesis of ore minerals at Kkda and Kirazl HS epithermal deposits .......................... 64
2.7.4 Structural Evolution ................................................................................................................... 67
Chapter 3 Conclusions and Mineral Exploration Implications ................................................................. 70
3.1 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 70
3.2 Mineral Exploration Implications ...................................................................................................... 72
References .................................................................................................................................................. 74
Appendix 1: Petrographic Descriptions ...................................................................................................... 82
Appendix 2: List of Geochemical Samples ................................................................................................ 152
Appendix 3: Geochemistry Tables ............................................................................................................ 155
Appendix 4: Geochronological Database of the Biga Peninsula ............................................................... 164
Appendix 5: U/Pb Methodology ............................................................................................................... 179
Appendix 6: U/Pb Isotopic Age Data ......................................................................................................... 181
Appendix 7: Ar/Ar Isotopic Age Data ........................................................................................................ 185

vii

List of Tables
Table 1. Characteristics of end-member epithermal deposit types. ............................................................ 3
Table 2. Alteration and mineralization assemblages of the TV Tower District........................................... 32
Table 3. Age dates of magmatism and mineralization in the central Biga Peninsula ................................. 59

viii

List of Figures
Figure 1. Conceptual model of epithermal deposits..................................................................................... 5
Figure 2. Simplified geological distribution of metamorphic and magmatic rocks ...................................... 9
Figure 3. Simplified regional stratigraphic column of the Biga Peninsula .................................................. 10
Figure 4. Frequency distribution of U/Pb zircon magmatic ages ................................................................ 12
Figure 5. Magmatic and hydrothermal ages of the Biga Peninsula ............................................................ 15
Figure 6. TV Tower District stratigraphy and regional correlation. ............................................................ 17
Figure 8. TV Tower stratigraphic footwall rock photographs ..................................................................... 20
Figure 9. Petrography of EHFP rock unit. .................................................................................................... 21
Figure 10. Petrography of EDV rock unit. ................................................................................................... 23
Figure 11. Petrography of OKV rock units................................................................................................... 24
Figure 12. Petrography of EDT and OGD rock units. ................................................................................... 26
Figure 13. Petrography of Columbaz EHFP subunits .................................................................................. 27
Figure 14. Stratigraphic correlation of the northern TV Tower district ...................................................... 28
Figure 15. Kkda deposit, local rock types ............................................................................................ 30
Figure 16. Kirazl deposit, local rock units................................................................................................... 31
Figure 17. Textural styles of ore mineralization and ore-related alteration. ............................................. 33
Figure 18. Textures of ore-related alteration at Columbaz porphyry......................................................... 36
Figure 19. Mineralized stratigraphy of Kkda and Kirazl. .................................................................... 38
Figure 20. Petrography of silver zone mineralization. ................................................................................ 39
Figure 21. Petrography of stratiform gold mineralization. ......................................................................... 41
Figure 22. Mineralogy and textures characteristic of hydrothermal breccia mineralization. .................... 43
Figure 23. Mineralogy and textures of vein and micro breccia mineralization. ......................................... 45
Figure 24. Mineralogy and textures of phreatomagmatic mineralization at Kirazl. .................................. 46
Figure 25. Geochemical classification diagrams. ........................................................................................ 49
Figure 26. Rock/Primitive mantle REE spider plots of intrusive and volcanic rocks normalized values ..... 50
Figure 27. Molar ratio plot (2Ca + Na + K)/Al versus K/Al........................................................................... 51
Figure 28. Geochemical alteration plot. ..................................................................................................... 51
Figure 29. Structural domain map of the Kkda, Kirazl, Columbaz and Camelback deposits. ............. 55
Figure 30. U-Pb Concordia and Ar/Ar plateau diagrams for the samples determined in this study. ......... 60
Figure 31. Mineral deposit and magmatic host rock age correlation ......................................................... 63

ix

List of Abbreviations
PPL - Plane polarized light
XPL - Cross polarized light
RL - Reflected light
FOV - Field of view
SEM - Scanning electron microscope
SWIR - Short wave infrared
PIMA Portable infrared mineral analyzer
BSE - Back scatter electron
CL - cathode luminescence
fO2 Oxygen fugacity
LREE Light rare earth elements

Ab
Afs
Alu
An
Anl
Ang
Au
Aug
Bt
Bsm
Brt
Cal
Chl
Clv
Cp

Albite
Alkali feldspar
Alunite
Anorthite
Analcime
Angelsite
Native Au
Augite
Biotite
Bismuthinite
Barite
Calcite
Chlorite
Calaverite
Chalcopyrite

Cst
Cv
Dck
Ele
Eng
Ep
Fsp
Gn
Gth
Gp
Hall
Hbl
Hem
Ill
Jar

WTMP Western Tethyan metallogeny project

NAFZ Northern Anatolian fault zone
FWFZ Footwall fault zone
HS Epithermal High sulphidation epithermal
IS Epithermal Intermediate sulphidation epithermal
LS Epithermal Low sulphidation epithermal

Cassiterite
Covellite
Dickite
Electrum
Enargite
Epidote
Feldspar
Galena
Geothite
Gypsum
Halloysite
Hornblende
Hematite
Illite
Jarosite

Kln
Kfs
Mag
Ms
Nac
Opx
Pl
Py
Qz
Rt
Scr
Ser
Sp
Ste
Te
Tnt-Ttr
Zrn

Kaolinite
K-feldspar
Magnetite
Muscovite
Nacrite
Orthopyroxene
Plagioclase
Pyrite
Quartz
Rutile
Scorodite
Sericite
Sphalerite
Stibioenargite
Native Te
Tennantite - Tetrahedrite
Zircon

Mineral abbreviations from Whitney and Evans (2010) with the exception of: Ang, Bsm, Clv, Cp, Hall, Scr,
Ste and Te, which were generated by the author for this thesis.

Acknowledgements
The conclusions of this work would not have been possible without the generous and continued support
of Pilot Gold Inc., Teck Resources Ltd. and Alamos Gold Ltd. It was a genuine pleasure to work with the
staff and contractors at these companies. Daily discussions with Pilot Gold geologists Dr. Moira Smith,
Hakan Boran, Alper Buyuksolak, Will Lepore, April Barrios, and Ken Raabe have been helpful in keeping
this study focused and consistent with the extensive knowledge they have of the study area.
I would like to thank my supervisors Dr. Craig Hart and Dr. Aleksandar Mikovi, at the Mineral Deposit
Research Unit (MDRU) for their support throughout this project; the manuscript has benefitted greatly
from their critiques. Mitacs International and SRK Consulting supported this work in form of an internship
and scholarship, respectively, and I thank them for their contributions. I would also like to give a special
thank you to my friends and family for the unwavering encouragement and kindness they have shown me
over the past three years.

xi

Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
Epithermal gold, silver and copper deposits are recognized as a significant source of gold formed in the
upper crust (Kerrich et al., 2000). They contribute ca. 12% to global resources of gold (Robert et al., 2007)
and commonly include economically viable resources of other precious and base metals, including: silver,
copper, lead and zinc (Holliday and Cooke, 2007; Simmons et al., 2005). The epithermal environment has
been shown to be hydrothermally driven by mineralized porphyry intrusive rocks, therefore delineating
the stratigraphic and structural connection between epithermal systems and their porphyry source is
fundamental to effective exploration programs.
The Biga Peninsula in northwestern Turkey is a highly prospective region for epithermal and porphyry
style mineralization. With over 120 mineral deposits, 15 million ounces equivalent of gold defined and
numerous recent discoveries, the region justifiably has garnered attention (Bozkaya et al., 2016; Yiit,
2012; Smith et al., 2014). The area consists of Cenozoic intrusive and volcanic arc-related rocks including:
diorites, quartz diorites, dacites, basalts and epiclastic rocks which unconformably overlie a pre-Cenozoic
metamorphic basement rock assemblage. Episodic oceanic subduction, continental collision, spreading
and extension related to the interaction between the Eurasian and African tectonic plates since the
Cenozoic established the current structural and geological setting (Okay et al., 1996; Okay and Tysz,
1999; Okay, 2008). Metallogenic consequence of this tectono-magmatic history was the formation of high,
low and intermediate sulphidation (HS, LS and IS) epithermal Au-Ag (Cu, Pb, Zn) and structurallyconnected porphyry Cu-Au (Mo) deposits that are hosted in Eocene to Oligocene magmatic rock units.
The most notable of these deposits includes: the Halilaa porphyry; the Kkda, Kirazl, Ai Dai HS
epithermal and the Kuukdere LS epithermal deposits.
Kkda and Kirazl contain over 1 million ounces of gold and 39 million ounces silver (Ferrigno et al.,
2012; Hetman et al., 2014). Both deposits have morphological and mineralogical characteristics that
suggest a spatial, and potentially structural connection to a porphyry deposit at depth, yet prior to this
work, no such relationship had been identified. Isolated, deposit-only studies surrounding these deposits
has led to gaps in stratigraphic correlation between deposits. The gaps in knowledge result from individual
mineral tenure boundaries being smaller than the alteration footprint of the hydrothermal systems in the
region. Lithological and stratigraphic mapping and correlation across mineral tenure boundaries, done as
part of this thesis, now characterizes more of the extinct magmatic-hydrothermal systems that caused
1

base and precious metal concentration in the central Biga Peninsula. The resulting data can be used to
develop exploration targets at a local scale within restrictive tenure boundaries and more hypothetically,
to define areas with a high potential for mineralization at a district and regional scale.
The Kkda and Kirazl deposits are situated in the heart of an emerging and highly prospective district
dominated by the epithermal and porphyry style mineralization within in the TV Tower region of central
Biga Peninsula. This creates an ideal scenario to examine mineral deposit spatial distributions, temporal
evolutions and the relative importance of stratigraphic versus structural control on ore mineralization in
the context of a district scale hydrothermal system.

1.2 Justification and Objectives

The principal objective of this dissertation is to integrate new geological mapping around the Kkda
and Kirazl HS epithermal deposits with district and regional geological features, to identify and
characterize prospective magmatic formations and structures. A joint venture between Pilot Gold Inc. and
Teck Resources Ltd. at their TV Tower and Halilaa properties, in conjunction with collaboration from
Alamos Gold Ltd. at the Kirazl deposit has provided access to their current knowledge of Kkda and
Kirazl. This included access to the drill core and field area around these deposits, in order to facilitate the
objective. A new 1:10,000 scale geological map of the TV Tower district, including a detailed
characterization of stratigraphy and mineralization styles is produced.
The stratigraphic relationship between the Kkda and Kirazl Au-Ag (Cu) deposits was poorly
understood prior to this research, particularly within the context of district epithermal and porphyry goldcopper mineralization. For example, the stratigraphic and structural relationship between the Columbaz
porphyry and the high-sulphidation Kkda deposit was not evident, despite being only ca. 1 km from
one another. Additionally, previous Ar-Ar and K-Ar age constraints on the timing of district magmatism
and mineralization are largely unreliable and have led to numerous disparate geological models that
preclude integration into a single exploration model for the region. To address these problems, field, drill
core and laboratory studies were designed to define the geological and structural relationship between
the Kkda and Kirazl deposits and correlate those deposits within a district and regional context.
Drill core studies were carried out in the field and in the laboratory to characterize deposit lithologies and
mineralization styles. The lithologies and mineralization were subsequently examined by optical
petrography, lithogeochemistry, U-Pb and Ar-Ar age dating and short wave infrared analyses (Appendix
1). The stratigraphy of the Kkda and Kirazl epithermal deposits was defined by geological mapping
2

of structural and lithological controls on Au-Ag-Cu mineralization on the surface and in drill core.
Characterization of the host rock stratigraphy, alteration types and mineralization styles at Kkda and
Kirazl deposits creates a basis for comparison to other prospective targets in the TV Tower District.
Furthermore, by extrapolating the relationships between HS epithermal and porphyry mineralization in
the TV Tower District into a regional geological and metallogenic context, exploration programs can
rationalize their extent in a given area.

1.3 Epithermal Systems: Conceptual Framework

The term epithermal, refers to a depth zoning of ore-mineralization common to the formation these
hydrothermal systems (Lindgren, 1933). These deposits are typically products of 100 300 C exsolved
magmatic or meteoric hydrothermal fluids in the shallow crust. They are classified within a conceptual
framework of sulphidation states indicative of the fugacity of various sulphur ionic species and their
sulphide mineral assemblage. Three types are defined: high, intermediate and low sulphidation
epithermal deposits (Table 1; Sillitoe 1977; Hedenquist, 1987; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003; Simmons et
al., 2005; Robert et al., 2007).
Table 1. Characteristics of end-member epithermal deposit types.

Epithermal Type

High-Sulfidation (HS)

Main mineralization Steep and shallowly inclined

styles

Intermediate-Sulfidation (IS)

Low-Sulfidation (LS)

Veins, stockworks

Veins, stockworks,

replacement bodies,

disseminated bodies

hydrothermal breccias
Main proximal

Silicification, vuggy residual

alteration types

quartz, quartz-alunite

Main gangue

Quartz, alunite, barite

minerals

Silicification, quartz-sericite/illite

Silicification, quartz-adularia,
illite

Quartz, calcite, manganoan

Quartz, chalcedony, adularia

carbonates, rhodonite, adularia

Sulfide abundance

High (1080 vol.%)

Moderate (530 vol.%)

Low (15 vol.%)

Sulfidation-state

Enargite/luzonite/famatinite

Tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite, low-

Pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, high-

Fe, sphalerite

Fe, sphalerite

Ag-Au-Zn-Pb-Mn Cu

Au Ag Se Mo

indicators
Typical metal

Au-Ag-Cu Bi Te

signature

(Sillitoe, 2015)
Low sulphidation (LS) epithermal deposits typically form from meteoric fluids at near neutral pH, with
relatively low total S and base metal (Pb, Zn) content, whereas high sulphidation (HS) epithermal deposits
typically form from mixed magmatic and meteoric fluids with an acidic pH (< 2), relatively high total S and
3

high base metal content (Cu; White and Hedenquist, 1990). LS epithermal deposits are not structurally
connected, either by faults or fractures, to the parental magma chamber which ultimately drives their
convection (Sillitoe, 1993; Robert et al., 2007). In contrast, HS epithermal deposits develop directly above
or slightly offset from the sub-volcanic porphyritic intrusions they are structurally connected to (White
and Hedenquist, 1995; Robert et al., 2007). Intermediate sulphidation (IS) epithermal deposits have an
intermediate mineralogy between typical HS and LS epithermal mineral assemblages and form in
environments akin to both HS epithermal and LS epithermal (Table 1; Sillitoe, 2015; Einaudi et al., 2003).
The epithermal system classification schemes are underpinned by the concept of progressive zoning and
association of ore and gangue (i.e. alteration) mineral assemblages and textures as they relate to acidbase equilibria, or more directly, oxidation-reduction reactions between hydrothermal fluids and host
rocks (Sillitoe 1977; Hedenquist, 1987; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003; Simmons et al., 2005). A
nomenclature based on hydrothermal fluid sulphidation state relates to the source of the hydrothermal
fluids (either magmatic or meteoric) and to the thermodynamic environment at their deposition. Further
discussions will use the widely accepted classification nomenclature: high-sulphidation (HS),
intermediate-sulphidation (IS), and low-sulphidation (LS), which relate mineral assemblages to the
concept of sulphidation state.
HS epithermal deposits are commonly rich in pyrite and have a sulphide mineral assemblage dominated
by enargite, luzonite, covellite-digenite, famantinite, tennantite-tetrahedrite and orpiment. Their
alteration assemblages are typified by alunite, kaolinite (dickite), pyrophyllite and residual vuggy quartz
(Arribas, 1995; Sillitoe, 1999). These mineral assemblages are reflective of oxidized, so-called highsulphur-bearing species (HSO4-, SO42-, and SO2) present in the ore-forming hydrothermal fluid (Einaudi et
al., 2003). They most commonly appear in calc-alkaline andesites, dacites and related epiclastic rocks
(Simmons et al., 2005).
In general, these deposits are found along magmatic arcs that are dominated by neutral to extensional
stress regimes where they are hosted within volcanic rocks that show a wide range in geochemical
properties, ranging from calc-alkaline andesite-dacite suites to tholeiitic bimodal basalt-rhyolite suites
(Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). The geometry and size of ore bodies in an epithermal system is dictated
by the controls on permeability, lithology and structural framework. Vein, vein swarms, stockworks and
fault intersections are examples of structural controls on ore bodies. Hydrothermal breccia and diatreme
breccia ore bodies are examples of structural controlled components, while strata-bound ore bodies are
examples of the lithologically controlled components (Simmons et al., 2005).
4

Figure 1. Conceptual model of epithermal deposits. Schematic diagram of the typical tectonic environment, structure and fluid
sources of: (a) HS epithermal deposits; (b) LS epithermal deposits and; (a and b) IS sulphidation deposits (Caprubi and Albinson,
2007; Taylor, 2007; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).

Common to nearly all HS epithermal deposits and also found in porphyry copper deposits, is the presence
of vuggy silicified rocks. These rocks form by leaching of the host rocks by acidic hydrothermal fluids. The
resulting lithological expression is referred to as a lithocap and typically consists of horizontal to subhorizontal layers of residual quartz and hypogene advanced argillic alteration (Figure 1; Sillitoe, 1995).
Lithocaps can host Au-Ag-Cu mineralization, as well, the faults and fractures which invariably connect
lithocaps to a hydrothermal fluid source, often contain Au-Ag-Cu mineralization. The stratiform style
mineralization is the primary expression of lithologically-controlled ore deposition, whereas the position
and size of faults and fractures structurally controls ore deposition.
Advanced argillic alteration is characterized by the presence of quartz and alunite with halos of kaolinite
and dickite. This type of alteration contains appreciable pyrophyllite and diaspore at greater depths in the
HS epithermal deposit model (Figure 1). The transition from lithocap alteration to pyrophyllite-bearing
zones reflects the greater abundance of SO2 and HCl-bearing fluids exsolved from an intrusive source at
greater deposit depths (Sillitoe, 1999; Hedenquist and Taran, 2013). Where permeable lithological
horizons are intersected by fault and fracture sets, hydrothermal fluids infiltrate the country rock and
deposit alteration and ore-mineralization mineral assemblages. (Sillitoe, 2010). A genetic link between the
HS epithermal environment and underlying porphyry deposits has been observed at numerous deposits,
leading to a conceptual framework for the development of a HS epithermal deposit that includes porphyry
style mineralization at depth (Figure 1; Arribas, 1995; Sillitoe 1999; Hedenquist and Sillitoe 2003; Simmons
2005; Sillitoe, 2010).
In the Biga Peninsula, lithocaps are abundant throughout the Eocene and Oligocene magmatic rocks and
their resistive nature controls the topography as they are prominently exposed at the majority of hill tops
and mountains. The well-established genetic link between the lithocap, HS, and porphyry system
environments makes lithocaps ideal targets for metal exploration, moreover, they commonly preserve
the stratigraphic record beneath them. Geological mapping of the stratigraphy, structures and alteration
zones that define a given lithocap environment is therefore critical for establishing the prospectivity
potential for HS epithermal mineralization within a district.

1.4 Regional Geological Setting

The basement rocks of the Biga Peninsula consist of a Paleozoic to Mesozoic, medium to high-grade
metamorphic complex unconformably overlain by Cenozoic magmatic rocks that record a gradual change
from calc-alkaline to alkaline magmatic assemblages (Altunkaynak and Gen, 2008). The area is situated

in an active tectonic region characterized by back-arc extension related to the southward moving Hellenic
subduction system (Bonev and Beccaletto, 2007). The spatial and temporal distribution of Cenozoic
magmatic rocks shows a southward younging trend defined by two main episodes of magmatism between
41 36 Ma and 32 22 Ma, both accompanied by ore-mineralization. The most economically important
mineral deposits resulting from Cenozoic magmatism include epithermal Au-Ag (Cu), porphyry Cu-Au
(Mo) and base metal skarn systems (Figure 3).
1.4.1 Regional Tectonic Setting
The Biga Peninsula is a part of the Rhodope-Sakarya Tectonic Block, bounded to the south by the IzmirAnkara Suture Zone, which separates it from the Anatolide-Tauride Block, and to the north by the IntraPontide Suture which separates it from the Istanbul and Rhodope-Sakarya blocks (Figure 2, inset; Okay et
al., 1996; Okay and Tysz, 1999; Bonev and Beccaletto, 2007; Okay, 2008; and Yiit, 2009). Extension in
the northern Aegean region has been continuous since the late Cretaceous and is a result of continuous
Hellenic trench retreat (Le Pichon and Angelier, 1981; Jolivet and Brun, 2010; Jolivet et al., 2013). The
basement rocks in the Biga Peninsula record ductile syn-orogenic, ductile-brittle and brittle post-orogenic
deformation during two distinct periods: an early stage from Paleocene to early Eocene and a later stage
from Late Oligocene to Recent (Beccaletto et al., 2007).
Paleocene, NE-SW directed, syn-orogenic ductile kinematics are recorded as mineral stretching lineations
in the metamorphic domes in eastern Rhodope-Thrace and the Kemer mica schists of northern Biga
Peninsula (Bonev and Beccaletto, 2007; Beccaletto et al., 2007). The non-deformed Karabiga Pluton was
emplaced into the Kemer mica schists between 52.7 1.9 Ma and 47.02 0.82 Ma based on U-Pb
geochronology on xenotime and zircon respectively, thus establishing the lower limit for post-orogenic
extensional ductile shearing (Beccaletto et al., 2007; Altunkaynak et al., 2012).
Oligocene to Recent NNE-SSW directed, ductile-brittle and brittle extensional exhumation is recorded in
the southern Biga Peninsula by the Kazda Massif. There, a two-stage structural evolution consists of: a)
late Oligocene-early Miocene, low-angle detachment faulting and subsequent infilling of supradetachment grabens with epiclastic and volcanic rocks (Kkkuyu Fm.), and b) Pliocene-Holocene, strikeslip faulting related to the westward propagation of the dextral strike-slip Northern Anatolian Fault Zone
(NAFZ) as well as steeply dipping normal faults associated with neotectonic extension (Armijo et al., 1999;
engr et al., 2005; Cavazza, et al., 2009; Bozkurt, 2001).

Figure 2. Simplified geological distribution of metamorphic and magmatic rocks of the Biga Peninsula (modified from MTA, 2001).
Compilation of select mineral deposits and prospects (modified after Yiit, 2012). Compilation of relevant geochronological data
from various sources listed on figure. Compilation of relevant structural data (modified after Agdemir et al., 1994; Boztepe-Gney
et al., 2001; Duru, et al., 2012; Ekinci and Yiiba, 2012; Murakami et al., 2005). Map system: ED 1950, UTM Zone 35N; Projection:
Transverse Mercator. Geochronological references: 1. Yiit, 2012; 2. Agdemir et al., 1994; 3. Kuu I., 2013; 4. Murakami et al.,
2005; 5. Ercan et al., 1995; 6. Unal, 2010; 7. Beccaletto et al., 2007; 8. Aldanmaz et al., 2000; 9. Altunkaynak and Gen, 2008; 10.
Okay and Satir, 2000; 11. Delaloye and Bingl, 2000. Map inset modified after Okay et al., 1996; Okay and Tysz, 1999; Bonev
and Beccaletto, 2007.

Topographic depressions aligned along the NAFZ and related splay faults that propagate westward into
the Aegean Sea form pull-apart and composite pull-apart basins (Bozkurt, 2001; Aydin and Nur, 1982;
Rojay and Koyiit, 2012) such as the an and Bayrami basins. Their movement results in a gently
northward dipping regional stratigraphy and displacements along moderately to steeply dipping, dextraloblique and dextral wrench faults. There are no post-Oligocene metallic mineral prospects in the Biga
Peninsula, therefore the late-stage extension of the NAFZ has not established a structurally permissible
architecture for subsequent mineralization processes.
1.4.2 The Biga Peninsula Basement
Basement rocks of the Biga Peninsula are divided into three groups: i) the amlica metamorphic massif,
composed of quartz, mica schist with calc-schists, quartzite and slivers of harzburgite (Yilmaz and Karaik,
2001); ii) the Kazda metamorphic massif, composed of gneiss with marble intercalations and metaophiolite (Okay and Satr, 2000; Beccaletto et al., 2007), and iii) the Karakaya complex composed of low
grade, weakly to strongly deformed Permo-Triassic clastic rocks, carbonates and meta-conglomerates that
transition upward into Carboniferous to Permian limestones and debris flows of basalt (Bingl et al., 1975;
engr et al., 1984 and Okay et al., 1991; Okay and Altiner, 2004). Prominent exposures of basement rocks
occur along a NE SW directed trend controlled by Oligocene, extensional exhumation-induced, crustalscale detachment faults in the northern, west-central and southern Biga Peninsula. These structures are
related to back-arc extension within the Hellenic subduction system (Bonev and Beccaletto, 2007).
The amlica massif in the west-central and northern regions of the Peninsula has protolith ages of 582
30 Ma and 559 17 Ma (Ediacaran; Tun et al., 2012) and underwent medium to high-grade
metamorphism in the latest Cretaceous to earliest Paleogene (Beccaletto et al., 2007; and references
therein). In the south, the Kazda massif records a metamorphic history in two stages, an early eclogite
facies metamorphism in the Mid Carboniferous (308 16 Ma; Okay et al., 1996) and an amphibolite facies
metamorphism in the Oligocene to Early Miocene (Okay and Satr 2000; Duru et al., 2004; Cavazza et al.,
2009). The amlica and Kazda massifs are interpreted to be juxtaposed along a Paleotethyan (Okay et
al., 2008) or Intra-Pontide (Duru et al., 2012; Okay and Gncolu 2004) ocean suture; however, recent
9

field-based stratigraphic correlation and geochronology by Tun et al. (2012) does not support the
existence of a suture between the southern and northern Biga Peninsula; rather, they conclude a
continuum between the two. The Permian to Triassic Karakaya complex described in detail by Okay and
Gncolu (2004) unconformably overlies both the amlica and the Kazda massifs and marks the top of
the basement rock succession; it a useful complex to use for stratigraphic correlation throughout the Biga
Peninsula (Figure 4).

Figure 3. Simplified regional stratigraphic column of the Biga Peninsula geology. Modified from Yiit, 2012 and Duru et al., 2012,
and Integrated from sources cited in text. Sources for plutonism geochronology are given on Figure 2 and Appendix 4.

1.4.3 Cenozoic Magmatism

The geodynamic setting of magmatism in NW Anatolia is enriched by a compilation and analysis of all
available geochronological data published in literature (Appendix 4). This region of NW Anatolia has two
zircon-defined magmatic stages defined as 41 and 36 Ma peaking at ca. 39 Ma (Stage 1) and a later stage
between 32 and 22 Ma peaking at ca. 24 Ma (Stage 2; Figure 4). Eocene (Stage 1) magmatism is not directly
correlated with any discrete tectonic or metamorphic event, whereas Oligocene (Stage 2) magmatism is

10

contemporaneous with well documented extensional exhumation of the Kazda Massif in the southern
Biga Peninsula.
The onset of Cenozoic magmatic activity in the Biga Peninsula occurred with the emplacement of the
Sevketiye pluton (71.9 1.8 Ma; K-Ar muscovite; Delaloye and Bingl, 2000), Karabiga pluton (52.7 1.9
Ma; U-Pb xenotime; Beccaletto et al., 2007) and Dikmen pluton (51.9 2.6 to 46.6 2.3; K-Ar whole-rock;
Yiit, 2012) into northern exposures of the amlica massif. Following these isolated intrusions, two
punctuated stages of calc-alkaline to mildly alkaline, plutonic and volcanic activity covered much of the
Peninsula. The most recent magmatic products, represented by high-K basalts, crop out near the town of
Ezine in the southern Peninsula and range in age from 11.3 8.4 Ma (Ercan et al., 1995; Kaymaki et al.,
2007 and Altunkaynak and Gen, 2008).
Geochronological data and field relationships suggest that post-collisional magmatic activity commenced
with intrusions defined by a calc-alkalic differentiation trend (Altunkaynak and Gen, 2008; Ercan et al.,
1995). The rocks are represented by shallow intrusions and medium to coarse grained hornblende,
feldspar porphyritic andesitic to dacitic lavas intercalated with ignimbrite flows, reworked ash-fall tuffs
and ash-block flow deposits (Gen and Yilmaz, 1997). Collectively this assemblage is referred to as the
Baliklieme Fm (Figure 4).
The Oligocene to Miocene an Volcanic Fm. conformably overlies the Baliklieme Fm. and consists of
andesitic, dacitic, rhyodacitic lavas with a calc-alkaline signature. Efforts to constrain the age of these
rocks have all focused on Ar-Ar and K-Ar methods, yielding a range of ages between 23.6 34.3 Ma
(Krushensky, 1976; Ercan et al., 1995; Altunkaynak and Gen, 2008; Yiit, 2012; and others). The best
exposures are found in the central and southern Biga Peninsula, where typically unaltered but locally
silicified and argillitized andesites and dacites crop out. Rhyodacitic lavas typically contain pyrite and form
discontinuous thin lenses within the andesite and dacite layers. Tuffs are often intensely argillitized and
silicified and are favorable horizons for the development of lithocaps, disseminated and infill
mineralization styles and propagation of hydrothermal quartz veins.
The Oligo-Miocene magmatism records a change in the nature of volcanism from calc-alkaline to more
high-K, trachyandesites and dacites with lesser basaltic andesites and basalts (Ercan et al., 1985, 1995;
Altunkaynak and Gen, 2008; Rojay and Szen, 2010). The dacites and trachyandesites in this group are
referred to as the Kirazl Volcanics, they are composed of a dark grey, green and black microcrystalline
groundmass containing abundant coarse euhedral phenocrysts of vitreous plagioclase, hornblende,
11

biotite, and rare olivine. These rocks yielded late Oligocene ages which overlap in time with the calcalkaline suite of the an Volcanics (Ercan, 1995). The more alkaline trachyandesites to basaltic andesites
and basalts have been dated with K-Ar and Ar-Ar methods, yielding ages between 27.6 - 31.4 Ma (Ercan
et al. 1985; Ercan et al., 1995).

Figure 4. Frequency distribution of U/Pb zircon magmatic ages in the Biga Peninsula since the Cretaceous. Source data listed in
supplementary tables in Appendix 4.

The Miocene andesitic to latitic lavas, tuffs, ignimbrites, dacites and rhyodacite crop out immediately west
of Etili and around Ayvaik. These rocks, known as the Behram Volcanics, are split into two groups: i)
augite, biotite, plagioclase-phyric andesites and; ii) plagioclase-phyric latites, dacitic to rhyodacitic quartzphyric lavas and ignimbrites (Borsi et al., 1972). These rocks have been described as high-K trachyandesite
to trachyte (Altunkaynak and Gen, 2008), and range between 19.6 and 21.9 Ma (Ercan et al., 1995;
Aldanmaz et al., 2000).
The Hseyinfaki Volcanics assemblage is composed of basalts, trachyandesite dykes and lava flows that
cross cut and overlie the Behram volcanics. Excellent exposures are seen around Ayvaik and on the west
flank of Kirazl. Compositionally, the Hseyinfaki Volcanics are similar to the Behram Volcanics as
12

described by Altunkaynak and Gen (2008), consisting of mildly alkaline trachyandesites and andesites
with abundant intercalated ignimbrites. They are composed of a fine grained, magnetic, feldspar microlitic
groundmass with rare augite and olivine phenocrysts. A wide range of ages are reported for this
formation, ranging between 15.2 and 19.7 Ma (Aldanmaz et al., 2000; Ercan et al., 1995; Altunkaynak and
Gen, 2008).
The most recent products of Tertiary volcanism in the Biga Peninsula are olivine basalts near the town of
Ezine (Altunkaynak and Gen, 2008; Ercan, 1995). Known as the Ezine Volcanics they are characterized by
distinctly higher alkalinity. Small exposures occur as fresh, black, basalt dykes and zeolite-filled
amygdaloidal lavas. These rocks were described by Alamos, (2007) as basalts with microlitic texture where
plagioclase (labradorite), olivine and Ti-augite and augite phenocrysts are set within a groundmass of
plagioclase microlites, small pyroxene crystals, opaques, iddingsite and volcanic glass. Age determinations
on these basalts show an age range between 8.4 and 11.3 Ma (Kaymaki et al., 2007; Ercan et al., 1995).

1.5 Mineral Deposits in the Biga Peninsula

Geochronological data suggests mineralization occurred in phases, with at least three porphyry and two
epithermal phases (Figure 5). Epithermal type mineral deposits account for 67 of the 128 known mineral
deposits, whereas porphyry and skarn deposits account for only 12 and 24, respectively (Yiit, 2012).
Porphyry deposits are known to be spatially and temporally associated with HS epithermal deposits in the
Biga Peninsula. For example, the Halilaa, Camelback, Columbaz, Valley and Hilltop porphyries are located
less than 3 km from HS epithermal deposits. These mineralized hydrothermal systems are dominantly
hosted in volcano-plutonic complexes with ages that fall into the range of Stage 1 or Stage 2 magmatism
classified by zircon crystallization ages (Figure 4).
The Hilltop, Valley and Columbaz Au-Cu porphyries were discovered in the TV Tower area in 2012, 2013
and 2014, respectively. These discoveries resulted from the recognition that alteration associated with
nearby HS epithermal deposits extended into a porphyry style alteration system (Smith et al., 2016). The
porphyries are hosted within quartz, feldspar, hornblende porphyritic diorite, quartz diorite, monzonite
and andesite in northern extensions of the composite Kuayr pluton. Recent U-Pb age dates from Au-Cu
mineralized stocks and barren stocks at the Valley and Columbaz porphyry deposits range between 40.2
and 38.4 Ma, indicating that porphyry style mineralization in the TV Tower District occurred during
regional Stage 1 magmatism (Figure 4).

13

The Halilaa porphyry, discovered in 2007, is estimated to be the largest Cu-Au deposit in the Biga
Peninsula, with an indicated resource of 1,112,223,000 lbs. Cu and 1,665,000 oz. Au and a nearly
equivalent inferred resource (Gray et al., 2012). It is located in the central Peninsula, ca. 15 km north of
the Eviler pluton (Figure 2). Cu-Au mineralization is hosted in quartz, hornblende, feldspar porphyritic
andesites, and medium grained diorite, quartz diorite and monzonite dated to between 39.56 0.21 Ma
by the Re-Os method on molybdenite and 38.79 0.30 Ma by the U-Pb method on zircon (Brunetti et al.,
2015).
The Tepeoba porphyry was discovered in 2002, with a drill hole that shows an average grade of 0.5 % Cu
and ca. 1 g/t Au in the upper 100 m, and an average grade of 1 % Cu in the upper 53 m (Murakami et al.,
2005). The deposit is located at the southern margin of the Miocene Eybek granodiorite complex and
forms a 4 km long and 0.5 to 1 km wide contact metasomatic zone with breccia and Permo-Triassic
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks of the Kazda massif (Murakami et al., 2005; Yiit, 2012). Mineralized
breccia and vein zones in the Permo-Triassic rocks contain pyrite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, gold, bornite,
malachite, magnetite and Fe-oxides. Alteration mineralogy is controlled by the host lithology, such that,
biotite-rich (potassic) alteration is concentrated in breccia zones, surrounded by sericite, tourmaline,
epidote, chlorite and calcite in the metamorphic and sedimentary rock zones (Yiit, 2012). Re-Os age dates
on molybdenite indicate that hydrothermal activity at Tepeoba lasted 0.51 0.23 m.y. and occurred
between 25.62 and 25.03 Ma (Murakami et al., 2005).
LS epithermal deposits are concentrated in the central and southeast Peninsula and hosted within Eocene
and Oligocene magmatic rocks. They are economically important targets because of their potential to host
high-grade, low-tonnage deposits, exemplified by Kuukdere which contains 223,000 oz. Au in 1.406 Mt
of ore at 4.92 g/t Au (Koza Gold, 2006). Mineral deposits such as Kak, Koru and Arapucandere are
examples of IS epithermal deposits, however, their contribution to precious and base metals reserves is
minor relative to HS epithermal and porphyry deposits (Yiit, 2012).
HS epithermal deposits are by far the most numerous metal deposit types in the Peninsula and some show
a transition to a porphyry environment (i.e. Alankoy, Karaay, hypothesized for Kkda and Kirazl.) The
majority of HS epithermal deposits are clustered in the central Biga Peninsula, where regionally extensive
HS alteration zones are comparable to those seen at the world class Yanacocha HS epithermal Au-Ag-Cu
deposit in Peru (Sillitoe, 1999). In that region, the Ai Dai, Kirazl and Kkda deposits are the largest
classical examples of HS epithermal Au-Ag-Cu mineralization.

14

Figure 5. Magmatic and hydrothermal ages of the Biga Peninsula. Excluding metamorphic-related ages or older than 66 Ma.
Mineral prospect host rock ages are separated according to styles of mineralization. Source data listed in supplementary tables
in Appendix 4.

The Ai Dai deposit contains an indicated 942,312 oz. Au and 6,687,543 oz. Ag, making it the largest HS
epithermal deposit with a resource estimate (Ferrigno et al., 2012). It is hosted in Eocene and Oligocene
andesites, dacites, breccia, schists and overburden. Advanced argillic and vuggy silica alteration is
pervasive throughout the deposit and directly associated with Au-Ag mineralization. 40Ar/39Ar age dating
on alunite separates from advanced argillic alteration zones, yielded an age of 26.4 0.9 Ma (Yiit, 2012).
The Kirazl deposit contains an indicated 583,248 oz. Au and 9,295,713 oz. Ag and is comparable in size to
Kkda, which contains 470,000 oz. Au and 20,479,000 oz. Ag (Ferrigno et al., 2012; Hetman et al.,
2014). These two deposits are located in the TV Tower District of the Biga Peninsula and are hosted in
38.5 to 37.3 Ma basaltic andesites, andesites, breccia, tuffs and epiclastic rocks that were affected by
advanced argillic alteration. The age of mineralization at Kirazl is constrained to 30.7 1.5 Ma by a
40

Ar/39Ar age date on alunite from drill core (Yiit, 2012), whereas at Kkda, this study constrains

mineralization to between 29.7 and 29.2 Ma. Interestingly, the HS epithermal Au-Ag (Cu) mineralization
at these two deposits occurred up to ca. 9 years after host rock deposition.
Porphyry and epithermal style mineral deposits are products of Stage 1 magmatism, whereas Stage 2
magmatism produced abundant skarn style mineral deposits (Figure 5). The disparity between skarn
mineralization in the Eocene and Oligocene can be explained by examining the known geochronological
and structural constraints around three Pb-Zn Cu skarn deposits. The Handeresi, Bairkadere and
15

Frnckde Pb-Zn Cu deposits are hosted by carbonate layers in Permo-Triassic calcareous schists of the
Kalabak Fm which tectonically overlies the Kazda Massif in the southeast Peninsula region (Akiska et al.,
2013; Aysal et al., 2012).

16

Chapter 2 Metallogeny of the TV Tower District, NW Turkey

2.1 Geological and Metallogenic Setting of the TV Tower District
Punctuated magmatism since Cretaceous time has emplaced a petrographically and geochemically
variable sequence of hypabyssal granitoids, andesites, rhyodacitic, dacitic and basaltic andesite lavas
intercalated with epiclastic rocks in the central Biga Peninsula (Aysal, 2015; Smith et al., 2014; Altunkaynak
and Gen, 2008; Dilek and Altunkaynak, 2009). Post Cretaceous magmatic and epiclastic rocks define a
regional stratigraphic hanging wall to the pre-Cretaceous metamorphic rocks which define a stratigraphic
footwall (Figure 6).

Figure 6. TV Tower District stratigraphy and regional correlation. Explanation of the geology for the regional stratigraphic column
is presented in Figure 3. The Kkda and Kirazl HS epithermal deposits are indicated with red boxes within the northern TV
Tower district which includes geochronological constraints on crystallization and mineralization. Ar-Ar age dates on alunite
constrain the timing of HS epithermal mineralization whereas U-Pb age dates constrain the timing of intrusive and volcanic rock
crystallization. The K-Ar age date of the stratigraphic hangingwall may constrain the timing of crystallization or alteration. Central
Biga Peninsula Stratigraphy modified from Yiit, 2012). Geochronology age A is from Ercan, 1995 and age I is from Yiit, 2012;
all other reported age dates were determined as part of this study.

TV Tower geology is broadly considered in three units, pre- syn- and post-ore mineralization, as they relate
to the timing of epithermal and porphyry style mineralization: i) A pre-ore mineralization unit of quartz,
mica schists and phyllites, arkosic arenites and quartz pebble conglomerates, which together comprise

17

the footwall; ii) A pre- and syn-ore mineralization Eocene aged magmatic and epiclastic sequence of the
hangingwall which consists of diorite, quartz diorite, dacitic-andesite, andesite, dacite volcanics with
tuffaceous pyroclastic rock and a lacustrine-fluvial volcanisedimentary sequence; iii) A post-ore
mineralization Oligocene aged sequence of the upper most hanging wall which consists of dacites and
trachyandesites with dacite crystal tuffs and minor intercalations of sandy to granular epiclastic rocks
(Figure 6).
The Ediacaran (573 9 Ma) amlica Metamorphic massif forms the geological base to Kkda and Kirazl
HS epithermal deposits (Tun et al., 2012; Yiit 2012; Yilmaz and Karaik, 2001; Smith et al., 2014). These
rocks crop out in thin discontinuous slivers at the base of Kkda in the footwall of an ESE-striking,
steeply south-dipping normal fault and as continuous exposures east and southeast of Kirazl (Figure 7).
Compositionally they consist of medium to dark grey, well foliated, quartz mica schists and phyllites with
rare garnet porphyroblasts. Quartz-augens, stretched quartz veins, boudins, and strong ductile
deformation are distinct features of this unit (Figure 8. D, E). Medium to high-grade metamorphism
affected the amlica massif in the Cretaceous to earliest Paleogene period (Beccaletto et al., 2007; and
references therein). Local silicification hardens and seals the schist thus reducing its porosity, however,
alteration intensity rarely matches that seen in the overlying volcanic stratigraphy. The true thickness of
this unit is unknown due to strong deformation, detached and displaced outcrops and a hidden basal
contact, however Tun, 2012 estimates an apparent thickness of ca. 5000m. The upper contact of the
schists and phyllites is unconformably overlain by Permian to Triassic arkosic arenites, quartz pebble
conglomerates and polymictic lithic tuffs of the Karakaya complex that were affected by low grade
metamorphism (Okay and Gncolu, 2004).
Metamorphic clast-bearing conglomerates are a distinct sub-unit of the basement complex and they are
composed of sandy matrix to framework supported, rounded to subrounded pebbly sandstone, white
quartz, phyllitic schist, and silica-cemented red jasperiod clasts (Figure 8. A). The upper contact of the
conglomerates is gradational into a well-sorted sub-unit consisting of thinly to thickly bedded arkosic
arenites (Figure 8.B, C). The arkosic sandstone has a characteristic systematic blocky fracture pattern,
weakly disseminated pyrite, <5 modal % quartz grain abundance and a uniform medium grain size.
However, it can be strongly altered to a bleached, white to cream coloured variety where only minor
quartz-granules, remnant pyritic specs and granular composition can be used as distinguishing features
(Figure 8. C). Deformation intensity in the arenites and conglomerates is typically subtle, however, near

18

19

Figure 7. Geological Map the Kkda, Kirazl high-sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag-Cu epithermal prospects and the Columbaz
Au-Cu porphyry prospect. Detailed version of this map is available in the pocket at the back of the thesis.

Kirazl foliation is tight in a similar fashion to the quartz, mica schists below. Exposures of this sandstone
are best observed in Ksrelik Creek between Kkda and Columbaz, where continuous exposures are
unconformably overlain by polymictic welded lithic tuffs. The quartz, mica schists and the arkosic arenites
located east of Kirazl are correlated with those south and west of Kkda, forming the stratigraphic
footwall of the TV Tower district (Figure 6 and 6A).

Figure 8. TV Tower stratigraphic footwall rock photographs. A: Polymictic quartz-pebble conglomerate. B: Bedded arkosic arenite.
C: Fe-Oxide stained fractures typical in massive to thickly bedded intervals. D: Quartz boudins stretched along foliation plane in a
quartz-mica schist. E: Tightly folded regions of the quartz-mica schist are convoluted, displaying no observable trend. F: Massive
serpentinite with characteristic blocky fracture and soapy sheen.

2.1.1 Volcanic Rocks

Rocks of the Baliklieme, an and Kirazl formations unconformably overlie the amlica massif the TV
Tower district (Altunkaynak and Gen, 2008; Ercan et al., 1995). They consist of pre- and syn-ore
mineralization phases of Eocene (40.37 37.34 Ma) hypabyssal diorite, quartz diorite, andesite and dacite
flows, domes and tuffs interlayered with volcanisedimentary wacke (EHFP). This assemblage has ca. 5050 intrusive and extrusive components and minor sections have pillow textures indicating subaqueous
lava deposition (Figure 9 D). The andesites typically contain equigranular-diorite xenoliths and form both
auto-brecciated and massive flows (Figure 9 A, B).
20

Figure 9. Petrography of EHFP rock unit. A: Outcrop photo of a blocky, monolithic, auto-brecciated andesite flow. B: Outcrop photo
of a coherent porphyritic, diorite xenolithic-rich (inset), sub-volcanic andesite. C: Outcrop photo of fault controlled alteration of
the EHFP unit. EHFP is completely replaced by kaolinite-illite-sericite on one side of the fault, leaving the other relatively un-altered.
Inset images on either side of the fault show the difference in textures. D: Outcrop photo of a section of apparent pillow formations
in a coherent andesite flow. E: Hand sample showing the porphyritic texture of hornblende and plagioclase phenocrysts set in a
relatively fresh fine crystalline groundmass. F: Stained slab of E showing the relative abundance of albitic and anorthitic feldspars
including the strong selective sericite replacement of primary feldspars (pink phenocrysts). G: Crowded hornblende-plagioclase
porphyritic andesite, interlocking crystals are akin to sub-volcanic crystallization. H: XPL image showing a fine grained weakly
trachytic groundmass with trace disseminated opaques (magnetite). Euhedral and subhedral phenocryst are typical of this unit. I:
XPL image of a plagioclase phenocryst partially replaced by sericite. J: XPL image of a hornblende phenocrysts partially replaced
by chlorite and epidote. K: XPL image of a patchy zone of phyllic (quartz, sericite, pyrite) alteration, a feature pervasive proximal
to porphyry and HS epithermal mineralization.

EHFP is characterized by a light grey to green, weakly magnetic and trachytic groundmass, pitted and
embayed quartz phenocrysts and 15 30 modal % plagioclase and hornblende phenocrysts which are
often variably altered with sericite, epidote and chlorite. (Figure 9 E, F, G). In least altered samples,
plagioclase phenocrysts are typically 30 - 70 % replaced by sericite, whereas hornblende phenocrysts are
typically less than 5 % replaced by epidote and chlorite; although, complete epidote pseudomorphs of
21

hornblende are noted (Figure 9 H, I, J). Strong alteration of EHFP throughout the TV Tower district typically
obscures primary textures of this unit (Figure 9 C inset). Phenocryst pseudomorphs and stratigraphic
position are used to interpret an EHFP protolith in the absence of fresh or weakly altered outcrops.
The Dede Tepe Volcanics form a 50 - 200 m thick package of pre- and syn-ore mineralization interlayered
dacitic andesites, andesite breccias and crystal tuffs that conformably overlie the EHFP. This unit hosts HS
epithermal mineralization at Kirazl and is juxtaposed with quartz monzonite of the Camelback porphyry
(Figure 7). Three sub-units are identified within the EDV, from top to bottom: i) massive to thickly bedded,
greenish grey, auto-brecciated quartz, magnetite, hornblende, feldspar phyric dacitic andesite with a
phenocryst assemblage of typically 30 modal % plagioclase and 15 modal % hornblende and a fine grained
to aphanitic groundmass. Blebby agglomeratic magnetite and clear quartz grains rarely exceed 5 modal %
of the total phenocryst content; ii) buff to white coloured, massive to thickly bedded, plagioclase and
quartz crystal rich, dacitic lithic tuff, correlated with lithic tuffs hosting HS epithermal mineralization at
Kkda. Quartz grains, constituting up to 5 modal % of the total phenocryst volume, are a ubiquitous
feature of this unit; iii) andesite breccia compositionally equivalent to the EDV dacitic andesite flows,
characterized by in situ hydrothermal re-brecciation and a mosaic texture cemented by symmetrically
zoned pyrite, enargite, quartz, alunite and dickite. This sub-unit is the lowest known stratigraphic host to
the ore mineralization at Kirazl (Figure 6 F).
The post-ore mineralization stratigraphic hanging wall consists of the Oligocene (24.7 0.7 Ma) dacite and
trachyandesite of the Kirazl Volcanics (OKV; Figure 6). This unit conformably overlies the upper
stratigraphic successions of lapilli tuff (EQT) and reworked epiclastic rocks (EVS) grouped into the
Kkda Volcanic unit (EKDV) at both Kkda and Kirazl. The OKV forms a greater than 200 m thick
sequence of dacitic ignimbrites grading into columnar and blocky dacite and trachyandesite flows. The
unit is recognized as two sequences (OKVa and OKVb) separated by a layer of kaolinite and zeolite-rich
polymictic lithic tuffs and opaline deposits less than 3 m thick. The lower sequence (OKVb) is characterized
by weakly altered blocky flows with a dacite composition and the upper (OKVa) sequence by welldeveloped columnar jointing and a trachyandesite composition (Figure 11 A, J).
OKVb outcrops north of Kkda HS epithermal deposit and overlies the dacitic crystal lapilli tuffs (Map
unit: EQT) in the upper stratigraphy there. At the outcrop scale, coherent sections of the OKVb dacites
have poorly developed columns but a well-developed flow foliation fabric (Figure 11 J). Fragmental layers
comprise the majority of the unit, typically they are auto-brecciated blocky flows. Flow layer boundaries
are often marked by epiclastic horizons less than 20 m thick. At hand sample scale, a phenocryst
22

Figure 10. Petrography of EDV rock unit. A: Dede Tepe Andesite (EDV) characterized by fine-grained, medium green groundmass,
non-magnetic, trace disseminated pyrite, strong epidote, chlorite alteration, and moderate silicification. Vuggy quartz texture
develops locally. B: Fine to medium-grained hornblende-feldspar porphyritic andesite. Argillic alteration of felsic phenocrysts and
silicified groundmass are common features. C: PPL image of photo F showing a pervasive and patchy distribution of strong phyllic
(quartz, sericite, pyrite) alteration. D: PPL image of A showing strong propylitic (chlorite and epidote) altered euhedral hornblende
phenocrysts and epidote-albite altered felsic phenocrysts. E: PPL image showing a relict crowded porphyritic texture and selective
pyrite replacement of hornblende phenocrysts. F: Silicified, fine-grained, hornblende and feldspar porphyritic, pyrite-bearing,
phyllic altered andesite. G: XPL image of C showing the complete replacement of primary phenocrysts by sericite and a strongly
quartz, sericite and pyrite altered groundmass. H: XPL image of D showing epidote-albite replacement of primary felsic
phenocrysts and epidote-chlorite replacement of mafic phenocrysts. Quartz and sericite alteration of the groundmass is strong in
this sample. I: XPL image of E showing a strongly silicified groundmass, quartz pseudomorphs of felsic phenocrysts and selective
pyrite, chlorite and quartz replacement of mafic phenocrysts.

population of biotite, augite, oligoclase, anorthite is embedded in a fine grained crystalline magnetic
groundmass (Figure 11 K, L). Fracture-controlled hematite alteration of variable intensity is pervasive in
the groundmass (Figure 11 K, L, O, P). Phenocrysts are selectively affected by zeolite and epidote alteration
while the agglomerophyric nature of phenocrysts results in a mottled alteration texture (Figure 11 P, N,
R). In thin section, hematite alteration is observed to exploit the trachytic groundmass fabric (Figure 11
M). Oligoclase phenocrysts up to 2 mm in length display simple twins while anorthite phenocrysts are
typically normally zoned with albitic rims (Figure 11 Q).

23

OKVa trachyandesite outcrops north of the Kirazl HS epithermal deposit and conformably overlies
polymictic lithic tuffs found atop OKVb. Macroscopically, well-developed columnar joints and entablature
zones are the most prominent features of this sub-unit (Figure 11 A). In hand sample, fresh surfaces are
grey to dark bluish black, moderately magnetic and have a porphyritic texture (Figure 11 B, F). The least
altered sections of the trachyandesite contain ca. 15 modal % of phenocrysts comprised of biotite, augite,
alkali and plagioclase feldspar as well as augite set in a trachytic, magnetite-bearing groundmass of
microlitic plagioclase and fine grained augite, biotite and alkali feldspar (Figure 11 C, G). Weak alteration
is microscopically evident as partial epidote replacement of augite phenocrysts and partial to full
replacement of other phenocrysts with zeolite (Figure 11 D, H). Patchy zeolite (analcime) alteration of
microlitic feldspar groundmass and selective phenocryst replacement locally develops a blebby texture
similar to that observed in the OKVa sub-unit (Figure 11 E, I).

Figure 11. Petrography of OKV rock units. A: Outcop photo of columnar jointed trachyandesite (OKVa). The unit is characterized
by trachyandesite flows, auto-breccia and mudflows. Entablature zones are common. B: Hand sample photo of un-altered
trachyandesite. Typical appearance has buff coloured weathering surfaces and dark bluish-black fresh surfaces. Phenocryst
assemblages are most visible on the weathered surfaces. C: PPL image showing representative abundances, textures and
composition of phenocryst and groundmass assemblages. D: PPL image showing partial epidote replacement of augite
phenocrysts and partial to full replacement of other phenocrysts with zeolite (analcime). E: PPL image showing patchy zeolite
alteration of microlitic feldspar groundmass and selective phenocryst replacement. Biotite is intergrown with plagioclase and
forms a trace component in the groundmass. F: Hand sample photo of OKVa with weakly altered selective epidote replacement
of phenocrysts. Biotite, pyroxene, alkali and plagioclase feldspar phyric trachyandesite. G: XPL image of C showing interference
colour discrimination of augite from feldspar phenocrysts and un-altered fine-crystalline groundmass of lath shaped feldspar. H:
XPL image of D showing pyroxene-selective epidote alteration. I: XPL image of E showing un-altered OKVa phenocryst assemblage.
J: Outcrop photo of flow foliated section of OKVb dacite. K: Hand sample photo of OKVb with a pervasively hematite stained

24

groundmass. Mafic phenocrysts are selectively altered by white clay minerals. L: Hand sample photo of OKVb showing an
indistinguishable composition and texture to photo K ca. 2 km to the east. M: PPL image showing phenocrysts of subhedral Kfeldspar, anhedral plagioclase, secondary biotite and opaque magnetite. N: PPL image of diopside phenocryst showing weak
greenish colour and high relief, overgrowths of colorless low relief anhedral analcime, partially analcime replaced diopside. O and
P: Hand sample photo showing blebby zeolite and epidote alteration and hematite stained fractures. Q: XPL image of B showing
crystals of K-feldspar with simple twins, early plagioclase with anorthitic core and albitic concentric overgrowths, birdseyeextinction and interference colours of biotite, hematite staining in the groundmass. R: XPL image of E showing overgrowth of
analcime with very low first order interference colours and near isotropic optics, fracture-controlled Fe-oxide staining.

2.1.2 Intrusive Rocks

Eocene intrusive stocks crop out south of Kirazl at Dede Tepe (Map unit: EDT), referred to as the
Camelback porphyry (Figure 7). Intrusive rocks at Camelback consist of quartz, biotite, hornblende, and
plagioclase phyric quartz diorite to quartz monzonite. In hand sample, amphibole phenocrysts are
selectively chlorite and epidote altered while feldspar phenocrysts are altered to white clays and sericite.
Distinguishing macroscopic features include: coarse porphyritic texture, ubiquitous trace to 1%
disseminated pyrite, patchy zones of residual vuggy quartz, phyllic alteration and abundant quartz veining.
In thin section, interlocking plagioclase grains comprise up to 90 % of the total modal mineral proportion.
Alteration includes pyrite, chlorite, epidote and biotite pseudomorphs of amphibole phenocrysts while
chlorite and sericite partially replace plagioclase phenocrysts and groundmass (Figure 12 B, C, E).
An Oligocene granodiorite stock (Map unit: OGD) crops out north of Kirazl and consists of a quartz,
hornblende, feldspar phyric granodiorite with patchy zones of up to 5 modal % of pyrite and trace
chalcopyrite. The stock is exposed as a topographic high ca. 2 km north of Kirazl and is flanked to the west
and south by stratigraphically younger trachyandesite of the Kirazl Volcanics. The relatively pristine Kirazl
Volcanics were deposited over the variably altered granodiorite stock. Zones of disseminated pyrite and
chalcopyrite show variable alteration signatures consisting of hematite groundmass staining, quartz
veining, selective white clay alteration of phenocrysts and a weak pervasive quartz-recrystallized
groundmass. Away from pyrite and chalcopyrite-rich zones, chlorite and epidote replacement of primary
phenocrysts and weak sericite alteration of the groundmass is ubiquitous (Figure 12 A, D, F).
Columbaz Sub-Volcanic Rocks, a sub-unit of EHFP
The variably altered, pre- and syn- ore mineralization magmatic rocks that form the Columbaz porphyritic
intrusion do not intrude the overlying Eocene Kkda Volcanics (Map unit: EKDV) and are treated as a
sub-unit of EHFP because their intrusive component is >90 %, whereas typical EHFP has 50:50 intrusive
and extrusive components. Drill core and surface exposures show these sub-units are composed of
multiple phases of hypabyssal sills, stocks and dykes with a dioritic composition. Contacts observed
between petrographically similar phases of silicified diorite-xenolithic, quartz, hornblende, feldspar phyric
quartz diorite (EHFP) show no difference in the degree or style of alteration (Figure 13 A, C).
25

Figure 12. Petrography of EDT and OGD rock units. A: Hand sample photo of OGD granodiorite showing the quartz, hornblende,
feldspar porphyritic texture. This photo is taken proximal to local concentrations of disseminated pyrite and chalcopyrite and
shows characteristic hematite groundmass staining, quartz veining, selective white clay alteration of phenocrysts and a weak
pervasive quartz-recrystallized groundmass. B: Crowded feldspar porphyritic quartz diorite to quartz monzonite of the EDT
intrusive stock. Here, weak clay and sericite alteration targets phenocrysts and groundmass. C: PPL image of B showing biotite,
epidote pseudomorphs and anorthite phenocryst assemblage. D: PPL image of A showing chlorite replacement of primary
phenocrysts and weak sericite alteration of the groundmass. E: XPL image of C showing the crowded porphyritic texture and
interlocking groundmass. F: XPL image of D showing the high order interference colours of epidote pseudomorphs (after
hornblende) and low order blue-grey interference colours of chlorite replacing hornblende.

The quartz diorite is greenish grey, with a fine crystalline magnetic groundmass. A euhedral phenocryst
assemblage consisting of <2 % quartz, 1-7 % hornblende and 10-20 % alkali and plagioclase feldspar
characterizes the intrusive phases of this rock (Figure 13 A, C). Fine-grained diorite dykes typically less
than 10 m thick rarely traverse Columbaz and are intensely propylitically and phyllitically altered similar
to coarser grained quartz diorite phases (Figure 13 E). A relatively high fracture density and abundant

26

hydrothermal alteration locally obliterates primary mineralogical and textural identifiers within the
mineralized zone to a point where alteration assemblages are indistinguishable (Figure 13 B, D).

Figure 13. Petrography of Columbaz EHFP subunits. A: Greenish-grey, hornblende-feldspar porphyritic andesite. Rounded xenoliths
of fine grained diorite and pebble-sized quartz-magnetite fragments are sparsely distributed throughout. B: Moderately chloriteepidote + quartz-sericite-pyrite altered weakly silicified, quartz-magnetite fragment bearing quartz-monzonite. C: Intrusive
contact between medium grained and coarse grained hornblende-feldspar quartz-diorite. D: Blocky quartz-epidote-magnetite rich
volcanic breccia cement supporting sub-rounded clasts of feldspar-phyric andesite. E: Greenish-grey, fine-grained anhedral
feldspar-phyric, non-magnetic diorite. Pervasive disseminated pyrite up to 5% is common. F: Greenish grey very fine grained
crystalline groundmass, quartz-hornblende-plagioclase phyric andesite. Hornblende phenocrysts are selectively replaced with
quartz-pyrite + epidote, feldspar phenocrysts are selectively replaced by sericite. G: XPL image showing characteristic phyllic
(quartz-sericite-pyrite) alteration of andesite porphyry groundmass. H: XPL image of phenocrysts pseudomorphed by sericiteepidote mantled by pyrite. I: XPL image of strongly quartz-sericite-pyrite + epidote altered groundmass, vuggy texture is partially
infilled with quartz. J: XPL image of embayed quartz phenocrysts, the only primary phenocryst to remain un-altered in zones of
strong phyllic and argillic alteration.

2.1.3 Local Stratigraphy Epithermal and Porphyry Mineralization

Kkda HS Epithermal Deposit
Kkda HS epithermal deposit is hosted in a sequence of andesite flows, dacitic lithic tuffs, and fluvial
lacustrine strata that lie above a moderately shallow northerly-dipping 1 - 5 m wide shear zone referred
to as the footwall fault zone (FWFZ) with an interpreted normal sense of offset (Figure 14). Volcanic rocks
below the FWFZ consist of basaltic andesite breccia and welded lithic tuffs barren to mineralization and
represent a less prospective component of the local stratigraphy. The deposit stratigraphy consists of 15
27

m to >100 m thick layers of lithologies above and below the FWFZ, which together represent a marker
horizon between Eocene (EHFP) and Oligocene (OKV) magmatism in the TV Tower district.
The basaltic andesite breccia (EKDV) intersected by drilling beneath the FWFZ at Kkda and exposed
at low elevations west of Kirazl is not mineralized (Figure 15 L). In thin section, the basaltic andesite
breccia has a trachytic groundmass and phenocryst composition similar to flow foliated basaltic andesites
intersected above the FWFZ. However, primary augite and plagioclase phenocrysts beneath the FWFZ are
pervasively altered to chlorite with epidote and sericite, respectively.

Figure 14. Stratigraphic correlation of the northern TV Tower district geology to the local stratigraphy of Kkda and Kirazl HS
epithermal deposits. Mineralization styles are indicated on the local stratigraphic columns and represent the relative position of
occurrence, these styles are discussed in detail in section 2.3

Conformably overlying the footwall andesite is a sequence of welded lithic tuff (EWT) which consists of
variably silicified and argillitized, crystal-rich tuffs. These rocks were intersected by drilling immediately
below the footwall fault and do not contain economic ore grades. The welded tuff is composed of porous

28

fiamme and rare jasperoid clasts supported in a crystal rich matrix. The upper contact of the welded tuff
is marked by the FWFZ, above which lies a < 10 m thick pyritic, micro-brecciated sandstone dipping north
along the FWFZ ultimately pinching out to the west and east of the deposit (Figure 15 I, J). Conformably
overlying the pyritic micro-breccia is a wedge shaped, polymictic, blebby dacitic tuff with poorly sorted
angular light and dark coloured lithic clasts supported in a crystalline tuffaceous matrix.
Sedimentary rock strata which lie above the blebby dacitic tuff are the most distinct horizons at Kkda
and are correlated with the upper most stratigraphic levels at Kirazl. Three main expressions are noted:
i) well-laminated mudstones and siltstones with sparse rounded lithics and discontinuous soft sediment
deformed lignite seams (Figure 15 E); ii) normally graded beds of sandstone and conglomerate with local
cross-bedding and soft-sediment deformation such as slumps, load casts, and differential density flame
structures (Figure 15 D); iii) weakly graded beds of rounded, polymictic, matrix to clast-supported pebbly
and sandy volcanic conglomerate (Figure 15 F).
Above the epiclastic rock package is a sequence of interstratified andesites, silty sandstones and
tuffaceous volcaniclastic rock that form a stratiform zone with chaotic texture. The chaotically textured,
coarsely fragmental andesite is composed of polymictic angular lapilli supported by a fine grained,
tuffaceous matrix. It grades into massive to weakly flow foliated porphyritic basaltic andesite with a
trachytic plagioclase-rich groundmass and 5-10 modal % magnetite, augite and agglomerophyric
plagioclase (Figure 15 C). Locally, orbicular textures are developed in the flow foliated basaltic andesite.
In these intervals, zoned alteration of alunite, dickite and kaolinite around monomictic andesite fragments
is common. The orbicular andesite is distinguished by concentric light and dark zones of clay alteration
zoning around subrounded monomictic andesite fragments and represents the upper limit to silver
mineralization (Figure 15 B). The flow foliated basaltic andesite grades into dacitic crystal lapilli tuffs (Map
unit: EQT) which mark the upper most lithology at Kkda.
The quartz grin crystal lapilli tuff (EQT) is pervasively oxidized with jarosite and goethite with the primary
textures often obliterated. Creamy white, intense kaolinite alteration of phenocryst and lithic fragments
is common. Quartz grains up to 5 mm across with rounded boundaries, in abundance of <5 % are a
distinguishing feature of the EQT unit (Figure 15 A).
Cross-cutting the stratigraphy are up to 100 m wide, matrix-supported polymictic breccia pipes. Angular
to sub-rounded fragments range in size from sand to cobble and are composed of the entire locally
observed lithologic spectrum. Fragments of the sedimentary rock package can be seen in the breccia more
29

than 100 m below their stratigraphic levels, as well fragments of the metamorphic basement are observed
up to 100 m above their stratigraphic levels. Ore mineralization is weak to non-existent in the breccias
which ultimately dilutes grade of the principal mineralized zones.

Figure 15. Kkda deposit, local rock types. A: (EQT) Rhyodacite tuff. B: (EKDV) Orbicular andesite breccia. C: (EKDV) Pyroxene
phyric andesite flow. D: (EVS) Graded siltstone-wacke. E: (EVS) Carbonaceous silt- and mudstone. F: (EVS) Polymictic epiclastic
rock. G: (ELT) Lithic tuff. H: (ELT) Blebby lithic tuff. I: Pyrite-network andesite breccia. J: (FWFZ) Footwall fault zone. K: (EWT)
Welded tuff. L: (EKDV) Basaltic andesite auto-breccia.

Kirazl HS Epithermal Deposit

The Kirazl HS epithermal deposit is within a shallowly north-dipping sequence of hornblende, plagioclasephyric quartz diorite, andesites and lithic tuffs that is conformably overlain by reworked epiclastic rocks
and rhyodacitic tuffs. Thickly layered, massive and autobrecciated hornblende, plagioclase phyric andesite
cut by quartz-diorite sills (EDV) unconformably overlies the pre-Cenozoic basement rocks (i.e. Map units:
TAS, PSC) and comprise >70 % of the local stratigraphic thickness (Figure 19). In situ volcanic breccias have
a stratiform distribution and are generally intersected by drilling stratigraphically lower than massive
sections consisting of quartz diorite sills. The volcanic breccia cement is locally replaced by quartz, sericite,
alunite, dickite, pyrite, enargite in stratiform zones of Au-Cu Ag mineralization at Kirazl (Figure 16 F).
Fine to coarse-grained, massive quartz, biotite, hornblende, plagioclase phyric dacitic andesite and quartz
diorite sills conformably overlie, and are intercalated with, the volcanic breccias (Figure 16 E). The surface
expressions of this coarse-grained dacitic andesite are easily identifiable in the field, however, fine30

grained equivalents resemble tuffaceous rocks in strongly argillitized areas (Figure 16 G). Crystal-rich lithic
lapilli tuffs with white and dark grey lithic clasts are intercalated with the massive and brecciated varieties
of andesite and increase in thickness upward in stratigraphy. Advanced argillic alteration and epithermal
ore mineralization preferentially affects these intercalated tuffaceous horizons at the Kirazl deposit,
representing a lithologically controlled style of mineralization.
Overlying the in situ andesite breccias and quartz diorite sills is an epiclastic sequence of laminated
mudstones, carbonaceous siltstone, graded polymictic sandy granulestones and clast-supported pebble
conglomerates (Figure 16 A-D). These rocks crop out prominently on the summit of Kirazl Dai and are
typically strongly silicified. The granulestones and conglomerates at the Kirazl HS epithermal deposit have
a high permeability that is established by inter-grain fractures. Dickite, alunite and quartz replacement of
the cement in graded beds of polymictic sandy granulestone develops preferentially in strata proximal to
hydrothermal breccia shoots with a relatively high fracture density or inherent permeability.

Figure 16. Kirazl deposit, local rock units. A: (EVS) Polymictic pebble conglomerate. B: (EVS) Conglomerate. C: (EVS) Graded bed
epiclastic strata. D: (EVS) Carbonaceous sandstone. E: (EDV) Massive porphyritic andesite. F: (EDV) Monolithic volcanic breccia
andesite (mosaic breccia texture). G: (EDV) Porphyritic andesite flow.

2.2 Hydrothermal Alteration

Hydrothermal alteration is extensive throughout the TV Tower District stratigraphic column and has
profoundly modified its primary mineralogical and textural characteristics. The deposit scale distribution
of hydrothermal alteration assemblages was critical in identifying the HS epithermal and porphyry
mineralization systems and selecting meaningful samples for geochemical and petrographic analyses.
Eight alteration assemblages are recognized in the TV Tower District based on detailed observations from
the field, drill core, petrography and shortwave infrared (SWIR) spectroscopic analyses. They are grouped
31

spatially to reflect their position relative to the Ag-Au ore as: i) ore-related alteration; ii) ore-proximal
alteration; and iii) distal alteration (Table 1).
Table 2. Alteration and mineralization assemblages of the TV Tower District

Alteration

Mineral

Type

Assemblage

Vuggy Quartz

Qz, Py

Anomalous Au

ore-related

KCD, KZ

Advanced Argillic

Qz, Alun, Dck, Pyr, Kln

Au:Ag up to 1:7

ore-related

KCD, KZ

Argillic

Kln, Ill, Smec, Ser, Hall, Mont

ca. 0.33 g/t Au and 0.13% Cu

distal

KCD, KZ, CO, CAM

Phyllic

Qz, Ser, Py

anomalous Cu-Au

ore-proximal

CO, CAM

Propylitic

Chl, Ep, Ca, Py, Qz, Mt

anomalous Cu-Au

ore-proximal

CO

Sericite-Chlorite

Ser, Chl

anomalous Cu-Au (Ag)

ore-distal

ubiquitous

Supergene

Jar, Hm, Sco, Goe, Ill, Kln, Rt

Au:Ag up to 1:>1000

ore-proximal

KCD, KZ

Veins

Ca, Gy, Bar

n/a

n/a

KCD

Mineralization

Spatial
Group

Deposit

2.2.1 Residual acidic alteration: vuggy quartz

The residual vuggy quartz alteration is most evident in dacitic tuffs and epiclastic rocks at upper
stratigraphic levels at Kkda, Columbaz and Kirazl (Map units: ELT, EVS and EKDV). These alteration
zones are typically 1 20 meters thick and form ledges at the highest-elevation peaks. They are resistant
to erosion and have up to 5 modal % disseminated sulfide minerals. The residual vuggy quartz zones
intersected by drilling are typically more laterally than vertically extensive and preferentially develop in
tuffaceous and epiclastic rocks in the ELT unit.
In hand sample, the alteration is characterized by mineralogy consisting of >90 modal % recrystallized
quartz, often being the sole microscopically observable mineral, and a vuggy texture (Figure 17 A, M, N,
O, Q, T). At stratigraphic levels above EVS, vugs are void or infilled by white clays illite, kaolinite, goethite,
jarosite, halloysite and hematite (Figure 17 A, B, and Figure 18 B). Below EVS the vugs are typically infilled
by secondary quartz, alunite, dickite, and minor pyrophyllite in addition to a suite of sulfide and sulphosalt
minerals (Figure 17 T).
In thin section, recrystallized quartz grains less than 100 m in length replace the primary matrix
groundmass. The primary phenocrysts and fragments, with the exception of quartz, are leached from the
rocks leaving behind a crypto-crystalline outline. Up to 5 modal % sulfide minerals are disseminated

32

Figure 17. Textural styles of ore mineralization and ore-related alteration.

33

throughout the recrystallized quartz grains. Gold, silver and copper is deposited along with the sulphides
in the residual vugs (Figure 18 A).
2.2.2 Advanced Argillic Alteration: Quartz, alunite, dickite and kaolinite
Quartz, alunite, dickite and kaolinite alteration forms a hydrothermal cement in structurally controlled
vertical breccia shoots, as residual vuggy quartz infill, and pervasively throughout the high-grade gold
zones at Kkda and Kirazl. Alunite that forms as mineral infills or cement typically has well-developed
crystals observed to be cross-cut by veinlets of bluish dickite (Figure 17 G and Figure 18 B). Quartz, alunite,
dickite and kaolinite alteration occurs with assemblages of Ag-Au-tellurides, enargite, tennantitetetrahedrite and pyrite. (Figure 21 B, D and Figure 22 A, B). This type of alteration is present in nearly all
high-grade samples.
In a hand specimen, this alteration assemblage is also characterized by infill and replacement textures. At
both Kkda and Kirazl, alunite and dickite have pink and bluish hues, respectively. Characteristics so
common that colour is a useful mineralogical indicator in these two hydrothermal systems (Figure 18 C).
In thin section, hydrothermal breccia cement of alunite and dickite is observed to consist of discrete
aggregates of crystals 20 - 50 m in size (Figure 21 D and Figure 22 A, G, H). Within this alteration type,
dickite veinlets cross-cut alunite infilled vugs and also infill alunite lined vugs, indicating that alunite was
deposited paragenetically earlier than dickite (Figure 22 B, C).
2.2.3 Sericite, chlorite alteration
Sericite and chlorite alteration occurs distal to HS epithermal and porphyry mineralization centers at
Kkda, Kirazl and Columbaz. It generally lacks economic concentrations of metals and has a patchy
footprint that affects all pre- or syn-ore mineralized rock units. It extends several kilometers laterally from
the Columbaz porphyry and the Kkda and Kirazl HS epithermal deposits. Sericite replacement of
primary plagioclase and alkali feldspar phenocrysts. Pervasive chlorite in the groundmass and
replacement of amphibole phenocrysts can be observed in hand specimen. In thin section, the feldspar
and amphibole phenocrysts are typically between 30 - 60 % replaced by sericite and chlorite, respectively
(Figure 9 H, I, F).
2.2.4 Phyllic Alteration: Quartz, sericite and pyrite
Quartz, sericite and pyrite alteration is most prominent in drill cores from sections of EHFP at the
Columbaz deposit and in EDV, on the north side of Camelback porphyry. It is characterized by irregular
sericite and pyrite stringers typically less than 1 cm thick cross-cut by 1 10 mm curviplanar quartz veins

34

(Figure 18 E). The quartz veins are texturally massive at depths greater than ca. 200m, whereas at higher
topographic levels, they commonly include bladed quartz after calcite pseudomorphs and display a
partially developed crustiform banding. In thin section, phyllic alteration is observed to completely replace
both the groundmass and phenocrysts with quartz agglomerates, sericite and disseminated pyrite up to 5
modal % (Figure 18 F).
2.2.5 Propylitic Alteration: Chlorite, epidote, calcite, pyrite and magnetite
Chlorite, epidote, calcite and pyrite alteration is the most widespread alteration type in the TV Tower
district, found as an ore-related, ore-proximal and distal alteration. It occurs pervasively with variable
intensity throughout EKDV, EHFP and EDV stratigraphic units. In hand specimen, pervasive, ore-related
chlorite and epidote (propylitic) alteration of EHFP is overprinted by quartz, sericite and pyrite (phyllic)
alteration at Columbaz, indicating phyllic alteration is paragenetically later than propylitic alteration
(Figure 18 G). However, in thin section, chlorite forms fine-grained drusy coatings on quartz and sericite
altered substrate, as well, epidote infills drusy-chlorite cavities, indicating that phyllic alteration occurred
paragenetically earlier propylitic alteration (Figure 18 H). In the basaltic andesite unit (EKDV), above the
FWFZ at Kkda, calcite rather than epidote infills drusy chlorite cavities.
Weak but pervasive chlorite-rich groundmass alteration is a ubiquitous feature throughout the TV Tower
District intrusive and magmatic rocks (Figure 9 E). Magnetite veins with subordinate quartz, chlorite and
epidote were intersected by drilling at Columbaz and are typical at that deposit (Figure 17 I). Such
alteration typically forms fracture selvages 2 cm thick, containing residual vuggy quartz, pervasive
groundmass silicification and local zones of blebby dickite. These veins cross-cut pervasive chlorite and
epidote alteration, indicating they were emplaced after pervasive propylitic alteration which affected the
District.
2.2.6 Argillic Alteration: Kaolinite, Illite and white clay
A white clay mineral assemblage that includes kaolinite, illite, smectite, sericite, halloysite and
montmorillonite pervasively replaces the groundmass of EHFP, EDV and intercalated tuffaceous horizons
up to 200 m peripheral to the zones of advanced argillic alteration (Figure 18 J). This alteration typically
lacks sulphide minerals and is non-metalliferous. It occurs paragenetically later than quartz, cassiterite,
barite alteration associated with silver mineralization at Kkda and overprints ore-related alteration
assemblages at Columbaz and Kirazl.

35

In hand sample, this alteration is white to buff in color, pervasively present in the groundmass of volcanic
rocks while replacing cement in the TV Tower epiclastic rocks. In thin section, white clays appear
transparent and foggy under plane polarized light and fuzzy brownish grey in cross polarized views.
Individual crystals are indistinguishable in thin section therefore prompting SWIR analyses to determine
the OH-bearing, clay minerals (Appendix 1).

Figure 18. Textures of ore-related alteration at Columbaz porphyry. A: Residual Vuggy Quartz Alteration. B: Advanced Argillic and
Fe-oxide Alteration. C: Advanced Argillic Alteration. D: Phyllic Alteration: Quartz-sercite-pyrite. E. Phyllic Alteration: Quartzsercite-pyrite. F: Propylitic Alteration: Chlorite-epidote-sericite + quartz veins. G: Propylitic Alteration: Chlorite-epidote-sericite.
H: Magnetite-chlorite Alteration: magnetite vein network, pervasive chlorite dickite. I: Argillic Alteration: Kaolinite-illite-white
clays.

2.2.7 Supergene Alteration: Clays and iron oxides

Supergene mineral assemblages of jarosite, goethite, scorodite, hematite, illite, kaolinite, rutile, covellite
and cassiterite constitute the oxide zones at Kkda and Kirazl. The oxide blankets are dominantly
confined to upper stratigraphic dacitic tuffs, andesites and reworked epiclastic rocks (Map units: EVS,
EKDV and EQT), rarely reaching depths of 200 m. At Kirazl, jarosite, hematite, goethite alteration
overprints ore-related quartz, alunite, dickite cemented hydrothermal breccia (Figure 17 B). At Kkda,
the upper levels of the gold mineralization and the silver zone are characterized by overprints of
36

dominantly hematite, jarosite and goethite (Figure 17 A, B). An assemblage of hematite and acicular rutile
overprint advanced argillic alteration in the silver zone at Kkda and infills open spaces throughout
ore-bearing hydrothermal breccia pipes.
2.2.8 Calcite, Gypsum and Barite Veining
Veins of calcite, gypsum and barite contain only remobilized sulfides and show no textural or temporal
similarities to the alteration associated with either the HS epithermal or porphyry mineralization. Coarse
bladed barite veins up to 1.5 cm thick at Kkda exploit earlier enargite and pyrite veins (Figures 16. S
and 23. D). Similarly, coarse grained gypsum and calcite veins share a similar jagged and planar
morphology however, no crosscutting relationships were observed between the sets. Gypsum and calcite
veins carry no sulphide minerals and do not exploit earlier veins or fractures. As such, they are interpreted
to be paragenetically younger than the barite veins.

2.3 Texture and Mineralogy of the Ag-Au HS Epithermal Mineralization

Lithologically-controlled stratiform mineralization contributes to >50 % of the metal resources at
Kkda and dominates the stratigraphic sequence above the FWFZ (Figure 19). Lithologically-controlled
ore distribution displays metal zoning with an upper silver zone hosted by epiclastic rocks (EVS and EKDV)
and a lower gold zone featuring a combination of vein, stratiform and hydrothermal breccia mineralization
within lithic tuffs (ELT). Structurally-controlled mineralization, in the form of hydrothermal breccia shoots,
trend with the near-vertical attitude of major fault set intersections. Interestingly, both lithologically and
structurally-controlled mineralization styles abruptly terminate immediately beneath the FWFZ. This
suggests that stratigraphy and HS epithermal mineralization at Kkda has been spatially translated
relative to its porphyry-style complement (i.e. Columbaz). Four different mineralization styles have been
recognized at Kkda, they are: i) Ag stratiform mineralization; ii) Au-Ag-Cu breccia-hosted
mineralization; iii) vein-hosted Au-Cu-Ag mineralization, and iv) Au-Cu stratiform mineralization.
Five mineralization styles have been recognized at the Kirazl deposit: i) high Au-Au-Cu grade,
lithologically-controlled stratiform; ii) vuggy silica stratiform zones containing Au and Cu; iii) hydrothermal
breccia zones hosting Au, CuAg; iv) phreatomagmatic breccia with gold, copper, lead and zinc, and v)
micro-breccia veinlets containing Cu, Ag as well as bonanza (> 30 g/t) Au grades. The stratiform
mineralization here is primarily hosted by auto-brecciated andesites, lithic tuffs and epiclastic lithologies
(ELT, EDV and EVS). These units have been preferentially affected by intense acid leaching, the effect of
which is a residual vuggy texture infilled by secondary quartz. High porosity and permeability developed

37

in this alteration zone have been exploited by subsequent mineralizing events. Episodic deposition of gold,
silver and copper-bearing sulphides and sulphosalts into previously developed vugs and within the
interconnected networks of fractures is the principle characteristic of stratiform mineralization at Kirazl
(Figure 14).

Figure 19. Mineralized stratigraphy of Kkda and Kirazl.

2.3 1 Ag Stratiform Mineralization

The Kkda silver zone is defined by drilling as a 100-125 m thick, flat lying horizon extending over 0.39
km2. The silver grades are typically between 20 and 70 g/t occasionally reaching >500 g/t in fine grained
sedimentary lamina containing a combination of quartz, pyrite, alunite, kaolinite, dickite and Ag-Bi-Sb-Asbearing sulphosalts (Figure 20). The bulk of the silver zone mineralization at Kkda occurs as silveronly, except where paragenetically later mineralizing events overprint the zone. At Kirazl the silver zone
is partially eroded and overprinted by Au and Cu-bearing hydrothermal breccias, veins and stratiform gold
and copper mineralization.
The timing of silver mineralization at Kkda is paragenetically earlier than the deposition of gold and
copper based on the cross-cutting Au and Cu-rich hydrothermal breccias (Smith et al, 2014).
Consequently, the gold and copper mineralization events that affect the same stratigraphic layers partially
incorporated the silver-bearing sulfides.
The alteration in the silver zone is characterized by selective replacement of the host rock by quartz,
hematite, rutile, cassiterite, barite, pyrite and bismuth sulphosalts (Figure 20). The ore mineralization
38

Figure 20. Petrography of silver zone mineralization. Mineralogy and textures of silver zone mineralization. A: Veinlets of
bismuthinite intergrown with bismuthian tetrahedrite with <1mm wide quartz selvages. B: Bismuthinite with anhedral inclusions
of bismuthian tetrahedrite and covellite infill. C: Patchy replacement of residual vuggy quartz texture by acicular rutile and
amorphous hematite. Alunite infills open spaces. D: Banded stibio-bismuthinite intergrown with quartz + alunite. Composite Agsulphosalt blebs are unevenly distributed throughout bands. E: Sulphosalt bleb. Rough concentric zoning, Ag-telluride rich core
with tetrahedrite grading outwards to bismuthian tetrahedrite. F: Ag-Te-S phase, possibly cervelleite, intergrown with bismuthian
tetrahedrite and tetrahedrite. G: Drusy vug lining and disseminated pyrite + enargite in recrystallized vuggy quartz. H. Weakly
subhedral pyrite and interstitial enargite. Open spaces and fractures are partially infilled with covellite. I: Rutile crystal with core
inclusions of pyrite, cassiterite and smaller rutile crystals. J: Pyrite and interstitial enargite + tennantite-tetrahedrite,
representative of the typical sulphide assemblage that replaces the host rock. K: BSE element map of microphotograph J
highlighting the distribution of antimony (Sb), used as a proxy for tennantite-tetrahedrite. L: BSE element map of microphotograph
J highlighting the distribution of arsenic (As), used as proxy for enargite.

39

assemblage consists of: pyrite, enargite, tetrahedrite, cassiterite, covellite, bismuth sulphosalts,
bismuthinite, silver-telluride (Cervelleite?), acanthite and argentite (Figure 20 E, F).
Quartz is the most abundant component in this assemblage, commonly observed to comprise greater
than 90 vol. % of the altered rocks. Pyrite grains with interstitial enargite selectively replaced host rock
fragments and formed subhedral drusy crystalline coatings in vugs (Figure 20 G). Rutile and cassiterite
were disseminated throughout the quartz and occur as inclusions and fracture infills (Figure 20 I). Fe-oxide
alteration including hematite, jarosite and goethite typically overprints the silver zone.
2.3. 2 Gold Zone: Gold-Copper Stratiform Mineralization
High-grade gold and copper mineralization is hosted by andesitic volcanic breccias, andesitic to dacitic
lapilli tuffs and minor reworked tuffs (EDV, ELT and EVS). Lithic tuffs (ELT) with highly porous or vuggy
texture and a silicified matrix are the most typical rocks associated with the stratiform gold and copper
mineralization. The tuffs are composed of up to 98 vol. % secondary quartz and display 10 to 20 volume
% vug-related porosity. Enargite and pyrite preferentially replace and infill fragments and vugs and
distinctly bladed rutile has replaced pyrite.
The bulk of this mineralization style occurs below the silver zone and forms a stratiform body within
strongly developed vuggy quartz alteration. Typical gold grades range between 5 and 25 g/t with maxima
in excess of 100 g/t where veins and micro-breccias occur. Very finely disseminated pyrite and alunite
replace the breccia framework clasts. The vugs are lined with enargite, covellite and native gold
surrounded by coarse pyrite.
Enargite is petrographically observed in solid solution mixtures with Sb-enargite and tennantitetetrahedrite, which together form local high-grade copper zones. Enargite is typically hosted within
recrystallized quartz grains. Individual enargite crystals are less than 500 m in length and occur as
disseminations within pyrite or as selective replacements of relict phenocrysts and as a vug infill. Enargite
and pyrite both have curviplanar and wormy dissolution textures that form an interconnected network
Galena occurs in trace amounts within the dissolution voids of enargite and pyrite.
Intense and pervasive silicification and recrystallization of the tuffaceous matrix are demonstrated by
highly annealed quartz crystals that form a microscopic network of vugs, many of which are lined with
coarse quartz at their inner margins before a sharp transition to dickite and kaolinite dominated cores.

40

Figure 21. Petrography of stratiform gold mineralization. A: Silicification and quartz recrystallization, embayed microcrystalline
quartz, pervasive disseminated and corroded pyrite-enargite. B: Vug infill assemblage: blocky enargite, quartz, bladed alunitequartz + kaolinite-dickite. C: Pyrite + Au-Ag-telluride phases have a similar infill texture. Tennantite-tetrahedrite is partially
replaced by a Au-Te-Ag phase (petzite?). D: Hydrothermal alteration of groundmass is domainal and patchy quartz-alunite +
dickite-kaolinte. E: Enargite fragment with pyrite + tennantite-tetrahedrite cassiterite overgrowths, surrounded by hydrothermal
clays + quartz. F: Au-Te-Ag phases interpreted as infill are focussed at margins of blocky enargite. G: Corroded enargite within
pyrite (black). Galena partially infills dissolution vugs and tennantite-tetrahedritte is differentiated to enargite rim. H: Blocky
enargite + tetrahedrite inclusions. Gold and Au-Te phases are focussed near fractures. I: Enargite overgrown by pyrite. Fractures
infilled with a native Au + minor Te, late-stage fractures are infilled with Te + minor Au. J: Brecciated enargite remobilized in hydrothermal quartz-alunite cassiterite. Phases of Au-Ag-Te (Petzite?) infill sulphosalt cavities. K: Quartz-brecciated enargite has core
of gold and auriferous tellurides that replace enargite. L: Enargite overprinted(?) by Ag-Te phase (hessite?). Ag-Te phase
surrounded by pyrite, enargite and a halo of S-Cl-Sb + Ag-Te.

41

High-grade gold values are positively correlated with arsenic however, the relationship is not exclusive, as
elevated concentrations of arsenic also occur in the absence of significant Au mineralization in some
intervals. Lead, silver, and to a lesser extent bismuth also show positive correlations with gold. No silverbearing minerals have been directly observed within the stratiform gold zone at Kirazl, yet high-grade
silver is encountered locally in the gold zone (Figure 19).
2.3. 3 Gold-Copper-Silver Breccia Mineralization
The Kkda gold, copper, and silver-bearing breccia zone is a steeply dipping, narrow feature that cuts
across lapilli tuffs and overlying reworked volcanics. It is framework supported and characterized by the
presence of relatively angular clasts cemented by an advanced argillic mineral assemblage. The clasts are
polymictic, typically reflecting the composition of the host rocks. The hydrothermal breccias of Kirazl are
near vertical shoots that crosscut stratigraphy and increase in width from 5 10 m at depths near 200 m,
to over 100 m in width at the surface. These breccia shoots crop out extensively at the summit of Kirazl
Dai and constitute the most significant source of ore.
Breccias here are characterized by angular to sub-rounded, sand to cobble-sized fragments and a
mineralogically highly variable cement. The cement is composed of quartz, dickite, alunite, illite, jarosite,
goethite and scorodite. Silicified vuggy fragments are common and presumably consist of intensely
altered equivalents of the host stratigraphy. Zoned Fe-oxides and successive pulses of silica, Fe-sulphides
and advanced argillic assemblage suggests an energetically passive environment of formation. Mineral
texture relationships observed in the breccias indicate enargite, luzonite and minor tennantitetetrahedrite are overgrown by alunite in a colloform and comb texture and subsequently brecciated by
quartz, dickite and kaolinite. Occasionally, marcasite is observed overprinting enargite, chalcopyrite and
bornite (Figure 22 D).
2.3. 4 Gold-Copper-Silver Vein and Micro-breccia Mineralization
Sheeted sets of steeply dipping enargite, pyrite, alunite and quartz veins at Kkda have the highest
gold contents in the TV Tower district. The veins are 1-15 mm thick and occur in swarms that are hosted
by lithic tuffs (ELT) and to a lesser extent by overlying reworked volcaniclastic rocks (EVS). They crosscut
earlier pervasive advanced argillic mineral assemblages and contain vuggy silica selvages that permeate
into the host rock for ca. 10 times their thickness. Gold concentration ranges between 2 and 10 g/t,
although bonanza grades of up to 880 g/t and containing visible gold have been intersected by drilling.

42

Figure 22. Mineralogy and textures characteristic of hydrothermal breccia mineralization. A: Brecciated enargite fragments
supported by hydrothermal cement of alunite + kaolinite. B: Massive enargite fragment overgrown by alunite. Kaolinite + quartz
further brecciates hydrothermal cement, remobilizing alunite. C: Remobilized dogs-tooth alunite in kaolinite + quartz cement with
interstitial hematite + rutile. D: Chalcopyrite bornite intergrown with enargite. Blocky, euhedral marcasite overgrows enargite.
E: Fractures within enargite banded on fragment margins are infilled with tennantite-tetrahedrite + Ag-Au tellurides phases. F:
Element map highlighting the distribution of gold and silver phases in fractures with euhedral quartz. G: Brecciated fragment edge
of enargite overprinted by marcasite-pyrite, surrounded by alunite + kaolinite. H: Hydrothermal cement composed of domainal
kaolinite-dickite + alunite. I: Tennantite-tetrahedrite exsolution from enargite in brecciated massive sulphide fragment. J: Blocky
enargite overgrown by zoned alternating marcasite-pyrite +enargite. K: Growth zoning of enargite with marcasite-pyrite.
Blackened areas are quartz and kaolinite. L: Element map used as proxy for mineral distributions: Orange = enargite, Green =
pyrite, Blue = quartz, Purple = Kaolinite.

43

Micro-breccias at Kirazl are 1 - 10mm in width and show a high degree of cataclasis. The cement and
matrix-supported breccia are composed of 60 % cement, 20 % matrix and 20 % clasts. The matrix is
composed of <1 mm sized quartz and pyrite altered host rock fragments and fragmented pyrite.
Comminuted blocky fragments of pyrite and quartz are scattered amongst the breccia cement which
contains native gold, electrum, calaverite, galena and native-tellurium mineral phases. These ore-bearing
minerals occur as trace component in the breccias or form overgrowths on comminuted pyrite grains.
Calaverite and native gold are intergrown with one another and show a similar distribution pattern to
galena and other Te-bearing sulphosalts. Native gold and electrum are intergrown with Te-bearing
sulphosalts. This type of mineralization style is marked by anomalous enrichments of lead and zinc and
minor enrichments of silver. However, there is no correlation of arsenic with gold, a feature observed in
the gold zone at both Kirazl and Kkda (Appendix 1).
The micro-breccias cross-cut zones with stratiform mineralization and are interpreted to have formed
later. Bonanza gold grades are coincident with occurrences of micro-breccia. Therefore, the bonanza gold
deposition appears to have occurred with the micro-breccia and took place paragenetically later than the
gold and copper deposition typically found in stratiform mineralization zones.
2.3. 5 Gold-Bearing Phreatic Breccia Mineralization
The phreato-magmatic breccia units at Kirazl crosscut the entire stratigraphic column and represent the
last stage of mineralization. Relatively deep sections (200 m depth or greater) of this breccia have welded
and ragged clast textures and deformed juvenile magmatic clasts suggesting a phreato-magmatic origin.
Welded sections are mineralized with pyrite, enargite, tennantite-tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite,
galena and angelsite. Gold grades are highly variable through this unit and range between nil and up to
50 ounces per ton. Disseminated pyrite and enargite that comprise rock-flour matrix are associated with
high gold values however, it is where hydrothermal brecciation overprints phreatic brecciation that
highest grades are encountered.
The breccia is characterized by matrix to cement-supported, fine sand to lapilli sized, polymictic clasts that
are weakly to moderately aligned, elongated and are re-brecciated by hydrothermal fluids and brittle
fractures. The majority of the ore-bearing minerals are found within the breccia cement. Brittle fractures
and residual quartz vugs are commonly infilled with crystalline dickite, nacrite and minor quartz. Fine
grained, strongly recrystallized quartz appears blurred in thin section and intergrown with crystalline
dickite and nacrite. Coarse quartz grains are scattered throughout the cemented matrix and partially or
completely infill irregular shaped voids.
44

Figure 23. Mineralogy and textures of vein and micro breccia mineralization. A: Inner vein margin, enargite with colloform pyrite.
Bladed alunite forms at the boundary between massive enargite and kaolinite. B: Au-Ag telluride phase is overgrown on enargite
margins in contact with alunite-quartz. C: Corona textured prismatic pyrite forming agglomerates overprinting coarse barite. D:
Enargite brecciated by coarse bladed barite brecciated blocky enargite. Corona and prismatic pyrite crosscut barite. E: Prismatic
pyrite found only in the vein whereas blocky anhedral pyrite is disseminated only in the groundmass. F: Enargite is intergrown
with tennantite-tetrahedrite. G: Colloform pyrite intergrown with blocky enargite within vein cores. H: Au-Te phase partially
replacing enargite in contact with alunite infill layers. I: Recrystallized quartz groundmass of vein host rock. Au-Te phases occur in
contact with selective disseminated pyrite grain margins. J: Hydrothermal breccia veinlets cross cut strong quartz pyrite alteration.
K: Native gold with minor electrum and Gn + Ag-bearing lead sulphosalts are deposited on the margins of comminuted pyrite
grains. L: Red = gold-rich tellurides, purple = pyrite, Yellow = silver-rich tellurides (hessite?), green = Kaolinite, blue = quartz, light
blue = alunite.

.
45

Figure 24. Mineralogy and textures of phreatomagmatic mineralization at Kirazl. A: Residual vuggy quartz texture of matrix. B:
Illite, kaolinite and dickite breccia cement with enargite, pyrite and sphalerite grains seen between recrystallized quartz fragments.
C: Brecciated enargite with jarosite, pyrite-filled fractures and pyrite on the outer margin of the enargite. D: Sulphide-composite
fragment in quartz and kaolinite hydrothermal cement. Enargite with galena inclusions overgrows pyrite. E: Sphalerite with galena
mantle. Enargite and pyrite have equilibrated grain contacts. Dickite is main component of the hydrothermal cement. F: Cubic
pyrite in breccia cement has pyrite overgrowths and interstitial galena + barite. Galena and barite are not intergrown. G: Weakly
developed chalcopyrite disease in sphalerite with minor enargite inclusions. Dickite is the main cement component. H: Pyriteinterstitial enargite-stibioenargite + tennantite-tetrahedrite. Dickite and kaolinite are interstitial to composite sulphosalt grains.
I: Elemental proxy for mineral distribution: green = As-bearing sulphosalts, red = pyrite, blue = dickite-kaolinite, white = galena. J:
Galena intergrown with embayed sphalerite. Alunite is brecciated by kaolinite. K: Sphalerite-galena + secondary reaction rim of
enargite + stibioenargite + anglesite. L: Elemental proxy for mineral distribution: yellow = kaolinite, pink = pyrite, orange =
enargite, purple = galena, blue = sphalerite, green = alunite.

46

Scattered sphalerite crystals within the hydrothermal cement are overgrown and embayed by galena.
Sphalerite is subject to weak oxidation that resulted in oxide staining around many sphalerite crystals.
Angelsite occurs on the outer rims of galena or as isolated broken fragments. In hand sample, enargite
forms dark- and honey-brown (luzonite) crystal aggregates that are not microscopically distinguishable.
Blebby inclusions of tennantite-tetrahedrite, <100 m in size, are found within the enargite crystals.
Subhedral, growth-zoned, cubic pyrite occurs in the hydrothermal cement while the sulphosalt
assemblage is typically found interstitially.

2.4 Geochemistry
Geochemistry of the Kkda Kirazl igneous rocks was characterized by analyses from 63 samples
selected from the mapped units. Wide range of the loss on ignition values (LOI), from <1 to 19 wt. %,
reflects extensive hydrothermal alteration to which the TV Tower district was subjected. Post-ore
mineralization dacites and trachyandesites of the Oligocene Kirazl Volcanics (OKV) are the only
consistently unaltered rocks and are classified on a Total Alkali versus Silica diagram (Na2O + K2O versus
SiO2). However, the alkalis are observed to be mobile during water-rock interactions in the pre- and synore mineralization Eocene units throughout the TV Tower District. Therefore, a Pearce trace element
discrimination diagram was used for anhydrous geochemical classifications of the variably altered Eocene
units (i.e. EHFP, EKDV, EDV, EDT) (1996; Figure 25).
2.4.1 Chemical classification of magmatic rocks
Eocene intrusive and volcanic units which host porphyry and epithermal mineralization in the northern
TV Tower district are classified as andesites, basaltic andesites, basalts, diorite and quartz diorite (Figure
25 A). These plots indicate Zr/Ti and Nb/Y ratios of EHFP generally behave as immobile element ratios and
plot in the same location regardless of alteration. However, the Nb/Y ratio in EDV significantly increases
within 500 m of the Kirazl HS epithermal deposit, a result that incorrectly classifies the rocks as
trachyandesite and monzonite. The skew in EDV rocks is likely a result of Y depletion associated with orerelated alteration of feldspar and the breakdown of accessory minerals in regions of intense alteration
(Van Dongen et al., 2010; Figures 25 C).
Basalt and basaltic andesites (EKDV) above and below the FWFZ at Kkda, are petrographically and
geochemically distinct from EHFP and EDV units. The basalt and basaltic andesite flows stratigraphically
overlie EHFP and the two units plot as discrete groups on the Y versus Zr discrimination diagram of
MacLean and Barrett (1993), suggesting EKDV has a tholeiitic affinity while EHFP displays transitional calcalkaline series (Figure 25 C).
47

48

Figure 25. Geochemical classification diagrams. A: Trace element discrimination diagram log log (Zr/Ti) vs (Nb/Y) of Pearce (1996).
Filled and hollow symbols represent fresh and altered rock, respectively. B: Total Alkali versus Silica diagram of Le Maitre (1984).
Dacites and trachyandesites of the OKV unit are the only lithology in the TV Tower not affected by porphyry and epithermal style
alteration, therefore in this case, major oxide discriminants are suitable for rock classification. C: Y versus Zr discrimination
diagram of MacLean and Barrett (1993). Volcanic rocks above and below the FWFZ at Kkda plot as a distinctly tholeiitic series
whereas rocks at Columbaz and Kirazl are transitional to calc-alkaline series. Notice the altered (hollow symbols) EDV are depleted
in Y, as a result, altered samples are skewed left in this plot. One fresh sample from EDV plots similarly to EHFP.

The Oligocene OKVa, b units stratigraphically overlie Kirazl and Kkda. They cover an area greater than
100 km2 immediately north of the deposits. They were emplaced ca. *24.7 Ma and therefore after oremineralization and related alteration which occurred ca. 29.7 29.2 Ma (*Altunkaynak and Gen, 2008).
Geochemically the lower volcanic flow unit (OKVb) plots as a dacite, gradationally transitioning to upper
flow layers of trachyandesite characterized by columnar jointed outcrops, laharitic and dacitic tuffs (OKVa;
Figure 25 B).
2.4.2 REE and multi-element characterization
The two uppermost stratigraphic units in the TV Tower district (OKVa, b) show the highest light rare earth
element (LREE) enrichment while the younger of these two has a strong negative Eu anomaly, indicative
of plagioclase fractionation from the melt (Figure 26 A). Stratigraphically below OKV, the basalt and
basaltic andesites (EKDV) have weak LREE enrichments and relatively smooth primitive mantle normalized
patterns, similar to enriched MORB (Piercy, 2007; Figure 26 C). Transitional to calc-alkaline intrusive an
volcanic rock units EHFP, EDV and EDT show strong LREE enrichment akin to a volcanic arc tectonic setting
(Figure 26 B, D).
2.4.3 Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Alteration
White clay alteration is widespread throughout Eocene rocks in the TV Tower district. This alteration
typically bleaches outcrops to a white-cream colour and obliterates primary magmatic textures. A
portable near-infrared spectrometer used to differentiate the OH-bearing alteration mineralogies
identified: kaolinite, illite, smectite, dickite, alunite, montmorillonite and halloysite as the most typical.
The least altered samples used as benchmarks for assessing alteration were selected based on
petrographic observations described in the previous section and the molar ratio plot (2Ca + Na + K)/Al
versus K/Al (Warren et al., 2007; Figure 27). On the molar ratio plot, least altered samples do not exhibit
Ca and Na depletions typically associated with plagioclase alteration to muscovite (sericite), illite and
kaolinite. The quartz diorites, andesites and tuffs (EDV) that host Kirazl ore-mineralization, are the most
altered of all the sampled rocks due to their close proximity to the deposit. They have a pervasive
alteration mineralogy of quartz, kaolinite, dickite, illite, sericite, chlorite, alunite and pyrophyllite. The

49

Figure 26. Rock/Primitive mantle REE spider plots of intrusive and volcanic rocks normalized values from Sun and Macdonough
(1989). A: Oligocene dacites and trachyandesites of the Kirazl Volcanics. B: Fresh rock samples from the Eocene quartz diorite at
Kirazl (EDV) and at Camelback (EDT). B: Eocene basalts and basaltic andesites comprising the Kkda Volcanics. D: Eocene
diorite, quart diorite and andesites (EHFP) which represent the most widespread magmatic unit in the TV Tower.

diorite, quartz diorites and andesites (EHFP) as well as the basalts to basaltic andesites (EKDV) have
experienced variable Ca and Na loss reflective of plagioclase alteration to sericite, kaolinite and illite. As
expected, the Oligocene dacites and trachyandesites (OKVa, b) do not show evidence of argillic (quartz,
kaolinite, illite and chlorite) or advanced argillic (quartz, dickite, alunite and pyrophyllite) alteration
signatures which characterize the host Eocene rocks (Figure 27).
The Ishikawa Alteration Index (AI; 100 x (K2O + MgO)/(K2O + MgO + Na2O + CaO); Ishikawa et al., 1976)
reflects the abundance of chlorite, sericite and feldspar destruction associated with CaO and Na2O
depletions. The AI value generally increases toward zones of phyllic alteration, with values >90 near
Columbaz and Kirazl. This trend reverses with progression to advanced argillic alteration, where AI values
fall to <50 (Figure 28). This reversal reflects low pH alteration of ferromagnesian minerals (mainly chlorite),
K-loss and a change from lower temperature alteration minerals such as muscovite and kaolinite in the
distal alteration zones to higher temperature phyllosilicates such as pyrophyllite in ore-proximal zones.
50

Figure 27. Molar ratio plot (2Ca + Na + K)/Al versus K/Al of Warren et al. (2007). The least altered box indicates the region on the
plot where rocks will plot if they have undergone little to no changes to their Ca, Na, K or Al content. Altered samples (hollow
symbols) will plot toward a region defined by a given mineral composition (i.e. chlorite, kaolinite, illite, K-mica, smectite, Kfeldspar, plagioclase, albite and biotite).

Figure 28. Geochemical alteration plot. The AI versus AAAI box plot has indices defined by the Ishikawa Alteration Index (AI; 100 x
(K2O + MgO)/(K2O + MgO + Na2O + CaO) of Ishikawa et al. (1976), and the Advanced Argillic Alteration Index (AAAI; 100 x
SiO2/SiO2 + (10 x MgO) + (10 x CaO) + (10 x Na2O)) of Williams and Davidson (2004). The plot illustrates the alteration
geochemistry characteristics of mineralogical changes associated with advanced argillic alteration zones in high sulphidation
systems.

51

The Advanced Argillic Alteration Index (AAAI; 100 x SiO2/SiO2 + (10 x MgO) + (10 x CaO) + (10 x Na2O);
Williams and Davidson, 2004) is used to quantify strong SiO2 enrichment and destruction of chlorite,
feldspar and carbonate (if present), related to ore related alteration. Thus, the AI vs. AAAI diagram
illustrates the geochemical trends characteristics of advanced argillic alteration zones in high sulphidation
systems (Figure 28; Hedenquist et al., 1994).

2.5 Structural Characteristics of the HS Epithermal and Porphyry Mineralization

General characteristics of exposed structures were recorded, including: strike, dip, rake and pitch of slip
lines, nature and sense of fault surfaces where possible. Where indicators on fault surfaces were not
sufficient to decide explicitly on a sense of motion the indicators were not analyzed for fault kinematics
but were recorded for comparison to related structures where kinematics were unambiguous. Special
emphasis was given to structures that were identified as mineralized with gold.
2.5.1 Aspects of Structural Analysis
Brittle faults and related systematic joints are the most prominent structures observed in the field. Faults
are discriminated on the basis of their orientation, dimensions and composition. Systematic joint sets are
identified as planar structures that cross-cut stratigraphy with repeating sets and lack evidence of motion;
they typically mimic the attitude of major faults.
Alteration pathways are identified in the field as discrete zones of intense alteration and well developed
residual vuggy quartz textures that are structurally or lithologically controlled. Thickness of alteration
pathways range from less than a meter to over ten meters; they are often accompanied by strong
oxidation and macro-vug formation. Silica conduits at Kkda and Columbaz prospects generally follow
the trends of NW and SW-striking, moderately to steeply dipping faults and fractures. At Kirazl, silica
conduits are steep to vertical and bounded by NW and NE-SW striking faults and fractures that are similar
in orientation to comparable features at Kkda and Columbaz (Figure 30).
Hydrothermal Breccia and Veins are identified in the field as channelized brecciation, typically along
fractures and faults. Quartz and pyrite are the most common vein infill minerals, whereas hydrothermal
breccias have strongly oxidized cement, silicified clasts and silicified vuggy quartz selvage zones. The
attitude of veins and hydrothermal breccia are comparable to the attitude of major fault sets. Post oremineralization deposition of calcite, quartz, and gypsum veins are not reflective of the structural
architecture present at the time of mineralization events, therefore they are only mentioned in the
structural analysis here. Hydrothermal breccia measured at the surface of Kirazl Dai and atalkaya Tepe
52

is observed to correspond to the intersection trend established by three of the major fault trends in that
area, indicating that these are pre or syn ore-mineralization structures. Intersections of these major
structures that host hydrothermal breccia are the best locales for significant ore deposition and certainly
at the summit of Kirazl Dai, structural intersections of this type are ubiquitous.
Bedding of volcanic and epiclastic strata that hosts HS epithermal and porphyry mineralization is
measured directly in the field and using three-point solutions from drill core intersections. Additionally,
bedding in fine grained epiclastic rocks targeted by lithocap-style alteration at the top of Kkda and
Kirazl can be measured indirectly by taking the intersection of silicification cooling joints as the pole to
bedding.
2.5.2 Local Structural Setting
In the central Biga Peninsula, multiple HS epithermal and porphyry mineralization deposits are recognized
(Yiit, 2009 and 2012). The geometry of fault and fracture sets at these deposits controls the position of
where hydrothermal pathways are established. Such pathways are the principle way in which oremineralized breccias are formed and ore-bearing minerals are introduced to stratiform horizons. Post oremineralization faults have disjointed the stratigraphy and reconfigured many deposits. For example, the
Eocene aged Halilaa porphyry ca. 15 km south of Kkda is believed to be truncated by post oremineralization faults that removed theoretically high-level porphyry mineralization (pyrite and
chalcopyrite), from the hypothesized core-level porphyry mineralization (chalcopyrite and bornite). The
Columbaz and Camelback porphyry systems share a similar history in that, HS epithermal mineralization
predicted to lie theoretically and stratigraphically above core-level porphyry style ore-related alteration
and mineralization, has been displaced northward along moderately dipping, recurring, normal-sense
shear zones. Nowhere is this more evident than in drill core from Kkda HS epithermal deposit where
a, moderately northeasterly dipping fault zone (FWFZ) sharply truncates all styles of Au, Ag and Cu
mineralization (Figure 19 and Figure 30).
Stratigraphy in the TV Tower is classified into domains characterized by local differences in the attitude of
their structures (Figure 29). Domains 1 and 2 are characterized by extensive brittle extensional faulting.
Many similarities in fault geometry exist in domain 1 and 2, however, variations in fault attitude result in
different attitudes of near-vertical, high-permeability fault intersection zones. Domain 3 is reserved for
pre ore-mineralization and pre-Cretaceous ductile deformation that acted on the metamorphic basement
rocks. Systematic fault sets in the TV Tower area have of three main trends in strike: i) NW-SE; ii) NE-SW;
iii) E-W, and a fourth subordinate N-S directed minor fault set.
53

54

Figure 29. Structural domain map of the Kkda, Kirazl, Columbaz and Camelback deposits. Domain one includes the Kkda
HS epithermal, and Columbaz porphyry deposits. Domain two includes the Kirazl HS epithermal, and Camelback porphyry
deposits. Domain three outlines the pre-Cretaceous rocks affected by ductile deformation prior to emplacement of the host rocks
to ore mineralization.

E-W, normal-sense faults have a mean displacement direction trending N11W in structural domain 1
(Columbaz-Kkda). Similarly oriented faults in structural domain 2 at Kirazl, have a mean displacement
direction of S36E, and W25S at atalkaya. Kinematic indicators on E-W oriented faults indicate two
senses of motion, one plunging moderately to steeply SW and one plunging shallowly ENE. These two
orientations provide evidence for ENE wrench style dextral faulting and SW oblique-slip normal faulting
on the E-W structures. A similar comparison on NE-SW faults indicates they have a mean displacement
vector trending N, plunging 65 in structural domain 1; whereas in structural domain 2 (Kirazl and
atalkaya), NE-SW faults have two distinct displacement vectors which are analogous to the mean
displacement observed on E-W faults. In contrast, the NW-SE faults have considerably fewer wrench-type
displacement indicators and are typically characterized by normal and oblique-slip kinematic indicators.
2.5.2.1 Domain 1: Kkda and Columbaz
Volcanic and epiclastic rocks that host HS epithermal and porphyry mineralization are shallowly tilted to
the north at a regional scale. Local variations of bedding exist due to tilting, rotating and brittle
deformation associated with faulting. At Kkda and Columbaz, shallowly dipping bed attitudes are
preserved in laminated mudstones, siltstones, conglomerates and as a mineral foliation in basalt and
basaltic andesites (EKDV). Variations in strike exist over 10s to 100s of meters, reflecting a low amplitude
wavy depositional setting; however, a well-defined bed attitude average indicates an overall shallow
north dipping trend (Figure 29). Massive, autobrecciated, laharitic and columnar jointed dacites and
trachyandesites (OKV) that stratigraphically overlie Kkda and Columbaz deposits, dip shallowly
northeast (Figure 29). A conformable contact between the overlying dacite (OKV) and lithic tuff (EQT) at
the highest stratigraphic levels of mineralization at Kkda is reflected in a gradual transition of
northward to northeastward bedding attitudes.
At Columbaz and Kkda, alteration pathways have two main orientations: i) striking WNW, dipping
steeply NE and; ii) striking SW, dipping steeply NW. NW striking pathways are most pronounced in the
field; they are up to five meters wide and are typically bounded by faulted planes. SW striking conduits
are typically less than five meters wide and are bounded by joints with little or no evidence of fault motion.
Major fault planes have damage zones of cataclastic fault breccia, smoothed surfaces ornamented with
grooved lineations and slip-lines, stepped slip-lines, and fault gouge. In general, fault planes are smoothed
55

and have a low amplitude undulation along a strike-parallel axis. Kinematics of the fault surfaces show a
range of deformation directionality from dip-slip to strike-slip, all of which can be observed on the E-W
trends and NE-SW trends. NW-SE faults however consistently show dip-slip to oblique-slip kinematic
indicators.
Surrounding Columbaz, planar faults form prominent cliffs, ornamented with cataclastic breccia and
extensional slip-lines. Kinematic indicators there, have two observable extensional vectors: one with a
dip-slip direction and, one apparently later, with a right-lateral strike-slip direction. Sub-vertical, E-W
oriented major fault zones such as that between Columbaz and Kkda also have right-lateral, strikeslip lineations. In local tectonic windows there, remnant dip-slip lineations are observed on structurally
sheltered pockets on fault planes that are typically ornamented with strike-slip lineations.
2.5.2.2 Domain Two: Kirazl-atalkaya and Camelback
At the Kirazl HS epithermal deposit, bedding is best preserved in laminated to thinly bedded epiclastic
rocks in the upper deposit stratigraphy (ELT, EVS and EQT). Low amplitude undulations exist over an
average axis of 210 where bedding dips shallowly to the northwest and southeast (Figure 29). Bedding
planes there, are ornamented with slip-lines and stepped ridges that indicate a reverse sense
displacement to the NNE.
At Kirazl, two main trends of structurally-controlled alteration pathways are identified as striking NE-SW
and NW-SE. Exposures at atalkaya ca. 1 km south of Kirazl have NNE trending pathways of intense
residual vuggy quartz alteration. The distribution of lithocaps in the atalkaya area is similar to the attitude
of these residual quartz alteration pathways and reflects the dominant NE trend to lithocap distribution
in domain two (Figure 7).
Breccia pathways at Kirazl and atalkaya used in structural analysis were interpreted as hydrothermal in
nature if they consist of a strongly jarosite-goethite-hematite altered matrix, altered sub-rounded to
angular clasts, and a matrix to clast-supported texture. Additionally, they have typical alteration minerals
including: quartz, alunite, dickite and kaolinite. In general, two main hydrothermal breccia trends are
defined as: i) ENE-WSW and; ii) NNE-SSW (Figure 29).
Quartz vein geometry in domain two at the Camelback porphyry, reflects a conjugate fracture set with
planes that strike NE and ESE, dipping steeply SE and SSW. In contrast, the orientation of quartz veins at
Columbaz and Kkda in domain one is characterized by early quartz veins with anomalous gold values
striking E-W, which are cross-cut by a N-S striking vein set barren of base or precious metals (Figure 29).
56

At Kirazl, two distinct sets of slip-line are evident on fault planes: one that has well-developed dextral
strike-slip sense and the other has an oblique-slip, dextral-normal sense. On the north side of Kirazl the
dominant dip direction of faults is NW and NE, whereas on the southern flanks, moderate to steeply SE
and SW dipping structures are more typical. On the north side and summit of atalkaya, NW and NE
dipping fault planes are the most dominant fault attitudes. On the south side, SW dipping faults are
conspicuous cliff forming features and often have smoothed, well ornamented slip-lines and grooves. The
strike of these fault sets in the vicinity of Kirazl and atalkaya projects directly towards the valley between
Sarp and Kkda along low lying river valleys.
Domain two extends south from atalkaya and encompasses the Camelback porphyry. Major fault sets
are grouped into moderate to steep angle oblique-normal and low angle normal faults. Steeply south
dipping ESE-striking dextral oblique-slip, normal-sense faults are similar in orientation to the vein network
observed at Camelback (Figure 31). SW striking faults are ornamented with slip-lines, grooves and
stepped-ridges that indicate multiple reactivated motion on the faults was right- and left-lateral with a
minor dip-slip component.
Dense fault and fracture sets at Kirazl point to the importance of structural corridors in the development
of the HS epithermal mineralization (Figure 19).The attitude of an intersection defined by three primary
fault sets at Kirazl strikes between 110 and 120 while plunging 76 in a southeasterly direction. This
fault intersection attitude structurally controls the position and attitude of ore-bearing hydrothermal and
phreato-magmatic breccias. The mineralized breccias are zoned, layered and hydrothermally cemented.
Episodic mineralizing events preferentially targeted these near-vertical fault intersections, widening the
footprint of individual hydrothermal breccia bodies with each successive episode.
2.5.2.3 Domain 3: Metamorphic basement rocks
Metamorphic basement rocks and thickly bedded arkosic arenites and conglomerates form the
foundation for Cenozoic magmatism and volcanism (Map units: PSC, PSP, TQC and TAS). Quartz, mica
phyllites and schists have a well-developed mineral schistosity (S1) and a locally well-developed
crenulation cleavage (S2). S1 is characterized by dominantly N-S striking foliation planes. On the eastern
side of Kirazl, mineral stretching lineations in the S1 foliation plane are indicative of NW-SE extensional
deformation. Such ductile deformation is not present in post-Cretaceous magmatic rocks of the Biga
Peninsula and therefore represents pre-Triassic extension. S2 strikes NE, dipping steeply to the NW and
documents NW-SE directed compression. Arkosic arenites and quartz-pebble conglomerates that
unconformably overlie the quartz, mica phyllites and schists are locally deformed in a ductile fashion.
57

Rocks in structural domain three dip moderately to the SW at a regional scale, which is distinctly different
from the consistent north dipping attitude of the Eocene and Oligocene rock units (Figure 29).

2.6 Timing of Magmatism and Au-Ag-Cu Mineralization in the Central Biga Peninsula
2.6.1 Methodology
Samples used for U-Pb age determination in this study were collected from mineralized and nonmineralized intrusive and volcanic rocks where cross-cutting and stratigraphic relationships are well
defined by drilling and field mapping. These U-Pb dates are used to determine the age of magmatism and
porphyry mineralization. Ar/Ar age dates determined from coarse-crystalline alunite intergrown with ore
minerals at Kkda and Kirazl, as well as two U-Pb age dates from the Pirentepe host rocks, constrains
the timing of HS epithermal mineralization.
For each U-Pb age determination, groups of 10 - 20 zircon grains free of alteration, fractures, inclusions
or cores were analyzed using a Thermo Finnigan Element2 single collector, double-focusing magnetic
sector ICP-MS at the Pacific Centre for Isotopic and Geochemical Research (PCIGR) in Canada. The
concordia age of the Pleovice zircon standard (338 1.0 Ma; Slma et al., 2008) in the analytical sequence
was 337.0 1.7 Ma and the concordia age of the Temora zircon standard (416.8 1.1 Ma; Black et al.,
2003) was 416.5 3.1 Ma, both are within error of the accepted values and validate the precision of the
ages determined in this study. Final U-Pb Concordia ages were calculated using Isoplot version 3.09
(Ludwig, 2003) at the University of British Columbia.
Ar/Ar analyses on alunite was carried out at PCIGR using irradiated alunite separates step-heated at
increasing laser powers in the defocused beam of a 10-W CO2 laser. Gas liberated from each step was
analyzed using a VG5400-Mass Spectrometer equipped with an ion-counting electron multiplier. Final
Ar/Ar plateau ages were calculated using Isoplot ver. 3.09 (Ludwig, 2003) at UBC.
2.6.2 Geochronological Constraints on Magmatism and Mineralization
Geochronological constraints of magmatism and mineralization in the central Biga Peninsula are
determined from samples of mineralized and non-mineralized rocks at the Halilaa, Valley, Columbaz and
Camelback porphyry deposits, as well as the Kunk, Pirentepe, Kirazl and Kkda HS epithermal deposits
(Table 2). These data augment a regional geochronology dataset which is defined by two periods of
magmatism; an early magmatic stage that occurred between 41 and 36 Ma peaking at 39 Ma (Stage 1)
and a later stage between 32 and 22 Ma peaking at ca. 24 Ma (Stage 2; Figure 31). The results indicate

58

that in the central Biga Peninsula, porphyry mineralization occurred at the peak of Stage 1 magmatism,
whereas HS epithermal mineralization is constrained to within early Stage 2 magmatism.
Table 3. Age dates of magmatism and mineralization in the central Biga Peninsula (*Brunetti and Mikovi, 2015).
Location

Deposit

Age

UTM

UTM

Age

/Prospect

Type

Type

North

East

(Ma)

*Eviler

pluton

zircon

4417735

486781

26.1

0.51

*Pirentepe

PB-2014-061

zircon

4421529

480296

28.4

0.59

host/pre-mineral

PB2013046

zircon

4421349

482697

28.5

0.3

HSE

mineralization

GML-2013-96

alunite

4431869

470645

29.2

0.33

Kkda

HSE

mineralization

GML-2013-97

alunite

4432010

470690

29.7

0.42

Kirazl

HSE

plutonic

GML-2014-293

zircon

4431654

477799

30.8

0.31

Camelback

porphyry

post-mineral

GML-2013-315

zircon

4427402

472036

37.3

0.89

*Halilaa

porphyry

post-mineral

HD-13A-488

zircon

4419112

483431

37.8

0.36

Columbaz

porphyry

host/pre-mineral

GML-2013-231

zircon

4431560

472715

38.4

0.5

Columbaz

porphyry

host/pre-mineral

GML-2013-143

zircon

4428986

469295

38.5

0.44

*Halilaa

porphyry

syn/post mineral

PB2014106

zircon

4418910

482281

38.8

0.3

*Halilaa

porphyry

pre/syn-mineral

HD-37-112

zircon

4419154

483139

39.4

0.77

Valley

porphyry

post-mineral

GML-2014-332

zircon

4423243

465969

39.5

0.31

*Halilaa

porphyry

mineralization

HD-94 402

moly

4419052

483246

39.6

0.21

*Kunk

HSE

host/pre-mineral

PB2013018

zircon

4418781

483406

40.1

0.34

Valley

porphyry

syn-mineral

GML-2014-331

zircon

4423243

465969

40.2

0.37

Camelback

porphyry

pre/syn-mineral

GML-2014-329

zircon

4427009

473687

40.2

0.34

Sample ID

Material

plutonic

HD-29

HSE

host/pre-mineral

*Pirentepe

HSE

Kkda

The Columbaz porphyry is built on and hosted within diorite, quartz diorites and andesites. The age of the
andesite is dated at 38.51 0.44 Ma, and 38.35 0.50 Ma from surface samples proximal to the deposit
(Figure 30). Southwest of Kirazl, the Valley and Camelback porphyry prospects are hosted within stocks
of the Kuscayir pluton. At Camelback, pre/syn ore-mineralization quartz diorite is dated at 40.19 0.34
Ma which is similar to the 40.17 0.37 Ma pre/syn ore-mineralization quartz diorite at the Valley porphyry
and similar to the of the age of Columbaz andesites. Post ore-mineralization quartz diorite at Valley
porphyry is dated at 39.53 0.53 Ma, which constrains the timing of porphyry mineralization to between
40.19 39.53 Ma; a result that occurs at the peak of Stage 1 magmatism. A southern exposure of the
Kirazl diorite (EDV) is dated at 37.34 0.89 Ma on the north side of the Camelback porphyry.
Approximately 15 km southeast of the TV Tower district, the age of the host rocks at Halilaa porphyry is
determined for three samples: a pre/syn ore-mineralization intrusion dated at 39.36 0.77 Ma, a syn/post
59

ore-mineralization intrusion dated at 38.79 0.30 Ma and a post ore-mineralization intrusion at 37.79
0.36 Ma (Brunetti et al., 2015). Additionally, a Re-Os date of 39.56 0.21 Ma obtained from molybdenite
within the ore-zone effectively constrains the timing of syn-magmatic porphyry mineralization at the
Halilaa porphyry (Brunetti et al., 2015). Approximately 2 km south of Halilaa, host rocks to the Kunk HS
epithermal target were dated at 40.14 0.34 Ma (Brunetti et al. 2015). Currently, there are no constraints
on the timing of mineralization at Kunk; however the age of the host rocks there, indicates they are part
of the same suite of rocks that host the Halilaa, Valley, Camelback and Columbaz porphyry deposits.

Figure 30. U-Pb Concordia and Ar/Ar plateau diagrams for the samples determined in this study.

A granodiorite intrusion 2 km north of Kirazl is dated at 30.79 0.31 Ma, similar result to Yigits (2012)
Ar/Ar age of 30.7 1.5 Ma on alunite from drill core at the Kirazl deposit. At Kkda, ca. 5 km west of
Kirazl, the age of mineralization is constrained to 29.69 0.42 and 29.23 0.33 Ma, by two Ar/Ar age
dates on coarse grained alunite intergrown with ore minerals. The Pirentepe HS epithermal deposit ca. 2
km north of Halilaa is hosted within a sequence of coarsely porphyritic dacitic andesites dated at 28.54
60

 0.30 Ma and 28.36 0.59 Ma. These results constrain the timing of HS epithermal magmatism and
mineralization to between 30.79 28.36 Ma, occurring in the early stages of Stage 2 magmatism.

2.7 Discussion
The TV Tower District has been subjected to extensive textural- and mineralogical-destructive alteration
associated with porphyry and epithermal systems, in addition, post ore-mineralization structural
reconfiguration makes stratigraphic differentiation of these deposits not obvious. This hinders exploration
efforts to expand prospective zones by stratigraphic correlation between known mineral deposits.
Detailed stratigraphic and structural field mapping in conjunction with geochemical and petrographic
analysis has characterized the differences between Eocene and Oligocene magmatism in this District.
Stratigraphic correlation between rocks that host porphyry and HS epithermal mineralization in the TV
Tower District are discussed here in the context of a regional metallogeny.
2.7.1 Space-Time Relationship of Magmatism and Mineralization in the Biga Peninsula
Stratigraphic definition of porphyry and HS epithermal mineralization in the central Biga Peninsula, aided
by new geochronological data and petrographic mineral deposit studies show evidence that porphyry
mineralization is older than HS epithermal mineralization (Table 3). Age dating of mineralized and nonmineralized intrusive phases at the Halilaa, Valley, Columbaz, and Camelback porphyry deposits,
indicates coeval magmatic crystallization and mineralization occurred between 41 - 39 Ma, during the
peak of Stage 1 magmatism (Figure 4). Additionally, Oligocene (*30.7 - 29.23 Ma) ages of alunite separates
from the HS epithermal mineralization at Kkda and Kirazl indicate epithermal mineralization there
took place up to 8.8 Ma after porphyry mineralization in the TV Tower (*Ar/Ar on quartz-alunite separate;
Yiit 2012).
A regional compilation of mineral deposit host rock ages in the Biga Peninsula are grouped into four
classes: 1. Iron Oxide Copper Gold (IOCG) hosts; 2. skarn hosts; 3. porphyry and 4. epithermal deposit
hosts (Figure 31). The oldest known porphyry style mineralization host rocks are represented by the
Karabiga pluton (akirli Cu-Au porphyry) and the 44.3 to 54.5 Ma Dikmen pluton (Dikmen Cu-Mo-Au
porphyry) located at northern latitudes (Yiit, 2012). The youngest are the 21.3 0.3* andesites of the
Ayvaik formation and the Kestanbol Pluton (*K/Ar whole rock analyses by Aldanmaz et al., 2000). The
timing of porphyry and epithermal mineralization coincides with the two magmatic stages, whereas only
2 (Cataltepe and Hacidedetepe) of the 24 skarn deposits in the Biga Peninsula are associated with preOligocene intrusions.

61

The paucity of Eocene skarn deposits can be explained in relation to regional scale extensional exhumation
of the basement metamorphic complex. The Kazda Massif was exhumed and cooled to below 350 and
300 C between 27 and 24 Ma from peak P-T conditions of 6.9 and 5.7 kbar and 706 and 587 C (Bonev et
al., 2009). During this time the calcareous basement rocks of the Kalabak Fm were exhumed with the
Kazda Massif from depths of ca. 15 km into the shallow crust and subsequently displaced southeastward
along detachment faults (Bonev et al., 2009; Cavazza et al., 2009; Aysal et al., 2012). The 23.94 0.31 Ma
post-kinematic Eybek Pluton (U/Pb on zircon; Altunkaynak et al., 2012) intruded the Kalabak Fm and is
believed to be the causative intrusion for poly-metallic skarn mineralization (Akiska et al., 2013).
Therefore, the paucity of pre-Oligocene skarn deposits in the Biga Peninsula could be explained by the
absence of calcareous basement rocks in the shallow crust at that time (ie. Pre-exhumation of calcareous
basement rocks).
Late Eocene plutonic rocks such as the Kuscayir pluton (40.17 0.37 Ma), the Halilaa stock (39.36 0.77
Ma), Camelback stock (40.19 0.34 Ma), and the Kartalda pluton (42.19 0.45 Ma) of the central Biga,
all host Cu-Au-Ag porphyry and/or epithermal style mineralization. The stratigraphy hosting the Kkda
HS epithermal deposit is built atop 38.5 Ma andesites (EHFP). The same andesite is correlated as the main
host to Au mineralization at the Columbaz porphyry ca. 1 km to the south. A conformable sequence of
basaltic andesites, lithic tuffs and epiclastic rocks overlies EHFP, therefore its deposition is interpreted to
have occurred in the waning of Stage 1 magmatism (ca. 38.5 34.5 Ma).
The age of HS epithermal mineralization at Kkda is constrained to between 29.7 29.2 Ma; therefore,
it was not coeval with the magmatism that deposited the host stratigraphy, rather it occurred ca. 8.8
4.8 after deposition of the host stratigraphy and in the initial stages of Stage 2 magmatism. The age of HS
epithermal mineralization at Kirazl is 30.7 1.5* Ma, which is ca. 1 m.y. older than HS epithermal
mineralization at Kkda (*Yiit, 2012), suggesting that epithermal mineralization in this region was
punctuated and occurred for at least 1 m.y. Oligocene pluton rocks consisting of equigranular to weakly
hornblende-feldspar porphyritic granodiorite, ca. 2 km north of Kirazl were dated at 30.79 0.31 Ma,
similar in age to Oligocene epithermal mineralization at Kirazl. This similarity suggests that Stage 2
magmatism, starting as early as 30.79 Ma, could have been driver of epithermal mineralization within the
central Biga Peninsula. Furthermore, the granodiorite north of Kirazl contains disseminated pyrite and
trace chalcopyrite, indicating that syn-magmatic sulphide mineralization was likely to have occurred. In
this sense, the granodiorite represents the most plausible candidate as the magmatic driver of epithermal
mineralization at Kirazl.
62

Figure 31. Mineral deposit host rock ages are grouped into four classes and compared against direct age dating of mineralization
(yellow stars), the two U-Pb zircon defined magmatic stages (violet and orange background shade) and reconciled tectonic
information from: Armijo et al., 1999; engr et al., 2005; Bonev et al., 2006; Bonev and Beccaletto 2007; Cavazza et al., 2009;
Altunkaynak et al., 2012; Beccaletto et al., 2007; Bonev et al., 2009; Okay et al., 1996; Jolivet and Brun, 2010; Jolivet et al., 2013;
Le Pichon and Angelier, 1981; Okay and Tysz, 1999 and engr et al., 2005.

2.7.2 Stratigraphy and Mineralization Correlation

Mineral deposits in the central Biga Peninsula are hosted by shallow-level intrusions, volcanic and
epiclastic rocks that are correlated regionally with the Eocene Baliklieme and the Oligocene an
formations (Figures 3 and 6). The age of host rocks to the Columbaz Au porphyry, located ca. 2 km south
of the Kkda HS epithermal deposit, is 38.5 0.44 Ma and the timing of mineralization at the Valley
Au porphyry ca. 12 km south of Columbaz is constrained by intrusive cross-cutting relationships to
between 40.19 39.53 Ma. Additionally, the Camelback Au-Cu porphyry located ca. 5 km south of Kirazl
is constrained by a zircon age of 40.19 0.34 Ma. These three Au (Cu) porphyry deposits are correlated
in time and composition to the Baliklieme formation, indicating the Baliklieme formation was
favorable to porphyry Au mineralization in the Eocene.

63

HS epithermal deposits within a 5 km radial periphery to Eocene porphyry deposits are common
throughout the central Biga Peninsula with Kkda and Kirazl being the largest examples. The
intermediate volcanic, tuffaceous and epiclastic host rocks to the Kkda and Kirazl HS epithermal AuAg ( Cu) deposits conformably overlie coherent units of the Baliklieme formation and are correlated
with the an formation. However, the age of mineralization at Kkda is constrained to between 29.7
29.2 Ma, which is ca. 8 - 10 Ma younger than the expected age of the host rocks there, based on their
conformable contact with the Baliklieme formation.
HS epithermal mineralization spatially associated with porphyry deposits has a disparate age relative to
the age of porphyry mineralization, despite there being a conformable geological contact between HS
epithermal host rocks and the Baliklieme formation. This suggests that the porphyry-epithermal
relationship in the central Biga Peninsula is one where epithermal mineralization is not genetically related
to the known porphyry deposits in the area; rather, epithermal mineralization occurred in the Oligocene,
up to 10 Ma after porphyry mineralization.
Given the well-documented genetic link between porphyry and HS epithermal deposits, it stands to reason
that the majority of Eocene-aged HS epithermal deposits have been eroded, leaving only their Eoceneaged porphyry deposit roots (ie. Halilaa, Valley, Columbaz, Camelback). In contrast, Oligocene-aged HS
epithermal mineralization (ie. Kkda, Kirazl) is well-preserved by resistive lithocaps, therefore the
theoretical Oligocene-aged porphyry deposit roots must also be preserved beneath them.
Volcanic and epiclastic rocks observed at both Kkda and Kirazl prospects have remarkable similarities
(Figures 15 and 16). Lithic tuffs (ELT) are similar in composition, are located at stratigraphically equivalent
positions and are significant locales for ore deposition (Figure 19; Appendix 1). Fluvial-lacustrine epiclastic
rocks (EVS), at mid and upper stratigraphic levels at Kkda and Kirazl are identical and together with
the ELT represent a time-equivalent correlation between the two deposits (Figure 14). The lithologies that
underlie epiclastic strata at each deposit (EHFP at Kkda and EDV at Kirazl) are geochemically distinct;
however, their stratigraphic positions and their crystallization ages are similar, suggesting the two are
coeval (Figure 14).
2.7.3 Paragenesis of ore minerals at Kkda and Kirazl HS epithermal deposits
At Kirazl and Kkda the high-grade silver mineralization occurs at the highest levels of stratigraphy.
Silver zone mineralization extends ca. 600 m north of the main gold zone at Kkda and occurs without
significant gold grades; whereas at Kirazl, silver is always found with gold. In zones where hydrothermal
64

breccia and stratiform mineralization overprints silver zone mineralization at Kkda, silver grades are
heightened. This suggests that hydrothermal breccia and stratiform gold mineralization, which brought in
additional silver, occurred after the main silver mineralization event. However, at Kirazl, the timing of
silver mineralization relative to gold remains ambiguous due to the paucity of silver-bearing mineral
phases.
The majority of silver-rich mineralization at Kirazl occurs in rocks that are nearly completely replaced with
recrystallized quartz (Figure 20). Changes in colour and crystal size of quartz is reflective of a relict clastic
texture, interpreted to represent lithic tuff and epiclastic protoliths. Zones of massive enargite
tennantite-tetrahedrite are not in textural equilibrium with quartz, suggesting that quartz was not a
significant component of the mineralizing fluid responsible for silver-rich mineralization; however, quartz
was a major component in pre ore-mineralization alteration of the host rocks.
At Kirazl, Au, Sn, Sb, Bi and Ti show a positive correlation with high-grade Ag mineralization and at
Kkda Cu, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, and Ti anomalies coincide with high-grade Ag mineralization in the absence
of Au (Appendix 1). At Kirazl, tetrahedrite (Sb-phase) is deposited contemporaneously with gold followed
closely by cassiterite (Sn-phase). Ag and Bi are known to form sulphosalt minerals such as matildite
[AgBiSs] and Aramayoite [Ag(Sb,Bi)Ss], which if present, could explain the Ag-Bi correlation at Kirazl. At
Kkda, the Ag-Bi correlation reflects alteration including bismuthinite and bismuthian-tetrahedrite as
a hydrothermal cement and as sulphosalt blebs intergrown with acanthite [Ag2S] and cervellite [Ag4TeS].
High Ti values in the upper stratigraphy at both deposits is likely due to the presence of strong rutile,
hematite, quartz alteration that is ubiquitous in the silver zone.
Stratiform mineralization zones are commonly characterized by intervals of vuggy quartz alteration
(Figure 17). Pyrite, enargite tennantite-tetrahedrite and Sb-rich phases of enargite replace and infill the
host rock in these zones (Figure 21). Pyrite forms overgrowths on enargite and both have galena-filled
dissolution pathways, presumably from the same dissolution event. High copper grades result from
enargite, tennantite-tetrahedrite and stibioenargite and high Au grades result from native Au and telluride
mineral phases with the sulphide minerals.
At Kirazl, High Au and Cu grades in stratiform zones commonly occur independently of one another and
Au-bearing phases are consistently paragenetically later than Cu-bearing phases. At Kkda, Autellurides are paragenetically later than Cu-rich sulphosalts however, the two mineral groups consistently
form together, thereby obscuring direct elemental correlations from geochemistry. Throughout
65

mineralized vuggy silica zones, Au and Cu positively correlate with Ag, As, Sb, Te, and Bi and negatively
correlate with Sr, K % and Na % (Appendix 1). Au- and Ag-bearing mineral phases infill microfractures and
pits in sulphosalts assemblages suggesting the mineralizing fluid at Kkda and Kirazl evolved from
being rich in Cu (correlated with high As, Sb, Ni, Ag) to being rich in Au (correlated with high Te, Pb and
Zn; Appendix 1). Depletions of Sr, K% and Na% are expected throughout zones of advanced argillic
alteration due to their mobility the epithermal environment; the relative magnitude of such depletions
makes these ideal candidate elements for identifying zones of epithermal related alteration that is distal
to ore.
Hydrothermal breccia zones commonly have a layer-zoned, quartz, alunite, dickite and kaolinite cement,
and colloform and comb-quartz overgrowths on subrounded fragments (Figure 22; Appendix 1). Sulphiderich zones, along with previously crystallized hydrothermal cement are re-brecciated and cemented by
zoned cement types which include multiple rims of silica, followed by pyrite, coarse pyrite, enargite,
dickite and kaolinite. Rims are present primarily on the upper surfaces of clasts, as well, alunite and dickite
that infill vugs is unmixed with dickite forming topographically above alunite. Zoned cement, along with
relatively little matrix material and lack of exotic clasts, is interpreted to reflect a volcanically-passive
environment in which the host stratigraphy was subjected to in-situ episodic brecciation.
Diatreme shaped breccia bodies cross cut the stratigraphy at Kirazl and Kkda. While the funnelshaped, cylindrical geometry and the paragenetically late timing of these bodies is comparable;
differences in their hydrogeological setting could explain why at Kkda the diatreme breccia is largely
barren, whereas at Kirazl it is variably mineralized with Au, Ag, Cu, Pb and Zn. At Kirazl, feldsparporphyritic shards and pumice interpreted to be juvenile clasts juxtaposed with sub-angular to rounded,
milled clasts is a characteristic feature of the composition (Figure 17). The clasts are supported by a
polymictic sulphide-rich matrix with abundant rock flour and kaolinite-quartz-pyrite alteration. At the
contacts of the breccia pipes, host rocks are shattered forming in-situ crackle breccias. This suggests that
the Kirazl diatreme breccia bodies represent phreatomagmatic eruptions related to high level porphyry
intrusions in the sub-volcanic environment (Tmas and Mils, 2002). This implies that late-stage Au-AgCu Pb, Zn mineralization at Kirazl results from direct interaction with between a sulphide-rich magma
body at depth and an external source of water. Furthermore, the connection to a magma body at depth
implies a direct transport pathway for sulphide-bearing hydrothermal fluids into the shallow crust.
At Kkda, paragenetically late matrix-supported breccia bodies crosscut previously mineralized and
altered zones of the deposit. This is evidenced by numerous vuggy quartz, tuffaceous, and epiclastic rock
66

clasts reflecting the lithology of the stratigraphic sequence, supported in the milled polymictic breccia
matrix. Sulphide-bearing clasts constitute the only mineralized component in the breccia bodies and are
not abundant enough to reach economic concentrations of Au, Cu or Ag, therefore they serve to dilute
the ore zone at Kkda.
Similar to Kirazl, the Kkda diatreme breccia bodies have highly-fluidized channels, angular- and
highly-milled clasts, are matrix-supported with abundant rock flour and contain fragments of rock
displaced 10s to 100s of meters relative to where the breccia intersected that rock. Interestingly, clasts of
laminated siltstone intersected at the highest levels of stratigraphy are found in the diatreme breccia ca.
100 m beneath their stratigraphic position, as well, clasts of lithic tuff are found above where they are
intersected in stratigraphy. At Kkda, feldspar phyric magmatic clasts are a significant component of
the polymictic clast composition; however, they do not have ragged boundaries or a fiamme morphology
as observed at Kirazl, rather they are sub-angular to rounded (milled) with sharp grain boundaries. This
suggests that the diatreme breccias at Kkda resulted from pressurized phreatic eruption, excavation
and collapse of the host stratigraphy with no direct connection to a magma source. The lack of connection
to a magmatic source, such as at Kirazl, suggests the transport pathway for hydrothermal fluids into the
shallow crust was not direct and likely precipitated sulphide minerals prior to eruption. An implication of
this is that there could be a sulphide-rich feeder zone beneath the diatreme breccias at Kkda.
2.7.4 Structural Evolution
Propagation of the Northern Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ) westward through the Peninsula initiated as
early as 15 Ma and continues to this day, therefore the formation of even the youngest known metallic
deposits was not controlled directly by the NAFZ structures. However, the position of deposits is
controlled by the NAFZ structures as they serve to disjoint and displace many ore deposits (ex. Halilaa
porphyry, Kkda HS epithermal). Eocene porphyry mineralization is structurally repositioned by a
regional E-W to WNW-ESE and NE-SW striking normal fault system related to westward propagation of
NAFZ splay faults since the Miocene (Armijo et al., 1999; Armijo et al., 2002; engr et al., 2005). In light
of this, detailed structural and stratigraphic surface maps that clearly outline the position and kinematics
of these faults are key to exploration in this region. Auriferous quartz veins with a minimum Oligocene
age, occur in these neotectonic splay faults, indicating that these splay faults propagated along earlier
formed vein pathways.
Porphyry Au and epithermal Au-Ag mineralization in the Biga Peninsula occurred in the Eocene and
Oligocene. This has led the commonly held belief that faulting related to the NAFZ was disparate from
67

porphyry and epithermal deposit formation. However, the orientation of auriferous quartz-infilled faults
and hydrothermal breccia pathways measured at and within 10 km of the Columbaz Au porphyry,
Kkda and Kirazl Au-Ag ( Cu) HS epithermal deposits in the central Biga Peninsula, is similar to the
orientation of regional WNW-ESE to E-W splay faults (Figure 29). This similarity suggests that same
structures that controlled mineralization in the Eocene and Oligocene were reactivated by the
propagation of the NAFZ in the Miocene. By this logic, the orientation of neotectonic faulting in the central
Biga Peninsula is not disparate from the orientation of the structural controls on porphyry and epithermal
mineralization.
Most prominent faulting in the TV Tower District is represented by the recently active NE-SW dextral
strike-slip faults and E-W normal-type extensional faults which accommodate motion related to the
southern branch of the NAFZ. Volcanic rock packages in the Biga Peninsula show distribution trends similar
to the orientation of these prominent structural groups, suggesting these faults, or at least their
orientation, played an active role in the location of emplacement of intrusive and related volcanic rocks
during Eocene Miocene time (Figure 2). If this is true, the current NAFZ geometry can be related to the
same structural trends that control the distribution of hydrothermal activity and ore deposition in the
central Biga Peninsula. WNW-ESE to E-W discontinuous faults connect segments of NE-SW striking wrench
faults of the NAFZ and commonly are associated with extensive silica alteration that matches their trend.
However, at the time of HS epithermal mineralization in the early Oligocene, the NAFZ was not active in
the Biga Peninsula, rather, the structural architecture was a result of NNE-SSW extension related to
southern migration of the Hellenic subduction zone (engr et al., 2005; Bozkurt, 2001; Jolivet and Brun,
2010).
Vein geometry at the Camelback-Kirazl and Columbaz-Kkda epithermal systems is reflective of a
NNE-SSW extensional stress regime that must have been present during porphyry-related magmatism. At
Columbaz, anomalous high gold values in LS-style quartz veins were drill tested in 2014, leading to the
discovery of the Columbaz porphyry. The LS textures overprinting porphyry mineralization and alteration
at Columbaz could be reflective of a structurally reconfigured, severely telescoped, and multi-stage
porphyry-epithermal system.
Advanced argillic alteration and lithocap development at the top of atalkaya ca. 1 km south of Kirazl is
coupled with a virtually identical stratigraphy to Kirazl. Common structural architecture and geological
setting spanning the region between Columbaz-Kkda to atalkaya-Kirazl suggests that the two
hydrothermal systems were subject to a shared structural and geological history and may represent two
68

prominent feeder zones to an epithermal deposit that has since eroded. When this is considered along
with Early Oligocene mineralization ages at Kkda and Kirazl and the recent discovery of the Columbaz
porphyry, atalkaya is clearly identified as an under-explored connection of the Kirazl HS epithermal
deposit.
Low angle faulting in structural domain one and two is not coincident with any hydrothermal alteration
or mineralization, therefore, it is deemed not directly related to ore deposit architecture. However, brittle
failure between bedding planes highlights the significance of such weak zones in the stratigraphy to
enhance permeability. Therefore, the timing of permeability enhancing faulting relative to mineralization
is a critical component to understand in any mineralized system.
In structural domain 2, SW-striking fault sets at Camelback are ornamented with kinematic indicators
documenting reactivated motion. SW-striking fault sets are very well preserved and are often associated
with artesian water springs. These two features are consistent with recent to currently active fault zones
that have not been subject to burial and fault sealing processes. The geometry and kinematics of SWstriking fault sets are consistent with current N18E directed extension and right-lateral displacement of
the Biga Peninsula relative to the European Plate along the NAFZ splay faults (Flerit et al., 2003).
The FWFZ is a near-bedding parallel slip surface interpreted to have normal-sense motion to the NNE
based on the extensional tectonic history of the Biga Peninsula since the Cretaceous. Similar low to
moderately dipping extensional faults are documented around the Kazda Massif and are believed to have
accommodated extensional exhumation of that Massif. The Kazda Massif was exhumed to the surface
between 27 24 Ma, therefore it is plausible that the FWFZ was active during that time. The age of HS
epithermal mineralization above the FWFZ is 29.7 29.2 Ma, therefore, the FWFZ is a post-ore
mineralization fault.
Columbaz porphyry lies ca. 2 km south of Kkda and forms a prominent topographic high in the TV
Tower district. The most obvious interpretation of the relationship between these two deposits is one
that has them share a common genesis, with Kkda forming ca. 300 900 m above Columbaz and
subsequently being displaced northward along the FWFZ. However, there is no evidence for 300 900 m
of missing stratigraphy at Columbaz and the age of mineralization at Kkda is ca. 10 Ma younger than
the Columbaz host rocks. This suggests the Columbaz porphyry is not genetically related to the Kkda
deposit; an implication that warrants exploration for the Oligocene-aged intrusion that presumably was
the driver of hydrothermal activity at Kkda.
69

Chapter 3 Conclusions and Mineral Exploration Implications

3.1 Conclusions
Stratigraphic relationships between Kkda, Columbaz and Kirazl prospects suggest the three areas are
part of a comparable stratigraphy that correlates with the Baliklieme and an formations. The Columbaz
porphyry is hosted within, and Kkda is built on, Eocene aged (38.69 38.33 Ma), coarse grained,
quartz, hornblende and feldspar-phyric hypabyssal diorite and massive to autobrecciated andesite flows
characterized by abundant equigranular diorite xenoliths and a trachytic plagioclase rich groundmass. The
Camelback porphyry and Kirazl deposits are hosted in Eocene (37.89 Ma) diorite, massive and autobrecciated flows of weakly hornblende, feldspar phyric andesites characterized by fine to medium
grained, sparsely distributed phenocrysts and ubiquitous hydrothermal alteration. In this sense the
Kkda and Kirazl hydrothermal systems are hosted in two different magmatic assemblages that are
similar in age and stratigraphic position. Additionally, age dating of HS epithermal mineralization in the
northern TV Tower district at Kkda constrains the timing of mineralization to the Oligocene (29.39
29.69 Ma). A result that is ca. 10 m.y. younger than diorite and quartz diorite crystallization at Columbaz
and Camelback porphyries and porphyry style mineralization at the Valley porphyry.
Rocks that host epithermal and porphyry mineralization are subject to variable hydrothermal alteration,
often obscuring primary mineralogical textures and compositions. The most evident alteration zones in
the field are the residual vuggy quartz lithocaps that mark the highest-elevation peaks. Lithocap
development is known to be directly associated with epithermal style mineralization and undeniably,
lithocap development is widespread throughout the TV Tower district (Figure 7). Advanced argillic
alteration (quartz, alunite, dickite and pyrophyllite) directly associated with mineralization, is prevalent
around Kkda and Kirazl and to a lesser extent around Columbaz and Camelback. Patchy, ore-proximal
and distal alteration assemblages including: argillic (kaolinite, illite and white clay); phyllic (quartz, sericite
and pyrite); propylitic (chlorite and epidote); sericite-rich; and supergene alteration variably affect the
stratigraphy. Barren, post ore-mineralization veins with a dominant N-S strike, separately composed of
quartz, calcite, gypsum, and barite, overprint earlier alteration assemblages.
Litho-geochemical data from Kirazl and Kkda deposits corroborates the discrimination of mappable
intrusive, volcanic and epiclastic rock units that host epithermal and porphyry mineralization. Eocene
rocks which host mineralization are classified as diorites, quartz diorites, basalts, basaltic andesites,
andesites, dacites and trachyandesites with a dominantly transitional between tholeiitic and calc-alkaline
70

signature. Dacites and trachyandesites (OKV) emplaced after porphyry and epithermal ore mineralization,
formed a coherent 400 m sequence of flows, lahar deposits, tuffs and ignimbrites with a high-K, calc
alkaline signature. Hydrothermally altered lithologies that host porphyry and epithermal style
mineralization have distal (>500 m) and proximal (<500 m) chlorite, epidote and calcite (propylitic)
assemblages. Ore-related alteration progresses toward Ca and Na depleted zones defined by a mineralogy
of kaolinite, illite and muscovite (phyllitic); alunite, dickite, diaspore and pyrophyllite (advanced argillic
alteration) and continues towards pyrophyllite, quartz and sericite assemblages at the inner deposit.
Textural styles and mineralogy of epithermal mineralization at Kkda and Kirazl are consistent with
classification as HS epithermal deposits (Sillitoe, 1993; Sillitoe, 1999; Arribas, 1995; Einaudi et al., 2003;
Simmons et al., 2005). Five styles of HS epithermal mineralization are recognized at these deposits: i)
stratiform Ag and Ag(Au-Cu); ii) Au-Cu-Ag hydrothermal breccia; iii) Au-Cu-Ag micro-breccia veins; iv) AuCu-Ag stratiform and; v) Au Cu-Ag-Pb-Zn phreatomagmatic breccia recognized only at Kirazl.
Mineralization styles at Kkda and Kirazl are similar in that they both exhibit stratiform, lithologicallycontrolled, gold, silver and copper mineralization that preferentially targeted epiclastic and tuffaceous
horizons. Similarly, they both have high-grade gold-copper zones occurring in structurally controlled
hydrothermal breccia shoots and host native gold in microbreccia veinlets. On the other hand,
phreatomagmatic breccias at Kirazl are variably mineralized with high-grade gold domains, whereas
similar diatreme breccia bodies at Kkda are barren, cross-cut and dilute the ore-zone. Additionally, a
defined Silver Zone at Kkda is different from the Kirazl Ag-rich shoots, in that it forms a
stratigraphic cover absent of gold and copper mineralization.
The main structures in the TV Tower and Kirazl prospects are oblique-slip faults with dominant dextralnormal and dextral-wrench components. NE-SW faults are coincident with the regional distribution of
magmatic rocks in the Biga Peninsula and likely controlled magmatic distribution and geometry in the
Eocene and Oligocene. E-W to WNW-ESE faults show two distinct slip directions, indicating both normal
and wrench-type strain. The metamorphic basement rocks are tightly folded, foliated and crenulated.
Ductile deformation in the basement rocks is not observed in the overlaying Tertiary volcanics, therefore
the ductile deformation recorded by the basement is considered to predate the Tertiary volcanism and
ore mineralization.
Advancement of the NAFZ from Miocene to the present time has resulted in regional, post-ore
mineralization fault system that disjointed Eocene-Oligocene mineral deposits by kilometers over millions
of years, considering the current tectonic plate vectors along the NAFZ (Nyst and Thatcher, 2004 and Flerit
71

et al., 2003). At the deposit scale, structural domains one and two show the orientation of mineralized
quartz veins closely correspond to the orientation of faults related to NAFZ. In this sense, the post-ore
mineralization NAFZ reactivated structures that were present during epithermal mineralization in the
Oligocene. Additionally, mineralized hydrothermal breccias at Kkda and Kirazl occur vertically as
shoots at NAFZ fault set intersections and along volcanic strata bedding planes. In this sense, the
neotectonic fault sets established by the NAFZ are likely to have reactivated the structural framework
present at the time of Eocene to Oligocene porphyry and epithermal mineralization; therefore, they are
reflective of Eocene to Oligocene ore-deposit architecture in the Biga Peninsula.

3.2 Mineral Exploration Implications

Epithermal systems that lead to economic deposits of gold, silver and copper are inherently disruptive
and alterative to the host lithologies. The formation of lithocaps as a result of alteration, is a characteristic
common to many of these precious and base metal deposits. In the central Biga Peninsula, many of the
highest-elevation peaks are capped by weathering-resistant lithocaps. Therefore, exploration for
epithermal deposits is well-guided to assess lithocaps for anomalous concentrations of gold, silver and
copper.
Age dating in the Biga Peninsula documents two stages of magmatism that are directly associated with
porphyry and epithermal style mineralization. The geochronological dataset in Appendix 4 that defines
these stages contains over 300 individual cross referenced dates and currently there are no economic
precious or base metal deposits known to exist in rocks younger than 20 Ma. Porphyry and epithermal
mineralization is temporally concentrated between 41 36 Ma and 32 22 Ma, therefore magmatic rocks
in the Biga Peninsula with ages that fall into these ranges are inherently more prospective than rocks that
do not. These age ranges, as well as the lithologies of rocks types fall within them, correspond with the
Eocene Baliklieme and Oligocene an formations. The Baliklieme and an formations are regionally
extensive and are the most prospective for porphyry and epithermal mineralization within the TV Tower
District and regionally across the Peninsula.
Regional geochronological re-setting of many of the K-Ar ages has likely occurred in the Oligocene and is
coincident with exhumation of the metamorphic basement. This has led to the incorrect grouping of rock
units into assemblages represented by Oligocene magmatism, when in fact, many such rocks are likely
Eocene in age. Therefore, definition of magmatic rock ages can only be done with geochronometer
systematics that are not susceptible to re-setting (i.e. U/Pb on zircon).

72

The highest-grade gold encountered at Kkda and Kirazl occurs in thin (less than 10 mm), isolated
veins and micro-breccias and as native gold, electrum and calaverite. The structures that host this type of
mineralization are reflective of higher-order, fault-related fractures. As a result, the higher-order fracture
networks in damage zones to major faults constitute a primary trap for native gold, electrum and
calaverite. Therefore, targeting the third- or fourth-order fractures in the damage zones of major faults in
a prospective region, is a guided method for high-grade gold exploration in the TV Tower District.
Overprinting relationships of alteration mineral assemblages can obscure definition of a single alteration
signature to the rocks. However, discrimination of alteration assemblages within the context of a
mineralization style (either porphyry or epithermal) can elucidate a telescoped hydrothermal system. This
is valuable because identification of the subtle (often relict) porphyry-specific alteration styles, which are
masked by epithermal alteration, could encourage further exploration. For example, nearly three decades
of exploration at Columbaz was guided by a LS epithermal model. The model encouraged the targeting of
geometrically regular E-W striking, near-vertical, gold-bearing quartz veins and failed to identify the
subtle, porphyry style alteration characteristics present in the drill core. After re-logging old drill cores and
drilling two new holes at Columbaz, a subtle K-silicate (biotite, magnetite and K-feldspar) alteration was
observed to increase in intensity with depth. K-silicate alteration is known to be a porphyry depositrelated alteration style, therefore a third drill hole was planned to target greater depths and the increase
in K-silicate alteration. The third hole drilled discovered a new porphyry deposit ca.2 km south of the
Kkda HS epithermal deposit and has highlighted that porphyry deposits throughout the central Biga
Peninsula can be severely telescoped.

73

References
Agdemir, N., Kirikolu, M. S., Lehmann, B., Tietze, J., 1994, Petrology and alteration geochemistry of the
epithermal Bayla Pb-Zn deposit, NW Turkey: Mineral Deposita, v. 29, p. 366-371.
Alamos Gold, 2007, On the Structural Geology of the Kirazl, Pirentepe and Ai Dai, an (anakkale),
western Turkey: Unpublished internal report originally prepared for Teck-Cominco Madencilik A.
. ankaya, Ankara, Turkey.
Aldanmaz, E., Pearce, J., Thriwall, M.F., Mitchell, J., 2000, Petrogenetic evolution of late Cenozoic, postcollision volcanism in western Anatolia, Turkey: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research,
v.102, p. 6795.

Altunkaynak, S., & Can Gen, S., (2008). Petrogenesis and time-progressive evolution of the Cenozoic
continental volcanism in the Biga Peninsula, NW Anatolia (Turkey). Lithos, v. 102, p. 316-340

Aydin, A., & Nur, A., 1982, Evolution of pull-apart basins and their scale independence: Tectonics, v. 1, p.
91-105.

Beccaletto, L., 2004, Geology, Correlations, and geodynamic evolution of the Biga Peninsula (NW Turkey):
Memoirs of Geology, Lausanne, v. 43, 146p.

Beccaletto, L., Bonev, N., Bosch, D., & Bruguier, O., 2007, Record of a Paleogene syn-collisional extension
in the north Aegean Region: evidence from the Kemer mica schists (NW Turkey): Geological
Magazine, v. 144(2), p. 393-400.

Bingl, E., Akyrek, B., & Korkmazer, B., 1975, Biga Yarimadasinin jeolojisi ve Karakaya Formasyonunun
bazi zellikleri: Cumhuryeetin 50, Yili Yerbilimleri Kongresi Teblileri, MTA Enstits (Congress on
Earth Science for the 50th anniversary of Republic of Turkey, Abstracts: In Turkish with English
Abstract), p. 70-77.

Black, L. P., Kamo, S. L., Allen, C. M., Aleinikoff, J. N., Davis, D. W., Korsch, R. J. & Foudoulis, C, 2003,
TEMORA 1: a new zircon standard for Phanerozoic U-Pb geochronology: Chemical Geology, vol.
200, p. 155-170.
74

Bonev, N., & Beccaletto, L., 2007, From syn- to post-orogenic Tertiary extension in the north Aegean
region: constraints on the kinematics in the eastern Rhodope-Thrace, Bulgaria-Greece and the
Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: In: Taymaz, T., Yilmaz, Y. & Dilek, Y. (eds) The Geodynamics of the
Aegean and Anatolia, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, vol. 291, p. 113-142.

Bozkaya, ., Bozkaya, G., Uysal, T., and Banks, D. A., 2016, Illite occurrences related to volcanic-hosted
hydrothermal mineralization in the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: Implications for the age and origin
of fluids: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 76, p. 35-51.

Bozkrt, E., 2003, Origin of NE-trending basins in western Turkey: Geodinamica Acta, v. 16, p. 61-81.

Bozkrt, E., 2001, Neotectonics of Turkey a synthesis: Geodinamica Acta, v. 14, p. 3-30.

Boztepe-Gney, A., Yilmaz, Y., Demirba, E., Ecevitolu, B., Arzuman, S., Kuu, ., 2001, Reflection seismic
study across the continental shelf of Baba Burnu promontory of the Biga Peninsula, northwest
Turkey: Marine Geology, v. 176, p. 75-85.

Brunetti, P., and Mikovi, A., 2015, Stratigraphic and Structural Setting of the Halilaa porphyry Cu-Au
deposit, Central Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: In Mikovi, A., Ed. Western Tethyan Metallogeny
Project, Final Technical Report to Companies, MDRU, The University of British Columbia, 2015.

Delaloye, M., & Bingl, E., 2000, Granitoids from western and northwestern Anatolia: geochemistry and
modeling of geodynamic evolution: International Geology Review, v. 42, p. 241-268.

Duru, M., Dnmez, M., Ilgar, A., Pehlivan, . And Akay, A. E., 2012, Geological map of the Biga Peninsula:
Ankara: MTA (General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration of Turkey) Publications,
scale: 1/250,000.

Einaudi, M.T., Hedenquist, J.W., Inan, E.E., 2003. Sulfidation state of hydrothermal fluids: the porphyryepithermal transition and beyond. In: Simmons, S.F., Graham, I.J. (Eds.), Volcanic, geothermal

75

and ore forming fluids: rulers and witnesses of processes within the Earth: Society of Economic
Geologists and Geochemical Society, Special Publication, 10, pp. 285313.

Ekinci, Y. L., and Yiitba, 2012, A geophysical approach to the igneous rocks in the Biga Peninsula (NW
Turkey) based on airborne magnetic anomalies: geological implications: Geodynamica Acta, v. 25
no. 3-4, p. 267-285.

Ercan, T., Satr, M., Kreuzer, H., Trkecan, A., Gnay, E., evikba, A., Ate, M. & Can, B., 1985, Bati Anadolu
senozoyik volkaniklerine ait yeni kimyasal, izotopik ve radyometrik verilerin yorumu (Western
Anatolia Cenozoic Volcanism: new chemical, isotopic and radiometric data): Trkiye Jeologi
Kurumu Blteni, v. 28, p. 1-121.

Ercan, T., Satr, M., Steinitz, G., Dora, A., Sarifakioglu, E., Adis, C., Walter, H.J. and Yildirim, T., 1995,
Features of the Tertiary volcanism in the Biga Peninsula and in the islands of Gkeada, Bozcaada
and Tavsan adasi: Maden Tetkik ve Arama Dergisi (In Turkish), v. 114, p. 55-86.

Ferrigno, D., Defilippi, C. E., Repetto, P. C., Welhener, H., Browne, R. A., Dobr, M., Jutras, M. A., NI 43-101
Technical Report Kirazl & Ai Dai Gold Project, anakkale Province, Biga Peninsula of
Northwestern Turkey: Effective date June 30, 2012.

Flerit, F., Armijo, R., King, G. C. P., Meyer, B., and Barka, A., 2003, Slip partitioning in the Sea of Marmara
pull-apart determined from GPS velocity vectors: Geophyrical Journal International, vol. 154, p.
17.

Gen, . C., 1998, Evolution of the Bayrami magmatic complex, northwestern Anatolia: Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 85, p. 233-249.

Gen, .C., Ylmaz, Y., 1997, An example of post-collisional magmatism in northwestern Anatolia: the
Kizderbent Volcanics (Armutlu Peninsula, Turkey): Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, vol. 6, p. 33
42.
Giggenbach, W. F., 1984, Mass transfer in hydrothermal alteration systems A conceptual approach:
Geochemica Acta, v. 48, p. 2693-2711.
76

Hetman, C., Gray, J. N., and Simmons, G., 2014, Independent technical report for the TV Tower exploration
property, anakkale, Western Turkey: NI 43-101 compliant report prepared by SRK Consulting
Canada, effective date January 21, 2014.

Jolivet, L., and Brun, J. P., 2010, Cenozoic geodynamic evolution of the Aegean: International Journal of
Earth Sciences, v. 99, p. 109-138.

Karaik, Z., & Yilmaz, Y., 1998, Geology of the ignimbrites and the associated volcano-plutonic complex of
the Ezine area, northwest Anatolia: Journal of Volcaniology and Geothermal Research, v. 85., p.
251-264.

Kaymaki, N., Aldanmaz, E., Langereis, C., Spell, T.L., Grer, . F. and Zannetti, K.A., (2007). Late Miocene
transcurrent tectonics in NW Turkey: Evidence from palaeomagnetism and 40Ar-39Ar dating of
alkaline volcanic rocks. Geological Magazine, v. 144, p. 379-392

Kerrich, R., Goldfarb, R., Groves, D., Garwin, S., and Jia, Y., 2000, The characteristics, origins, and
geodynamic settings of supergiant gold metallic provinces: Science in China Series D: Earth
Sciences, vol. 43, p. 1-68.

Koler, J., Forst, L., and Slma, J., 2008, LamDate and LamTool: Spreadsheet-based data reduction for laser
ablation ICP-MS: Laser ablation ICP-MS in the Earth Sciences: current practices and outstanding
issues: Canada, Mineralogical Association of Canada, Short Course Series, v. 40, p. 315-317.

Kuscu, I., 2009, Metallogenesis of the Tethyan collage: Magmatic association and age of ore deposition in
Turkey: in: Mineral Deposit Research Unit internal report on the Western Tethyan Metallogeny
Project, UBC.

Le Maitre, R. W., 1989, A classification of igneous rocks and glossary of terms: Blackwell, Oxford, 193p.

Lingdren, W., 1933, Mineral Deposits, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York and London, p.
930.
77

Ludwig, K. R., 2003, Isoplot/Ex, version 3: A geochronological toolkit for microsoft Excel: Berkeley:
California, Geochronology Center Berkeley.

Moix, P., Beccaletto, L., Kozur, H.W., Hochard, C., Rosselet, F., and Stampfli, G.M., 2008, A new
classification of the Turkish terranes and sutures and its implication for the paleotectonic history
of the region: Tectonophysics, v. 451, p. 739.

Murakami, H., Watanabe, Y., Stein, H., 2005, Re-Os ages for molybdenite from the Tepeoba brecciacentered Cu-Mo-Au deposit, western Turkey: Brecciation triggered mineralization: In: Mao, J.,
Bierlein, F. P (eds), Mineral Deposit Research: Meeting the Global Challenge, Proceedings of the
eighth Biennial SGA meeting, Beijing, China, 18-21 August, 2005, p. 805-808.

Nyst, M., & Thatcher, W., 2004, New constraints on the active tectonic deformation of the Aegean: Journal
of Geophysical Research, v. 109, p. 1-23.

Okay, A. I., and Gncoglu, M.C., 2004, The Karakaya Complex: A review of data and concepts: Turkish
Journal of Earth Science, v. 14, p. 77-95.

Okay, A. I., & Monie, P., 1997, Early Mesozoic subduction in the Eastern Mediterranean: Evidence from
Triassic eclogite in northwest Turkey: Geology, v. 25, p. 595-598.

Okay, A. I., and Satr, M., 2000a, Upper Cretaceous eclogite-facies metamorphic rocks from the Biga
Peninsula, northwest Turkey: Turkish Journal of Earth Science, v. 9, p. 47-56.

Okay, A. I., and Satr, M., 2000b, Coeval plutonism and metamorphism in a latest Oligocene metamorphic
core complex in northwest Turkey: Geological Magazine, v. 137, p. 495-516.

Okay, A. I., Satr, M., Maluski, H., Siyako, M., Monie, P., Metzger, R., & Akyz, S., 1996, Paleo- and NeoTethyan events in northwestern Turkey: Geological and geochronological constraints: In: A. Yin &
Harrison T.M. (eds.) The Tectonic Evolution of Asia, Cambridge University Press. p. 420-441.

78

Okay, A. I., Siyako, M., and Burkan, K. A., 1991, Geology and tectonic evolution of the Biga Peninsula,
northwest Turkey: Bulletin of the Technical University of Istanbul, v. 44, p. 191-256.

Okay, A, I., and Tuysuz, O., 1999, Tehtyan sutures of northern Turkey: In: Durand, B., Jolivet, L., Horvath,
L., Serranne, M., (eds), The Mediterranean Basins: Tertiary extension within the Alpine Orogen:
Geological Society of London, Special Publication no. 146, p. 475-515.
Pearce, J. A., 1996, A users guide to basalt discrimination diagrams: Geological Association of Canada
Short Course Notes, v. 12, p. 79-113.
Piercey S. J., 2007, An overview of the use of petrochemistry in regional exploration for volcanogenic
massive sulfide (VMS) deposits: in Proceedings of Exploration 2007: Fifth decennial international
conference on mineral exploration, p. 223-246.
Peccerillo, A., and Taylor, S. R., 1976, Geochemistry of Eocene calc-alkaline volcanic rocks of the
Kastamonu area, northern Turkey: Contributions in Mineral Petrology, v. 58, p. 63-81.

Pilot Gold Inc., 2013, Report on Kkda Local Geology. Unpublished internal report for Pilot Gold Inc.

Robert, F., Brommecker, R., Bourne, B. T., Dobak, P. J., McEwan, C. J., Rowe, R. R. and Zhou, X., 2007,
Models and exploration methods for major gold deposit types: Ore Deposits and Exploration
Technology: In: Proceedings of Exploration 2007: Fifth Decennial International Conference on
Mineral Exploration, Milkereeit B., eds., p. 691-711.

Rojay, B., & Koyiit, A., 2012, An active composite pull-apart basin within the central part of the North
Anatolian Fault System: the Merzifon-Suluova Basin, Turkey: Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, v.
21, p. 473-496.

Ring, U., Glodny, J., Will, T., & Thomson, S., 2010, The Hellenic subduction system: High-pressure
metamorphism, exhumation, normal faulting, and large-scale extension: Annual Reviews in Earth
and Planetary Science, vol. 38, p. 45-76.

Sanchez, M. G., McClay, K., King, A., 2012, Tectonic and structural setting of porphyry Cu-Au and
epithermal Au mineralization of the Biga Peninsula, NE Aegean: Unpublished.

79

engr, A. M. C., Yilmaz, Y., & Sungurlu, O., 1984, Tectonics of the Mediterranean Cimmerides: nature and
evolution of the western termination of Paleo-Tethys: In: Dixon, J. E., & Robertson, A. H. F. (eds.),
The Geological Evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean. Geological Society, London, Special
Publications, v. 17, p. 77-112.

engr, A. M. C., and Yilmaz, Y., 1981, Tethyan evolution of Turkey: a plate tectonic approach:
Tectonophysics, v. 75, p. 181-241.

Seyitolu, G., and Scott, B.C., 1996, The cause of NS extensional tectonics in western Turkey: Tectonic
escape vs back-arc spreading vs orogenic collapse: Journal of Geodynamics, v. 22, p. 145153.

Sillitoe, R. H., 2015, Epithermal paleosurfaces: Minerallium Deposita, v. 50, p. 767-793.

Sillitoe, R.H., 1993, Epithermal models: Genetic types, geometrical controls and shallow features: In:
Kirkham, R.V., Sinclair, W.D., Thorpe, R.I., and Duke, J.M., eds., Mineral Deposits Modeling:
Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 40, p. 403-417.

Sillitoe, R.H., and Hedenquist, J.W., 2003, Linkages between volcanotectonic settings, ore-uid
compositions and epithermal precious metal deposits: In: Simmons, S.F., & Graham, I., eds.,
Volcanic, geothermal and oreforming uids; rulers and witnesses of processes within the Earth:
Society of Economic Geologists Special Publication 10, p. 315343.

Slma, J., Koler, J., Condon, D. J., Crowley, J. L., Gerdes, A., Hanchar, J. M., Horstwood, M. S., Morris, G.
A., Nasdala, L., and Norberg, N., 2008, Pleovice zircona new natural reference material for U
Pb and Hf isotopic microanalysis: Chemical Geology, v. 249, p. 1- 35.

Sun, S. S., and McDonough, W. F., 1989, Chemical and isotopic systematics of oceanic basalts: implications
for mantle composition and processes: In: Saunders, A. D., and Norry, M. J., (eds) Magmatism in
ocean basins: Geological Society of London Special Publication no. 42, p. 313-345.

80

T Ma, C. G., Mils, J. P., 2002, Hydrovolcanic breccia pipe structures general features and genetic
criteria of phreatomagmatic breccias: Studia Universitatis Babe-Bolya, Geologia, vol. 47 (1), p.
127-147.
Thomson, S. N., and Ring, U., 2006, Thermochronologic evaluation of postcollison extension in the
Anatolide orogeny, western Turkey: Tectonics, v. 25, p. 202-225.
Tun, . O., Yiitba, E., engn, F., Wazeck, J., Hofmann, M., and Linnemann, U., 2012, U-Pb zircon
geochronology of northern metamorphic massifs in the Biga Peninsula (NW Anatolia-Turkey): new
data and a new approach to understand the tectonostratigraphy of the region: Geodinamica Acta,
v. 25, no. 3-4, p. 202-225.
nal, E., (2010). Genetic investigation and comparison of Kartaldag and Madendag epithermal gold
mineralization in anakkale-region. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Graduate School of Natural and
Applied Sciences of Middle East Technical University.
Van Dongen, M., Weinberg, R. F. and Tomkins, A. G., 2010, REE-Y, Ti, and P Remobilization in Magmatic
Rocks by Hydrothermal Alteration during Cu-Au Deposit: Economic Geology, v. 105, p. 763-776.
Whitney, D. L. and Bernard, E. W., 2010, Abbreviations for names of rock-forming minerals: American
Mineralogist, v. 95, p. 185-187.
Yiit, O., 2012, A prospective sector in the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt: Geology and geochronology of
mineral deposits in the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 46, p. 118-148.
Yilmaz, Y., & Karaik, Z., 2001, Geology of the northern side of the Gulf of Edremit and its tectonic
significance for development of the Aegean grabens: Geodinamica Acta, v. 14, p. 31-43.

81

Appendix 1: Petrographic Descriptions

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

Appendix 2: List of Geochemical Samples

152

153

154

Appendix 3: Geochemistry Tables

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

Appendix 4: Geochronological Database of the Biga Peninsula

Included Tables:
4.1 Compiled Age Data for Magmatic Rocks of the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey
4.2 Compilation of Mineral Prospect Host Rock and Mineralization Age Dates
4.3 Compiled Metamorphic-related Age Data for the Biga Peninsula
4.4 Sources for Geochronological Database Compilation

164

Supplementary Table 4.1 : Compiled Age Data for Magmatic Rocks of the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey
Sample ID

Source

549149
549133
NKEA07-1
NKEA07-2

26
26
25
25

BPGP-1245
AVC-2
ZK88
TD 71
T 72
T 67
EA 270
TE 55
5
28
549175
549173
EA 37

33
9
24

TE 12
TE 52
ZK84
TE 22
TE 19
GML_315
GML_231
GML_143
MTA 8
21

21
21
24

MTA 58
MTA 21
MTA-3
MTA 13
IE13B
IE13A
IE2B
IE2A
GML_329
Yigit 1

6
6
6
6
24
24
24
24

14
14
14
5
21
3
3
26
26
5

21
21
1
1
1
6
6

1
33

Age

Method

Mat.

Unit/Location

Deposit

Comm.

26.36
26.42
11.5
8.08
35.7
27.89
40.9
17.1
19.5
21.5
8.32
37.3
24.7
26.8
25.03
26.81
20.3
19.6
21.9
21
30.4
34.3
37.27
38.62
38.72
24.7
24.8
27.5
31.3
31.8
32.3
22.1
23.2
19.1
21.6
40.37
46.6

0.16
0.15
0.21
0.14
1
0.41
1.1
0.6
0.68
0.75
0.38
0.9
2.4
1.4
0.15
0.11
1.2
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.7
1.2
0.64
0.45
0.42
0.7
1
1.1
1.8
1.4
2
0.6
1.1
1.1
0.6
0.37
2.3

Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar

Mus
Bt
WR
WR
Hb

Ai Dai intrusion
Ai Dai intrusion
Akapnar basalt
Ezine basalt
Alankoy intrusive

HS Epi
HS Epi

Au
Au

HS Epi

Au,Ag

U-Pb
K-Ar

Zr
Bt

Avilar Stock
Ava Island

Epi

Au

K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar

WR
Bt
Bt
WR

K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
K-Ar

WR
WR
WR
Bt
Ser
WR

K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar

WR
WR
Bt

Ayvaik
Ayvaik
Ayvaik
Ayvaik
Baliklieme
Balya
Balya
Balya Intrusion
Balya
Behram
Behram
Behram
Budayl/Gnen

K-Ar
K-Ar
U-Pb
U-Pb
U-Pb
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar

Hb
Hb
Zr
Zr
Zr
WR
WR
WR
WR
WR
WR
WR
Bt
WR
Bt

an Volcs
an Volcs
an Volcs
an Volcs
an Volcs
an Volcs
an Volcs
an Volcs
an Volcs
an Volcs
an Volcs
Daniment (East)
Daniment (East)
Davutlar
Davutlar

U-Pb
K-Ar

Zr
WR

Dede Tepe
Dikmen Pluton

165

IS Epi
IS Epi
Skn
Skn

Por
HS Epi
Por

Por
Por

Pb,Zn,Ag
Pb,Zn,Ag
Pb,Zn
Pb,Zn

Au
Ag,Au,Cu
Au

Au
Au,Mo,Cu

Latitude
(DD.dd)

Longitude
(DD.dd)

39.882775
39.877682
40.093000
39.820000
40.030662

26.942916
26.911498
26.284000
26.401000
26.797858

Andesite porphyry
Granite-granodiorite
Basalt
Basalt
Granodiorite

39.589856
40.504440

26.813889
27.511640

Granodiorite
Granite

39.477621
39.473414
39.568450
39.666678
40.298628
39.760000
39.760000
39.736433
39.736433
39.514899

26.215557
26.102976
26.322955
26.417096
27.205905
27.618000
27.612000
27.586899
27.586899
26.340428

Dyke
Ingimbrite
Lava flow
Basanite

39.826459
39.649863
40.103829

26.053517
27.244761
27.655792

Andesite
Andesite
Dacite

40.131719
40.185094
39.996337
40.033821
40.010513
40.073080
39.667883
40.045905
40.072933
40.009868
40.045905
39.870522
39.870522
39.780005
39.780005

25.931927
25.860614
26.672416
26.680195
26.640232
26.659914
27.244825
26.613160
26.613007
26.613363
26.613160
27.640260
27.640260
27.954016
27.954016

Andesite
Andesite
Diorite
Andesite
Andesite
Andesite
Andesite

39.992165
40.13651127

26.691789
27.176070

Monzodiorite
Granodiorite

Lithology

Andesite
Andesite
Andesite
Feldspar porphyry
Dacite
Trachyandesite

Andesite
Andesite
Andesite
Andesite
Granite
Granite
Granite
Granite

Supplementary Table 4.1: Compiled Age Data for Magmatic Rocks of the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey
Source

Sample ID
Yigit 2
549102
5151
5112
SAYD12-4

33
26

HD-29
129
SAYD12-4
130
133
KO37
108
108
109
SAYD12-5
109
KO39
107

2
19
6
19
19
12
19
19
19
6
19
12
19

T 76
TD 77
TE-E-41
TE 48
TE 46
TE-4
PB2014106
PB2014018
SAYD12-6
SAYD12-6

14
14
21
21
21
21
2
2
6
6

KH-53
TE 43
TE 13
IE4A
IE4C
IE3
IE5A
SAYD12-7
SAYD12-7

9
21
21
24
24
24
24
6
6

30
30
6

Age

Method

Mat.

Unit/Location

Deposit

Comm.

51.9
24.18
20.5
20.7
24.8
26.13
26.4
28
28.1
31.1
20.95
21.1
21.2
23.9
23.94
24.1
25
26.6
9.7
16.8
8.4
9.5
10.1
11
38.79
40.14
23
23.5
26.33
15.3
18.5
18.9
19.7
21.7
22.8
21.9
22.3

2.6
0.21
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.51
0.6
0.2
0.6
1.4
4.8
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.31
0.5
3.4
0.8
0.34
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.34
0.2
0.4
0.38
0.3
0.4
1.8
1.1
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.2

K-Ar
Ar-Ar
Rb-Sr
Rb-Sr

WR
Bt
Bt
Bt
Bt

Dikmen Pluton
Egmir Vol Unit
Eviler pluton
Eviler pluton
Eviler pluton
Eviler pluton
Eviler pluton
Eviler pluton
Eviler pluton
Eviler pluton
Eybek pluton

Por
HS Epi

Au,Mo,Cu
Au,Cu

Ar-Ar
U-Pb
K-Ar
Ar-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
U-Pb
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
U-Pb
K-Ar
U-Pb
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
U-Pb
U-Pb
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
U-Pb
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar

Zr
Bt
Hb
Bt
Bt
Zr
Bt
Hb
Hb
Zr
Bt
Zr
Bt

Eybek pluton
Eybek pluton
Eybek pluton
Eybek pluton
Eybek pluton
Eybek pluton

WR
Ks
WR
WR
WR
WR
Zr
Zr
Bt
Hb

Eybek pluton
Ezine basalt
Ezine basalt
Ezine basalt
Ezine basalt
Ezine basalt
Ezine basalt
Halilaa
Hallaclar
Hdrlar granitoid
Hdrlar granitoid

Zr
WR
WR
WR
WR
Bt
Bt
Bt
Hb

Hidirlar pluton
Huseyinfaki Volcs
Huseyinfaki Volcs
Ilica
Ilica
Ilica
Ilica
Ilca granitoid
Ilca granitoid

166

Por

Skn

Cu,Au
Au

Latitude
(DD.dd)

Longitude
(DD.dd)

Lithology

40.136511
39.579954
39.739053
39.713254
39.829544

27.176070
27.238261
26.976495
26.938334
26.783269

Granodiorite
Andesite
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid

39.908917
39.759645
39.829544
39.759645
39.759645
39.691318
39.688706
39.688706
39.688706
39.684814
39.688706
39.691318
39.688706

26.845350
26.684208
26.783269
26.684208
26.684208
27.095854
27.089326
27.089326
27.089326
27.096857
27.089326
27.095854
27.089326

Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granodiorite
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granodiorite
Granitoid

39.778365
39.744854
39.750291
39.934561
39.934561
39.925693
39.919421
39.918963
39.889712
39.889712

26.307247
26.326153
26.382543
26.052029
26.052029
26.330653
26.792673
26.805829
26.885801
26.885801

Alkali basalt
Lava flow
Alkali Basalt
Alkali Basalt
Alkali Basalt
Alkali Basalt
Granitoid
Dacite
Granitoid
Granitoid

39.864927
39.522523
39.494336
39.876544
39.874011
39.876544
39.876812
39.913740
39.913740

27.135262
26.418303
26.220843
27.788515
27.774368
27.788515
27.760163
27.825795
27.825795

Granodiorite
Trachyandesite
Trachybasalt
Granite
Dyke
Granite
Granite
Granitoid
Granitoid

Supplementary Table 4.1: Compiled Age Data for Magmatic Rocks of the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey
Sample ID

Source

IL-11
IL-3
ZK37
161
161
157

15
15
24
19
19
19

SAGS12-4
SAGS12-12
SAGS12-5
149
SAGS12-13
KB90
NKEA07-5
KD-26
KD-25
537
536
124
122
121
KO42
302
07WZ02
KO41B
SAYD12-17

6
6
6
19
6
11
25
23
23
23
23
19
19
19
12
19
4
12
6

HD-13A 488
HD-37 112
GML_293
542510

2
2
1
26

TE 34
TE 54
IE6A
IE7C
IE7A
IE6B

21
21
24
24
24
24

YK-16
YK-16

9
9

Age

Method

Mat.

Unit/Location

26.1
26.2
27.3
39.9
42.2
36.1
36
36.79
44.4
45.3
47.02
52.7
9.3
39.57
40.8
40.8
42.19
24.7
25.5
27.6
19.2
20.5
21.22
22.4
22.8
37.79
39.36
30.79
42.42
27.6
31.1
18.4
21.2
23.2
23.9
22.87
23.6

1.6
0.2
0.8
0.8
1
0.8
0.2
0.67
0.4
0.9
0.82
3.8
0.35
0.47
0.5
0.36
0.45
0.7
0.6
0.6
1.8
0.6
0.09
2.8
0.4
0.36
0.77
0.31
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.35
0.6

K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
Ar-Ar
U-Pb

Hb
Hb
WR
Bt
Hb
Bt
Hb
Zr
Bt
Bt
Zr
Xe
WR
Ser
Hb
Hb
Hb
Chl
Hb
Bt
Zr
Hb
Bt
Zr
Hb

Ilca granitoid
Ilca granitoid
Ikl/Biga
Kapida granitoid
Kapida granitoid
Kapida pluton
Kapida pluton
Kapida pluton
Karabiga pluton
Karabiga pluton
Karabiga pluton
Karabiga pluton
Karayy basalt
Kartalda
Kartalda granitoid
Kartalda pluton
Kartalda pluton
Katranda granitoid
Katranda granitoid
Katranda granitoid
Kestanbol pluton
Kestanbol pluton
Kestanbol pluton
Kestanbol pluton
Kestanbol pluton

Zr
Zr
Zr
Mus

Kestane Stock
Kestane Stock
Kirazl Intrusive
Kirazl Pluton

WR
WR
WR
WR
Bt
Bt
n/a
Zr

Ar-Ar
K-Ar
U-Pb
U-Pb
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
U-Pb
K-Ar
Ar-Ar
U-Pb
Ar-Ar
U-Pb
U-Pb
U-Pb
Ar-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
U-Pb

Deposit

Comm.

Latitude
(DD.dd)

Longitude
(DD.dd)

39.916049
39.916049
40.223898

27.819986
27.819986
27.243067
27.889950
27.889950

40.435458
40.435458
40.498570
40.489982
40.489982
40.394993
40.413340
40.394993
40.418100
39.658000
LS Epi

Au,Cu

HS Epi
HS Epi

Au
Au

27.513337
27.708441
27.708441
27.225369
27.244615
27.225369
27.267700
26.427000

Lithology
Granitoid
Granitoid
Rhyolite
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Basalt
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granodiorite
Dacite porphyry
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Quartz monzonite
Granitoid

40.000365
40.028632
40.005343
40.005343
39.832529
39.832529
39.832529
39.731438
39.726751
39.773885
39.731438
39.724522

26.582853
26.609823
26.587755
26.587755
26.795363
26.795363
26.795363
26.244427
26.250406
26.267103
26.244427
26.255366

39.921955
39.922318
40.034132
40.018650

26.806113
26.802695
26.739795
26.726696

Quartz monzonite
Quartz monzonite
Granodiorite
Andesite Porphyry

Kirazl Volcs
Kirazl Vols
Kzldam
Kzldam
Kzldam
Kzldam

40.073002
40.145340
39.926868
39.926868
39.926868
39.926868

26.634115
26.729991
27.431444
27.431444
27.431444
27.431444

Trachyandesite
Trachyandesite
Andesite
Granite
Granite
Granite

Kizildam stock
Kizildam Stock

39.934662
39.957433

27.441451
27.425343

Granodiorite
Granodiorite

167

Por
Por
HS Epi
HS Epi

Cu,Au
Cu,Au
Au,Cu

Tephriphonolite
Quartz monzonite
Granitoid

Supplementary Table 4.1: Compiled Age Data for Magmatic Rocks of the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey
Sample ID

Source

NKEA07-6
EA 67
EA418
EA 77
549193

25
5
5
5
26

L302
KH-19A
KH-22
KH-22
136
135
137
549117

10
9
9
9
19
19
19
26

GML_332
GML_331
P1011
542524
542525
549127

1
1
23
26
26
26

NG-3
NG-1
NG1
N-13
SAGS12-3
PB2014061
PB2013046
549177
549180
ZK52

9
9
9
9
6
2
2
26
26
24

SO-7
L326
542538
147

9
10
26
19

TU-84
TU-84
549190
549184

19
18
26
26

Age

Method

Mat.

Unit/Location

9.97
21.3
19.7
20.5
27.25
32.7
24
25.1
25.39
35.7
38.1
39.4
42.68
38.4
39.11
43.34
26.3
36.9
20.83
21.2
23.8
24.79
23.85
45.3
28.36
28.54
26.2
23.17
22.6
23.97
29.94
22.38
71.9
30.42
67.9
24.56
24.7

0.14
0.6
0.6
1
0.42
1.4
1.6
0.9
0.55
0.8
1.8
0.8
0.25
1.1
0.8
0.85
2.5
0.83
0.44
0.7
0.7
0.38
0.6
0.2
0.59
0.3
5.1
0.28
0.8
0.53
0.35
0.18
1.8
0.21
30.22
0.16
0.15

Ar-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar

WR
WR
WR
WR
Bt

Kzlky Vol unit

Kiziltepe
Kovacli dykes
Koyunevi Ignimbrite
Kkdere
Kkkuyu Fm.

Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
U-Pb
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar

Bt
n/a
n/a
Zr
Hb
Hb
Hb
Bt

Kurtlar pluton
Kurtlar pluton
Kurtlar pluton
Kusayiri
Kusayiri
Kusayiri
Kusayiri

Deposit

LS Epi

Comm.

Au

Skn
Skn
Skn

Latitude
(DD.dd)

Longitude
(DD.dd)

Lithology

39.686000
39.623584
39.557402
39.575421
39.526334

26.406000
26.283474
26.220138
26.219936
27.090870

Basalt
Trachyandesite
Trachyandesite
Rhyolite
Dacite porphyry

39.564313
39.879711
39.879711
39.879711
39.940622
39.940622
39.940622

26.625563
27.227882
27.227882
27.227882
26.613446
26.613446
26.613446

39.949965
39.957960
39.957960
40.032072
39.946109
39.946633
39.887317

26.616416
26.601585
26.601585
26.567203
26.789797
26.790497
27.783587

Tuff
Granodiorite
Granodiorite
Granodiorite
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granodirite

39.894571
39.894571
39.894571
39.970459
40.489982

27.296045
27.296045
27.296045
27.298124
27.708441

Leucogranite
Monzogranite
Monzogranite
Quartz monzonite
Granitoid

Ar-Ar
U-Pb
U-Pb
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
U-Pb
U-Pb
Ar-Ar

HS Epi

Au

Zr
Zr
Ks
Bt
Bt
Bt

Kusayiri Stock
Kusayiri Stock
Madenda pluton
Pirentepe pluton
Muratlar pluton
n/a

Por
Por
LS Epi
HS Epi
HS Epi
Skn

Au,Cu
Au,Cu
Au
Au
Au
Fe,Cu

WR
WR
Zr
Zr
Bt

Namazgah stock
Namazgah stock
Namzagah Stock
Nevruz-akiroba
North Kapda

Skn
Skn
Skn
Skn

U-Pb
U-Pb
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
K-Ar

Zr
Zr
Hb
Bt
Hb

Pirentepe
Pirentepe
Samli
Samli pluton
Saroluk

HS Epi
HS Epi
Skn
IOCG

Au
Au
Fe,Cu
Cu,Au

39.942973
39.941404
39.827129
39.827451
40.148784

26.769367
26.797475
27.821896
27.821446
27.495099

Andesite
Andesite Tuff
Granodiorite
Granodiorite
Granite

U-Pb
U-Pb
Ar-Ar
K-Ar

Zr
Zr
Bt
Mus
Bt
Plag
Bt
Bt

Sarioluk pluton
Selale
Serceler pluton
Sevketiye granitoid
Tayfur Formation
Tayfur Formation
Tepeoba stock
Tepeoba stock

HS Epi

Au

HS Epi

Cu,Au

Por
Por

Cu,Mo,Au
Cu,Mo,Au

40.154484
39.580411
40.029995
40.360026
40.386640
40.386640
39.638748
39.630373

27.452212
26.649557
26.610501
26.930377
26.489000
26.489000
27.102531
27.107005

Monzogranite
Granodiorite
Granitic rock
Granitoid
Vitric tuff
Vitric tuff
Quartz monzonite
Breccia porphyry

Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar

continued on next page

168

Granodiorite
Granodiorite
Granodiorite
Vol porphyry
Andesite porphry
Granodiorite

Supplementary Table 4.1: Compiled Age Data for Magmatic Rocks of the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey
Sample
ID

Source

549183

26
24

IET47A
YS-70
IE10D
IE10A
111
118
110
113
114

9
24
24
19
19
19
19
19

YG-27
Z-11
549132
549140
8
MG-4

9
9
26
26
3
8

MTA57
542521
125
126
131
128
KO40

6
26
19
19
19
19
12

TE 14
141
142
144
141

21
19
19
19
19

KH-53
KH-49
IE4B
IE5B
IL-4
IL-7
IL-13
162
156

9
9
24
24
15
15
15
19
19

Latitude
(DD.dd)

Longitude
(DD.dd)

Lithology

Cu,Mo,Au

39.630373
39.728798

27.107005
27.712386

Aplitic granite
Andesite

Pb,Ag

39.989787
39.935064
39.935064
39.965564
39.965564
39.965564
39.965564
39.965564

27.330854
27.259537
27.259537
27.299743
27.299743
27.299743
27.299743
27.299743

Granodiorite
Granite
Granite
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid

39.916532
39.871492
39.887184
39.882775
39.760000
39.839438

27.259195
27.024039
26.919696
26.942916
27.610000
27.323543

Granodiorite
Granodiorite
Andesite porphyry
Andesite porphyry
Andesite
Metagranitoid

40.045905
40.069884
39.759645
39.759645
39.759645
39.759645
39.691318

26.613160
26.905140
26.684208
26.684208
26.684208
26.684208
27.095854

Andesite
Quartz monzodiorite
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granodiorite

39.666678
39.926884
39.926884
39.926884
39.926884

26.417096
27.823955
27.823955
27.823955
27.823955

Alkali Basalt
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid

39.864927
39.864927
39.876544
39.876812
39.916049
39.916049
39.916049

27.135262
27.135262
27.788515
27.760163
27.819986
27.819986
27.819986
27.889950

Granodiorite
Granodiorite
Granite
Granite
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid

Age

Method

Mat.

Unit/Location

Deposit

Comm.

28.16
19.1
25.03
20.2
21.4
20.1
20.9
22.6
23.5
24.8
24
26.53

0.34
1
0.62
1.1
0.6
1.1
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
1.2
0.58

Ar-Ar
K-Ar

Bt
WR

Tepeoba stock
Turplu

Por

U-Pb
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar

Zr
WR
Bt
Hb
Chl
Bt
Bt
Bt

Yapaztepe Stock
Yenice (North)
Yenice (North)
Yenice granitoid
Yenice granitoid
Yenice granitoid
Yenice granitoid
Yenice granitoid

IS Epi

K-Ar
U-Pb

27.2
27.48
26.3
401.4
29.3
14.84
27.1
27.5
28.1
36
25.7
9.9
237.8
245.2
285.7
310.7
20.5
23.7
18.4
19.5
25.6
28.65
37.9
38.3
38.2

0.18
0.34
2.6
7.8
1.3
0.11
0.6
0.6
0.7
1.4
3.6
0.6
4.7
4.8
5.6
6.3
0.7
0.83
2.2
1.2
3.8
1.18
0.2
0.8
0.8

Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
K-Ar
U-Pb

n/a
Zr
Bt
Mus
WR
Zr

Yenice stock
Zeybekcayiri Stock
Ai Dai intrusion
Ai Dai intrusion
Balya
Bayatlar stock

K-Ar
Ar-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
U-Pb

WR
Bt
Bt
Bt
Bt
Chl
Zr

an Volcs
Doanilar pluton
Eviler pluton
Eviler pluton
Eviler pluton
Eviler pluton
Eybek pluton

K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar

WR
Or
Mus
WR
Chl

Ezine basalt
Gnen granitoid
Gnen granitoid
Gnen granitoid
Gnen granitoid

K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar

n/a
n/a
WR
WR
Hb
Hb
Hb
Bt
Bt

Hidirlar pluton
Hidirlar pluton
Ilica
Ilica
Ilca granitoid
Ilca granitoid
Ilca granitoid
Kapida
Kapida pluton

K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar

continued on next page

169

HS Epi
HS Epi
IS Epi

Au
Au
Pb,Zn,Ag

HS Epi

Au

Skn
Skn

40.435458
40.498570

27.513337

Supplementary Table 4.1: Compiled Age Data for Magmatic Rocks of the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey
Sample ID

Source

MG-11
KD-1a
542531
KO43A
SAYD12-16
IE6C
IE7B
IE9A
IE9B

8
23
26
12
6
24
24
24
24

YK-01
YK-33
549112
549115

9
9
26
26

N-37
549181
08S49
08S24

9
26
34
34

YS-31
YS-23
TU-52
IE10B
IE10C
115
116
117
112
120

9
9
18
24
24
19
19
19
19
19

YI-18

Age

Method

Mat.

Unit/Location

401.4
42.27
49.23
20.6
22.3
20.7
22.3
23.4
23.5
21.4
24.5
39.99
40.11
24.9
22.34
22.42
23.2
22.8
23.6
30.64
18.8
21.9
22
23.2
24.5
29.2
47.6

3.7
0.96
0.68
4.4
0.4
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.7
1.1
0.8
0.27
0.28
1.6
0.59
0.11
0.5
0.4
1.2
0.24
1.3
1.1
0.5
0.4
0.5
1.6
1.4

U-Pb
Ar-Ar

Zr
Bt
Ks
Zr
Bt
WR
WR
Bt
Bt

Karaaydn stock
Kartalda
Kartalda
Kestanbol pluton
Kestanbol pluton
Kzldam
Kzldam
Kzldam
Kzldam

n/a
n/a
Mus
Bt

Kizildam stock
Kizildam stock
Kusayiri granitoid
Kusayiri granitoid

HS Epi
HS Epi

n/a
Hb
Bt
Hb

Nevruz-akiroba
Samli pluton
Samli pluton
Samli pluton

Skn
IOCG
IOCG
IOCG

n/a
n/a
Bt
WR
WR
Bt
Bt
Bt
Bt
Hb

Soucak stocks
Soucak stocks
Tayfur Formation
Yenice (North)
Yenice (North)
Yenice granitoid
Yenice granitoid
Yenice granitoid
Yenice granitoid
Yenice granitoid
Yolindi
metagranitoids
Yolindi stock

Por
Por

Ar-Ar
U-Pb
Ar-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
K-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
Ar-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar
K-Ar

Latitude
(DD.dd)

Longitude
(DD.dd)

39.752290

27.146454

40.003884
40.005588
39.731438
39.724522
39.926868
39.926868
39.926868
39.926868

26.589170
26.584806
26.244427
26.255366
27.431444
27.431444
27.431444
27.431444

Metagranitoid
Dacite
Andesite
Quartz monzonite
Granitoid
Granite
Granite
Granite
Granite

Au
Au

39.957796
39.919495
39.968160
39.964335

27.423582
27.429455
26.597187
26.606202

Granodiorite
Monzogranite
Andesite
Andesite

Cu,Au
Cu,Au
Cu,Au

39.970459
39.827451
39.873511
39.820142

27.298124
27.821446
27.773596
27.842125

Granodiorite
Granodiorite

40.011420
40.012559
40.386640
39.935064
39.935064
39.965564
39.965564
39.965564
39.965564
39.965564

27.336499
27.341714
26.489000
27.259537
27.259537
27.299743
27.299743
27.299743
27.299743
27.299743

Granodiorite
Diorite
Monzogranite
Monzogranite
Vitric tuff
Granite
Granite
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid
Granitoid

40.190068

27.398735

Metagranitoid

40.199019

27.371310

Metagranitoid

Deposit

Comm.

LS Epi
LS Epi

Au,Cu
Au

U-Pb
Zr
401.5
4.8
NA-205
8
U-Pb
Zr
389.1
2.6
Ages excluded from statistical definition of age-related magmatic stages for the following reasons:
Red - Questionable quality of measurement and/or uncertain location
Purple - Excessive samples from a non-discriminant site location
Orange - Cretaceous and older
Blue - Reduce sampling bias of specific locations

Lithology

Abbreviations used in this table:

Mat = Material Analyzed; Comm = Commodities present at the prospect; DD.dd = Decimal Degrees; LS = Low Sulphidation; IS = Intermediate Sulphidation; HS = High
Sulphidation; Epi = Epithermal; IOCG = Iron Oxide Copper Gold; Por = Porphyry; Skn = Skarn; Ap = Apatite; Bt = Biotite; Chl = Chlorite; Ep = Epidote;
Hb = Hornblende; Ks = Potassium Feldspar; Mus = Muscovite; Or = Orthoclase; Plag = Plagioclase; WR = Whole Rock; Xe = Xenotime; Zr = Zircon; n/a = Not Available
214 Total plutonic and volcanic ages, of which, 160 were used for magmatic stage classification in the Biga since the
Cretaceous

---End of Supplementary Table 4.1: Compiled Age Data for Magmatic Rocks of the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey---

170

Supplementary Table 4.2: Compilation of Mineral Prospect Host Rock and Mineralization Age Dates
Source

Assoc.
Deposit
Type

Age
(Ma)

AVC-2

27.89

0.41

U-Pb

Zr

Avcilar Stock

Epi

Au

39.589856

26.813889

Granodiorite

BPGP-1083a

33

27.1

1.8

Ar-Ar

WR

Ai Dai

HS Epi

Au-Ag

40.014880

26.906141

549149

26

26.36

0.16

Ar-Ar

Mus

Ai Dai intrusion

HS Epi

Au

39.882775

26.942916

Vuggy silica
and aarg alt.
in qz-feldspar
pro
Andesite Por

549133

26

26.42

0.15

Ar-Ar

Bt

Ai Dai intrusion

HS Epi

Au

39.877682

26.911498

BPGP-1146

33

27.1

0.6

Ar-Ar

WR

Alankoy Epi system

HS Epi

Au-Ag

40.030662

26.797858

BPGP-1245

33

35.7

Ar-Ar

Hb

Alankoy intrusive

HS Epi

Au-Ag

40.030662

26.797858

Granitegranodiorite
with
abundant Hb
Vuggy silica
and aarg alt.
in andesitic
lavas
Granodiorite

GML_231

38.62

0.45

U-Pb

Zr

an Volcs

HS Epi

Ag-Au-Cu

40.033821

26.680195

Andesite

549101

26

22.77

0.16

Ar-Ar

Mus

Egmir Volcs

HS Epi

Au-Cu

39.620289

27.249095

549102

26

24.18

0.21

Ar-Ar

Bt

Egmir Volcs

HS Epi

Au-Cu

39.579954

27.238261

537

23

40.8

0.36

Ar-Ar

Hb

Kartalda pluton

HS Epi

Au

40.005343

26.587755

536

23

42.19

0.45

Ar-Ar

Hb

Kartalda pluton

HS Epi

Au

40.005343

26.587755

Qz-kln-mus
bearing argill.
andesi.
Weakly
argillitizedchloritized
andesite
Hb-phyric
granodiorite
Dacite Por

GML_293

30.79

0.31

U-Pb

Zr

Kiazli Intrusive

HS Epi

40.034132

26.739795

Granodiorite

542510

26

42.42

0.4

Ar-Ar

Mus

Kirazl Pluton

HS Epi

Au-Cu

40.018650

26.726696

549117

26

42.68

0.25

Ar-Ar

Bt

Kusayiri
granodiorite

HS Epi

Au

39.949965

26.616416

549115

26

40.11

0.28

Ar-Ar

Bt

Kusayiri Volcs

HS Epi

Au

39.964335

26.606202

BPGP-1045

33

36.6

1.2

Ar-Ar

WR

Kusayiri Volcs

HS Epi

Au-Ag

39.968045

26.619237

542524

26

26.3

2.5

Ar-Ar

Bt

Pirentepe pluton

HS Epi

Au

39.946109

26.789797

Andesite Por
(Drill Hole
KD-42)
Hb rich
weakly
propyllitized
granodirite,
fresh, Hb
Pyrite-Qz
veinlets
within
andesite,
stockwork
Vuggy silica
and aarg alt.
in talus
breccia
Volcanic Por

542525

26

36.9

0.83

Ar-Ar

Bt

Muratlar pluton

HS Epi

Au

39.946633

26.790497

PB-2014-061

28.36

0.59

U-Pb

Zr

Pirentepe

HS Epi

Au

39.942973

26.769367

Andesitedacite
porphry
Andesite

PB-2013-046

28.54

0.3

U-Pb

Zr

Pirentepe

HS Epi

Au

39.941404

26.797475

Andesite Tuff

SO-7

23.97

0.53

U-Pb

Zr

Sarioluk pluton

HS Epi

Au

40.154484

27.452212

Monzogranite

542538

26

22.38

0.18

Ar-Ar

Bt

Sereler pluton

HS Epi

Cu-Au

40.029995

26.610501

Granitic rock

542539

26

39.57

0.47

Ar-Ar

Bt

Sereler pluton

HS Epi

Cu-Au

40.030616

26.610263

Granitoid

542537

26

40.8

0.36

Ar-Ar

Hb

Sereler pluton

HS Epi

Cu-Au

40.029789

26.610889

24.7

2.4

K-Ar

WR

Balya

IS Epi

Pb-Zn-Ag

39.760000

27.618000

Granodiorite
with Hb
phenocrysts
Andesite

28

26.8

1.4

K-Ar

WR

Balya

IS Epi

Pb-Zn-Ag

39.760000

27.612000

Andesite

YS-70

25.03

0.62

U-Pb

Zr

Yapaztepe Stock

IS Epi

Pb-Ag

39.989787

27.330854

Granodiorite

549181

26

22.34

0.59

Ar-Ar

Hb

Samli pluton

IOCG

Cu-Au

39.827451

27.821446

Bt-phyric
granodiorite
next to gn-ep
Skn

Sample ID

Lab
Method

Mat.

Unit

171

Comm.

Latitude
(DD.dd)

Longitude
(DD.dd)

Lithology

Supplementary Table 4.2: Compilation of Mineral Prospect Host Rock and Mineralization Age Dates
Source

Assoc.
Deposit
Type

Age

08S49

34

22.42

0.11

Ar-Ar

Bt

Samli pluton

IOCG

Cu-Au

39.873511

27.773596

Granodiorite

549180

26

23.17

0.28

Ar-Ar

Bt

Samli pluton

IOCG

Cu-Au

39.827451

27.821446

08S24

34

23.2

0.5

Ar-Ar

Hb

Samli pluton

IOCG

Cu-Au

39.820142

27.842125

Bt-phyric
granitegranodiorite
Diorite

BPGP-1007

33

39.4

1.2

Ar-Ar

WR

Kartalda Epi
system

LS Epi

Au-Ag

39.979043

26.386495

KD-26

23

39.57

0.47

Ar-Ar

Ser

LS Epi

Au-Cu

40.000365

26.582853

KD-18

23

42.19

0.45

Ar-Ar

Bt

LS Epi

Au-Cu

39.999211

26.589959

Dacite

549193

26

27.25

0.42

Ar-Ar

Bt

Kartalda Epi
system
Kartalda Epi
system
Kkdere

Vuggy silica,
aarg alt. in
Qz-feldspar
Por andesite
Granitoid

LS Epi

Au

39.526334

27.090870

P1011

23

43.34

0.85

Ar-Ar

Ks

Madenda pluton

LS Epi

Au

40.032072

26.567203

Arg. dacite
Por, banded
calcite veins
Granodiorite

GML_315

37.27

0.64

U-Pb

Zr

an Volcs

Por

Au

39.996337

26.672416

Diorite

GML_143

38.72

0.42

U-Pb

Zr

an Volcs

Por

Au

40.010513

26.640232

Andesite

GML_329

40.37

0.37

U-Pb

Zr

Dede Tepe

Por

Au

39.992165

26.691789

Monzodiorite

27

25.03

0.14

Re-Os

Mo

Eybek pluton

Por

Cu-Mo-Au

39.646174

27.106906

Vein

27

25.11

0.14

Re-Os

Mo

Eybek pluton

Por

Cu-Mo-Au

39.646174

27.106906

Vein

27

25.62

0.09

Re-Os

Mo

Eybek pluton

Por

Cu-Mo-Au

39.646174

27.106906

Breccia

PB2014106

38.79

0.3

U-Pb

Zr

Halilaa

Por

Cu-Au

39.919421

26.792673

Granitoid

542503

26

26.27

0.19

Ar-Ar

Mus

Halilaga stock

Por

Au

39.922857

26.801722

Qz monzonite

HD-13A 488

37.79

0.36

U-Pb

Zr

Kestane Stock

Por

Cu-Au

39.921955

26.806113

Qz monzonite

HD-37 112

39.36

0.77

U-Pb

Zr

Kestane Stock

Por

Cu-Au

39.922318

26.802695

Qz monzonite

HD-94 402

39.56

0.21

Re-Os

Mo

Kestane Stock

Por

Cu-Au

39.920722

26.803967

Qz monzonite

GML_332

38.4

1.1

U-Pb

Zr

Kusayiri Stock

Por

Au-Cu

39.957960

26.601585

Granodiorite

GML_331

39.11

0.8

U-Pb

Zr

Kusayiri Stock

Por

Au-Cu

39.957960

26.601585

Granodiorite

YS-70

23.3

0.8

K-Ar

n/a

Sogucak stocks

Por

40.014431

27.335051

Granodiorite

YS-52

23.7

1.5

K-Ar

n/a

Sogucak stocks

Por

40.004386

27.339971

Monzogranite

549190

26

24.56

0.16

Ar-Ar

Bt

Tepeoba stock

Por

Cu-Mo-Au

39.638748

27.102531

549184

26

24.7

0.15

Ar-Ar

Bt

Tepeoba stock

Por

Cu-Mo-Au

39.630373

27.107005

549183

26

28.16

0.34

Ar-Ar

Bt

Tepeoba stock

Por

Cu-Mo-Au

39.630373

27.107005

Yigit_1

33

46.6

2.3

K-Ar

WR

Dikmen Pluton

Por

Au-Mo-Cu

40.136511

27.176070

GranodioriteQz monzonite
Por
Breccia Por
with
hydrothermal
Bt, ml and mo
Fine-grained
aplitic granite
Granodiorite

Yigit_2

33

51.9

2.6

K-Ar

WR

Dikmen Pluton

Por

Au-Mo-Cu

40.136511

27.176070

Granodiorite

Sample ID

Lab
Method

Mat.

Unit

172

Comm.

Latitude
(DD.dd)

Longitude
(DD.dd)

Lithology

Supplementary Table 4.2: Compilation of Mineral Prospect Host Rock and Mineralization Age Dates
Source

Sample ID

Age

Lab
Method

Mat.

Unit

Assoc.
Deposit
Type

Comm.

Latitude
(DD.dd)

Longitude
(DD.dd)

Lithology

SAGS12-5

44.4

0.4

Ar-Ar

Bt

Karabiga pluton

Por

40.394993

27.225369

Granitoid

149

19

45.3

0.9

K-Ar

Bt

Karabiga pluton

Por

40.413340

27.244615

Granitoid

SAGS12-13

47.02

0.82

U-Pb

Zr

Karabiga pluton

Por

40.394993

27.225369

Granitoid

KB90

11

52.7

3.8

U-Pb

Xe

Karabiga pluton

Por

40.418100

27.267700

Granitoid

549175

26

25.03

0.15

Ar-Ar

Bt

Balya Intrusion

Skn

Pb-Zn

39.736433

27.586899

549173

26

26.81

0.11

Ar-Ar

Ser

Balya Intrusion

Skn

Pb-Zn

39.736433

27.586899

dark felds.
Porph.
ntruding
dacite Por,
fresh
Dacite

549124

26

22.7

Ar-Ar

Bt

Eviler pluton

Skn

Fe-Cu

39.771968

26.763974

549125

26

28.25

0.17

Ar-Ar

Bt

Eviler pluton

Skn

Fe-Cu

39.771968

26.763974

KH-53

20.5

0.7

K-Ar

n/a

Hidirlar pluton

Skn

39.864927

27.135262

Aplite cutting
granodiorite
Hb-Bt-phyric
granodiorite
Granodiorite

KH-49

23.7

0.83

K-Ar

n/a

Hidirlar pluton

Skn

39.864927

27.135262

Granodiorite

KH-53

26.33

0.38

U-Pb

Zr

Hidirlar pluton

Skn

39.864927

27.135262

Granodiorite

NA-307

23.3

1.3

K-Ar

WR

Karadoru stock

Skn

40.069875

27.373298

Leucogranite

KH-19A

24

1.6

K-Ar

n/a

Kurtlar pluton

Skn

39.879711

27.227882

Granodiorite

KH-22

25.1

0.9

K-Ar

n/a

Kurtlar pluton

Skn

39.879711

27.227882

Granodiorite

KH-22

25.39

0.55

U-Pb

Zr

Kurtlar pluton

Skn

39.879711

27.227882

Granodiorite

NG-3

21.2

0.7

K-Ar

WR

Namazgah stock

Skn

39.894571

27.296045

Leucogranite

NG-1

23.8

0.7

K-Ar

WR

Namazgah stock

Skn

39.894571

27.296045

Monzogranite

NG1

24.79

0.38

U-Pb

Zr

Namzagah Stock

Skn

39.894571

27.296045

Monzogranite

N-13

23.85

0.6

U-Pb

Zr

Skn

39.970459

27.298124

Qz monzonite

N-13

23.5

K-Ar

n/a

Nevruz-akiroba
pluton
Nevruz-akiroba stock

Skn

39.970459

27.298124

Qz monzonite

continued on next page

173

Supplementary Table 4.2: Compilation of Mineral Prospect Host Rock and Mineralization Age Dates
Sample ID

Source

N-37

Assoc.
Deposit
Type

Lab
Method

Mat.

Latitude
(DD.dd)

Longitude
(DD.dd)

Lithology

1.6

K-Ar

n/a

Nevruz-akiroba stock

Skn

39.970459

27.298124

Granodiorite

25.6

1.3

K-Ar

n/a

Nevruz-akiroba stock

Skn

26.2

5.1

Ar-Ar

Hb

Samli

Skn

Fe-Cu

39.970459

27.298124

Monzogranite

39.827129

27.821896

Fe-Cu

39.887317

27.783587

HS Epi

Au

39.887184

26.919696

Ai Dai intrusion

HS Epi

Au

39.882775

26.942916

Granodiorite,
altered, Ks,Bt,
Hb-rich
granodiorite
with Act veins
Andesite Por
with Plag
phenocrysts
Andesite Por

26

20.83

0.44

Ar-Ar

Bt

unk

Skn

549132

26

27.2

0.18

Ar-Ar

Bt

Ai Dai intrusion

549140

26

27.48

0.34

Ar-Ar

Mus

549112

26

39.99

0.27

Ar-Ar

Mus

Kuscayir metamorphic
suite

HS Epi

Au

39.968160

26.597187

Ar-Ar

Ser

unk

HS Epi

Au

39.963652

26.606224

2.6

K-Ar

WR

IS Epi

Pb-Zn-Ag

39.760000

27.610000

42.27

0.96

Ar-Ar

Bt

Balya hydrothermal
system
Kartalda Epi system

Andesite with
Qz-kaolinite
pyrophyllite
Oxidized pyrQz veinlets
within
andesite,
stockwork
Andesite

579115

26

40.11

0.28

26.3

KD-1a

23

LS Epi

Au-Cu

40.003884

26.589170

Dacite

542531
YS-31

26

49.23

0.68

Ar-Ar

Ks

Kartalda volcanic unit

LS Epi

Au

40.005588

26.584806

Andesite

22.8

0.4

K-Ar

n/a

Sogucak stocks

Por

40.011420

27.336499

Monzogranite

YS-23

23.6

1.2

K-Ar

n/a

Sogucak stocks

Por

40.012559

27.341714

Monzogranite

549122

26

28.44

23.3

Ar-Ar

Hb

Eviler pluton

Skn

Fe-Cu

39.771968

26.763974

Bt-Act-Gn Skn

542521

26

14.84

0.11

Ar-Ar

Bt

Dogancilar pluton

HS Epi

Au

40.069884

26.905140

Qz
monzodiorite
Por with
stockworking

Age

24.9

N-14

549177

26

549127

Unit

Comm.

Ages recorded in blue were excluded from probability density plots to reduce sampling bias of specific locations

Abbreviations used in this table:

Aarg alt = Advanced Argillic Alteration; Comm = Commodities present at the prospect; DD.dd = Decimal Degrees; LS = Low Sulphidation; Mat
= Material Analyzed; IS = Intermediate Sulphidation; HS = High Sulphidation; Epi = Epithermal; IOCG = Iron Oxide Copper Gold; Por =
Porphyry; Skn = Skarn; Volcs = Volcanics; Act = Act; Ap = Apatite; Bt = Biotite; Chl = Chlorite; Ep = Epidote; Gn = Gn; Hb = Hornblende; Kln =
Kaolinite; Ks = Potassium Feldspar; Mus = Muscovite; Or = Orthoclase; Plag = Plag; WR = Whole Rock;
Xe = Xenotime; Zr = Zircon; n/a = Not Available
91 Total mineral prospect-related ages are compiled in this table, of which 80 were used for probability density plots

---End of Supplementary Table 4.2: Compilation of Mineral Prospect Host Rock and Mineralization Age Dates---

174

Supplementary Table 4.3: Compiled Metamorphic-related Age Data for the Biga Peninsula
Source

Age

Method

Mat.

13
13
13
23
30

21.7
22.5
28.7
55
65

0.5
0.3
0.5
2
0.9

Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Rb-Sr

Mus
Mus
Bt
Ser
Phg

236

30

69

Rb-Sr

1B

30

69

0.9

IF 21
E84
457A
609D
4328C
4328C
4329C
951
TU21
TU15
TU20
TU16
TU14
TU12
TU17
TU19
6
195B
TU13
2
3
195B
218

16
20
31
31
29
29
29
22
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
31
31
17
31
31
31
7

16.8
116.6
99
100.3
109.6
117
118.3
24.8
10.2
12.2
13.7
14.6
14.8
15.8
17
17.7
18
20
20.4
23
24
30
63.9

219

226A

Sample
ID

Latitude
(DD.dd)

Longitude
(DD.dd)

K6
K9
K5
MD-1a
1A

Alakeci shear zone

Alakeci shear zone
Alakeci shear zone
Camlica Metamorphics
amlca metamorphics

39.714677
39.724263
39.730207
40.054462
39.855465

26.578763
26.580188
26.593943
26.559439
26.349843

Mus

amlca metamorphics

39.903980

26.423293

Rb-Sr

Phg

amlca metamorphics

39.855465

26.349843

3.8
3.3
6.1
2.8
2.4
1.5
3.1
4.6
5
2.4
1.4
3.8
2.6
2.8
2.8
1.6
0.2
0.2
4.8
0.2
0.3
0.4
1.5

FT
Ar-Ar
Rb-Sr
Rb-Sr
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
U-Pb
FT
FT
FT
FT
FT
FT
FT
FT
Rb-Sr
Rb-Sr
FT
Rb-Sr
Rb-Sr
Rb-Sr
Rb-Sr

Ap
Hb
Phg
Phg
Plag
Hb
Hb
Zr
Ap
Ap
Ap
Ap
Ap
Ap
Ap
Ap
Bt
Bt
Ap
Mus
Mus
Mus
WR

amlk granitoid
Denizgren ophiolite
Elliayak eclogite
Elliayak eclogite
Ezine peridotite
Ezine peridotite
Ezine peridotite
Kazdag massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kemer meta. complex

39.608400
39.833818
39.638223
39.591824
39.837815
39.837815
39.837815
39.689655
39.583517
39.642812
39.751469
39.674658
39.672376
39.719167
39.681771
39.745862
39.689697
39.721249
39.692666
39.689697
39.689697
39.721249
40.407000

27.185200
26.303227
26.907599
26.905850
26.301716
26.301716
26.301716
26.622339
26.734373
26.622787
26.818474
26.926869
26.649268
26.588886
26.918955
26.848054
26.931196
26.907503
26.614666
26.931196
26.931196
26.907503
27.056000

76

Rb-Sr

WR

Kemer meta. complex

40.405000

27.055000

77.7

1.9

Rb-Sr

WR

Kemer meta. complex

40.389000

27.061000

212

84.3

1.3

Rb-Sr

WR

Kemer meta. complex

40.412000

27.062000

4176C
4176H
11-250

28
28
32

164
203.1
559

17
2.9
17

Ar-Ar
Ar-Ar
U-Pb

Gph
Phg
Zr

Nilufer unit
Nilufer unit
Salihler formation

40.376249
40.376249
40.420493

28.120687
28.120687
27.085343

11-248
11-168
11-251

32
32
32

565
573
582

9
9.3
30

U-Pb
U-Pb
U-Pb

Zr
Zr
Zr

Salihler formation
Salihler formation
Salihler formation

39.896060
39.913620
40.357623

26.421740
26.443741
27.136375

Unit/Location

continued on next page

175

Lithology
Two-mica gneiss
Two-mica gneiss
Gneiss
Schist
Quartzmicaschist
Quartzmicaschist
Quartzmicaschist
Granodiorite
Amphibolite
Eclogite
Eclogite
Amphibolite
Amphibolite
Amphibolite
Metagranite
Gneiss
Gneiss
Granodiorite
Gneiss
Gneiss
Amphibolite
Gneiss
Gneiss
Gneiss
Gneiss
Gneiss
Gneiss
Gneiss
Gneiss
Garnet-mica
schist
Garnet-mica
schist
Garnet-mica
schist
Garnet-mica
schist
Eclogite
Eclogite
Quartz-mica
schist
Eclogite
Micaschist
Quartz-mica
schist

Supplementary Table 4.3: Compiled Metamorphic-related Age Data for the Biga Peninsula

11-208
11-253
948
949-3
949-2
949-1
K13
1
TU60
TU10
TU18
4
TU11

Source

Sample ID

Age

Method

Mat.

Unit/Location

Latitude
(DD.dd)

Longitude
(DD.dd)

Lithology

32
32
22
22
22
22
29
31
17
17
17
31
17

577
562
248
296
299
418
308
14
14.7
14.9
16.6
19
19.3

20
16
19
11
17
73
16
0.1
4.4
5.4
4
0.2
6.4

U-Pb
U-Pb
Pb-Pb
Pb-Pb
Pb-Pb
Pb-Pb
Pb-Pb
Rb-Sr
FT
FT
FT
Rb-Sr
FT

Zr
Zr
Zr
Zr
Zr
Zr
Zr
Bt
Ap
Ap
Ap
Bt
Ap

Andiktasi formation
Geyikli formation
Kazdag massif
Kazdag massif
Kazdag massif
Kazdag massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif
Kazda Massif

40.361376
39.527022
39.67266495
39.68274511
39.68274511
39.68274511
39.687370
39.689697
39.599304
39.731336
39.743683
39.689697
39.711467

27.069781
26.288624
26.95726932
26.91940044
26.91940044
26.91940044
26.839831
26.931196
26.640808
26.575522
26.889785
26.931196
26.567559

Metabasite
Micaschist
Metagranite
Biotite rich schist
Biotite rich schist
Biotite rich schist
Gneiss
Gneiss
Gneiss
Ultramylonite
Gneiss
Gneiss
Mylonite

Ages excluded from statistical definition of age-related metamorphic events for the following reasons:
Orange - Jurassic or older
Blue - Reduce sampling bias of specific locations
Abbreviations used in this table:
Mat = Material Analyzed; Comm = Commodities present at the prospect; DD.dd = Decimal Degrees; LS = Low Sulphidation;
IS = Intermediate Sulphidation; HS = High Sulphidation; Epi = Epithermal; IOCG = Iron Oxide Copper Gold; Por = Porphyry;
Skn = Skarn; Ap = Apatite; Bt = Biotite; Chl = Chlorite; Ep = Epidote; Hb = Hornblende; Ks = Potassium Feldspar;
Mus = Muscovite; Or = Orthoclase; Plag = Plagioclase; WR = Whole Rock; Xe = Xenotime; Zr = Zircon; n/a = Not Available
52 Total metamorphism-related ages, 33 were statistically interpreted

---End of Supplementary Table 4.3: Compiled Metamorphic-related Age Data for the Biga Peninsula---

176

Supplementary Table: 4.4: Sources for Geochronological Database Compilation

Source Code
From Tables

Source

Leroux, G., 2016, Stratigraphic and petrographic chracterization of HS epithermal Au-Ag mineralization
at the TV Tower District, Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, The University of British
Columbia: Mineral Deposit Research Unit, p. 204.

Brunetti, P., 2016, Stratigraphic and Structural Setting of the Halilaa porphyry Cu-Au deposit, Central
Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: In Mikovi, A., Ed. Western Tethyan Metallogeny Project, Final Technical
Report to Companies, Mineral Deposit Research Unit, The University of British Columbia, 2015.

Agdemir, N., Kirikolu, M. S., Lehmann, B., Tietze, J., 1994, Petrology and alteration geochemistry of the
epithermal Bayla Pb-Zn deposit, NW Turkey: Mineral Deposita, v. 29, p. 366-371.
Akal, C., 2013, Coeval shoshonitic-ultrapotassic dyke emplacements within the Kestanbol Pluton, Ezine
Biga Peninsula, NW Anatolia: Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, vol. 22, p. 220-238.

4
5

Aldanmaz, E., Pearce, J., Thriwall, M.F., Mitchell, J., 2000, Petrogenetic evolution of late Cenozoic, postcollision volcanism in western Anatolia, Turkey: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v.102,
p. 6795.

Altunkaynak, ., Sunal, G., Aldanmaz, E., Gen, C., Dilek, Y., Furnes, H., Foland, K., Yang, J., and Yildiz, M.,
2012a, Eocene granitic magmatism in NW Anatolia (Turkey) revisited: New implications from
comparative zircon SHRIMP U-Pb and 40Ar-39Ar geochronology and isotope geochemistry on magma
genesis and emplacement: Lithos, vol. 155, p. 289-309.

Aygl, M., Topuz, G., Okay, A., Satir, M., and Meyer, HP, 2012, The Kemer Metamorphic Complex (NW
Turkey): A subducted continental margin of the Sakarya Zone: Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, vol. 21,
p. 19-35.

Aysal, N., Ustamer, T., ngen, S., Keskin, M., Kksal, S., Peytcheva, I. and Fanning, M., 2012, Origin of
the Early-Middle Devonian magmatism in the Sakarya Zone, NW Turkey: Geochronology, geochemistry
and isotope systematics: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 45, p. 201-222.

Aysal, N., 2015, Mineral chemistry, crystallization conditions and geodynamic implications of the OligoMiocene granitoids in the Biga Peninsula, northwest Turkey: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 105, p.
68-84.
Beccaletto, L. and Steiner, C., 2005, Evidence of two-stage extensional tectonics from the northern edge
of the Edremit Graben, NW Turkey: Geodinamica Acta, vol. 18, p. 283-297.

10
11

Beccaletto, L., Bonev, N., Bosch, D., and Bruguier, O., 2007, Record of a Paleogene syn-collisional
extension in the north Aegean Region: evidence from the Kemer mica schists (NW Turkey): Geological
Magazine, v. 144(2), p. 393-400.

12

Black, K. N., Catlos, E. J., Oyman, T. and Demirbilek, M., 2013, Timing Aegean extension: Evidence from
in situ U-Pb geochronology and cathodluminescence imaging of granitoids from NW Turkey: Lithos, vols.
180-181, p. 92-108.

13

Bonev, N., Beccaletto, L., Robyr, M. and Monie, P., 2009, Metamorphic and age constraints on the Alakeci
shear zone: Implications for the extensional exhumation history of the northern Kazdag Massif, NW
Turkey: Lithos, vol. 113, p. 331-345.

14

Borsi, S., Ferrara, G., Innocenti, F. and Mazzuoli, R., 1972, Geochronology and petrology of recent
volcanics in the eastern Aegean Sea (West Anatolia and Lesvos Island): Bulletin Volcanologique, vol. 36,
p. 473-496.

15

Boztu, D., Harlavan, Y., Jonckheere, R., Can, I. and Sari, R., 2009, Geochemistry and K-Ar cooling ages of
the Ilica, atalda (Balikesir) and Kozak (Izmir) granitoids, west Anatolia, Turkey: Geological Journal, vol.
44, p. 79-103.
Cavazza, W., Federici, I., Okay, A. I. and Massimiliano, Z., 2012, Apatite fission-track thermochronology
of the western Pontides (NW Turkey): Geological Magazine, vol. 149, p. 133-140.
Cavazza, W., Okay, A. I. and Zattin, M., 2009, Rapid early-middle Miocene exhumation of the Kazda
Massif (western Anatolia): International Journal of Earth Sciences, vol. 98, p. 1935-1947.

16
17

177

18

19

dAtri, A., Zuffa, G. G., Cavazza, W., Okay, A. I. and Di Vincenzo, G., 2012, Detrital supply from
subduction/accretion complexes to the Eocene-Oligocene post-collisional southern Thrace Basin (NW
Turkey and NE Greece): Sedimentary Geology, volumes 243-244, p. 117-129.
Delaloye, M., and Bingl, E., 2000, Granitoids from western and northwestern Anatolia: geochemistry
and modeling of geodynamic evolution: International Geology Review, v. 42, p. 241-268.

20

Ece, , I., Ekinci, B., Schroeder, P. A., Crowe, D. and Esenli, F., 2013, Origin of the Dvertepe kaolin-alunite
deposits in Simav Graben, Turkey: Timing and styles of hydrothermal mineralization: Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research, vol. 255, p. 57-78.

21

Ercan, T., Satir, M., Steinitz, G., Dora, A., Sarifakioglu, E., Adis, C., Walter, H.J. and Yildirim, T., 1995,
Features of the Tertiary volcanism in the Biga Peninsula and in the islands of Gkeada, Bozcaada and
Tavsan adasi: Maden Tetkik ve Arama Dergisi (In Turkish), v. 114, p. 55-86.

22

Erdoan, B., Akay, E., Haszbek, A., Satir, M. and Siebel, W., 2013, Stratigraphy and tectonic evolution of
the Kazda Massif (NW Anatolia) based on field studies and radiometric ages: International Geology
Review, vol. 55, p. 2060-2082.

23

Imer, E. ., (2010). Genetic investigation and comparison of Kartaldag and Madendag epithermal gold
mineralization in anakkale-region. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Graduate School of Natural and Applied
Sciences of Middle East Technical University.
Karacik, Z., Yilmaz, Y., Pearce, J. A. and Ece, . I., 2008, Petrochemistry of the south Marmara granitoids,
northwest Anatolia, Turkey: International Journal of Earth Sciences, vol. 97, p. 1181-1200.

24
25

Kaymaki, N., Aldanmaz, E., Langereis, C., Spell, T.L., Grer, . F. and Zannetti, K.A., (2007). Late Miocene
transcurrent tectonics in NW Turkey: Evidence from palaeomagnetism and 40Ar-39Ar dating of alkaline
volcanic rocks. Geological Magazine, v. 144, p. 379-392

26

Kucu, I., 2009, Metallogenesis of the Tethyan collage: Magmatic association and age of ore deposition
in Turkey: in: Mineral Deposit Research Unit internal report on the Western Tethyan Metallogeny Project,
University of British Columbia.

27

Murakami, H., Watanabe, Y., Stein, H., 2005, Re-Os ages for molybdenite from the Tepeoba brecciacentered Cu-Mo-Au deposit, western Turkey: Brecciation triggered mineralization: In: Mao, J., Bierlein,
F. P (eds), Mineral Deposit Research: Meeting the Global Challenge, Proceedings of the eighth Biennial
SGA meeting, Beijing, China, 18-21 August, 2005, p. 805-808.

28

Okay, A. I., and Monie, P., 1997, Early Mesozoic subduction in the Eastern Mediterranean: Evidence from
Triassic eclogite in northwest Turkey: Geology, v. 25, p. 595-598.

29

Okay, A. I., Satir, M., Maluski, H., Siyako, M., Monie, P., Metzger, R., and Akyz, S., 1996, Paleo- and NeoTethyan events in northwestern Turkey: Geological and geochronological constraints: In: A. Yin and
Harrison T.M. (eds.) The Tectonic Evolution of Asia, Cambridge University Press. p. 420-441.
Okay, A. I., and Satir, M., 2000a, Upper Cretaceous eclogite-facies metamorphic rocks from the Biga
Peninsula, northwest Turkey: Turkish Journal of Earth Science, v. 9, p. 47-56.
Okay, A. I., and Satir, M., 2000b, Coeval plutonism and metamorphism in a latest Oligocene metamorphic
core complex in northwest Turkey: Geological Magazine, v. 137, p. 495-516.

30
31
32

Tun, . O., Yiitba, E., engn, F., Wazeck, J., Hofmann, M., and Linnemann, U., 2012, U-Pb zircon
geochronology of northern metamorphic massifs in the Biga Peninsula (NW Anatolia-Turkey): new data
and a new approach to understand the tectonostratigraphy of the region: Geodinamica Acta, v. 25, no.
3-4, p. 202-225.

33

Yiit, O., 2012, A prospective sector in the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt: Geology and geochronology of
mineral deposits in the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 46, p. 118-148.

34

Yilmazer, E., Gle N., Kucu, . and Lentz, D. R., 2014, Geology, geochemistry, and geochronology of Feoxide Cu (Au) mineralization associated with amli pluton, western Turkey: Ore Geology Reviews, vol.
57, p. 191-215.

178

Appendix 5: U/Pb Methodology

179

Samples used for LA-ICPMS U/Pb age determination were collected from mineralized and non-mineralized
hypabyssal intrusive rocks and their volcanic equivalents. Collection was limited to sites where stratigraphic position
is well constrained. Samples were initially processed using a Rhino jaw crusher followed by a Bico disk grinder
equipped with ceramic grinding plates. Mineral separates were prepared using a Wilfley wet shaking table fitted
with a machined Plexiglass top followed by heavy liquid separation and Frantz magnetic separation. Zircons were
hand-picked with the aid of a binocular microscope from an ethanol solution and mounted on epoxy pucks along
with several grains of the 338 1 Ma Pleovice zircon standard (Slma et al, 2008) and the 416.8 1.1 Ma Temora
zircon standard (Black et al., 2003).
Grinding the puck on 1000 grit sandpaper followed by polishing with a 1 m polishing paste exposed the
zircons. After exposure the puck was washed with a dilute HNO3 acid solution, thoroughly rinsed with distilled water
and left to air dry in a fume hood. Analysis were performed on a New Wave UP-213 laser ablation system and a
ThermoFinnigan Element2 single collector, double-focusing, magnetic sector ICP-MS. Data acquisition and reduction
was performed using a protocol developed by PCIGR and MDRU and is briefly described below.
High quality sections of each zircon grain, free of alteration, fractures, inclusions, or cores were selected for
analysis. In order to minimize elemental fractionation during the analysis (Koler et al., 2009), ~100 m line scans at
a width of 25 m were performed rather than spot analyses. Background values were measured with the laser
shutter closed for approximately 20 seconds, followed by approximately 45 seconds of data collection with the laser
firing.
The time-resolved signals were analyzed using Iolite, an application extension of the Igor Pro scientific
graphic, data analysis, image processing and programming software. Background measurements were manually
subtracted, whereas propagated analytical errors and isotopic ratios are automatically calculated by Iolite.
Corrections for mass and elemental fractionation were made by bracketing analyses of unknown grains with
replicate analyses of both the Pleovice zircon standard and Temora zircon standard. A typical analytical sequence
consists of four Pleovice zircon analyses followed by two Temora zircon analysis, five unknown zircon analyses, two
standard analyses, five unknown analyses, etc., finishing with two Temora zircon standard analyses and four
Pleovice zircon standard analyses.
The concordia age of the Pleovice zircon standard in the analytical sequence was 337.0 1.7 Ma and the
concordia age of the Temora zircon in-house reference was 416.5 3.1 Ma, both are within error of the accepted
values. Final age interpretation and Concordia plotting of the analytical results was done with ISOPLOT software,
following the protocol outlined by Ludwig, 2003.

180

Appendix 6: U/Pb Isotopic Age Data

181

182

183

184

Appendix 7: Ar/Ar Isotopic Age Data

185

186

Geology of the Kkda and Kirazl Epithermal Ag-Au and the Columbaz Au-Porphyry Deposits, Northwest Turkey
Mapping, U-Pb Geochronology and Digital Cartography by: Graham M. Leroux, Mineral Deposit Research Unit
LOCATION MAP

LEGEND
476000

477000

LAYERED ROCKS

478000

EURASIAN
PLATE

OLIGOCENE

EQT

OKV

EHFP

PSC

38.35 0.50

TAS

EQT

EDV

PSC
TAS

PSP

EBT

4430000

4430000

EHFP

EVS

EVS

Kirazl

EBT

Bedding (inclined, vertical)...........................................................................................................................................................

Igneous foliation (inclined, vertical)...........................................................................................................................................
Schistosity (inclined, vertical).............................................................................................................................................................
Veining (inclined, vertical)...................................................................................................................................................................
Jointing (inclined, vertical)............................................................................................................................................................
Slickenside lineation on fault ...........................................................................................................................................................
Hydrothermal breccia (inclined, vertical)................................................................................................................................
40/39 Argon isotopic age determination site........................................................................................................................ Ar
Uranium/Lead isotopic age determination site.................................................................................................................... U
Town......................................................................................................................................................................................................

LATE TRIASSIC

Highway................................................................................................................................................................................................

Karakaya Complex, Hodl Unit:

Prospect site (epithermal, porphyry)..............................................................................................................................

.
Advanced argillic alteration.......................................................................................................................................................... ...........
Cross section lines............................................................................................................................................................... A
Mineral tenure boundary...................................................................................................................................................

TQC

PSC
4429000

38.51 0.44

Whole-Rock geochemistry sample, volcanic stratigraphy...................................................................................................

UPPER PERMIAN to LATE PENNSYLVANIAN

Major cities.............................................................................................................................................................................................

amlica Metamorphics:

Plate motions relative to Eurasian Plate.......................................................................................................................................

Well-foliated, phyllite dominated, grey, quartz-augen, micaceous, locally garnetiferrous schist. Deformed, quartzmica schist are the basement rocks at Kirazl and Kkda. Within the schist, quartz-augens, and deformed veins
are common.

Strike-slip fault, motion sense indicated....................................................................................................................................

Subduction zone, direction indicated (active, extinct).........................................................................................................
Major normal fault, ticks on downthrown side.......................................................................................................................

Denizgren Ophiolite:
Dark bluish-green, strongly magnetic, variably foliated, serpentine-amphibole rich ultrama c rock. Well to poorly
foliated, ductily deformed, soapy, amphibolitic and magnetite rich. Local weak silicification and veinlets of finecrystalline quartz are common. Unconformably thrust over quartz-micaschists.

PSP

GEOLOGICAL SUMMARY
The Kkda and Kirazl HS Ag-Au-Cu epithermal and Columbaz Au porphyry prospects in the central Biga Peninsula are hosted within
Eocene (40.19 - 37.34 Ma) medium-K, intermediate andesite, chemically equivalent volcaniclastic rocks and quartz diorite to monzodiorite.

INTRUSIVE ROCKS
EHFP

Kkda and Kirazl share the following similarities:

hosted in hydrothermally brecciated structures and locally permeable stratigraphy of similar age and stratigraphic position,
ore mineralogy of enargite - sulphosalts - covellite - pyrite - native gold - electrum,
prominent vuggy-quartz - alunite - dickite - pyrophyllite - kaolinite alteration assemblage,
lithocap development within permeable and porous volcaniclastic rocks.
Kirazl however, has mineralization hosted in diatreme-like phreatomagmatic breccia. The age of mineralization at Kkda is constrained
by Ar/ Ar ages of 29.69 0.42 and 29.23 0.33 Ma. on hydrothermal alunite intergrown with covellite, pyrite, tennantite-tetrahedrite and
enargite in the hydrothermal-cemented brecciated ore zone.

+
+

4428000

4428000

OLIGOCENE
TAS
TQC

O+GR

+
+

Granodiorite: Biotite, quartz, hornblende, feldspar porphyritic, massive, pyrite-bearing, granodiorite. Zones of
stockworked quartz veins are locally present.

EOCENE
+
+
+

E+DT

+
+

Quartz, feldspar, hornblende porphyritic, monzodiorite, quartz-diorite, and minor granodiorite. Quartz, sericite
and pyrite alteration is strong locally. Multi-stage quartz vein stockwork is common.

EDT
Projection: Universal Transerve Mercator (UTM)
Datum: European 1950 Zone 35N

448
Magnetic Declination

4427000

800

EDV

1200

1600

2000

(meters)

468000

469000

A
meters above sea level

EDV

471000

472000

U 38.51 0.44

473000

EVS

200

TAS
0 (m from origin)

500

1000

4433000

1500

477000

4434000

700
600

EKDV

Ar

EQT

29.23 0.33
29.69 0.42

EHFP

100

476000

500

EBT

300

475000

Kkda

Columbaz

400

474000

4432000

4431000

Sarp

EDV

4430000

600
500

Camelback

Approximate mean
magnetic declination for
centre of map in August
2014 is 448 0 19, with
a secular variation of 0 6
east per annum.

470000

4429000 (mN)

700

Kuscu, I., 2009, Metallogenesis of the Tethyan collage: Magmatic association and age of ore deposition in Turkey: in: Mineral Deposit Research Unit
internal report on the Western Tethyan Metallogeny Project, UBC.

4427000

400

REFERENCES

Scale 1:15,000

PSC

2000

400
300
200

ELT

OKV

EKDV

2500

3000

3500

North of Kirazl, pyrite chalcopyrite-bearing feldspar-hornblende phyric granodiorite (OGR; 30.79 0.31 Ma) crosscuts the Baliklieme
Volcanics (EHFP) and is overlain by the Kirazl Volcanics (OKV), indicating that OKV is younger than OGR. An Ar/ Ar age of 42.42 0.40 Ma
(Kuu, 2009) on muscovite from pyrite-bearing hornblende feldspar phyric andesite (EDV) in drill hole KD-57 at Kirazl indicates that the
conformably-overlain volcano-sedimentary upper stratigraphy is Eocene in age. The volcano-sedimentary stratigraphy at Kkda (EKV;
EQT; EKDV; EVS; ELT) conformably overlies EHFP dated at 38.35 0.5 Ma which, similarly to Kirazl, indicates deposition beginning in Eocene.

4000

4500

X: 475474
Y: 4428887

5000

5500

100
6500

6000

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200

Okay, A, I., and Tuysuz, O., 1999, Tehtyan sutures of northern Turkey: In: Durand, B., Jolivet, L., Horvath, L., Serranne, M., (eds), The Mediterranean Basins:
Tertiary extension within the Alpine Orogen: Geological Society of London, Special Publication no. 146, p. 475-515.

469000 (mE)

470000

471000

472000

473000

EQT

475000

EVS

EKDV

. .
v .

38.35 0.50

ELT

TAS

474000

Kkda

PSC

EHFP

EBT

EBT

.
v

EDV

.
.

476000

477000

C
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200

Kirazl
EVS

.
.

TAS

TQC

PSC

EKDV

EKDV

TQC
0

The 40.19 0.34 Ma Dede Tepe pluton (Camelback; EDT) is overlain by EDV and is traversed by conspicuous multi-stage quartz veining,
contains anomalous grab-sample gold values (up to 0.4 g/t) and has a similar petrography and age to the 40.17 0.37 Ma Valley Au-Cu
Porphyry ~7.5 km east of the map area. The Columbaz Au porphyry target is composed of bonanza-grade Au-bearing quartz veins with a
dominant WNW-ESE strike dipping steeply to the south and pervasive background gold values of 0.1 - 0.6 g/t Au. (increasing at depth) in a
strongly magnetite-altered, stacked andesite dome complex.

Bonev, N., & Beccaletto, L., 2007, From syn- to post-orogenic Tertiary extension in the north Aegean region: constraints on the kinematics in the eastern
Rhodope-Thrace, Bulgaria-Greece and the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey: In: Taymaz, T., Yilmaz, Y. & Dilek, Y. (eds) The Geodynamics of the Aegean and
Anatolia, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, vol. 291, p. 113-142.

478000

Okay, A. I., Satr, M., Maluski, H., Siyako, M., Monie, P., Metzger, R., & Akyz, S., 1996, Paleo- and Neo- Tethyan events in northwestern Turkey: Geological
and geochronological constraints: In: A. Yin & Harrison T.M. (eds.) The Tectonic Evolution of Asia, Cambridge University Press. p. 420-441.

True North

Location Map

EBT
4429000

Contact (inferred, approximate, de ned)...........................................................................................................................

Thickly-bedded, matrix-supported, polymictic, rounded metamorphic-quartz pebble conglomerate. Medium grey

to rusted colour. Deformed, schistose and sandy matrix supports rounded granules to pebbles of white quartz,
phyllitic mica-schists, serpentinite, and sandstone.

TQC

EDV

TAS

Study Area Map

Massive to thickly-bedded, light bluish grey, quartz-granule, pyritic, well-sorted, medium-grained arkosic arenite
sandstone. Local areas are plastically folded and foliation develops.

EHFP

Baliklieme Volcanics Formation:

High to low-K, volcanic breccia, ows, pyritic, porphyritic, dacitic-andesites, dacites and rhyolites. Domains of
strong silici cation are commonly enriched with up to 10 modal % disseminated pyrite. Trace disseminated
magnetite is consistently altered to hematite in the damage zone to major structures. Typically hornblende-poor,
and lighter in colour when compared agaisnt EHFP in the eld. Mosiac-type breccia texture is developed at Kirazli
with a symmetrical banded and zoned pyrite, enargite, quartz, dickite and alunite cement

Medium-K, calc-alkaline, hornblende-feldspar phyric, autobrecciated andesite, subvolcanic andesite to dacite.

Highly dierential alteration results in multiple textural expressions. Where fresh, this rock is medium grey-green
with an aphanitic magnetic groundmass. Euhedral to subhedral feldspar phenocrysts; euhedral amphibole
(hornblende) and pyroxene (augite); blebs of agglomeratic ne grained magnetite; clear grains of quartz. Where
altered, which is common, the rock ranges from bleached white-cream to khaki coloured. Strong argillic-type
alteration assemblage. Quartz grains resist alteration. Where intense alteration has occurred a micro residual
vuggy-quartz texture develops.

EKDV

Sarp

GEOLOGICAL SYSMBOLS

Brittle faulting, downthrown side indicated.................................................................................................................................

4431000

4431000

Columbaz

ARABIAN
PLATE

(Modied after Okay et al., 1996; Okay & Tysz, 1999; Bonev & Beccaletto, 2007)

Crystal-rich, pumaceous amme, phyllite-clast tu, intercalated with EHFP breccia and ows. This unit is poorly
preserved within the stratigraphic record. Quartz-grit, white clay altered feldspar phenocrysts and granule to
bomb-sized rip up clasts of phyllite and schist are diagnostic features.

EBT

EVS

AFRICAN PLATE

4433000

4433000
4432000

4432000

EDV v

re

FWFZ

c
Ar

Kkda

EBT

EKDV

EVS

ANATOLIAN
PLATE

Aegean Sea

Crystal-bearing, lithic-lapilli-rich, strongly altered ignimbritic andesite tu, intercalated with EKDV and EVS.
Residual vuggy quartz alteration and ore-grade mineralization is present within this unit at Kkda. Clasts range
from 5 mm - 5 cm in a sandy matrix of feldspar crystal, lithics and rare quartz grains. Over a thickness range of 40 >150 m the unit can be thickly bedded and poorly graded, massive and unstratified. Preferential, intense alunitedickite alteration of clasts causes distinct blebby appearance.

ELT

Turkey

Athens

Laminated, normally-graded, mudstone to pebble conglomerate, colloidal silica, plant fossil and lignite seam
bearing siltstone. Silici cation, residual vuggy quartz alteration and ore-grade mineralization is present within this
unit at Kkda. Soft-sediment deformation structures are common (slump, load, ame). Argillic alteration is
prominent, often replacing cement with white clays.

OGR

West Anatolian
Extensional
Province

Izmir

a
ge
Ae

EQT

Ar

Greece

Low to medium-K, calc-alkaline, quartz, biotite, pyroxene, feldspar porphyritic basalt and basaltic andesites.
Intercalated massive to thickly layered ows and auto-breccia. Typically a strong argillic alteration masks primary
textures and selectively alters feldspars at the surface. Where fresh, trace magnetite blebs are evident, biotite can
be well preserved.

EVS

Zon
e

tu

Fault

Ankara

Kkda Volcanics:
EKDV

Anat olian

Su

OGR

ELT

Project
Location

Dacitic to rhyolitic, quartz-grit, crystal-lapilli tu, re-worked tu, silt-granulestone, often with laminated colloidal
silica. Kaolinite, montmorillonite and illite alteration is common and causes a white to a bleached cream colour
appearance, with domains of mottled purplish oxidation.

Izm
ir

4434000

EOCENE

re
de Sutu
n
o
-P
a
r
t
In

4434000

kilometers

North

Istanbul

re
tu
Su

OGR

OKV

High-K, calc-alkaline dacite (OKVa) and trachyandesite (OKVb), columnar and massive ows, autobrecciated and
re-worked lava ows. Quartz, pyroxene, plagioclase and alkali feldspar porphyritic. Interbedded massive ows
and monolithic rounded boulder auto-breccia.

Black Sea

400

Bulgaria

ar

OKVa,b

d
Var

Hallalar Formation
Kirazl Volcanics:

Sea Fault

475000

Dea
d

474000

473000

472000

471000

470000

469000

468000

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

6000

6500

7000

8000

7500

8500

9000

CD-008, 239.3m

X: 470760
Y: 4431795

X: 468953
Y: 4430068

CD-008 346.5m
GML-2013-231

KCKDA TEPE

SARP DAI

X: 475845
Y: 4430165

X: 475882
Y: 4430122

CD-008 346.5m

X: 472653
Y: 4433757

xn == 102
270/11

1m
GML_2013_450

4430000

900

4433000

900

Kirazl

300

PSC

200

30.79 0.31
v

PSC

100

+
+

+
+

0
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

+ +

600

5500

+
6000

300
+

200

+
+

+
6500

470000

Dextral wrench faul ng,

undulose fault plane.

471000

472000

473000

500

37.34 0.89 U

EBT

400

EBT
EHFP

EHFP

100

..

TAS

200

TQC

TAS

. E.DV
.
.

..

-100

-200

500

1000

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

X
6500

X
X

XEDT

400
300

200
X

100
0

X
7000

500

600

X
6000

. .

X
X

PSC
1500

700

100

800

40.19 0.34 U

PSC

474000

Camelback

Sarp/Columbaz

300

469000 (mE)

Low angle dextral wrench faul ng of

lithocap on east aspect of Kirazl

Dextral wrench faul ng

on undulose fault plane

800

700

400
+

O+GR

D
700

500

400

EDV

Quartz-sericite-pyrite (phyllic) altera on and chloriteepidote-quartz (propyli c) altera on at Columbaz.

800

600

TQC

v
v

TAS

500

EBT

600

700

800

meters above sea level

4432000

Hypabyssal andesite, source of zircons used for U-Pb age

determina on.

4429000

Dextral-oblique
normal faul ng.
4431000

Propylitic

Dextral oblique slip, normal faul ng on

southwest Sarp.

Flow-layered, autobrecciated basalt,

interlayered with volcaniclas c rock.

Interbedded volcaniclas c sandstone,

siltstone, tuaceous conglomerate.

B 4428000 (mN)

Phyllic

xn == 11315/22

Autobrecciated andesite, source of zircon for U-Pb

age da ng.

-100

-200
7500