Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ISSN 1757-5834
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC, CSCS
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Rhodri Lloyd PhD, CSCS*D, ASCC
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Jeremy Sheppard PhD, CSCS
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair MSc, ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
INSIDE
HIGH INTENSITY TRAINING IN
YOUNG ATHLETES
page 3
One of the great challenges in developing appropriate strength and conditioning programmes for a youth
population is the degree of misinformation in the general public regarding this issue. It has long been the
feeling of the UKSCA Board that we needed to produce our own position paper on youth resistance training
which can be used to dispel many of the myths that still surround this issue, as well as promoting the
widespread benefits that an appropriate resistance training programme can bring to the youth population, both
in terms of sports performance but also in relation to general health. Under Rhodri's chairmanship, and with
input from a highly respected pool of authors that span the entire spectrum of expertise in paediatric resistance
training, we are now able to launch the UKSCA position paper on youth resistance training in this edition of
Professional Strength and Conditioning. We hope that all members will be able to utilise this paper to support
and promote their work in this critical area of strength and conditioning application.
As well as the position paper, we have addressed other important elements of effective paediatric strength and
conditioning. Similar to the general perception of resistance training in the youth population, another
contentious area of application is the utilisation of high-intensity endurance training. Professor Craig Williams
and Bert Bond of Exeter University have written a paper that examines the use of high-intensity training in the
youth population in terms of its safety and its effectiveness, together with recommendations as to the most
efficacious use of this training modality. This will hopefully develop a better understanding of this mode of
training and a greater appreciation of its potential application. Similarly an area often discussed whenever the
issue of youth resistance training is raised is the topic of long term athlete development. While an area that has
generally been adopted by sport in the UK, a number of recent reviews have attempted to use an evidencebased approach to examine some of the basic tenets of LTAD, and made suggestions as to how to move the
area forward. Rhodri himself, along with Dr Jon Oliver have produced an excellent review, which explores the
traditional models along with the key findings of more recent research. This provides a balanced take on the
subject and makes some excellent recommendations for future development of the area. Given the general lack
of research into the application of training in the youth population, it is always useful to be able to learn from
other countries and systems, and to explore the implications of this work to our own positions. To this end, a
group of experts from the United States, all part of the NSCAs youth special interest group, have produced a
paper looking at some of the challenges being faced by physical education in the United States, and how an
integrated youth physical development model can be promoted and instigated in the US. Given the similarity in
many of the challenges we both face in our respective countries, a number of the key messages of this paper
could equally be applied in the UK.
We hope that the issue is of benefit and interest to our members, and that the development of our own position
statement will help in supporting the unseen but crucial work our members do in developing the Olympians and
sports stars of the future. Similarly, if there are topics which members feel warrant a special issue, I encourage
them to put forward these ideas, and to contribute to the further development of our Journal.
Ian Jeffreys
Editor
UKSCA NEWS
UKSCA PRE-ACCREDITED EVENTS
In response to a demand from members, the UKSCA will soon be launching a number of pre-accreditation events,
as additional support for those preparing for their UKSCA accreditation.
The sessions will be 2 hours in length; focused on one particular element of the assessment (ie case study;
weight lifting; plyometrics, agility and speed); be run by our senior tutor/assessors; have a low tutor:member
ratio (1:6 max.); aim to enable you to better evaluate your readiness for accreditation and identify key areas
that may need extra focus in your preparation for assessment. We understand that these sessions may not be
required by all members and attendance on one of these days will not guarantee you a positive result at your
assessment. However, it is hoped that it will provide more confidence for those who may, for example, not have
had the opportunity to liaise regularly with experienced coaches as part of their development.
Although we have already run similar events as part of our work with HE institutions, these events will be open to
all members. Due to the nature of the day we do need to make a charge to members to cover our costs but we
aim to keep this to a minimum, at 50 per accreditation element. As the first time pass rate for each of these
elements of the assessment day is currently running at 60-65%, we are hoping that for some, this will be a good
investment.
The first event will be running at Sheffield Hallam on 30th September and we will be announcing more dates on
the website (under Workshops and Accreditation) in the coming weeks.
UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION
2
Sports coaches working with children comment that children and adolescents
often experience less fatigue during short-burst activities compared to adults.
It is our experience both in the field and in a laboratory setting that children
are often able to repeat high intensity exercises quicker than adults and do
not necessarily exhibit similar fatigue symptoms. Over the last decade, a
number of studies have shown that during high intensity exercise (defined as
the intensity above the maximum speed or power output achieved in the last
minute of an incremental aerobic fitness test), the decrement in peak
performance is lower in children than in adults. Hebestreit et al.27 and Beneke
et al.9 indicated that the percent decline in power during a 30 s all-out cycle
sprint (Wingate test) was lower in young boys compared to men. These
observations have also been observed using strength tests from a 30 s
isometric maximal contraction of elbow flexors (biceps brachii).26 The authors
showed that peak force declined significantly greater in adults than in
children. On the basis of these and other results, a tenable proposition is that
children recover more quickly than adults following high intensity exercise and
that they are able to repeat these maximal intensity exercises with short
recovery intervals more consistently. These observations are important as
previously the focus on training of children was related more towards aerobic
training, mostly of a continuous, steady state type of exercise.
We have shown that the fatigue and recovery profiles appear to be consistent
in both cycling and running modes. In one study following 10 x 10 s cycling
sprints separated by 15 s recovery intervals, it was found that young boys and
men decreased their peak muscle power by about 14% and 40%,
respectively.51 Using longer rest periods (30 s), Ratel et al.52 also indicated that
young boys were able to maintain their cycling peak power whereas men
decreased their peak power output by 28.5%. In the latter study, 5 min
recovery intervals were necessary in adults to sustain their cycling peak power
from the first to the tenth sprint. Similar findings have been found following
running sprints.19,33,51 After 10 x 10 s non-motorised treadmill sprints separated
by 15 s recovery intervals, it has been shown that running peak power was
maintained more successfully in young boys than in men (-17.7% vs. -43.3%,
respectively).51 Similarly, Lazaar et al.33 have indicated that after 10 x 10 s
track sprints separated by 30 s recovery intervals, the decline in maximal run
distance was less evident in young boys than in men (-12% vs. -20%,
respectively). By comparison, the mode of exercise plays an important role in
fatigue development. Indeed, following repeated sprints, children and adults
would experience greater declines in work rate during running compared to
cycling.51 This fact may be attributed to additional muscle recruitment during
sprint running.
Although rarely studied, age-related differences in muscle fatigue during highintensity intermittent exercise are also exhibited by females. Zafeiridis et al.65
indicated, using the Ergojump Bosco System, that the decrement in average
height of jumps following four sets of rebound jumps lasting 10 s was
significantly lower in young girls than in female adults. Chia15 demonstrated
similar trends by comparing girls and women who performed a series of three
15 s Wingate testlike cycling bouts, interspersed by 45 s active recovery
intervals. Additionally, female adolescents experience less fatigue during
repeated bouts of short-term high-intensity exercise than their male
adolescent counterparts.64 According to several investigations, the rate and
magnitude of recovery during high-intensity intermittent exercise may be
maturity dependent in childhood.29,52,66 These previous studies have showed a
UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION
Conclusion
Compared to aerobic training in children and
adolescents less is known about high intensity training.
However, the increasing number of high intensity
studies has shown that children and adolescents are
able to cope with the demands of this type of training.
High intensity training, especially of an intermittent
nature, has been shown to improve anaerobic power,
strength and speed, as well as aerobic fitness. There
appears to be no physiological or injury data which
would preclude high intensity training being utilised as
part of a balanced training programme. More studies
are needed to verify the influence of the frequency and
duration of high intensity training in both sexes.
References
1.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
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27.
28.
49.
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51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
Promoting Integrative
Youth Physical
Development In The
United States
David Stodden, PhD, CSCS; Rick Howard, MEd, CSCS*D; Avery D. Faigenbaum, EdD, CSCS;
Cheryl Richardson, MSc, CSCS; Larry Meadors, PhD, CSCS*D, NSCA-CPT*D, RSCC*E, ASCC;
Whitney Moore, ABD, CSCS*D; Joseph Molony, PT, MSc, SCS, CSCS; Patrick McHenry, MA,
CSCS*D; Jessica Graziano, PT, DPT, CSCS; Pat Cullen-Carroll, MEd, CSCS
References
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3.
4.
5.
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11.
12.
13.
66. Pate, R., Pratt, M., Blair, S., Haskell, W., Macera, C.,
Bouchard, C., Buchner, D., Ettinger, W., Heath, G., King,
A., Kriska, A., Leon, A., Marcus. B., Morris, J.,
Paffenbarger, R., Patrick, K., Pollock, M., Rippe, J., Sallis,
J., Wilmore, J. Physical Activity and Public Health - A
Recommendation from the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention and the American College of Sports
Medicine JAMA; 273:402-407. 1995.
67. Quatman, C. E., Ford, K. R., Myer, G. D., & Hewett, T. E.
Maturation leads to gender differences in landing force and
vertical jump performance: a longitudinal study. Am J
Sports Med, 34(5), 806-813. 2006.
68. Segal, L.M., and E.A. Gadola. Generation O: Addressing
childhood overweight before it's too late. Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science 615:
195-213. 2008.
69. Standage, M., Duda, J. L., & Ntoumanis, N. Predicting
motivational regulations in physical education: The
interplay between dispositional goal orientations,
motivational climate and perceived competence. Journal of
Sports Sciences, 21, 621-647. 2003.
70. Stodden, D., Langendorfer, S., Roberton, M.A. The
association between motor skill competence and physical
fitness in young adults. Research Quarterly for Exercise
and Sport, 80, 223-229. 2009.
71. Stodden D.F., Goodway J.D., Langerdorfer S.J., Roberton,
M.A. Rudisill, M.E., Garcia, C. and Carcia L.E. A
Developmental Perspective on the Role of Motor Skill
Competence in Physical Activity; An Emergent
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
Long-term Athlete
Development and
Trainability during
Childhood: a Brief Review
Jon L. Oliver1, PhD, Rhodri S. Lloyd2, PhD, ASCC, CSCS*D
Introduction
Maximising the development of young athletes is the goal of many coaches and sports
systems, with the aim to ultimately increase future sporting success at the elite senior
level.39 Consequently, the requirement to identify methods by which talent can be
nurtured is of paramount importance for coaches and practitioners.25 Although talent
development is recognised as a multidisciplinary concept, encompassing the need for
biological, social and psychological factors to be considered,1 talent development
programmes predominantly focus on the development of physical athletic abilities
throughout childhood.15 Such an approach has been widely criticised in contemporary
literature1,4,25,40 due to the need to promote the holistic development of youth athletes.
However, this should not detract from the importance of maximising physical fitness
development of young athletes, but simply act as a reminder that coaches should also
consider other aspects of talent development.
Developing the fitness and performance of child athletes can be a complex issue;
factors such as the growth and maturation of anatomical, neurological, hormonal and
musculoskeletal structure and function should be considered in the planning and
design of physical training programmes.37 Although long-term athlete development
models are not a novel concept (e.g.11,42), only recently have attempts been made to
incorporate the interaction of training, growth and maturation within a model.3 In the
popular Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) model of Balyi and co-workers,2,3
training principles are combined with a scientific knowledge of childhood development.
The LTAD model prescribes the objective measurement of individual maturation rates,
via measures such as peak height and peak weight velocity, to allow training to be
associated with the timing and tempo of maturation. The LTAD model has provided a
greater scientific basis to the structure of training programmes for child athletes, and
has advanced previous practice based around chronological age classification, which
has been suggested to be inherently flawed.25
The suggested link between childhood development and training responsiveness
presented in the LTAD model is an appealing concept, as it provides coaches with a
prescriptive model of how to maximise physical fitness development. Consequently,
the LTAD model has received global popularity and has been adopted by most
Endurance
Growth related changes in the central and peripheral
cardiovascular system, muscle function, cellular
capacity, body composition and metabolic capability will
influence endurance development during childhood and
will interact with training stimuli.43 Conflicting results
have been reported with regards to trainability of
Speed
Windows of opportunity for developing speed are
associated solely with chronological age in the LTAD
model, probably aligned to the role of central nervous
system development in speed gains.12 However, it
seems likely that maturational changes in muscletendon size, structure and function will also influence
the training response.25,51 In a recent review, Rumpf et
al.44 examined the effect of maturation and different
training modalities on trainability during childhood.
From the limited number of studies available, (n = 15)
the authors concluded that children pre-PHV benefited
most from plyometric and then sprint training, children
circum-PHV benefited most from plyometric and then
strength training, and children post-PHV benefited most
from combined training methods (e.g. strength +
plyometric training) and then strength training alone.
The findings from the Rumpf et al.44 review partly
support and partly refute the theory of windows of
opportunity. The review demonstrated that speed was
a trainable entity throughout childhood, suggesting
there are no specific windows of opportunity. However,
the differential response to different training regimes
with maturation suggests that training adaptations
appear to align themselves to mechanisms that are
believed to underpin natural development at different
stages of childhood. Children who were pre-PHV
benefited most from training that has a primarily
neural basis, whereas children post-PHV benefited from
training that aims to strengthen the muscle and adapt
morphological characteristics. However, the fact that
some training-induced benefits in speed that are linked
to maturation can be rapidly lost with a period of
detraining,13,26 questions the need to maximise gains
within a specific window. Instead, it is more likely that
Strength
Strength has been defined as a multifaceted,
performance-related fitness component that is
underpinned by muscular, neural and mechanical
factors.20 In the LTAD model, a window of opportunity
for strength development is given in the period
immediately post-PHV, which would coincide with peak
weight velocity and a time when children are naturally
experiencing rapid gains in muscle mass.37 Therefore, it
seems likely that the LTAD model is actually presenting
a window of opportunity for hypertrophy rather than
strength development. A focus on hypertrophy would
be a limited perspective as the assumption that muscle
cross-sectional area is the most important parameter in
strength development throughout childhood and
adolescence does not hold when examined with other
variables.19 For instance, increases in stature and limb
length and subsequent changes in the muscle
movement arm will have a substantial affect on
strength development.54
It seems logical to speculate that the absence of
circulating androgens will limit the ability to make
training-related increases in muscle size prior to
adolescence, although direct evidence to support this
statement is limited. However, the belief that strength
gains are not achievable with training prior to the
biological trigger provided by sexual maturation32
seems unfounded. For instance, it has been
demonstrated that children as young as five can
achieve strength gains with training.23 Granacher et al.30
reported that gains in leg strength in pre-pubescent
children following a 10-week training programme were
neural in basis, rather than being caused by
hypertrophy. Even though these findings are largely as
expected, it should be noted that the authors included
3-4 minutes rest between sets, and given children are
known to recover rapidly, it seems such a programme
Power
Although power is deemed a prerequisite for successful
performance in many sports, it is absent from the LTAD
model. This may be because the component parts of
power (speed and strength) are included in the model.
However, given that the goal of many training
programmes is to specifically increase power, arguably
this should be a key component of any long-term
strength and conditioning plan. A strong relationship
(r=0.95) has been reported between growth rates of
11-13 year old children and vertical jump performance,
which is an indirect measure of lower limb power.16
Rapid improvements in muscle power during
adolescence have therefore been associated with
maturational influences.10 Unfortunately, there are very
few studies which have specifically examined the
trainability of power with respect to age and
maturation. This has led to the conclusion that it is
difficult to identify whether a window of opportunity
exists to maximise power development.25 What seems
clear is that younger and older children can experience
Training Volumes
How much training a child athlete should engage in is a
contentious issue. The LTAD model of Balyi and coworkers2,3 adopts the philosophy of Ericsson,21 believing
that it takes 10,000 hours or 10 years of deliberate
practice to achieve mastery and reach the elite level.
Recently, Moesch et al.38 used athlete recall to examine
2.
References
1.
3.
4.
5.
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7.
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9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Summary
Current practice in developing the physical fitness and
talent of young athletes in the UK is heavily influenced
by the Balyi LTAD model. While the introduction of the
Balyi model provided a greater scientific basis for the
training of children it has to be recognised as a largely
theoretical model. The content of the Balyi LTAD model
has remained largely unchanged over the last decade,
although it has come under more scrutiny in recent
academic reviews.1,25 A body of evidence is currently
not available to demonstrate that children are more
responsive to training during windows of opportunity,
that failure to maximise development during these
14.
15.
16.
17. Chiodera, P., Volta, E., Gobbi, G., Milioli, M. A., Mirandola,
P., Bonetti, A., Delsignore, R., Bernasconi, S., Anedda, A. &
Vitale, M. Specifically designed physical exercise programs
improve children's motor abilities. Scand J Med Sci Sports,
18, 179-187, 2008.
18. Ct, J. & Hay, J. Children's involvement in sport: a
developmental perspective. In J. M. Silva and D. Stevens
(Ed.), Psychological Foundations of Sport (pp. 484-502).
Boston, MA: Merrill, 2002.
19. De Ste Croix, M. B., Armstrong, N., Welsman, J. R. &
Sharpe, P. Longitudinal changes in isokinetic leg strength
in 10-14-year-olds. Ann Hum Biol, 29, 50-62, 2002.
20. De Ste Croix, M. B. A. Muscle Strength. In N. Armstrong
and W. Van Mechlen (Ed.), Paediatric Exercise Science
and Medicine (pp. 199-211). Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2008.
21. Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T. & Tesch-Romer, C. The role
of delibarate practice in the acquisition of expert
performance. Psychol Rev, 100, 363-406, 1993.
22. Faigenbaum, A. D., Kraemer, W. J., Blimkie, C. J., Jeffreys,
I., Micheli, L. J., Nitka, M. & Rowland, T. W. Youth
resistance training: updated position statement paper from
the national strength and conditioning association. J
Strength Cond Res, 23, S60-79, 2009.
23. Faigenbaum, A. D., Loud, R. L., O'Connell, J., Glover, S. &
Westcott, W. L. Effects of different resistance training
protocols on upper-body strength and endurance
development in children. J Strength Cond Res, 15, 459465, 2001.
24. Fields, R. D. Myelination: an overlooked mechanism of
synaptic plasticity? Neuroscientist, 11, 528-531, 2005.
25. Ford, P., De Ste Croix, M., Lloyd, R., Meyers, R., Moosavi,
M., Oliver, J., Till, K. & Williams, C. The long-term athlete
development model: physiological evidence and
application. J Sports Sci, 29, 389-402, 2011.
26. Fournier, M., Ricci, J., Taylor, A. W., Ferguson, R. J.,
Montpetit, R. R. & Chaitman, B. R. Skeletal muscle
adaptation in adolescent boys: sprint and endurance training
and detraining. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 14, 453-456, 1982.
27. Gabbard, C. Lifelong motor development. Bubuque, IA,
Brown Publisher, 1992.
28. Gallahue, D. & Donnelly, F. Development of Physical
Education for all Children (4th edition). Champaign, IL,
Human Kinetics, 2003.
29. Graf, C., Koch, B., Falkowski, G., Jouck, S., Christ, H.,
Staudenmaier, K., Bjarnason-Wehrens, B., Tokarski, W.,
Dordel, S. & Predel, H. G. Effects of a shcool based
intervention on BMI and motor abilities in childhood.
Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 4, 291-299, 2005.
30. Granacher, U., Goesele, A., Roggo, K., Wischer, T.,
Fischer, S., Zuerny, C., Gollhofer, A. & Kriemler, S. Effects
and mechanisms of strength training in children. Int J
Sports Med, 32, 357-364, 2011.
31. Higgs, C., Balyi, I., Way, R., Cardinal, C., Norris, S. &
Bluechardt, M. Developing Physical Literacy: A guide for
parents and children aged 0 to 12. Vancouver, BC,
Canadian Sports Centres, 2008.
32. Katch, V. L. Physical conditioning of children. J Adolesc
Health Care, 3, 241-246, 1983.
33. Lillegard, W. A., Brown, E. W., Wilson, D. J., Henderson, R.
& Lewis, E. Efficacy of strength training in prepubescent to
early postpubescent males and females: effects of gender
and maturity. Pediatr Rehabil, 1, 147-157, 1997.
34. Lloyd, R. S. & Oliver, J. L. The Youth Physical
Development Model: A new approach to long-term athletic
development. Strength Cond J, 34, 61-72, 2012.
35. Lloyd, R. S., Oliver, J. L., Hughes, M. G. & Williams, P. C.
The effects of 4-weeks plyometric training on reactive
36.
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53.
54.
UKSCA Position
Statement: Youth
Resistance Training
Rhodri S. Lloyd, PhD, CSCS*D, ASCC1; Avery D. Faigenbaum, EdD,
FACSM, CSCS*D2; Gregory D. Myer, PhD, CSCS*D, FACSM3; Michael H
Stone, PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, FUKSCA4; Jon L. Oliver, PhD5; Ian Jeffreys,
PhD, CSCS*D, ASCC, FNSCA6; Jeremy Moody, PhD, ASCC5; Clive
Brewer, MSc, CSCS, ASCC7; Kyle Pierce EdD, CSCS8
Preamble
This manuscript will serve as the official position statement of the United
Kingdom Strength and Conditioning Association (UKSCA) for youth resistance
training. The authorship team for this manuscript were selected from the fields
of paediatric exercise science, physical education, elite sport, and sports
medicine. Prior to publishing, the manuscript was reviewed in detail and
subsequently endorsed by the UKSCA Board of Directors.
Operational Definitions
Prior to discussing the literature surrounding the potential benefits and concerns
associated with youth resistance training, it is pertinent to define key
terminologies used throughout the manuscript.
Childhood represents the developmental period of life from the end of infancy
to the beginning of adolescence. The term children refers to girls and boys
(generally up to the age of 11 years and 13 years respectively) who have not
developed secondary sex characteristics.
The term adolescence refers to a period of life between childhood and
adulthood. Although adolescence is a more difficult period to define in terms
of chronological age due to differential maturation rates,126 girls 12-18 years
and boys 14-18 years are generally considered adolescents.
The terms youth and young athletes represent global terms which include
both children and adolescents
Growth is typically viewed as a quantifiable change in body composition, the
size of the body as a whole, or the size of specific regions of the body.21
Rhodri S. Lloyd is a senior
lecturer in Strength and
Conditioning at the University of
Gloucestershire. He is a fully
accredited strength and
conditioning coach with the
UKSCA, and holds certified
strength and conditioning status
with distinction from the NSCA.
Rhodri's research interests
surround strength and
conditioning for young athletes,
and the application of long-term
athlete development models in
the physical preparation of
youths. Elected onto the USKCA
Board of Directors in 2011, he is
the inaugural convenor of the
UKSCA Youth Training Special
Interest Group, and is paediatric
lead for the association.
Introduction
Despite outdated misperceptions that resistance
training was unsafe or inappropriate for youth,2 there is
now a compelling body of scientific evidence that
supports its use by children and adolescents for a wide
range of performance, health, and injury reducing
benefits.3,10,17,18,69,167,185 Research has indicated that
various forms of resistance training can elicit significant
performance improvements in muscular strength,19
power production,69 running velocity,134 change-ofdirection speed,188 and general motor performance,18 in
youth. From a health perspective, evidence suggests
that resistance training can make positive alterations in
overall body composition,177 reduce abdominal and
trunk fat,200 improve insulin-sensitivity in overweight
adolescents,179 and enhance cardiac function in obese
children.150 Importantly, it has also been suggested that
regular participation in an appropriately designed
exercise programme, which includes resistance
training, can enhance bone mineral density13 and
reduce sports-related injury risk in young athletes.143,193
This would appear to be an important consideration
given that the European Network for Sports Injury
Prevention15 previously estimated nearly 1.3 million
cases of sports injuries requiring hospitalisation in
Europe were for children under the age of 15 years.
Additionally, muscular fitness and resistance training
have been associated with positive psychological health
and wellbeing in children and adolescents.58,103,160,195,206
Despite the apparent health, fitness and performance
benefits for school-age youth, there is little reference
to resistance training in the physical education national
curriculums within the UK. Of note, no information
regarding age-appropriate resistance training is
included for primary aged children (11 years and
under), and resistance training guidelines for secondary
school age children (11 years and upwards) are limited
and inconsistent. Compounding this issue, recent
evidence indicates that muscular strength levels of
children within the United Kingdom are decreasing.40
Such a tendency of declines in muscular strength levels
is commensurate with other European countries.35,173
Progressive resistance training under the supervision of
qualified health and fitness professionals can offer a
method for reversing this undesirable trend while
encouraging participation in resistance training as an
ongoing lifestyle choice. The importance of effective
education by qualified personnel is essential, as
positive early experiences in physical education have
been associated with lifelong physical activity.111
Therefore, the current manuscript will dispel the myths
surrounding youth resistance training, and provide
guidance and support for those individuals responsible
for the long-term development and general wellbeing
of school-age youth.
Training Experience
Volume (sets x reps)
Total number of exercises per session
Beginner
Intermediate
Experienced
Advanced
1-2 x 8-12
2-4 x 6-10
2-4 x 5-8
2-5 x 2-5
6-10
3-6
3-6
2-5
60-80%
70-85%
85-100%
Moderate-Fast
Moderate-Fast
Fast-Maximal
Maximal
1-2
2-3
2-5
2-3
2-3
2-4
2-5
72-48
72-48
48
48-24
Body weight,
Intensity (%1RM)
or 50-70% 1RM
Summary
A compelling body of scientific evidence supports
participation in well-designed youth resistance training
programmes that are supervised and instructed by
qualified professionals. The current manuscript has
added to previous position statements from medical
and fitness organisations, and has clearly outlined the
performance, health, and injury reducing benefits
associated with this training mode for school age
youth. In summarising this manuscript, it is the
position of the UKSCA that:
1. The use of resistance training by children and
adolescents is supported on the proviso that
qualified professionals supervise training
programmes that are consistent with the needs,
goals, and abilities of younger populations.
2. Specifically, the use of weightlifting as a resistance
training mode by children and adolescents is
supported, providing appropriate equipment and
logical progressions are prescribed and implemented
by suitably qualified personnel.
3. Parents, teachers and coaches, should recognise the
potential health-related benefits of resistance
exercise, because youths who do not participate in
activities that enhance muscle strength and
movement skills, may be at increased risk for
negative health outcomes later in life.
4. Well designed resistance training programmes are
not only safe for young athletes but may also reduce
sports-related injuries.
5. An appropriately designed resistance training
programme can elicit noticeable improvements in
motor skills, and consequently may positively
enhance sports performance.
6. A properly designed resistance training programme
can improve and maintain psychological health and
wellbeing.
7. Resistance training prescription for children and
adolescents should be age-related and not agedetermined. Consequently, prescription should be
based according to biological status, training age,
motor skill competency, technical proficiency,
existing strength levels, and psychosocial maturity.
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