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PROFESSIONAL

strength & conditioning

ISSN 1757-5834

The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association

No. 26 SUMMER 2012


EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D

EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC, CSCS
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Rhodri Lloyd PhD, CSCS*D, ASCC
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Jeremy Sheppard PhD, CSCS
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair MSc, ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC

COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS

INSIDE
HIGH INTENSITY TRAINING IN
YOUNG ATHLETES
page 3

PROMOTING INTEGRATIVE YOUTH


PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE
UNITED STATES
page 10

LONG-TERM ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT


AND TRAINABILITY DURING
CHILDHOOD: A BRIEF REVIEW
page 19

UKSCA POSITION STATEMENT:


YOUTH RESISTANCE TRAINING
page 26

1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,


Lancashire FY8 5QB.
t: 0845 300 8078
f: 0845 300 8079
e: info@uksca.org.uk

he summer issue of Professional Strength and Conditioning


coincides with the culmination of a hugely successful Olympic
Games. Sport has a unique ability to engender intense passion
and national patriotism, and like the majority of Britain I have
been entranced by the supreme performances of athletes across a huge
variety of sports throughout the entire Games. In addition, the advent of
the red button has allowed sports not normally covered by mainstream
television coverage to have their day in the sun. While the outstanding
performances of our athletes have quite rightly been at the forefront of
attention, one of the highlights of the Olympic Games has been the
intense passion for sport shown by the British public. It would be hoped,
that the games will indeed inspire a generation of sports people and
result in a large increase in sports participation within the country across
a wide range of sports. Undoubtedly, the next generation of Olympic
champions have been watching the superb performances of our
Olympians and dreaming of one day achieving similar goals. It is hoped
that these inspired future Olympians will now start, or continue, on their
path to achieving their dreams. However, it is likely that this journey will
not be taken alone, and will require the input of a large number of
people along the way.

Messages that consistently came across from the Olympians themselves


was their huge appreciation of the support they received from coaches
and backroom staff. A key part of this has been the strength and
conditioning provision, and I'd like to take this opportunity on behalf of
the UKSCA of congratulating all of the coaches involved in helping
produce such wonderful performances over the course of the games.
While the inspiration of our future generation of Olympians is crucial,
what is also key, is that they are provided with the appropriate
development pathways to allow them to achieve their dreams. A key part
of this involves appropriate physical development throughout their
athletic career. To coincide with this need, we have produced a special
issue of Professional Strength and Conditioning, totally focused on the
area of paediatric strength and conditioning. In the development of this
edition I have to express my sincerest gratitude to Rhodri Lloyd. Since
being elected to the board, Rhodri has made great strides in the
development of a special interest group for paediatric strength and
conditioning and a special journal issue on this topic was one of Rhodris
key goals. He has worked hard to achieve this goal, and has put together
a number of papers from some of the foremost experts in the field.

One of the great challenges in developing appropriate strength and conditioning programmes for a youth
population is the degree of misinformation in the general public regarding this issue. It has long been the
feeling of the UKSCA Board that we needed to produce our own position paper on youth resistance training
which can be used to dispel many of the myths that still surround this issue, as well as promoting the
widespread benefits that an appropriate resistance training programme can bring to the youth population, both
in terms of sports performance but also in relation to general health. Under Rhodri's chairmanship, and with
input from a highly respected pool of authors that span the entire spectrum of expertise in paediatric resistance
training, we are now able to launch the UKSCA position paper on youth resistance training in this edition of
Professional Strength and Conditioning. We hope that all members will be able to utilise this paper to support
and promote their work in this critical area of strength and conditioning application.
As well as the position paper, we have addressed other important elements of effective paediatric strength and
conditioning. Similar to the general perception of resistance training in the youth population, another
contentious area of application is the utilisation of high-intensity endurance training. Professor Craig Williams
and Bert Bond of Exeter University have written a paper that examines the use of high-intensity training in the
youth population in terms of its safety and its effectiveness, together with recommendations as to the most
efficacious use of this training modality. This will hopefully develop a better understanding of this mode of
training and a greater appreciation of its potential application. Similarly an area often discussed whenever the
issue of youth resistance training is raised is the topic of long term athlete development. While an area that has
generally been adopted by sport in the UK, a number of recent reviews have attempted to use an evidencebased approach to examine some of the basic tenets of LTAD, and made suggestions as to how to move the
area forward. Rhodri himself, along with Dr Jon Oliver have produced an excellent review, which explores the
traditional models along with the key findings of more recent research. This provides a balanced take on the
subject and makes some excellent recommendations for future development of the area. Given the general lack
of research into the application of training in the youth population, it is always useful to be able to learn from
other countries and systems, and to explore the implications of this work to our own positions. To this end, a
group of experts from the United States, all part of the NSCAs youth special interest group, have produced a
paper looking at some of the challenges being faced by physical education in the United States, and how an
integrated youth physical development model can be promoted and instigated in the US. Given the similarity in
many of the challenges we both face in our respective countries, a number of the key messages of this paper
could equally be applied in the UK.
We hope that the issue is of benefit and interest to our members, and that the development of our own position
statement will help in supporting the unseen but crucial work our members do in developing the Olympians and
sports stars of the future. Similarly, if there are topics which members feel warrant a special issue, I encourage
them to put forward these ideas, and to contribute to the further development of our Journal.
Ian Jeffreys
Editor

AMENDMENT TO A PREVIOUS ARTICLE


In the Performance Nutrition column of the spring edition of Professional Strength and Conditioning (Issue 25)
a figure was mistakenly omitted from the final print version of the Journal. This related to the Tart Cherry
Juice and Recovery From Exercise paper by Phillip Bell and Glyn Howatson. The final version, including the
missing figure (figure 2) can now be accessed via the UKSCA website. We apologise for this oversight.

UKSCA NEWS
UKSCA PRE-ACCREDITED EVENTS
In response to a demand from members, the UKSCA will soon be launching a number of pre-accreditation events,
as additional support for those preparing for their UKSCA accreditation.
The sessions will be 2 hours in length; focused on one particular element of the assessment (ie case study;
weight lifting; plyometrics, agility and speed); be run by our senior tutor/assessors; have a low tutor:member
ratio (1:6 max.); aim to enable you to better evaluate your readiness for accreditation and identify key areas
that may need extra focus in your preparation for assessment. We understand that these sessions may not be
required by all members and attendance on one of these days will not guarantee you a positive result at your
assessment. However, it is hoped that it will provide more confidence for those who may, for example, not have
had the opportunity to liaise regularly with experienced coaches as part of their development.
Although we have already run similar events as part of our work with HE institutions, these events will be open to
all members. Due to the nature of the day we do need to make a charge to members to cover our costs but we
aim to keep this to a minimum, at 50 per accreditation element. As the first time pass rate for each of these
elements of the assessment day is currently running at 60-65%, we are hoping that for some, this will be a good
investment.
The first event will be running at Sheffield Hallam on 30th September and we will be announcing more dates on
the website (under Workshops and Accreditation) in the coming weeks.
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High Intensity Training


in Young Athletes
Craig Williams BEd (Hons), MSc, PhD, FBASES, FACSM and
Bert Bond BSc, MSc.
Introduction

Craig Williams BEd (Hons), MSc,


PhD, FBASES, FACSM is Professor
of Paediatric Physiology and Health
at the University of Exeter and is
Director of the Childrens Health and
Exercise Research Centre (CHERC).
He regularly acts as a consultant
paediatric physiologist to such
organisations as British Gymnastics,
British Cycling, the ECB and LTA and
has worked with professional
Premiership teams in both football
and rugby.

Bert Bond BSc, MSc is a PhD


student at the University of Exeter in
CHERC, specialising in the effects of
high intensity, intermittent exercise on
cardiovascular health in children and
adolescents. Bert has worked with
young high performance athletes in
the UK, and repeatedly achieved
national success as a junior rower.

Sports coaches working with children comment that children and adolescents
often experience less fatigue during short-burst activities compared to adults.
It is our experience both in the field and in a laboratory setting that children
are often able to repeat high intensity exercises quicker than adults and do
not necessarily exhibit similar fatigue symptoms. Over the last decade, a
number of studies have shown that during high intensity exercise (defined as
the intensity above the maximum speed or power output achieved in the last
minute of an incremental aerobic fitness test), the decrement in peak
performance is lower in children than in adults. Hebestreit et al.27 and Beneke
et al.9 indicated that the percent decline in power during a 30 s all-out cycle
sprint (Wingate test) was lower in young boys compared to men. These
observations have also been observed using strength tests from a 30 s
isometric maximal contraction of elbow flexors (biceps brachii).26 The authors
showed that peak force declined significantly greater in adults than in
children. On the basis of these and other results, a tenable proposition is that
children recover more quickly than adults following high intensity exercise and
that they are able to repeat these maximal intensity exercises with short
recovery intervals more consistently. These observations are important as
previously the focus on training of children was related more towards aerobic
training, mostly of a continuous, steady state type of exercise.
We have shown that the fatigue and recovery profiles appear to be consistent
in both cycling and running modes. In one study following 10 x 10 s cycling
sprints separated by 15 s recovery intervals, it was found that young boys and
men decreased their peak muscle power by about 14% and 40%,
respectively.51 Using longer rest periods (30 s), Ratel et al.52 also indicated that
young boys were able to maintain their cycling peak power whereas men
decreased their peak power output by 28.5%. In the latter study, 5 min
recovery intervals were necessary in adults to sustain their cycling peak power
from the first to the tenth sprint. Similar findings have been found following
running sprints.19,33,51 After 10 x 10 s non-motorised treadmill sprints separated
by 15 s recovery intervals, it has been shown that running peak power was
maintained more successfully in young boys than in men (-17.7% vs. -43.3%,
respectively).51 Similarly, Lazaar et al.33 have indicated that after 10 x 10 s
track sprints separated by 30 s recovery intervals, the decline in maximal run
distance was less evident in young boys than in men (-12% vs. -20%,
respectively). By comparison, the mode of exercise plays an important role in
fatigue development. Indeed, following repeated sprints, children and adults
would experience greater declines in work rate during running compared to
cycling.51 This fact may be attributed to additional muscle recruitment during
sprint running.
Although rarely studied, age-related differences in muscle fatigue during highintensity intermittent exercise are also exhibited by females. Zafeiridis et al.65
indicated, using the Ergojump Bosco System, that the decrement in average
height of jumps following four sets of rebound jumps lasting 10 s was
significantly lower in young girls than in female adults. Chia15 demonstrated
similar trends by comparing girls and women who performed a series of three
15 s Wingate testlike cycling bouts, interspersed by 45 s active recovery
intervals. Additionally, female adolescents experience less fatigue during
repeated bouts of short-term high-intensity exercise than their male
adolescent counterparts.64 According to several investigations, the rate and
magnitude of recovery during high-intensity intermittent exercise may be
maturity dependent in childhood.29,52,66 These previous studies have showed a
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gradual transition during the developmental years in


the abilities to resist fatigue during high-intensity
intermittent exercise. For example, during ten repeated
10 s cycling sprints interspersed by 30 s recovery
intervals, Ratel et al.52 demonstrated that with
increasing age, peak muscle power declined more
consistently with the repetition of sprints. This finding
has been confirmed more recently by Zafeiridis et al.66
who showed during four sets of 18 knee
extensions/flexions, separated by 1 min rest periods,
that peak torque of knee flexors and extensors and
total work was maintained more successfully in male
adolescents than in men, but was sustained with more
difficulty in teenagers than in young boys. A practical
implication from these results is that during highintensity intermittent training, young children may cope
better with shorter rest periods than are commonly
used by adults.15 As a consequence, the combination
between the various training parameters (number of
sets, duration/intensity of exercise and duration of
recovery) should be chosen not only as a function of
the aims of the training but also according to age and
maturation level of individuals. In summary, the ability
of children to repeat power activities depends upon age
and maturation level. With increasing age, repeated
short-term power output declines with continued
repetitions of a maximal anaerobic task. Prepubertal
children have lower but more consistent power output
in repetitious sprint activities.
Therefore, the aim of this review is to examine some of
the research in the training of young people during
high intensity exercise in relation to its influence on
aerobic (longer duration and lower intensity) and
strength and power training.

Training the Prepubescent Athlete


Influence of High Intensity Training on Aerobic
Fitness
Our understanding of the relationship between training
and fitness improvements in youth has been clouded
by both ethical constraints and methodological issues,
including the omission of appropriate controls required
to identify any changes in fitness which cannot be
attributable to growth and maturation. Perhaps
because of these methodological issues, it has been
hypothesised that a trigger point exists during
puberty, and that any exercise training performed
younger than this age would elicit negligible benefits.31
However, this appears not to be the case. Data have
since shown that O2 peak can be increased with training
if there is a sufficient overload stimulus, which appears
to be primarily achieved by increasing exercise
intensity rather than volume.34 Massicotte and McNab
demonstrated that O2 peak only improved (~11%) after
12 minutes of cycling at 88-93% of the maximal heart
rate (HRmax) 3 times per week for 6 weeks, but not at
66-72% or 75-80% HRmax.38 Later, Savage et al.57
demonstrated that 10 weeks of interval running at 8085% HRmax for 2.4-4.8 km, 3 times per week
significantly increased O2 peak by ~5% in a group of 8
year old boys, whilst a similar group of boys exercising
at ~70% HRmax observed no such increase. However,
these data should be interpreted with caution, as the
work performed between groups was not equally
matched, thereby precluding an effect which can be
solely attributable to exercise intensity.
To our knowledge, only two studies have attempted to
equalise the work between a high intensity interval

regime and a continuous, lower intensity training


programme in prepubescents.5,43 McManus et al.43
reported that 30 second sprint interval cycling, but not
20 minutes of continuous cycling at 75-85% VO2 peak
(~85% HRmax), performed 3 times per week for 8
weeks significantly improved absolute O2 peak (~9%),
peak power during an incremental test to exhaustion
(~33%), and markers of submaximal fitness at the
ventilatory threshold in 9-11 year old boys. However,
Baquet et al.5 reported comparable significant increases
in O2 peak (4.8% and 6.9%) and maximal aerobic
velocity (7.1% and 8.3%) after 8 weeks of workmatched high intensity interval and continuous running
respectively in 8-11 year old boys and girls. Differences
in training protocol, baseline fitness and mode of
exercise prevent direct comparison of these studies,
but these data and others indicate that potential
improvements in aerobic fitness may be promoted in
this age group, providing that exercise intensity is
>85% HRmax.6,7,37,43
Few data exist on submaximal parameters of aerobic
fitness in this population, and those that are available
are confounded by a host of methodological
inconsistencies.1,2 However, it has been demonstrated
by our laboratory that aerobic training may elicit
favourable changes in blood lactate accumulation
during exercise, despite no change in O2 peak.63 Crosssectional data appear to support this, indicating that
trained children have a higher relative lactate threshold
than untrained,3,25 although a well-controlled study
which assessed the ventilatory threshold (a surrogate
marker of the lactate threshold) did not show this.42

The Influence of High Intensity Training on


Strength and Power
Training intensity also appears crucial for increases in
strength with resistance training. Initial studies
indicated poor trainability of strength in young children,
however, these protocols utilised only modest training
loads.18,61 Convincing evidence that resistance protocols
can provide strength gains in prepubescents have been
provided by studies which incorporated higher training
loads, and have controlled for maturation and the
development of motor skill.24,59 Indeed, data indicate
comparable,24 and sometimes greater,48 trainability of
prepubescents compared with adolescents and adults
(in terms of relative strength gains), although these
strength gains are primarily a result of qualitative
changes within the muscle, most likely an improved
motor unit recruitment ability, and are not associated
with hypertrophy.45 A meta-analysis indicates that
strength improvements of between 13-30% can be
expected following structured resistance training in
children.24
Despite these promising data, it is important that
coaches are aware of the transient nature of strength
improvements accrued during resistance training in this
population, as with others. In a well-controlled
detraining study, Faigenbaum et al.22 reported a ~3%
reduction in leg extension strength per week after the
cessation of a successful 8 week resistance training
programme in boys and girls. Despite the ~53%
increase in leg extension strength achieved in this
study, 8 weeks of detraining promoted a reduction of
strength to levels which were not significantly different
from an untrained control cohort. Consequently, the
maintenance of any increases in strength should be
incorporated into a programme.11

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Power is a key component of most sports, and whilst


some studies have shown no effect of resistance
training on anaerobic power, data exist which indicate a
positive effect of high-intensity training on short term,
maximal power output.18 McManus et al.43 observed a
~10% and ~22% improvement in the peak power
achieved during the first 5 seconds of all-out cycling in
10 year old girls after 8 weeks of sprint (running)
training and high intensity cycling respectively, 3 times
per week. The large difference between groups was
attributed to lower baseline values and a learning
effect in the cycle group, perhaps indicating that
exercise modality is an important part of training
programme design. Sport-specific components of
fitness (vertical jump; 20, 30, 40 metre sprints) have
also been shown to significantly improve after 10
weeks of plyometric training, 3 times per week, in 1213 year old footballers,17 thereby providing a clear
rationale for the inclusion of plyometric work into a
training programme for ball sports.

Training the Adolescent Athlete


Influence of High Intensity Training on Aerobic
Fitness
There is a dearth of well-controlled studies which have
assessed the influence of training on O2 peak in
adolescents. However, studies which included an
untrained control group in their study design have
documented a 9-14% increase in O2 peak which could
be attributable to aerobic training.14,59,56 An early study
which recruited 16 year old monozygotic twins (where
one was trained, and one served as an untrained
control) identified that 10 weeks of intense training
(which incorporated exhaustive and maximum effort
running and cycling) significantly increased O2 peak by
~20%.62 However, only 4 pairs of twins were recruited
for this age group in this study, so the magnitude of
this change should be interpreted with caution.
A recent study which employed a school-based, 7 week
high-intensity interval training programme
demonstrated significant improvements in the 20 m
Multi Stage Fitness Test (or Bleep Test), 10 m sprint
time, counter-movement jump height and agility in 16
year olds.12 Crucially, no special equipment was
required for this training protocol; participants were
merely instructed to perform maximal 30 s sprints
within a 20 m area 4-6 times, each separated by 30 s,
a total of 3 times per week. In the same study, these
data were compared to a group who performed 20
minutes of running at 70% of their predicted O2 max,
and whilst these parameters of fitness also improved,
there were no significant differences between the two
groups, despite a total exercise time of 63 and 420
minutes in the high-intensity interval and moderate
intensity group respectively. Thus, significant
improvements in markers of fitness were observed
within a school environment, despite minimal exercise
time and equipment. These observations point to the
fact that if the intensity is high enough and the quality
of the training good enough, young people can improve
when the duration of the training is significantly
reduced.

demonstrated that both male and female adolescents


can benefit from structured resistance training,10,47
although no empirical data describing optimum training
strategies for strength and power in these populations
are currently available. Kasabalis et al.30 suggested that
anaerobic power in adolescents (15-16 years) may be
less trainable than prepubertals (10-11 years),
however this study recruited elite male volleyball
players and therefore it may not be appropriate to
extrapolate these inferences to other adolescent
populations.
A common concern for coaches is how to dedicate
training time in order to develop one parameter of
fitness, without sacrificing performance elsewhere. The
development of anaerobic fitness components (power,
strength, repeated sprint ability) can be an important
attribute for performance across a wide range of
competitive sports. Mikkola et al.44 demonstrated that
by replacing ~20 % of the training time dedicated to
improving aerobic fitness with explosive strength,
jumping and sprint exercises for 8 weeks, adolescent
endurance runners improved their maximal aerobic
running test score and 30 m sprint time without
detriment to maximal aerobic running speed, running
economy or O2 max. Additionally, no significant
differences between the aerobic fitness of the
experimental group compared to a control group, which
maintained their normal training, were found.
For sports performance it has been suggested that as
little as 2 sessions of resistance training a week may
promote strength improvements during preseason,
which can be maintained by the incorporation of 1
session per week during the competitive season.16
Plyometric exercises (stretch-shortening movements
such as bounding) have been shown to improve jump
height in junior basketball players,39 and Faigenbaum et
al.21 demonstrated that the inclusion of plyometric
exercises into a resistance training protocol twice a
week significantly increased markers of upper and
lower body power, and agility more than resistance
training alone. Considering that the safety of
plyometric training is well established in this
population20 and that these exercises have been
purported to prevent injury,35 many coaches are
incorporating these drills into their programme design.

Training the Elite Young Athlete

Influence of High Intensity Training on Strength


and Power

Elite young athletes are characterised by greater O2 peak


values than their untrained peers,4,53,55 however, this
information is almost entirely based upon cross-sectional
study designs, which cannot infer a causal relationship
between training and O2 peak. In other words, these
studies do not identify whether youths with higher O2 peak
values are selected for elite competition, or if their O2 peak
is increased through training. It has been speculated that
baseline fitness levels may determine the magnitude of
increase in O2 peak after training,39,60 perhaps accounting
for ~52% of the variation in any change observed.36
Whilst this relationship has been refuted elsewhere,46,54
logically O2 peak value cannot be improved indefinitely with
training. Instead, many coaches therefore, ensure that
adequate time is spent on the development of skills and
techniques in conjunction with fitness training, rather than
the sole development of aerobic capacity.

There is a paucity of data describing the influence of


well-controlled training regimes on the development of
strength and power in this population. It has been

Data on elite young athletes suggest that


improvements in O2 peak can be made when training is
supplemented with high-intensity interval running. A
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study which recruited nineteen 18 year old Norwegian


footballers indicated that 4 minutes of running at 9095% HRmax with 3 minutes recovery at 50-60% HRmax
performed twice a week for 8 weeks, in addition to
their regular training, promoted a ~10% increase in
O2 peak when compared to members of the squad who
did not supplement their training with this
programme.28 A study which also incorporated highintensity running (12-24 repetitions of 15 second runs
twice a week for 10 weeks) in elite adolescent handball
players identified significant improvements in several
sport-specific parameters of fitness, including repeated
sprint ability and final score achieved during an
incremental, exhaustive shuttle run test.13 It would
appear that this type of intense, maximal or near
maximal, interval design can be incorporated into a
training programme for elite young athletes.
In order to preserve the safety of young athletes, and
to promote responses to training, protocol adherence
and enjoyment, it is imperative that coaching is
performed with the individual in mind. Coach education
programmes have long espoused the facts that
chronological age does not infer biological age, and
that considerable physiological and psychological
variations exist in two youngsters who are the same
age. At its worst the biological difference between the
two youngsters could be as high as six years.
Additionally, coaches should be aware that evidence
suggests 20-30% of elite young athletes may
experience symptoms of overtraining, including muscle
soreness, sleep disturbance, loss of appetite, malaise,
a reduction in self-confidence and ability to focus.32,41
Overtraining is a complex phenomenon and should
therefore be dealt with on an individual and holistic
basis.40

Key Points for Coaches


This short review highlights that young athletes require
greater intensities than adults to elicit improvements in
aerobic capacity and that high intensity is a viable
method of training. High-intensity, intermittent exercise
has been shown to be a time efficient strategy to
increase aerobic fitness, sprint speed and agility in this
population, primarily because it enables higher
intensity work to be repeatedly performed compared to
steady state exercise.8,67
Coaches should be aware that youths are
characterised by a quicker ability to recover from
high-intensity exercise, and may therefore respond
better than adults to shorter rest periods.49,50
A repeated sprint shuttle design demands minimum
equipment or facilities and can be implemented into a
school-based exercise programme and can
supplement ongoing training programmes. A
repeated sprint protocol incorporating several lanes
of different lengths, thereby tailoring each individual
within the group, is one practical approach for teams.
This approach enables the coach to train a whole
team effectively, which would likely promote team
cohesion. Sport specific skills could also be employed
in this design, whilst the work:rest intervals (1:1
1:6) would allow the coach to provide any feedback.
Structured training in youths can improve strength
and power greater than can be attributable to
maturation alone.
Coaches should note that current evidence does not
indicate that resistance training or high-intensity
exercise promotes injury or retard growth and

maturation in children; it is the implementation of


unsupervised training regimes which incorporate a
higher risk, training frequency and maximal loads
which are not recommended.
Optimum training protocols have currently not been
established, so presently three sets of 10-15
repetitions at a moderate load, 2-3 times per week
for >8 weeks promote larger gains in strength than
lower volume programmes.
For the development of power, an anaerobic
programme should incorporate high-intensity
activities (>90% maximum effort) such as sprinting
or sprint cycling for 20-30 s, together with the use of
plyometrics. Each session should last approximately 1
hour and be performed 3 times a week and we
recommend making use of sports specific drills and
tasks wherever possible.

Conclusion
Compared to aerobic training in children and
adolescents less is known about high intensity training.
However, the increasing number of high intensity
studies has shown that children and adolescents are
able to cope with the demands of this type of training.
High intensity training, especially of an intermittent
nature, has been shown to improve anaerobic power,
strength and speed, as well as aerobic fitness. There
appears to be no physiological or injury data which
would preclude high intensity training being utilised as
part of a balanced training programme. More studies
are needed to verify the influence of the frequency and
duration of high intensity training in both sexes.

References
1.

Armstrong N. and Welsman J.R. Peak oxygen uptake in


relation to growth an maturation. Eur J Appl Physiol, 28:
259-265, 2001.
2. Armstrong N. and Welsman J.R. Assessment and
interpretation of aerobic fitness in children and adolescents.
Exerc Sports Sci Rev, 22: 435-476, 1994.
3. Armstrong N. and Welsman J.R. Training young athletes.
In Lee, M. (Ed.): Coaching children in sport. Spon, London,
1993, pp 64-67.
4. Armstrong N. and Davies B. An ergometric analysis of age
group swimmers. Br J Sports Med, 15: 20-26, 1981.
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Promoting Integrative
Youth Physical
Development In The
United States
David Stodden, PhD, CSCS; Rick Howard, MEd, CSCS*D; Avery D. Faigenbaum, EdD, CSCS;
Cheryl Richardson, MSc, CSCS; Larry Meadors, PhD, CSCS*D, NSCA-CPT*D, RSCC*E, ASCC;
Whitney Moore, ABD, CSCS*D; Joseph Molony, PT, MSc, SCS, CSCS; Patrick McHenry, MA,
CSCS*D; Jessica Graziano, PT, DPT, CSCS; Pat Cullen-Carroll, MEd, CSCS

In the United States, as well as internationally, strength and conditioning


professionals are faced with the paradox of increased sports participation,
decreased levels of physical activity, and increased rates of obesity. To
combat these current disturbing trends among our youth that may lead to
even greater health risks and negative health outcomes into adulthood, we
propose an integrated youth physical development model that includes;
developmentally appropriate instruction for all youth in health-related and
skill-related fitness concepts, general and specific activities that develop
motor skill competence, and attention to success-based participation in
physical activity, strength and conditioning and sports.

Youth Physical Activity Trends in the United States


In 1992, the American College of Sports Medicine and the Centres for Disease Control
and Prevention, in cooperation with the Presidents Council on Physical Fitness and
Sports issued a statement supporting the health benefits of regular participation in
physical activity (PA).65,72 More recent youth recommendations for PA include, not only
60 minutes of moderate to vigorous PA every day, but also muscle strengthening and
bone strengthening activities at least 3 days per week.73,78 The health benefits of PA
are well established in adults, but the relationship in youth is contingent on continued
involvement in PA over time,7 as PA and fitness habits are developed during the
preadolescent years.48 A specific focus on establishing long-term interest and
adherence to PA should concentrate on promoting the development of requisite
cognitive and behavioral skills to be active across childhood, adolescence and into
adulthood.74

Rick Howard serves on the National Strength and


Conditioning Association (NSCA) Youth Special
Interest Group as a founding member and Immediate
Past-Chair, as well as the Mid-Atlantic Regional
Programme Coordinator. He is also very actively
involved with the American Alliance for Health,
Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, where he
serves as Immediate Past-Chair of the National
Association for Sport and Physical Education Sport
Steering Committee and the Chair of the Lets Move
in School Advisory Committee. He is certified with
distinction by the NSCA, and is involved in many
pursuits that advance knowledge, skills, and coaching
education to help all children enjoy lifelong physical
activity and sports participation.

Dave Stodden is an Associate Professor


at Texas Tech University. His research
focuses on promoting the acquisition of
fundamental motor skills and its
relationship to positive youth physical
development trajectories. He also
focuses on the long-term effects of
strength and conditioning programmes
in collegiate athletics. Dave has
coached various sports at youth and
high school levels, and formerly was a
strength and conditioning coach and
consultant for the Cleveland Indians
organisation of Major League Baseball
(MLB).

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Unfortunately, recent data suggest that the decline in


PA appears to emerge at 6 years-of-age14,61 and
continues to decline across childhood and
adolescence.53 Although youth are more active than
adults, many youth do not engage in recommended
levels of PA. In addition, boys, as compared to girls,
engage in more daily PA across childhood and
adolescence.53,17 Directly related to the decline in PA are
increased obesity rates among youth, which are
associated with additional proximal (youth) and distal
(adulthood) health risks and negative health
outcomes.67 The Centres for Disease Control17 report
that 17% (12.5 million) of children and adolescents
(aged 2-19 years) in the United States are currently
obese.
There is a critical need to understand the underlying
mechanisms that promote positive or sustained PA and
health-related physical fitness trajectories across
childhood and adolescence, as well as reverse the
trend for increasing youth obesity. The focus of this
paper is to provide new insight, with support from
emerging research that focuses on combating these
current disturbing trends among our youth that may
lead to even greater health risks and negative health
outcomes into adulthood. Our specific focus will
address the promotion of an integrative youth physical
development (IYPD) model that highlights the need to
focus not only on general PA, but the synergistic and
recursive relationships among the development of
health-related fitness (i.e., muscular strength,
muscular endurance, and cardiorespiratory endurance),
motor skill competence (MSC), and psychological
attributes that occur across time. We assert that this
comprehensive approach will provide a foundation to
promote positive trajectories of PA and body
composition levels across childhood, adolescence and

possibly into adulthood. The following rationale also


supports the notion that IYPD needs to be implemented
during childhood as their predisposition towards a
physically active lifestyle begins early in life.

Integrative Youth Physical Development:


Developmental Concepts and Applications
Stodden et al.71 proposed that motor skill competence
(MSC), health-related physical fitness aspects
(muscular strength, muscular endurance, and
cardiorespiratory endurance), and perceived
competence, interact dynamically across childhood and
adolescence and will likely influence positive or
negative trajectories of PA and obesity levels (see
Figure 1). The recursive nature of the model suggests
relationship strengths among variables in the model
will increase over time. Recent experimental,
longitudinal and cross-sectional evidence generally
support the various hypothesised relationships among
variables in the model.21,47,62,45,46 Below we provide the
rationale for mechanisms underlying these relationships
and how to integrate these aspects synergistically into
youth physical development. As a caveat, it is
acknowledged that the model does not represent all
variables that influence positive youth physical
development, as nutrition, energy balance, coaching
and a supportive and positive environment are other
important factors that will influence long-term
developmental trajectories of physical activity, obesity,
and the reduction of injury risk.

Relationships among MSC, Muscular


Strength/Endurance and Cardiorespiratory
Endurance
Surprisingly, a limited number of studies have
addressed relationships among MSC and various

Figure 1. EC = Early Childhood, MC = Middle Childhood, LC = Late Childhood.

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well as higher performance levels.38,49 Paralleling the


literature related to plyometric training, the
development of fundamental motor skills requires the
development of advanced coordination and control of
an individuals entire body mass and extremities in a
gravity based environment with an increased demand
for high eccentric and concentric muscle activity
levels and resultant strength and power
outputs.24,42,15,70,51 In addition, repeated high muscle
activity associated with practice and performance of
fundamental MSC in games, sports, and plyometric
training activities also promotes muscular
endurance.41 Persistent participation in these types of
activities (e.g., physical education games, soccer,
aerobic dance, roller-skating, tennis, basketball,
baseball) should also promote cardiorespiratory
endurance.47 Thus, the promotion of fundamental
motor skill development and associated activities
inherently involving these skills, in conjunction with
developmentally appropriate resistance training,
addresses critical health-related fitness components.

Relationship Trajectories of MSC and Body


Composition

aspects of health-related physical fitness in children


and adolescents. Explained variance in fitness by MSC
also has been reported to range from weak to strong
with flexibility generally demonstrating the weakest
relationships (i.e., r2 = .01-.79).33,9,10,16,63,70 However,
relationship strengths generally increase across age,
providing additional support for this aspect of the
model by Stodden et al.71
The apparent relationship trajectories among MSC
development and muscle strength and power in youth
can be better understood by addressing similarities in
neuromuscular adaptations. Overall, the parallel
mechanisms and principles underlying resistance
training and motor skill development provide a unique
opportunity to promote youth physical development
that have not been fully explored. In essence,
fundamental object control (e.g., throwing, kicking
and striking) and locomotor (e.g., jumping, hopping
and skipping) skills are also described as low to
moderate level plyometric activities in paediatric
strength and conditioning literature.18,28,38
Unfortunately, the link between motor development
and plyometric training is not well understood, and
until recently44 has not been addressed in previous
literature. Of specific importance, the development of
many fundamental object control and locomotor skills
(i.e., plyometric training) involve multijoint ballistic
movements and promote reorganisation of the
neuromuscular system, including improved
neuromuscular coordination and control. This
reorganisation promotes increases in strength and
power output, improved dynamic joint stability, as

Cross-sectional and longitudinal research has


demonstrated body composition trajectories (e.g. BMI
and %body fat) are inversely associated with MSC
levels across childhood and into adolescence,40,62,45,46,21,22
as well as early adulthood (70). Overall, body
composition status, as an important health outcome
variable for youth physical development, may be
viewed as a product of the interaction of the variables
within the model, and body composition status will
reciprocally influence these relationships over
time.71,22,45,21 In essence, youth caught in a negative
developmental trajectory demonstrate lower MSC,
physical fitness, and PA, possibly leading to higher
obesity rates across time. Youth with high obesity
rates also will have greater difficulty performing a
variety of physical activities that inherently involve
MSC.21,22 Stodden et al.71 proposed that youth with low
MSC and higher obesity will demonstrate decreased
participation in PA because (a) they understand they
are not as competent as peers,31,37,75 (b) they do not
want to publicly display low motor skill
competence,37,75 and (c) they have a limited motor
repertoire and will be less motivated to participate in
physical activities that demand high competence
levels. The previous statement addresses the critical
psychological component of motivational attributes in
the model.

Psychological Influences on Youth Physical


Development
Motivation to participate in various physical activities is
critical for positive youth physical development
trajectories. Self-efficacy and competence motivation
theories4,5,35 address the role that perceptions of
competence and mastery experiences play in
promoting and maintaining positive behaviours.
According to Harter,34 behaviour can be explained and
predicted by perceived competence and mastery
competence. Developing skills will augment perceived
competence, which in turn will promote participation
interest and actual performance.30 Bandura6 also
suggests positive mastery experiences will promote
self-efficacy and strongly influence a childs
engagement in a certain activity. Mastery experiences
are fostered when coaches and teachers promote a
positive and individually based learning environment

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using positive and informative feedback for skill


learning, which promotes intrinsic motivation to learn
skills.3,60 Promoting this type of environment
significantly enhances perceived enjoyment, effort and
intrinsic motivation by allowing youth to select
appropriately challenging tasks.59,69 The lack of
fundamental MSC and fitness development in childhood
may severely hinder future motivation to participate in
a variety of recreational, fitness and sport activities
that inherently demand a certain level of competence
to be successful in adolescence and beyond. Individuals
with higher MSC and self-efficacy are more likely to
actually perform at a high level, try new behaviours,
demonstrate high levels of effort and persevere longer
when they encounter challenges.4,6 Collectively, the
development of MSC, physical fitness and the
concomitant development of perceived competence and
self-efficacy will have a direct effect on performance
and an indirect effect on participation adherence in
PA.8,9,10,47
Overall, emerging research demonstrates relationship
strengths among variables in the model increase, which
supports the notion of positive and negative
developmental trajectories over time. Unfortunately,
researchers generally have not addressed these
complex issues from a developmental perspective. As
recent data indicates, we have not been successful in
reversing the negative trajectories of skill development,
PA and fitness levels, psychological attributes, and
obesity across childhood and adolescence.14,53,61 Thus,
the foundation for promoting positive trajectories of the
IYPD model demands that we address these traits and
behaviours early in life to mitigate the potential for
negative trajectories across childhood and adolescence.
If we do not address these issues from a
developmental perspective, cross-sectional and
longitudinal data suggest our capability to alter
negative trajectories is limited.

Promoting IYPD in American Schools


Opportunities for youth to attain the recommended
amount and type of physical activity (including muscle
strengthening exercises) every day exist before,
during, and after school. Pate et al.65 have
recommended that schools take a leadership role in
promoting physical activity for youth. The National
Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE)56
has identified six standards that, when met, result in a
physically educated student. These standards suggest
that a student who has the knowledge, skills and
confidence to engage in PA will enjoy a lifetime of
healthful physical activity. Two of these standards
relate directly to various aspects of physical fitness:
regular participation in physical activity, and the
achievement and maintenance of a health-enhancing
level of physical fitness. NASPE, in partnership with the
Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, have
developed a scope and sequence for fitness education54
to provide guidance for physical educators in helping
students achieve these two standards. This document
provides physical educators with specific benchmarks
that all children should meet each year from
kindergarten through to grade 16 (approximately ages
5-21). Sample benchmarks include: a) teaching and
learning of fundamental movement and fitness
techniques, b) developing an understanding of why
these types of activities are an important part of a
healthy lifestyle, and c) how to be a good consumer of
fitness-related products (i.e. gym memberships). In
addition, a unique partnership between the National
Strength and Conditioning Association and the

Resistance Training as Part of IYPD


Resistance training is an important component of safe
and effective developmentally appropriate physical
activity, whether the goal is lifelong participation in
physical activity or sports performance. A logical
solution to reverse the trends of increasing obesity and
decreased fitness and PA in children and adolescents is
to increase participation in well-designed exercise
programmes that integrate physiological, psychological,
and behavioural aspects of youth physical
development. Implementing developmentally
appropriate resistance training into these types of
exercise programmes is critical to promote a
comprehensive exercise programme.

Acceptance of Safety and Efficacy of Resistance


Training in the United States
Position statements by leading organisations1,11,25,43
support youth resistance training programmes provided
children and adolescents are willing to participate, can
listen to and follow directions, and can properly
perform resistance exercises under qualified
supervision. A growing and compelling body of
research on resistance training in youth indicates there
is a relatively low risk of injury, provided the training
programme is sensibly progressed and supervised by
qualified professionals.11,13,28,27 As a result, current public
health initiatives aim to increase the number of youth
who participate in muscle strengthening activities in
schools, recreation facilities and sports centres.73,78
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Presidents Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutrition


has established a rubric to evaluate the strength and
conditioning programme for every high school in the
US.58 The criteria include components of supervision,
education, programme and facilities.
In general, opportunities for youth to participate in
school-based intra and extramural activities outside of
the realm of youth sport are limited. Thus, many
children are not provided with adequate structured
opportunities to engage in activities promoting motor
skill, fitness or health-enhancing physical activities. To
combat these disturbing trends, NASPE has introduced
an initiative called Lets Move in School2 to ensure
that schools provide a comprehensive school physical
activity programme (with physical education as the
foundation). This initiative strives to promote various
types of physical activities before, during and after
school (including fitness, motor skill and leisure PA), in
association with staff, family and community
involvement. Additional opportunities for youth
participation in a variety of activities that promote
resistance training and conditioning programmes, as
well as fundamental motor skill development, are
promoted in a variety of settings. These options
generally include: intramural sport, club sport,
developmental and elite camps, coaching clinics, as
well as competitive and recreational sport programmes
run by recreation centres and other after-school
programme providers. However, not all children can
participate in these opportunities due to various
logistical reasons (e.g., transportation and parental
support) and some options are cost prohibitive.
While there would seem to be a dichotomy in the US in
regard to the high number of youth participating in
sport and declining PA and increasing obesity,
addressing this issue from a developmental perspective
provides additional insight on how this phenomenon is
occurring. According to the Womens Sport Foundation77
69% of girls and 75% of boys in the United States still
participate in organised and team sports.
Unfortunately, 70% of youth quit youth sports by age
13.57 Reasons for this include: a) they no longer are
having fun, b) their skill is not improving, c) they burn
out, d) they suffer an injury, or e) there are issues with
coaching and/or parent behaviours. Presently, there is
no coordination of participation in quality physical
activity across programmes. The prevailing structure of
advancement from elementary level (Kindergarten-8th
grade or 5-13 years of age) to college and professional
sports is cultivated in the school system such that the
cornerstone of teaching basic skills for resistance
training and conditioning is under the purview of the
school system, specifically under physical education
teachers and sport coaches.
Although youth sport continues to be a viable means
for being physically active and improving motor skills,
participation precipitously declines as age increases
and parallels decrease in physical activity and increases
in obesity levels over time. The decrease in youth sport
participation across time provides further support for
an IYPD model that focuses on developmentally
appropriate training progressions of skill development,
various aspects of fitness (i.e., muscular strength,
muscular endurance, and cardiorespiratory endurance),
and positive psychological attributes, which will help
foster healthy weight trajectories across time. This will
hopefully lead to a decrease in the attrition rate of
youth sport (both intramural and extramural),
participation, and injury rates.12,26,36

Promoting a New Path Forward for IYPD:


Integrative Neuromuscular Training for
Youth
While a wide variety of training programmes have
proven to be safe and efficacious for youth,23,25,29,39 the
sensible integration of different training methods and
the periodic progression of programme variables should
be based upon a participants technical proficiency (i.e.,
developmental level). Adhering to these criteria will
promote an effective training stimulus that is both
challenging and enjoyable when appropriately
administered by adequately trained teachers and
coaches.51
Integrative neuromuscular training (INT), which
incorporates developmentally appropriate strength
enhancing and skill development activities, has proven
to be safe and effective in children and
adolescents.23,25,29,39 INT provides an opportunity for
youth to master fundamentals, improve movement
mechanics and gain confidence in their physical
abilities while participating in a programme that
includes variety, progression, and proper recovery.
Although no single mode of training provides the most
effective means for INT, body weight training may be
particularly beneficial for the development of
fundamental motor skills before progressing to more
advanced programmes. Also, INT that incorporates
medicine balls and dumbbells may be particularly
beneficial for enhancing muscular strength, muscular
power and core stabilisation. The cornerstone of INT is
resistance exercise that involves the progressive use of
a wide range of resistive loads, different movement
velocities, and a variety of training modalities.
In addition to improving muscular strength and local
muscular endurance, regular participation in a youth
resistance training programme can facilitate weight
control, strengthen bone, enhance coordination and
control for improved motor skill performance, and
increase a young athletes resistance to sports-related
injuries.12,26,36 Of note, the greatest risk of fracture in
youth with high levels of aerobic fitness is seen in
those with low muscle strength.19 Owing to the
apparent decline in most measures of muscular fitness
in youth over the past decade,20,50 multi-faceted
interventions which include resistance exercise are
needed to increase muscle strength, enhance
movement mechanics, and improve functional
capabilities. Regular participation in resistance exercise
may be particularly important for pre-adolescent and
adolescent girls who show little improvement in
strength, power and balance during and after puberty
without specialised training, and possess a heightened
risk of non-contact ACL injury.36,67
Of interest to physical education teachers and youth
coaches, INT provides an opportunity for sedentary
youth to learn proper exercise technique and develop
functional movement competence and confidence in
their capabilities to be successful in a variety of healthenhancing activities. Unlike prolonged periods of
prescribed aerobic exercise, which most youth find
boring and monotonous, INT is characterised by short
intervals of different exercises interspersed with brief
rest periods as needed. With qualified instruction,
constructive feedback, and a gradual progression from
simple to more complex movements, youth will be able
to develop basic resistance training and fundamental
movement skills at an accelerated rate.

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It is important to understand that promoting


developmentally appropriate training progressions and
intensities should be promoted as a function of fitness
status and skill rather than age. This distinction
between age-related training versus age-determined
training is critical, as youth of all ages demonstrate a
variety of fitness, skill, and body composition levels
due to differences in experience levels and maturity
status that will affect their capability and motivation to
participate in any exercise programme. Basic resistance
exercise technique and skill level status can be used as
developmental checks prior to the initiation of more
advanced exercises and movements. As youth increase
their muscular strength, develop proficiency in basic
movement patterns, and develop fundamental motor
skills, the integration of agility and more advanced
progressions are indicated.52 Specifically, INT activities
promote, either directly or indirectly, adequate dynamic
postural control, which is critical to advanced
performance of many multijoint resistance training and
fundamental motor skills. Consequently, the influence
of core training on force production and energy transfer
within dynamic multijoint resistance training exercise
and motor skills should be emphasised in all youth
programmes as an unstable or weak core provides a
suboptimal foundation for the development of
functional strength and MSC. Thus, an inadequate
foundation of core strength and dynamic postural
control in combination with an inappropriate
progression of resistance training may predispose
participants to injury.76,79

Challenges in Promoting IYPD


Many schools in the United States lack space,
equipment, appropriate staff and/or do not allocate
appropriate time to supervise IYPD programmes, either
before, during or after school due to critical funding
issues across the United States, especially in urban
areas. Moreover, while the majority of states mandate
physical education at all grade levels, most do not
require a specific amount of instructional time, and
about half allow exemptions, waivers, and
substitutions.55 Additionally, the implementation of
standard guidelines and recommendations for youth
resistance and conditioning is not widespread. Specific
barriers and challenges associated with incorporating
and implementing quality IYPD programmes include

inconsistent requirements for physical education


instruction, certification, and equipment. Physical
education in the elementary grades, especially in
grades K-5 (5-10 years old), is not always taught by
certified physical education teachers, and the weekly
frequency of elementary physical education is highly
variable. More than half of the states (30 out of 50)
grant exceptions/waivers for physical education that
allow students to substitute activities such as Army
Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (JROTC),
interscholastic sports, marching band, and
cheerleading, activities more common in high schools.
Minimum standards for equipment, facilities, studentto-teacher ratios and professional practice for physical
education and resistance training are not clearly
understood or implemented across the United States.
More data are clearly needed to understand the extent
to which foundational resistance training and
conditioning and motor skill concepts are being taught
in physical education classes and after-school sport
programmes, and to better comprehend how well those
concepts are being integrated into teaching and
coaching preparation programmes at colleges and
universities.

Conclusions and Recommendations


Although there is a plethora of research and public
health statements indicating the type of physical
activity our youngsters should participate in, a growing
number of children and adolescents are not meeting
current recommendations for PA that are associated
with positive health outcomes. Promoting positive
trajectories of motor skill competence, physical fitness,
and positive psychological attributes with
developmentally appropriate exercise programmes (i.e.
INT) will likely promote a positive and sustainable
influence on: a) adherence to PA, b) a healthy weight
status, and c) metabolic and bone health in school age
youth.32,64 With the support of qualified fitness
professionals who understand the fundamental
principles of paediatric exercise science, all school age
youth should be provided with positive and motivating
experiences to improve their physical fitness and MSC
while gaining confidence in their abilities to participate
in a variety of physical activities as an ongoing lifestyle
choice. If progressed appropriately, INT would promote
a synergistic and motivating environment that both

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directly and indirectly relates to the development of


various physiological, behavioural, and psychological
components of youth physical development. However,
developmentally appropriate integration of these
concepts, which should be tailored to the specific needs
of individuals, is critical for promoting positive youth
physical development trajectories.
We propose that all physical educators, strength and
conditioning coaches, sport coaches, physical
therapists, public health practitioners, and athletic
trainers encourage and promote daily participation in
developmentally appropriate youth physical
development activities. As a result, we believe a
growing number of youth of all ages would participate
in school- and community-based IYPD programmes
that would promote health and success for current and
future generations.
Please address all correspondence to Lead Author:
David Stodden, Ph.D, Associate Professor, Department
of Health, Exercise, & Sport Sciences, Box 43011,
Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409-3011.

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Zazulak, B., Cholewicki, J., & Reeves, P. Neuromuscular
control of trunk stability: clinical applications for sports
injury prevention. Journal of the American Academy of
Orthopaedic Surgeons, 16, 497-505. 2008.

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Long-term Athlete
Development and
Trainability during
Childhood: a Brief Review
Jon L. Oliver1, PhD, Rhodri S. Lloyd2, PhD, ASCC, CSCS*D
Introduction
Maximising the development of young athletes is the goal of many coaches and sports
systems, with the aim to ultimately increase future sporting success at the elite senior
level.39 Consequently, the requirement to identify methods by which talent can be
nurtured is of paramount importance for coaches and practitioners.25 Although talent
development is recognised as a multidisciplinary concept, encompassing the need for
biological, social and psychological factors to be considered,1 talent development
programmes predominantly focus on the development of physical athletic abilities
throughout childhood.15 Such an approach has been widely criticised in contemporary
literature1,4,25,40 due to the need to promote the holistic development of youth athletes.
However, this should not detract from the importance of maximising physical fitness
development of young athletes, but simply act as a reminder that coaches should also
consider other aspects of talent development.
Developing the fitness and performance of child athletes can be a complex issue;
factors such as the growth and maturation of anatomical, neurological, hormonal and
musculoskeletal structure and function should be considered in the planning and
design of physical training programmes.37 Although long-term athlete development
models are not a novel concept (e.g.11,42), only recently have attempts been made to
incorporate the interaction of training, growth and maturation within a model.3 In the
popular Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) model of Balyi and co-workers,2,3
training principles are combined with a scientific knowledge of childhood development.
The LTAD model prescribes the objective measurement of individual maturation rates,
via measures such as peak height and peak weight velocity, to allow training to be
associated with the timing and tempo of maturation. The LTAD model has provided a
greater scientific basis to the structure of training programmes for child athletes, and
has advanced previous practice based around chronological age classification, which
has been suggested to be inherently flawed.25
The suggested link between childhood development and training responsiveness
presented in the LTAD model is an appealing concept, as it provides coaches with a
prescriptive model of how to maximise physical fitness development. Consequently,
the LTAD model has received global popularity and has been adopted by most

Jon L. Oliver is currently a


lecturer in Sport and
Exercise Physiology at
Cardiff Metropolitan
University, UK. He has
previously served as the
convenor of the British
Association of Sport and
Exercise Sciences
(BASES) Paediatric
Special Interest Group,
and has published widely
in the fields of long-term
athlete development and
paediatric exercise
science.

Rhodri S. Lloyd is a senior lecturer in


Strength and Conditioning at the
University of Gloucestershire. He is a
fully accredited strength and conditioning
coach with the UKSCA, and holds
certified strength and conditioning status
with distinction from the NSCA. Rhodri's
research interests surround strength and
conditioning for young athletes, and the
application of long-term athlete
development models in the physical
preparation of youths. Elected onto the
USKCA Board of Directors in 2011, he is
the inaugural convenor of the UKSCA
Youth Training Special Interest Group,
and is paediatric lead for the association.

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National Governing Bodies within the UK and is


promoted by Sports Coach UK. Although contemporary
coaching texts have advocated the implementation of
the LTAD model,4,5 academic reviews of the model have
been much more critical.1,25 Criticism of the LTAD model
is based on the lack of empirical evidence, particularly
longitudinal data, to support claims suggested by the
model. These claims include that there are windows of
opportunity when training gains can be maximised and
that a failure to exploit these windows will limit future
potential. The strength and conditioning coach should
have an awareness of the limitations of the LTAD model
and an appreciation that this model should continually
be evolved and adapted with advancing scientific
knowledge. An additional criticism is the narrow focus
of the model, which only identifies five components of
fitness to be developed during childhood; skill,
suppleness, speed, stamina and strength.25,34

The theory of long-term athlete


development: accelerated adaptation and
windows of opportunity
Development during childhood generally follows a nonlinear process, with periods of little or no change
interspersed by periods of rapid development, with the
latter reflecting a process of accelerated adaption. Such
a process can easily be observed with height, but is
also clear in the development of components of
physical fitness.37 In a comprehensive review of
childhood literature, Viru et al.51 identified two periods
of rapid development either side of the onset of
puberty in various components of fitness (endurance,
strength, explosive strength and speed). In the preadolescent spurt boys and girls rapidly improved all
areas of fitness from five to nine years old, whereas in
the adolescent spurt, the timing of gains were
observed before (speed), around (endurance) and post
(strength and explosive strength) the occurrence of
peak height velocity (PHV). Subsequently, the
preadolescent spurt has been associated with rapid
neural development and the adolescent spurt with a
trigger provided by the onset of sexual maturation and
subsequent alteration to the endocrine system.25

Accelerated improvements in physical fitness during


childhood will be underpinned by the rapid development
of neural, biological and hormonal systems.37 It is
believed that while these systems are experiencing rapid
natural development, they will be most sensitive to
extraneous influences, such as the environment,
nutrition and training.46,51 Consequently, Balyi and coworkers2,3 present these periods of naturally occurring
accelerated adaptation as a window of opportunity
when training gains can be maximised. In fact, it is
claimed in the LTAD model that a failure to fully utilise
these windows will limit future potential, although this is
a claim that has previously been questioned1,25 and is
almost impossible to investigate experimentally.
Therefore, it must be recognised that the LTAD model is
a theory driven model that assumes an association
between natural developmental rates and training
responsiveness. Although the theory may appear robust,
practice should be evidence-based wherever possible.

Trainability during Childhood


While the LTAD model presents windows when it is
suggested a child will be more responsive to specific
types of training, direct evidence to support this claim
is limited. Ideally, research would examine the training
gains made by child populations differing in age and
maturation to successfully identify developmental
interactions with training. The existence of such
research is limited and is experimentally difficult to
control (for example to match training loads across
populations). Consequently, coaches, practitioners and
scientists are largely limited to considering a range of
evidence provided by discrete cross-sectional studies
that examine some aspect of training in childhood.25 A
brief review of the trainability of the major components
of fitness during childhood is provided below.

Endurance
Growth related changes in the central and peripheral
cardiovascular system, muscle function, cellular
capacity, body composition and metabolic capability will
influence endurance development during childhood and
will interact with training stimuli.43 Conflicting results
have been reported with regards to trainability of

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endurance in childhood. For instance, Weber et al.53


reported greater responsiveness to training in the
years surrounding PHV, as opposed to at the time of
PHV, while Rowland43 identified large training gains in
the years prior to PHV. Variations in findings are
inevitably associated with experimental design, often
failing to control for factors such as initial fitness,
magnitude of the training stimulus and genetics.25
Consequently, Ford et al.25 recently concluded that
current evidence limits direct investigation of a window
of opportunity for endurance training, meaning that
current application of any window by practitioners is
inappropriate. Baquet et al.6 provided a comprehensive
review of the trainability of maximal oxygen uptake
during childhood, although their study highlighted the
lack of studies incorporating participants around the
time of PHV, the exact period when a window of
opportunity is suggested to exist.3 The review of
Baquet et al.6 revealed that pre, circum and postpubescent children could all make similar gains in peak
oxygen uptake. Additionally, factors such as initial
fitness, training intensity, duration and frequency of
training were all shown to influence the training
response. It is possible that the adaptations which
facilitate any improved function or performance vary
with maturation, so whereas all children may be able to
make gains, the training-induced adaptations which
underpin these gains may vary. Unfortunately, research
examining the biological mechanisms underpinning
training adaptations is extremely sparse. Given the
above, the authors of this review agree with the
recommendations of both Baquet et al.6 and
Shephard,48 that endurance should be actively
developed throughout childhood and adolescence.

Speed
Windows of opportunity for developing speed are
associated solely with chronological age in the LTAD
model, probably aligned to the role of central nervous
system development in speed gains.12 However, it
seems likely that maturational changes in muscletendon size, structure and function will also influence
the training response.25,51 In a recent review, Rumpf et
al.44 examined the effect of maturation and different
training modalities on trainability during childhood.
From the limited number of studies available, (n = 15)
the authors concluded that children pre-PHV benefited
most from plyometric and then sprint training, children
circum-PHV benefited most from plyometric and then
strength training, and children post-PHV benefited most
from combined training methods (e.g. strength +
plyometric training) and then strength training alone.
The findings from the Rumpf et al.44 review partly
support and partly refute the theory of windows of
opportunity. The review demonstrated that speed was
a trainable entity throughout childhood, suggesting
there are no specific windows of opportunity. However,
the differential response to different training regimes
with maturation suggests that training adaptations
appear to align themselves to mechanisms that are
believed to underpin natural development at different
stages of childhood. Children who were pre-PHV
benefited most from training that has a primarily
neural basis, whereas children post-PHV benefited from
training that aims to strengthen the muscle and adapt
morphological characteristics. However, the fact that
some training-induced benefits in speed that are linked
to maturation can be rapidly lost with a period of
detraining,13,26 questions the need to maximise gains
within a specific window. Instead, it is more likely that

training history needs to be continually accumulated to


maintain and progress any training benefits achieved
during each stage of development.

Strength
Strength has been defined as a multifaceted,
performance-related fitness component that is
underpinned by muscular, neural and mechanical
factors.20 In the LTAD model, a window of opportunity
for strength development is given in the period
immediately post-PHV, which would coincide with peak
weight velocity and a time when children are naturally
experiencing rapid gains in muscle mass.37 Therefore, it
seems likely that the LTAD model is actually presenting
a window of opportunity for hypertrophy rather than
strength development. A focus on hypertrophy would
be a limited perspective as the assumption that muscle
cross-sectional area is the most important parameter in
strength development throughout childhood and
adolescence does not hold when examined with other
variables.19 For instance, increases in stature and limb
length and subsequent changes in the muscle
movement arm will have a substantial affect on
strength development.54
It seems logical to speculate that the absence of
circulating androgens will limit the ability to make
training-related increases in muscle size prior to
adolescence, although direct evidence to support this
statement is limited. However, the belief that strength
gains are not achievable with training prior to the
biological trigger provided by sexual maturation32
seems unfounded. For instance, it has been
demonstrated that children as young as five can
achieve strength gains with training.23 Granacher et al.30
reported that gains in leg strength in pre-pubescent
children following a 10-week training programme were
neural in basis, rather than being caused by
hypertrophy. Even though these findings are largely as
expected, it should be noted that the authors included
3-4 minutes rest between sets, and given children are
known to recover rapidly, it seems such a programme

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training induced gains in power.14 Chiodera et al.17


reported that boys and girls aged 6-10 years old were
able to make significant improvements in long-jump
distance following a 33-week training programme.
Similarly, a 10-week plyometric training programme
has been shown to significantly increase the upper and
lower body power of adolescent basketball players.45 A
study by Lloyd et al.35 found plyometric training could
improve reactive strength and leg stiffness in as little
as four weeks in 12 and 15 year old boys.
Consequently, evidence suggests that power is, at least
to some extent, trainable throughout childhood.

Fundamental Movement Skills

would provide an insufficient stimulus to cause


hypertrophy. Of three experimental studies available
that have examined the influence of maturation on
training related strength gains, two reported no
maturational effect,33,41 while one, reported
maturational influences that differed with the muscle
group tested.52 Consequently, these limited studies
provide little support for the window of opportunity for
strength given in the LTAD model, although it may be
more justified if solely focused on hypertrophy.

Power
Although power is deemed a prerequisite for successful
performance in many sports, it is absent from the LTAD
model. This may be because the component parts of
power (speed and strength) are included in the model.
However, given that the goal of many training
programmes is to specifically increase power, arguably
this should be a key component of any long-term
strength and conditioning plan. A strong relationship
(r=0.95) has been reported between growth rates of
11-13 year old children and vertical jump performance,
which is an indirect measure of lower limb power.16
Rapid improvements in muscle power during
adolescence have therefore been associated with
maturational influences.10 Unfortunately, there are very
few studies which have specifically examined the
trainability of power with respect to age and
maturation. This has led to the conclusion that it is
difficult to identify whether a window of opportunity
exists to maximise power development.25 What seems
clear is that younger and older children can experience

The development of fundamental and sport-specific


movement skills enhances physical literacy, and
enables children to move confidently in a wide range of
physical activity, rhythmic and sporting situations.31
Fundamental movement skills provide the basic
building blocks for developing physical literacy, and
incorporate activities designed to enhance stability
(e.g. balancing, twisting, turning), locomotor skills
(e.g. walking, running, hopping) and manipulative skills
(e.g. throwing, catching, kicking).31 Development of
fundamental movement skills is typically considered
from birth until 12 years of age,27,31 which is reflected in
the LTAD model. Accelerated gains in movement skills
may coincide with peak rates of brain maturation in
children,25 with motor skill ability related to brain
development in childhood.24 However, there is limited
evidence regarding the influence of age and maturation
on the trainability of movement skills. Research in
music shows that continued piano practice is associated
with cerebral development.8 The level of development
is correlated to the total amount of practice time.
Children, adolescents and adults all experience gains in
cerebral development but the underpinning
mechanisms associated with these gains vary
dependent on maturation.8
In a more sport-specific context, fundamental
movement skill interventions have proven successful in
the short-term at improving motor proficiency, but
follow-up examination of long-term improvements in
motor abilities and physical activity levels is
equivocal.7,29,49 These results question the long-term
benefits achieved by discrete training periods during
windows of opportunity and suggest a need to
continually reinforce and progress movement skills with
training. While intuitively it seems appealing to accept
that movement skills are more easily learnt during the
first decade of life, it is difficult to find direct evidence
to support this. What research does seem to support is
that fundamental movement and sports-skills should be
systematically coached to children.27,49 Additionally,
fundamental movement skills need to be learnt during
childhood to prevent a proficiency barrier impeding
progression to the learning of more complex skills.28
While older children and adults may still be receptive to
learning new movement skills it seems desirable to
promote the development of fundamental movement
skills from a young age.

Training Volumes
How much training a child athlete should engage in is a
contentious issue. The LTAD model of Balyi and coworkers2,3 adopts the philosophy of Ericsson,21 believing
that it takes 10,000 hours or 10 years of deliberate
practice to achieve mastery and reach the elite level.
Recently, Moesch et al.38 used athlete recall to examine

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childhood training volumes in elite and near-elite senior


athletes involved in sports measured in centimeters,
grams and seconds; sports that would be considered to
have a strong association with physical development.
Their research revealed that those who reached an elite
status trained less in earlier childhood than those who
failed to reach an elite level, but increased their training
more than their non-elite counterparts in late
adolescence. Although only a single study, the research
of Moesch et al.38 suggests an important role for the
organisation of training; with a preference towards late
specialisation and a crucial period for increasing training
volumes in the mid teenage years to progress to an elite
level. This finding supports the model of Ct and Hay,18
which suggests youngsters sample a variety of sports
between 6-12 years old, begin to specialise in a chosen
sport(s) between 13-15 years old and then invest
heavily in a sport from 16 years onwards if committed to
achieving excellence. However, it should be noted that
this approach may be less applicable to those sports
considered to be early specialisation sports.

windows will limit future potential, or that it takes


10,000 hours or 10 years of training to reach the elite
level. Consequently, some skepticism has to be applied.
From the various discrete studies that are available on
training responses during childhood, there is a
promising trend that suggests children of all ages and
maturation can make training induced gains in fitness
and this is reflected in the contemporary Youth Physical
Development model.34 The mechanisms that underpin
these gains may vary with maturation, but this is a
speculative suggestion. Consequently, the strength and
conditioning coach can have a positive impact on
developing all aspects of fitness throughout childhood,
although consideration must be given to the
developmental status of the child and likely training
adaptations when designing the relevant training
programmes.

Practical Applications: Implementation Of


The Youth Physical Development (YPD)
Model

2.

In an attempt to address the limitations associated


with current LTAD theory, the authors have recently
proposed a new model for long-term athletic
development, termed the Youth Physical Development
(YPD) model.34 The new model was designed to enable
a more holistic development of the young athlete,
including those qualities already identified by previous
models, but also other important aspects of human
performance, including mobility, agility and power. The
YPD model takes into account the most up-to-date
research, which suggests all fitness components are
trainable throughout childhood. The model
acknowledges that prepubertal adaptations in
performance will be primarily attributed to neural
developments, while those occurring around the onset
of, during, and post-puberty will be a combination of
both neural and architectural changes.34 Central to the
model is a large emphasis on the development of
muscular strength and movement competency
throughout both childhood and adolescence, which
challenges previous LTAD theory.3 Muscular strength
development via resistance training has previously
been associated with physical performance
enhancement,22 improving markers of health and
wellbeing,9,47 and reducing the risk of sport-related
injury.50 Furthermore, motor skill competency has
previously been associated with higher physical activity
levels and improved well-being.36 Consequently, these
qualities are viewed as the major fitness commodities
within the YPD model.34

References
1.

3.

4.
5.
6.

7.

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Summary
Current practice in developing the physical fitness and
talent of young athletes in the UK is heavily influenced
by the Balyi LTAD model. While the introduction of the
Balyi model provided a greater scientific basis for the
training of children it has to be recognised as a largely
theoretical model. The content of the Balyi LTAD model
has remained largely unchanged over the last decade,
although it has come under more scrutiny in recent
academic reviews.1,25 A body of evidence is currently
not available to demonstrate that children are more
responsive to training during windows of opportunity,
that failure to maximise development during these

14.

15.

16.

Bailey, R., Collins, D., Ford, P., MacNamara, A., Toms, M.


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Rumpf, M. C., Cronin, J. B., Oliver, J. L. & Hughes, M. G.
Effect of different training methods on running sprint times
in male youth. Pediatr Exerc Sci, 24, 170-186, 2012.
Santos, E. J. & Janeira, M. A. (in press). The effects of
resistance training on explosive strength indicators in
adolescent basketball players. J Strength Cond Res.
Scott, J. P. Critical periods in organizational process. In F.
Faulkner and J. M. Tanner (Ed.), Human growth a
comprehensive treatise volume 1, developmental biology,
prenatal growth (pp. 181-196). New York: Plenum Press,
1986.
Shaibi, G. Q., Cruz, M. L., Ball, G. D., Weigensberg, M. J.,
Salem, G. J., Crespo, N. C. & Goran, M. I. Effects of
resistance training on insulin sensitivity in overweight
Latino adolescent males. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 38, 12081215, 2006.
Shephard, R. J. Effectiveness of training programmes for
prepubescent children. Sports Med, 13, 194-213, 1992.
Stratton, G., McWhannell, N., Foweather, L., Henaghan, J.,
Graves, L., Ridgers, N. D. & Hepples, J. The A-CLASS
Project Research Findings: Executive Summary. Liverpool,
Sportslinx, 2009.
Valovich-McLeod, T. C., Decoster, L. C., Loud, K. J.,
Micheli, L. J., Parker, J. T., Sandrey, M. A. & White, C.
National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement:
prevention of pediatric overuse injuries. J Athl Train, 46,
206-220, 2011.
Viru, A., Loko, J., Harrow, M., Volver, A., Laaneots, L. & M,
V. Critical periods in the development of performance
capacity during childhood and adolescence. Europeam
Journal of Physical Education, 4, 75-119, 1999.
Vrijens, J. Muscle development in the pre and post
pubescent age. Medicine in Sport, 11, 152-158, 1978.
Weber, G., Kartodihardjo, W. & Klissouras, V. Growth and
physical training with reference to heredity. J Appl Physiol,
40, 211-215, 1976.
Wood, L. E., Dixon, S., Grant, C. & Armstrong, N.. Elbow
flexion and extension strength relative to body or muscle
size in children. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 36, 1977-1984,
2004.

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UKSCA Position
Statement: Youth
Resistance Training
Rhodri S. Lloyd, PhD, CSCS*D, ASCC1; Avery D. Faigenbaum, EdD,
FACSM, CSCS*D2; Gregory D. Myer, PhD, CSCS*D, FACSM3; Michael H
Stone, PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, FUKSCA4; Jon L. Oliver, PhD5; Ian Jeffreys,
PhD, CSCS*D, ASCC, FNSCA6; Jeremy Moody, PhD, ASCC5; Clive
Brewer, MSc, CSCS, ASCC7; Kyle Pierce EdD, CSCS8
Preamble
This manuscript will serve as the official position statement of the United
Kingdom Strength and Conditioning Association (UKSCA) for youth resistance
training. The authorship team for this manuscript were selected from the fields
of paediatric exercise science, physical education, elite sport, and sports
medicine. Prior to publishing, the manuscript was reviewed in detail and
subsequently endorsed by the UKSCA Board of Directors.

Operational Definitions
Prior to discussing the literature surrounding the potential benefits and concerns
associated with youth resistance training, it is pertinent to define key
terminologies used throughout the manuscript.
Childhood represents the developmental period of life from the end of infancy
to the beginning of adolescence. The term children refers to girls and boys
(generally up to the age of 11 years and 13 years respectively) who have not
developed secondary sex characteristics.
The term adolescence refers to a period of life between childhood and
adulthood. Although adolescence is a more difficult period to define in terms
of chronological age due to differential maturation rates,126 girls 12-18 years
and boys 14-18 years are generally considered adolescents.
The terms youth and young athletes represent global terms which include
both children and adolescents
Growth is typically viewed as a quantifiable change in body composition, the
size of the body as a whole, or the size of specific regions of the body.21
Rhodri S. Lloyd is a senior
lecturer in Strength and
Conditioning at the University of
Gloucestershire. He is a fully
accredited strength and
conditioning coach with the
UKSCA, and holds certified
strength and conditioning status
with distinction from the NSCA.
Rhodri's research interests
surround strength and
conditioning for young athletes,
and the application of long-term
athlete development models in
the physical preparation of
youths. Elected onto the USKCA
Board of Directors in 2011, he is
the inaugural convenor of the
UKSCA Youth Training Special
Interest Group, and is paediatric
lead for the association.

Maturation refers to the highly variable timing and tempo of progressive


change within the human body from childhood to adulthood, and which, in
addition to growth, influences overall physical performance capabilities.21
Training age refers to the number of years an athlete has been involved in a
formalised training programme.119

1 Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Gloucestershire, UK


2 Department of Health and Exercise Science, The College of New Jersey, USA
3 Department of Pediatrics and Orthopaedic Surgery, College of Medicine, University of
Cincinnati, USA
4 Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East Tennessee State
University, USA
5 Cardiff School of Sport, Cardiff Metropolitan University (UWIC), UK
6 Faculty of Health, Sport and Science, University of Glamorgan, UK
7 Widnes Vikings Rugby League Club, UK
8 Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Louisiana State University, Shreveport,
USA
Address for Correspondence:
Rhodri S. Lloyd, PhD, ASCC, CSCS*D, rhodri@uksca.org.uk

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Resistance training (also called strength training)


refers to a specialised method of conditioning
whereby an individual is working against a wide
range of resistive loads in order to enhance health,
fitness and performance. Forms of resistance training
include the use of body weight, weight machines,
free weights (barbells and dumbbells), elastic bands
and medicine balls.
Weightlifting is a sport, which involves the
performance of the snatch and clean and jerk lifts in
competition.183 The sport of weightlifting is distinct
from the terms resistance training, strength training
or weightlifting training.

Introduction
Despite outdated misperceptions that resistance
training was unsafe or inappropriate for youth,2 there is
now a compelling body of scientific evidence that
supports its use by children and adolescents for a wide
range of performance, health, and injury reducing
benefits.3,10,17,18,69,167,185 Research has indicated that
various forms of resistance training can elicit significant
performance improvements in muscular strength,19
power production,69 running velocity,134 change-ofdirection speed,188 and general motor performance,18 in
youth. From a health perspective, evidence suggests
that resistance training can make positive alterations in
overall body composition,177 reduce abdominal and
trunk fat,200 improve insulin-sensitivity in overweight
adolescents,179 and enhance cardiac function in obese
children.150 Importantly, it has also been suggested that
regular participation in an appropriately designed
exercise programme, which includes resistance
training, can enhance bone mineral density13 and
reduce sports-related injury risk in young athletes.143,193
This would appear to be an important consideration
given that the European Network for Sports Injury
Prevention15 previously estimated nearly 1.3 million
cases of sports injuries requiring hospitalisation in
Europe were for children under the age of 15 years.
Additionally, muscular fitness and resistance training
have been associated with positive psychological health
and wellbeing in children and adolescents.58,103,160,195,206
Despite the apparent health, fitness and performance
benefits for school-age youth, there is little reference
to resistance training in the physical education national
curriculums within the UK. Of note, no information
regarding age-appropriate resistance training is
included for primary aged children (11 years and
under), and resistance training guidelines for secondary
school age children (11 years and upwards) are limited
and inconsistent. Compounding this issue, recent
evidence indicates that muscular strength levels of
children within the United Kingdom are decreasing.40
Such a tendency of declines in muscular strength levels
is commensurate with other European countries.35,173
Progressive resistance training under the supervision of
qualified health and fitness professionals can offer a
method for reversing this undesirable trend while
encouraging participation in resistance training as an
ongoing lifestyle choice. The importance of effective
education by qualified personnel is essential, as
positive early experiences in physical education have
been associated with lifelong physical activity.111
Therefore, the current manuscript will dispel the myths
surrounding youth resistance training, and provide
guidance and support for those individuals responsible
for the long-term development and general wellbeing
of school-age youth.

The Effects Of Growth And Maturation On


The Development Of Muscular Strength
During Childhood And Adolescence
It has previously been established that muscular
strength development is a multi-dimensional fitness
component that is influenced by a combination of
muscular, neural and biomechanical factors.45 Due to
the non-linear development of physiological processes,
such as stature and body mass during childhood and
adolescence, the assessment and monitoring of
muscular strength can be a challenging task.80
Similarly, a non-linear pattern emerges when
examining the development of physical performance
qualities in younger populations.21 Assessments of
muscular strength in children and adolescents have
traditionally been attained from isometric testing, and
this data suggest that strength increases in a relatively
linear fashion throughout childhood for both boys and
girls.30 As children reach the onset of puberty, they
experience rapid growth and increases in muscular
strength.161 During this period, sex-differences in
muscular strength levels start to emerge, with boys
demonstrating accelerated gains as a result of the
adolescent spurt, and girls appearing to continue to
develop in a more linear fashion.21 Factors inherently
responsible for increases in strength during childhood
appear to be related to the development of the central
nervous system. Specifically, improvements in motor
unit recruitment, firing frequency, synchronisation, and
neural myelination are all deemed to enhance
neuromuscular performance.112,170 Conversely, natural
strength gains during adolescence are driven by further
neural development, but also structural and
architectural changes resulting largely from increased
sex androgen concentrations, including testosterone,
growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor (IGFI).126 Further increases in muscle cross-sectional area,
muscle pennation angle, and continued muscle fibre
type differentiation will all enable adolescents to
express greater levels of force, and partly explains the
differences in strength between children, adolescents
and adults.189 Sex-related differences in muscular
strength are more evident as children enter adulthood,
with males consistently outperforming females.155
Research has indicated that muscle growth will largely
explain the disparity between genders, especially for
absolute measures of muscular strength and
power.156,151
It is essential that physical education teachers,
paediatric fitness specialists, health care providers, and
strength and conditioning coaches who train children
and adolescents, are aware of these basic paediatric
scientific principles in order to ensure that exercise
prescription is always planned according to the unique
demands of the individual, irrespective of chronological
age. Owing to the highly individualised nature of
growth and maturation, children and adolescents of the
same chronological age will vary markedly in biological
status (possibly up to 4-5 years difference), and
consequently, chronological age is deemed a weak
indicator of maturational status.20 Awareness of the
potential variation in biological age amongst children of
the same chronological age group is a central tenet of
most long-term athlete development programmes in a
bid to ensure that children are trained according to
their biological status, as opposed to age-group
classifications.8,9,11,27,32,119,153 In addition to chronological
and biological age, those responsible for the design and

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implementation of youth resistance training


programmes must take into consideration the training
age of the individual.119 From a developmental
perspective, this becomes critically important when
training an adolescent who is approaching adulthood,
but has no experience of participating in structured
resistance training programmes. Conversely, a 10 year
old child with a two-year training age, who can
demonstrate proficient technical competency on basic
exercises, should not be restricted to introductory
training methods typically commensurate with their
chronological age.

Health Benefits Of Resistance Training For


Youth
The World Health Organisation now recognises physical
inactivity as the fourth leading risk factor for global
mortality for non-communicable diseases, and supports
participation in a variety of physical activities including
those that strengthen muscle and bone.203 Since
contemporary youth are not as active as they should
be,54,84,88 children and adolescents should be encouraged
to participate regularly in play, games, sports, and
planned exercise in the context of school and
community activities. Not only is physical activity
essential for normal growth and development, but also
youth programmes that enhance fundamental
movement skill performance early in life appear to
build the foundation for an active lifestyle later in
life.12,122,182 Since muscular strength is an essential
component of motor skill performance,126 developing
competence and confidence to perform resistance
exercise during the growing years may have important
long-term implications for health, fitness and sports
performance.
Resistance training can offer unique health benefits to
children and adolescents when appropriately prescribed
and supervised. Regular participation in a youth
resistance training programme can have a favourable
influence on musculoskeletal health, body composition,
and cardiovascular risk factors.17,57,115,158,178 Moreover,
since physical inactivity is a risk factor for activityrelated injuries in children,26 youth who participate
regularly in age-appropriate fitness programmes, which
include resistance exercise, may be less likely to suffer
an injury.39 These observations are particularly
important for sedentary youth whose musculoskeletal
system may be ill prepared for the demands of
recreational games and sports practice.60,143,144 The
International Olympic Committee recognises the
importance of physical activity and sport for youth, and
promotes the early identification of fitness deficits in
aspiring young athletes, and the proper prescription of
training programmes to address individual limitations.136
From a public health perspective, it is noteworthy that
traditional fears and misinformed concerns that
resistance training would damage the developing
skeleton, have been replaced by reports indicating that
childhood may be the opportune time to build bone
mass and enhance bone structure by participating in
weight-bearing physical activities.87,197 Fears that
resistance training would injure the growth-plates of
youths are not supported by scientific reports, which
indicate that the mechanical stress placed on the
developing growth plates from resistance exercise, or
high strain eliciting sports such as weightlifting, are
actually beneficial for bone formation and growth.42,199
While numerous factors, including genetics and
nutritional status, influence skeletal health, regular

participation in impact-loading sports and physical


activity programmes, which include multi-joint,
moderate to high intensity resistance exercise, can
help to optimise bone mineral accrual during childhood
and adolescence.1,13,14,25,48,81,102,152,202 Furthermore, no
scientific evidence indicates that resistance training will
have an adverse effect on linear growth during
childhood or adolescence,125 or reduce eventual height
in adulthood.75,125
Given the growing prevalence of overweight and
obesity among children and adolescents and the
associated health-related concerns, the influence of
resistance training on the metabolic health, body
composition and injury risk profile of overweight and
obese youth has received increased
attention.43,44,129,130,179,186,194 Although aerobic exercise is
typically prescribed for overweight or obese youth,
excess body weight hinders the performance of
physical activities such as jogging, and overweight and
obese adolescents are more than twice as likely to be
injured in sports and other physical activities compared
with non-overweight and non-obese adolescents.130
Furthermore, overweight and obese youth seem to
demonstrate significantly lower motor coordination
than normal weight youth.47,123 While the treatment of
overweight and obese youth is complex, participation in
a multi-faceted treatment programme, including
resistance training, may provide a gateway for this
population to improve muscle strength, enhance motor
coordination and gain confidence in their perceived
abilities to be physically active.181
The available evidence indicates that resistance training
has the potential to offer observable health value to
sedentary youth and young athletes, and this type of
training can be prescribed to meet the needs of all
children and adolescents, regardless of body size or
physical ability.

Injury Prevention Benefits Of Resistance


Training For Youth
The total elimination of sport- and physical activity
related injuries is an unrealistic goal; however,
preparatory resistance training programmes that are
appropriately designed and sensibly progressed for
youth may help to reduce the likelihood of injuries in
these populations. Lehnhard and colleagues116 were
able to significantly reduce injury rates with the
addition of a resistance training regimen to a male
soccer team. Cahill and Griffith34 incorporated
resistance training into their preseason conditioning for
adolescent football teams and reported a reduction in
non-serious knee injuries, as well as knee injuries that
required surgery, over four competitive seasons. Hejna
et al.93 reported that young athletes who incorporated
resistance training in their exercise regimen suffered
fewer injuries and recovered from injuries with less
time spent in rehabilitation as compared to teammates who did not resistance train. Similarly, Soligard
et al.180 successfully reduced the risk of severe and
overuse injuries in female youth football players,
following the implementation of a comprehensive
warm-up programme that incorporated resistancebased exercises. Likewise, Emery and Meeuwisse55
reported a reduction in overall injuries and acute injury
incidence in youth football players with the use of an
integrative neuromuscular training (INT) programme
focused on resistance training. It should be noted that
INT refers to a training programme that incorporates
general and specific strength and conditioning activities

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that improve health- and skill-related physical fitness


components.144
Resistance training that is focused to address the risk
factors associated with youth sport injuries (e.g. low
fitness level, muscle imbalances and errors in training)
has the potential to reduce overuse injuries by up to
50%.133,193 For example, several investigations indicate
that reduced relative hamstring strength is related to
both hamstring strains and ACL injury.107,145,157,204
Integrative resistance training protocols incorporated
into pre-season and in-season conditioning
programmes reduced these injury risks, and decreased
anterior cruciate ligament injuries in young
athletes.95,96,139,140,141 Even stronger associations of injury
reduction are reported for decreased hamstring strains
in young adult athletes who utilised hamstring
resistance training exercises in preseason conditioning
for their respective sports, such as football, rugby, and
Australian rules football.5,6,83,163
While there is not one combination of resistance
training exercises that has proven to optimise training
adaptations, it appears that multi-faceted programmes
that increase muscle strength, enhance movement
mechanics, and improve functional abilities appear to
be the most effective strategy for reducing sportsrelated injuries in young athletes.49,55,95,137 Clearly,
participation in physical activity should not begin with
competitive sport but should evolve out of preparatory
fitness conditioning that is sensibly progressed over
time. Owing to the apparent decline in free time
physical activity among children and adolescents,148,154 it
seems that the musculoskeletal system of some
aspiring young athletes may not be prepared for the
demands of sports practice and competition. Of
concern, research has suggested that physical activity
levels in youth peak at approximately 6 years of age,
and consistently decline throughout childhood and into
youth.192 Consequently, the supporting structures of
some young athletes may be ill prepared to handle the
demands of weekly sports practice sessions and
weekend competitions. Cumulatively, these findings
indicate that young athletes should participate
regularly in multi-faceted resistance training
programmes prior to sports seasons to reduce their
risk of sports related injury.

Special Resistance Training Considerations for


Young Females
Musculoskeletal growth during puberty, in the absence
of corresponding neuromuscular adaptation, may
facilitate the development of abnormal joint mechanics
and injury risk factors in young girls.78,97 These intrinsic
risk factors, if not addressed at the proper time, may
continue through adolescence and into maturity, thus
predisposing female athletes to increased risk of
injuries.101,146 In a recent longitudinal study, Ford et al.77
noted that young females who did not participate in
resistance training programmes as they matured
developed injury risk factors. Conversely, those who
did report participation in resistance training activities
during maturation were found to have safer movement
mechanics and associated increased posterior chain
strength.77
Well supervised, multifaceted resistance training
programmes reduce these abnormal
biomechanics100,138,140,141 and appear to decrease injury
rates in female athletes.95 The findings of a recent
meta-analysis revealed that an age-related association
between integrative resistance training implementation

and reduction of ACL incidence only occurred in the


youngest female athletes.137 Integrative resistance
training utilised to enrich the motor learning
environment in early youth may initiate adaptation and
help low motor competence children catch-up with
their peers in these measures.41,91,171,172 In addition to
reduced knee injuries in adolescent98 and mature
female athletes,147 regular participation in a multifaceted resistance training programme may also induce
measures of the neuromuscular spurt which are not
typically seen in females.141 Of potential interest to
sports medicine professionals, resistance training timed
with growth and development may induce the desired
neuromuscular spurt, which may improve sports
performance and improve biomechanics related to
injury risk in young females.101,141 Observed relative
gains in females may be greater than in males because
baseline neuromuscular performance levels are lower
on average in females.79,99,113,141,168
Although there are many mechanisms to potentially
reduce sports related injuries, enhancing muscular
fitness and strength using resistance training as a
preventative health measure should be considered a
cornerstone of year-round, multifaceted training
programmes for school age youth.

Effectiveness Of Youth Resistance


Training
As previously documented, children and adolescents
will naturally increase muscular strength levels as a
result of growth and maturation.20,21,22,23,126 The
appropriate development of strength as a result of
training can have important implications for sport and
daily life. In order to induce adaptations in muscular
strength levels above and beyond those of growth and
maturation alone, the magnitude and intensity of
training stimulus must be sufficient .18,50,69,94,126 However,
research clearly indicates that appropriately designed,
and well supervised resistance training programmes
can benefit youth of all ages, with children as young as
5 years of age making noticeable improvements in
muscular fitness.4,65,108,201 Interestingly, whilst the
magnitude of absolute strength gains have been
reported as being greater in adolescents (ES = 1.91) in
comparison to children (ES = 0.81),19 relative increases
in strength appear to be similar across childhood and
adolescence.118,162,165
The term trainability describes the sensitivity of
developing athletes to a given training stimulus at
varying stages of growth and maturation. Growth and
maturation complicate the concept of trainability, as
combined they can quite often imitate potential training
effects.16,127,149 Recently, Keiner et al.110 examined the
trainability of 141 youth football players (11 to 19
years old). Participants were divided into either a
football training only group, or a combined football
training and resistance training group. The data
indicated a high level of trainability for all age groups
(under 19s, under 17s, under 15s and under 13s).
Using absolute and relative back squat measures, two
years of resistance training resulted in differences
between control and resistance trained groups ranging
from 125% in the younger group to 54% in the older
group. Interestingly, the strength profiles of the
football players was compared against data of 105
youth weightlifters, and it emerged that the young
weightlifters were stronger than the soccer players at
each age group. Considering the effect of increased
strength on reducing injuries55 and increasing sport

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related performance variables such as sprinting,


jumping, and general sport performance,18,31,37,92,117 the
investigators suggested that with 4-5 years of training,
relative strength levels (1RM kg/kg body mass) in the
back squat should be a minimum of 2.0 for late
adolescents (16-19 yrs); 1.5 for adolescents (13-15
yrs); and 0.7 for children (11-12 yrs). These findings,
in addition to several reviews of the
literature57,59,60,75,119,143,167,185 including three metaanalyses,19,76,162 highlight the effectiveness of resistance
training for sports performance for all youth, and
underline that resistance training programmes should
not be limited to adult populations.
Despite the growing body of evidence demonstrating
that resistance training can lead to established
improvements in performance through increases in
strength, speed, power and other related
characteristics (e.g. rate of force development), an
aspect that has caused debate amongst researchers,
deals with the degree of hypertrophy that is possible as
a result of strength training among children prior to
puberty.24,82,127,131 Existing research suggests that
increases in muscular strength are a result of both
architectural (muscle size, movement arm length) and
neural (voluntary activation level) adaptations.29,155
However, the mechanisms appear to differ according to
the stage of development. The primary mechanisms
underlying training-induced gains in muscular strength
and related characteristics before puberty appear to
depend upon neural adaptations.126,198 However, among
early and particularly late adolescence, the effects of
resistance training appear to be a result of additional
gains in lean body mass and muscle cross-sectional
area, with further alterations in neural mechanisms
appearing to be the same as those adaptations
experienced by adults.19,159 Thus, it is among children
that very special care should be taken in their
development, and coaches should avoid using training
methods aimed at increasing overall muscle mass,
instead focusing on strength development and
movement skill competency.119 Indeed, among children,
from a conceptual standpoint, the adoption of a longterm approach to athletic development should be
implemented.119,121
Combined, the existing literature highlights a number
of important concepts. Firstly, at all ages, appropriate
resistance training can clearly result in an increased
level of strength and related characteristics.18,19,51 Within
the literature, gains in maximum strength have ranged
from approximately 10% to 70%66 depending upon
several factors including the type of training
programme, duration of the training programme, and
the type of exercise used to measure strength (e.g.
isometric versus isoinertial, large muscle mass versus
small muscle mass, and partial versus complete range
of motion). However, in general, expected strength
gains of 30-40% are typically observed in untrained
youth following participation in an introductory
resistance training programme. Secondly, strength
training results in only a minor sex-associated effect on
both absolute and relative strength gains among prepubertal children, however, the magnitude of effect
does appear to be a function of sex in older groups.118
Thirdly, evidence indicates that more effective
programmes lasted more than 8 weeks, involved
multiple sets and that generally, gains increased with
the frequency of training sessions per week.18 However,
it should be noted that youth with extensive resistance
training experience need to follow periodised training

programmes with systematic variation in intensity,


volume, frequency and repetition velocity to facilitate
continued adaptation. This is supported with evidence
from adult based data, that suggests a reduction in
training frequency accompanied by an increase in
training intensity produces superior results.164

Weightlifting: an Effective Training Tool for Young


Athletes
Previous literature highlights that weightlifting is
considerably safer for children and adolescents than
many have generally believed, providing qualified
supervision and instruction are available and
progression is based on the technical performance of
each lift.33,90,121,142,166,167 Therefore, despite previous
misconceptions surrounding its safety, the use of
weightlifting as part of a multifaceted youth-based
resistance training programme is supported, on the
proviso that training prescription is designed in line
with the maturational status, training age, and level of
motor competency of the young athlete, and that those
supervising possess the relevant expertise.
Weightlifting injury rate is reportedly lower than other
forms of resistance training and sports in general.90 For
example, Pierce et al.166 observed 70 female and male
children participating in weightlifting ranging in age
from 7 to 16 years, who regularly completed maximal
and near-maximal lifts in competition and training.
Over a 12 month period, no days of training were lost
as a result of injury from weightlifting,166 and both boys
and girls increased physical strength as measured by
weightlifting performance.166 A more detailed follow-up
study of 3 females (13.7 1.2 y) and 8 males (12.5
1.6 y) across a years competition (534 competition
lifts) showed similar results.33 Both boys and girls
showed marked enhancement of weightlifting
performance, and no injuries requiring medical
attention or loss of training time occurred.33
Furthermore, these two observational studies indicated
that if training and competition are appropriate for the
age group, and are properly supervised and sensibly
progressed, then weightlifting exercises may provide a
unique stimulus for enhancing strength, explosiveness
and power performance in school-age youth. Due to
the high skill level required to perform weightlifting
movements, it is important that individuals responsible
for teaching these complex movements to youths, hold
the requisite coaching qualifications, and have suitable
experience of teaching youths.121
Weightlifting training uses a variety of large multimuscle, multi-joint exercises, such as squats, snatches,
and clean and jerks (plus variations of these
movements).121 Weightlifting has been used to examine
potential effects of strength-power training on a
number of performance and physiological variables
among children and adolescents.33,53,89 A series of
studies carried out in the Soviet Union examined the
effects of weightlifting training on the physical
development, physiology and performance of children
and adolescents. The data gleaned from these studies
indicate that from 12 years to 22 years of age,
weightlifting training can produce positive alterations in
body composition, cardiorespiratory variables, various
motor fitness parameters (e.g. jumping and sprinting),
and overall weightlifting performance.51,53
Considering the observational, correlation and
longitudinal data as a whole, it is accepted that
resistance training (inclusive of weightlifting training)
can improve strength and strength related variables

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among children and adolescents. These studies also


offer evidence as to the efficacy of strength gain alone
in producing positive alterations in skill related
variables among children and adolescents.18

Resistance Training Guidelines For


Children And Adolescents
Whilst recent evidence has indicated that both children
and adolescents can make significant gains in muscular
strength and other health- and skill-related fitness
components,18,19 it is imperative that suitably qualified
personnel are responsible for coaching and instruction
of youth-based resistance training programmes.69,119,196
Such qualifications would include a relevant strength
and conditioning qualification (for example, the
Accredited Strength and Conditioning Coach (ASCC)
status), a strong understanding of paediatric exercise
science, and crucially, relevant pedagogic experience
and a communication skill-set to enable effective
engagement with youth of varying abilities and
personalities.69,119,121

Training Variable Considerations


Exercise selection
Whilst a range of exercises, performed on a variety of
equipment can be prescribed to both children and
adolescents, it is vital that the fundamentals of
technical competency are prioritised at all times.
Researchers have previously highlighted the
importance of equipment modifications and habituation
when testing youth for any fitness component, and
promote the use of child-sized or child friendly
machinery wherever possible.45,46,184 The principles of
equipment suitability and familiarity for paediatric
testing, should also apply for youths participating in
resistance training. Some of the resistance modes
available to those prescribing youth resistance training
programmes include: bodyweight, machine weights,
free weights, resistance bands, medicine balls, and
manual resistance,62 all of which have been successfully
implemented within the training programmes of both
children and adolescents.38,51,59,64,65,67,71,73,86,105,120,132,141,174,179,
187,188,190,191,209
The selection of resistance modality will
largely depend upon the technical ability and baseline
fitness levels of the individual. For example, it may be
necessary to gradually introduce sedentary youth to
simple resistance training exercises via the use of
machine-based resistance, in order to enhance their
self-perception of competency, before progressing to
more complex, free weight based activities. It should
be recognised however, that when competency is
sufficiently developed, free weight resistance should be
used wherever possible, as machine-based resistance
has been reported to stimulate lower muscle activation
in lower,176 upper,175 and whole-body106 exercises
compared to free-weight resistance. Recent evidence
demonstrated that whilst a 10-week weight-machine
based training programme was successful in increasing
isokinetic peak torque of the knee extensors and knee
flexors in prepubertal children, it was unsuccessful in
improving more dynamic athletic qualities, including
vertical jump height and postural sway.85 Such dynamic
qualities can be enhanced in youth with multi-joint,
velocity-specific training in the form of free weight
resistance training,71 weightlifting,166 and dynamic
exercise using body weight, such as plyometrics.120
For youths with a low training age, coaches should
employ a range of exercises which are designed to
promote the development of muscular strength and

enhance overall fundamental movement competency.


Childhood is deemed to be a crucial time in which to
develop movement competency, as it is during these
formative years that neuromuscular coordination is
most susceptible to change.28 During this stage of
development, children will experience rapid brain
maturation,169 and exposing children to key athletic
movement patterns at a time where natural
strengthening of existing synaptic pathways36 and
synaptic pruning35 takes place, is considered crucial for
long-term athletic development119 and life-long physical
activity.124 Once the child can demonstrate appropriate
technical competency, they should be introduced to
more advanced exercises that challenge the child in
terms of coordination and require greater levels of
force generation. In the case of weightlifting exercises,
which by their nature are complex, multi-joint
exercises, authors have previously suggested that early
exposure should focus on technical development using
body weight, modified equipment and light external
loads.69,121,167
Training Volume and Intensity
Volume and intensity are key resistance training
variables that are routinely manipulated within a
training session, or overall phase of training, depending
on the primary training goal of the individual. Volume
refers to the total number of times an exercise is
performed within a training session, and is comprised
of the number of sets, and number of repetitions within
each set.7 Volume can also relate to the overall loading
within short- and long-term training blocks, but for the
purposes of the current manuscript the former
definition will be used. Intensity most commonly refers
to the magnitude of resistance that is required to be
overcome during a repetition.7 The relationship
between volume and intensity is inverse in nature; the
greater the load (intensity), the lower the number of
repetitions that can be completed (volume) by the
individual.7 Both variables must be considered
synergistically when prescribing resistance training for
youth, however, training intensity is arguably more
important owing to the injury risk associated with
exposing a child or adolescent to excessive external
loading at the expense of correct technique.
In order to prescribe appropriate training intensity,
coaches typically stipulate a percentage of an athletes
one repetition-maximum (1RM). Research indicates
that maximal strength and power testing of children63
and adolescents70 is safe and reliable when
standardised protocols are implemented and monitored
by qualified instructors. Whilst 1RM measurements are
routinely used within a research environment or elite
level sport, owing to time and equipment constraints,
physical education teachers will typically benefit more
from the use of predictive equations that estimate 1RM
values from sub-maximal loads in youth
populations.104,114,128 However, it should be acknowledged
that methods of predicting 1RM values from higher
repetition ranges possess less accuracy, in particular
when repetition ranges exceed more than 10.63
Additionally, it should be noted that a child or
adolescent must be able to demonstrate sound
technical competency irrespective of the RM range
selected.
Progression of Volume and Intensity
When biologically immature children, or youth with a
low training age, first begin to participate in formalised
resistance training in schools and recreation

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programmes, the use of 1RM measurements (actual or


predicted) to determine training intensities will typically
be unnecessary. Consequently, teachers and coaches
should prescribe an appropriate repetition range to
develop technical competency and acquire a base level
of adaptation, and over time increase external load
until technique is deemed to have sufficiently
improved. Therefore, a beginner may be prescribed 1-2
sets of 8-12 repetitions with a light or moderate load
(50-70% 1RM or equivalent), however, with increased
exposure to formalised resistance training, they may
increase prescription to 2-4 sets of 6-10 repetitions
with a heavier load (70-85% 1RM). Once technical
expertise is sufficiently high, adolescents may be
introduced to lower volumes (2-5 sets of 3-5
repetitions) and higher external loads (>85% 1RM).
However, it is important to note that not all exercises
need to be performed for the same number of sets and
repetitions within a training session. For example, a
relatively experienced adolescent may begin a
resistance training session performing 3 sets of 5
repetitions of a power-oriented exercise (e.g. power
clean); then complete 3 sets of 6-8 repetitions of a
large compound, multi-joint movement (e.g. back
squat); and then finish with 2 sets of 6-10 repetitions
of a unilateral exercise (e.g. barbell step-up).
Depending on the learning environment, coaches will
need to provide feedback to ensure technical
competency does not decrease towards the end of a
prescribed set. The frequency and mode of feedback
will depend to a large degree on the number of
individuals training, mode of exercise being performed,
and the stage of learning and personality traits of the
young athletes involved. For example, when coaching a
novice weightlifter, feedback may be provided after
individual repetitions;121 however, for a primary school
physical education class of 25 pupils, where the focus
of the lesson is aimed at fundamental movement skill
development, feedback may be provided less
frequently.
Rest Intervals During Training Sessions
While limited evidence exists examining the optimal
rest periods for youth-based resistance training,
available research indicates that children can recover
more quickly from fatigue-inducing resistance
exercise.72,208 It is suggested that children are less likely
to suffer muscle damage following such exercise, owing
to the increased pliability of their muscle tissue.56 Rest
periods of approximately 1 minute should suffice for
inexperienced children, however, this should be
increased as children enter adolescence and become
more experienced (2-5 minutes), especially if the
exercises require high levels of skill, force or power
production. Whilst children can recover more quickly
from short, intermittent, high intensity training than
adults,72,74,208 as a caveat, teachers and coaches should
monitor within-session resistance training performance
to ensure correct technique is maintained.
Training Frequency
Training frequency refers to the number of sessions
performed within a week. Previous research has
indicated that 2-3 sessions per week on nonconsecutive days is most appropriate in order to
develop muscular strength levels in children and
adolescents.69 Behringer and colleagues19 recently
substantiated these previous recommendations,
indicating that across 42 studies (where mean training
frequency was 2.7 0.8 sessions per week), training
frequency was significantly correlated with increased

resistance training effect. Training frequency may


increase as children go through adolescence and
approach adulthood, especially for youths in
competitive sport. While promoting sampling and
exposure to a variety of physical activity experiences to
help promote physical development,119,124 in the
interests of athlete welfare and well-being, coaches,
parents and educators should be cognisant of the
potential difficulties when children are asked to
participate in numerous activities and thus
accumulating high exercise volumes. For youth
participating in competitive sports, in-season resistance
training should be viewed as mandatory to maintain
muscular strength levels and reduce injury-risk.
Physical education classes may offer a suitable time for
youths involved in sport to receive such training
(providing suitably qualified personnel are responsible
for the delivery), as research demonstrates that
exposure to resistance training during exercise lessons
or physical education classes does not have an adverse
effect on after-school performance in adolescent
athletes.68
Repetition Velocity
Whilst existing guidelines promote the use of
controlled, moderate movement velocities for youths,
there is arguably a need to promote the intention to
move quickly to develop motor unit recruitment
patterns and firing frequencies.205 Variations in
repetition velocity may also be indicative of the training
age of the child; for example, a child with limited
training history may need to perform all exercises with
slow to moderate speed to maximise control and
ensure correct technical development, whereas an
early adolescent with three years training history could
be exposed to much greater movement velocities.
Repetition velocities may also fluctuate within a
session; for example, the movement preparation phase
may consist of slow and controlled movements, the
main dynamic and explosive exercises (plyometrics or
weightlifting derivatives) will involve rapid movement
speeds, whilst the main strength development
exercises (squatting, deadlifting, pressing and pulling)
will typically include slow to moderate movement
velocities. However, even when external loads are
sufficient to produce slow movement speed, there
should arguably be an intention to move explosively
wherever possible to promote appropriate
neuromuscular adaptations and to maximise the
transfer of training effect.109 Arguably, the development
of high velocity movement is especially important for
children and adolescents at a time when neural
efficiency and motor coordination is most sensitive to
change.35
Table 1 provides a summary of suggested guidelines
for youth-based resistance training prescription aimed
at improving muscular strength levels for a range of
abilities and experiences. These are only guidelines,
and flexibility will be required in order to ensure
prescription of resistance training protocols for youths
is at all times individualised. It should be noted that
resistance training prescription for youths should
always be age-related and not age-determined.
Sensible progression should be made from beginner
status through to advanced, and those responsible for
determining an athletes level of competency should
consider a range of compounding variables, inclusive of
maturational stage, training age, fundamental
movement skill competency, technical proficiency,
existing strength levels and psychosocial factors (such

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Table 1. Suggested guidelines for youth-based resistance training prescription

Training Experience
Volume (sets x reps)
Total number of exercises per session

Beginner

Intermediate

Experienced

Advanced

1-2 x 8-12

2-4 x 6-10

2-4 x 5-8

2-5 x 2-5

6-10

3-6

3-6

2-5

60-80%

70-85%

85-100%

Moderate-Fast

Moderate-Fast

Fast-Maximal

Maximal

1-2

2-3

2-5

2-3

2-3

2-4

2-5

72-48

72-48

48

48-24

Body weight,

Intensity (%1RM)

or 50-70% 1RM

Repetition Velocity (speed of movement)


Rest intervals (minutes)
Frequency (sessions per week)
Recovery (hours in between sessions)

as confidence and self-perception of motor


competency). Regardless of training status the level of
instruction, education and feedback provided to the
child or adolescent will be fundamental to the success
of the training programme.

Summary
A compelling body of scientific evidence supports
participation in well-designed youth resistance training
programmes that are supervised and instructed by
qualified professionals. The current manuscript has
added to previous position statements from medical
and fitness organisations, and has clearly outlined the
performance, health, and injury reducing benefits
associated with this training mode for school age
youth. In summarising this manuscript, it is the
position of the UKSCA that:
1. The use of resistance training by children and
adolescents is supported on the proviso that
qualified professionals supervise training
programmes that are consistent with the needs,
goals, and abilities of younger populations.
2. Specifically, the use of weightlifting as a resistance
training mode by children and adolescents is
supported, providing appropriate equipment and
logical progressions are prescribed and implemented
by suitably qualified personnel.
3. Parents, teachers and coaches, should recognise the
potential health-related benefits of resistance
exercise, because youths who do not participate in
activities that enhance muscle strength and
movement skills, may be at increased risk for
negative health outcomes later in life.
4. Well designed resistance training programmes are
not only safe for young athletes but may also reduce
sports-related injuries.
5. An appropriately designed resistance training
programme can elicit noticeable improvements in
motor skills, and consequently may positively
enhance sports performance.
6. A properly designed resistance training programme
can improve and maintain psychological health and
wellbeing.
7. Resistance training prescription for children and
adolescents should be age-related and not agedetermined. Consequently, prescription should be
based according to biological status, training age,
motor skill competency, technical proficiency,
existing strength levels, and psychosocial maturity.

8. Regardless of resistance training mode, training


volume and intensity should never be increased at
the expense of technical competency.

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