PSC Issue 29

The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association
PROFESSIONAL
STRENGTH & CONDITIONING
29
issue
june 2013
S&C for ICE HOCKEY

STRONG FOUNDATIONS
COMPLEX & CONTRAST TRAINING
ISSUE 29 / JUNE 2013
Stephen Manuel: Technical Instructor
2011 Great Britain Powerlifting Federation Senior champion

2011 European Championship Gold Medalist (deadlift)
University
of Bolton
U K S CA
CONTRIBUTORS
Contents
EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D
MSc Strength and Conditioning

KNOWLEDGE is POWER
Contact
PAUL RUSSELL
COLIN ROBERTSON
Tel: 01204 903603 | p.e.russell@bolton.ac.uk

Tel: 01204 903789 | c.robertson@bolton.ac.uk for more information
Enhance Your Career Prospects

At Coventry University Sport & Exercise Science courses focus on the
application of scientific principles to the promotion, maintenance and
enhancement of sport and exercise related behaviours.
Whether you are interested in how elite athletes perform, how to
undertake exercise effectively for health and fitness or rehabilitation,
or the prevention, treatment and management of injuries, we have
several courses to prepare you for a wide variety of careers in this
rapidly expanding area. Our courses have a practical component and
to support this we have a suite of sport science laboratories, along with
a specialist strength and conditioning suite, therapy rooms and on site
sports therapy clinic, as well as using track and sports centre facilities.
Courses include:
Strength and Conditioning MSc
Sports Therapy BSc

Sport and Exercise Science BSc
Exercise Nutrition and Health BSc
For more information on postgraduate

courses contact:
For more information contact on these

undergraduate courses contact:
Admissions
The Graduate Centre

024 7765 4321
Postgraduate@coventry.ac.uk
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC, CSCS
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Rhodri Lloyd PhD, CSCS*D, ASCC
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Jeremy Sheppard PhD, CSCS
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair MSc, ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS, ASCC
Dan Cleather PhD
04
EDITORS LETTER
05
NEWS
07
STRONG FOUNDATIONS
11
COMPLEX AND CONTRAST TRAINING
21
BOB AND WEAVE
30
ICE HOCKEY
MANAGING EDITOR
Mary Fogarty
GRAPHIC DESIGN
Olivia Holborn
ISSN 1757-5834
www.uksca.org.uk
024 7679 5959

genenq.hls@coventry.ac.uk
Or for all courses see our website www.coventry.ac.uk
P R O F E SS I O N A L S T R E N GT H & C O N D I T I O N I N G / W W W. U K S CA . O R G . U K
03
EDITORS LETTER
CONFERENCE NEWS
CONFERENCE NEWS
Letter from the Editor

The aim of Professional Strength
& Conditioning has always been to
provide members with an applied
journal that spans the wide spectrum
of strength and conditioning from
science to coaching practice. The idea
is to provide cutting edge information
that both informs and challenges, and
in doing so drives forward the quality
of practice of members, together with
the development of the profession
in the UK. Critical to this aim is the
ability of the journal to evolve and
develop to enable it to optimally
address these aims.
Hopefully, the evolving nature of the
journal can again be seen in this issue,
as it was in the previous one. Perhaps
the most obvious development has
been the new layout, launched last
issue. The aim is to improve the visual
appeal, while maintaining the quality
content which is crucial as we move
forward. As well as assisting in visual
appeal and readability, the layout
has been designed so that the reader
can distinguish clearly between the
different types of article we publish
which make Professional Strength &
Conditioning a unique publication.
In addition to the layout, we continue
to develop the content to inform
and challenge. Building from the
developments of the previous
issue, where we published our first
research article, along with the
poster presentations from the annual
conference, this edition sees the
launch of a new column entitled
Strong Foundations. The practice
of strength and conditioning is a
delicate mix of science and art, and
whereas evidence-based practice lies
at the heart of effective coaching,
much quality practice evolves out of
the experiences of coaches. Indeed,
I often find that some of the most
enlightening aspects of conferences
are the opportunities to talk to fellow
coaches and discuss challenges
04
they face and solutions they have

deployed. Traditionally, journals
have found it difficult to address this
type of information, and so gems of
coaching wisdom cannot be shared
with a wider audience. The Strong
Foundations column will hopefully
address this and provide an outlet for
experienced coaches to elaborate on
their ideas and experiences around a
range of topics which directly affect
the day-to-day delivery of strength
and conditioning.
As a launch for this Strong
Foundations column, column editor
Dan Cleather has written a thought-
The practice of strength

and conditioning is a
delicate mix of science
and art, and whereas
evidence-based practice
lies at the heart of
effective coaching, much
quality practice evolves
out of the experiences of
coaches
provoking article on his approach
to the manipulation of volume and
intensity in the applied settings
in which he has worked. A highly
experienced coach, and former board
member of the UKSCA, Dans article
clearly outlines the aims of the
column where coaches will be able
to describe their approaches to real
world problems.
We hope this column will provide
unique views on some of the work
being carried out in the field, and
encourage the development of
creative approaches. This is not to
denigrate the need for evidence-based
practice, which still underpins the

profession, but the column instead
attempts to develop alternative
views and approaches, which will
hopefully allow coaches to widen
their approaches to S&C delivery.
Experienced coaches interested in
submitting articles for this column are
encouraged to contact Dan directly to
discuss potential articles.
To ensure we continue to address the
scientific element of the profession,
you will find the first part of an
excellent academic review of the
concept of complex and contrast
training on pages 1118. This has
been written by Paul Comfort and
Paul Jones from Salford University,
together with Theodoros Bampouras
from Cumbria University.
Expanding on the theme of learning
from experience, on pages 2129
you will find an article by Howard
Gray, who is currently S&C coach at
Florida State University. Howard has
conducted a round-table discussion
with some experienced coaches to
discuss various challenges faced on
a day-to-day basis and give us the
benefit of their combined experience
to present answers to these challenges.
In another article based at the applied
end of the spectrum, on pages 3035
Steve Nightingale, from South Essex
College, has written about the use of
strength and conditioning in the sport
of ice hockey, the first time this sport
has been covered in the journal.
As always we welcome feedback on
the journal from the membership, and
we encourage members to submit
articles. Article submissions are the
lifeblood of the journal and enable the
sharing of knowledge and experience,
which is crucial for the continued
development of the profession in the
UK.
Ian Jeffreys, PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D
UKSCAs 9th Annual Conference

31 Aug/1 Sep 2013
East Midlands Conference Centre
For our 9th Annual Conference we have once again secured a world class line-up, with a range
of speakers specialising in different aspects of strength and conditioning and sports.
Speakers and sessions
After registration and refreshments
in the exhibition area, day 1 of the
conference will start at 10.00 with a
keynote session by Natalia Verkoshanky,
who will be speaking on Shock method
and plyometrics: updates and in-depth
analysis.
After a refreshment break, delegates
will then head into one of three
breakout sessions, giving them the
opportunity to hear from: Stuart
Yule, Glasgow Warriors S&C Coach,
speaking on Whatever it takes: the
physical preparation of a professional
rugby team; Joseph Coyne, Australian
Strength and Conditioning Association,
speaking on Function, development and
transfer of upper body pulling strength
and power to athletic activity; and Pete
McKnight, whose talk is titled Allez les
bleus: strength and conditioning with
the French Alpine Ski Team.
After lunch in the exhibition area,
delegates will then move to the second
set of breakout sessions, with Nick
Grantham speaking on Spectrum
coaching: delivering athletic potential;
Brendan Chaplin on Mixed martial arts
physical preparation: lessons learnt
from the trenches; and a practical
clinic led by Dewey Nielson on Natural
movement: the importance of groundbased movement skills.
will deliver a keynote speech on

Training methods for the improvement
of explosive strength. This will be
followed by Nick Grantham, Brendan
Chaplin and Dewey Nielson all running
their breakout sessions again up to
Sunday lunch, so that people who
missed them first time round can catch
up. During these morning sessions
there will also be the opportunity to
hear short oral presentations from a
variety of members on their research
and applied case studies.
On Sunday afternoon, delegates will
also have the chance to hear from
two keynote speakers, starting with
Martin Buchheit from Aspire in Qatar,
speaking on High-intensity training:
shaping the puzzle piece. Martin Evans
will then bring the conference to a close
with his presentation on Keeping on
track: managing back injuries in the
British Cycling weight room.
New venue, networking and social
activities
With more than 400 delegates expected
at the conference this year, we have
outgrown all the venues we have used
over the past eight years and thus have
been searching hard to find the right
venue for the UKSCA.
With the East Midlands Conference

Centre, we believe we have found the
best venue yet. Not only do we get
exclusive access to the whole of the
purpose-built conference centre for
the entire weekend, but we have also
booked every bedroom in the newly
built, four-star de Vere Orchard Hotel
next door.
The quality of the rooms and facilities
will keep even our most discerning
members happy and being the only
guests in the hotel and conference
centre for the whole weekend means
that there will be endless possibilities
for networking with other S&C coaches.
For those arriving early, on the Friday
evening, there will be the opportunity to
catch up with old friends and colleagues
and meet new ones, including many of
the speakers and the UKSCA Board in
the hotel and on the Saturday evening,
a Gala Dinner and Awards night.
Furthermore, as the hotel bar has a
residents licence (ie, it wont close),
if you need a glass of sparkling water
in the middle of the night, this will be
available!
Andrea Hudy, representing the US

National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA), will deliver the
last keynote session of the day, which
will be followed by a Round Table Q&A
with all speakers.
Day 2
Day 2 will start with Stuart Yule, Joseph
Coyne and Pete McKnight all repeating
their breakout sessions, thus giving
delegates a second chance to hear
one of these three speakers. After a
refreshment break, Jacques Duchateau
from the Universit Libre de Bruxelles,
The de Vere Hotel
05
CONFERENCE NEWS
STRONG FOUNDATIONS
CONFERENCE NEWS
The catch the hotel has only 202
bedrooms means that for the overflow,
we have also booked rooms in a nearby
student hall, only a three-minute walk
away. Although these rooms are good
quality student rooms with en-suite
showers, they are not the same quality
as those in the hotel.
To keep things fair and simple, we
are therefore offering first-come, firstserved allocation to the hotel bedrooms.
Making a prediction based on previous
years, we expect to have filled all the
bedrooms in the hotel by mid-July,
but that is only a prediction so book
your place soon to guarantee the better
rooms for your weekend.
Exhibition and prices
A small group of select exhibitors also
form an integral part of our conference,
bringing their latest equipment
and products for you to see and try
throughout the weekend.
Executive bedroom
If you are looking to buy equipment in

the next year, then having a range of
suppliers all under one roof is worth the
trip in itself.
STRONG FOUNDATIONS
In order to keep the annual conference
as a key member benefit and to
encourage as many members as
possible to attend, we have kept the full
package fee to only 290. This covers a
two-day delegate pass, which includes
all lunches and refreshments during
the weekend and a ticket to the Gala
Awards dinner on the Saturday evening,
as well as overnight accommodation
on the Saturday night and breakfast
on Sunday morning. You can also book
Friday night B&B in the hotel for 75.
For those who cant stay for both days,
or if it is your first conference and you
dont want to commit fully, then day
delegate passes are available for only
95 for each day which also includes all
refreshments and lunch.
To book, please log in to our website
and follow the link to Conferences
and Seminars section to see all the
booking options; alternatively please
call the office (0845 300 8078) or
use the booking form which can
also be found on our website
www.uksca.org.uk. Looking forward to
seeing you there!
WINNING ISNT
EVERYTHING
BUT WERE
IN FIRST PLACE
Middlesex University is number 1 for sport employability in the UK*. We are
committed to ensuring our courses remain highly relevant to employers and our
placements at high profile institutions enable you to put your specialist training
into practice. We offer professionally accredited MScs in Sports and Exercise
Science, Sports Massage Therapy and Rehabilitation, Performance Analysis,
and Strength and Conditioning. Youll be learning cutting edge techniques that
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research labs, giving you a head start to your career.
To find out more about our courses and flexible payment plans, call us today on
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*(2010, Unistats)
06
Manipulating volume
and intensity in
resistance training:
a philosophy
The purpose of Strong foundations, a new column in the journal, is to allow experienced
coaches to share the philosophies that guide their practice, to highlight issues about which
they are passionate, to describe their thought processes and maybe even occasionally to
indulge in a restrained rant.
We hope that this column will encourage coaches to examine the fundamental beliefs that
underpin their practice, that it will stimulate discussion and debate on a wide range of
topics, and that it will motivate other coaches to articulate their philosophies, either in this
forum or in others.
If you are interested in contributing to the column, please contact the author/series editor
at daniel.cleather@smuc.ac.uk
Volume and intensity
In order to kick this regular column off, I
present some of my own thoughts on the
manipulation of volume and intensity in
resistance training programmes.
can inform a training philosophy. Finally,

I am optimistic that it might open some
debate concerning the manipulation
of volume and intensity in resistance
training.
This article was originally written as a

forum post for students preparing for a
Masters in strength and conditioning at
St Marys University College. One task we
ask students to complete is to formalise
their ideas about the training process
into a philosophy document. An aspect
of this task that students sometimes find
challenging, however, is to distinguish
between fundamental training principles
and personal beliefs (that are truly
representative of a personal philosophy).
In order to exemplify the difference for our
students, I prepared the article that follows
here.
This article will focus on the manipulation

of volume and intensity in resistance
training only, although of course it is
important in other exercise modes too. It is
also important to point out that we always
adjust our practice to reflect the situations
and athletes we are working with, and this
philosophy is not meant to represent a
cookie-cutter approach to programming.
I have several motivations for publishing

this article. First, I mean to exemplify
the type of article that we are hoping to
publish in this column. Secondly, I hope to
illustrate how general training principles
Identify and prioritise
It is quite common for coaches to express

the belief that hard work is indispensable
or that athletes should give 110% whenever
they turn up to train. I find these types of
statements to be somewhat naive. I dont
believe that any athlete can give 100% in
every session. In actual fact, the amount
of higher (note that this does not mean
maximal) effort work that an athlete can
do in any one week is very limited, and
AUTHORS BIO
DANIEL J
CLEATHER,
PHD
Dan is a
lecturer on
the MSc in
strength and
conditioning at St Marys
University College. Prior to
this he spent six years as
a strength coach with the
English Institute of Sport. He
served as director of finance
and administration of the
UKSCA from 2005 to 2009.
Dans research is focused on
using the insight garnered
from musculoskeletal
modelling to understand
functional anatomy, with
a particular interest in the
knee.
07
an important
part of the
strength and
conditioning
coachs role
is to identify
and prioritise
those activities
where athletes
should give
greater effort
STRONG FOUNDATIONS
the amount of higher effort work that they

actually should do in a normal week is even
more limited.
To this end, an important part of the strength
and conditioning coachs role is to identify
and prioritise those activities where athletes
should give greater effort. They should then
regulate the effort level that their athletes
display in other sessions, to ensure that
athletes are adequately recovered and
fresh when they need to be. Consistency is
the most important variable in successful
training the training year should be
structured so that the athlete can be as
consistent as possible with training, which
includes being fresh enough to perform
higher effort training with quality.
In order to ensure that an athlete is able to
prioritise sessions appropriately, the effort
level required for each training unit should
be made very clear. I think it is important to
identify hot sessions and even hot exercises
within sessions. I like to make it very clear
to an athlete where they need to be fully
engaged and focused. However, along the
same lines, I will often encourage an athlete
to be less focused on other parts of the
training programme. Some aspects of the
programme require intensity, whereas other
parts are just about getting it done. Thus,
hard work is not indispensable you should
only be working hard at certain times.
Progression of intensity
I think athletes generally try to train as hard

as they can in any given session (physical
and psychological freshness allowing). This
generally results in intensity being fairly
steady throughout training cycles although
load lifted might improve due to adaptation,
the relative percentage of one repetition
maximum (1RM) remains unchanged.
I think that this type of scheme quickly
leads to stagnation. Instead, I view an
important part of my role as being to ensure
a progression of intensity throughout a
training cycle. What this means is that at the
start of the training cycle I will generally be
holding an athlete back, trying to keep the
intensity lower than they would self select.
However, towards the end of a training cycle
I may push an athlete forward. To this end,
I want the first couple of weeks of a cycle
to be quite easy, the middle of the cycle to
be around (maybe a little below) where an
athlete would have self selected at the start
of the cycle (moderate intensity), and the
end of the cycle to be at a higher intensity.
I think that this mode of loading ultimately
delivers much greater results. It does require
some discipline to implement though, as
the athlete will want to train harder at the
start of the cycle (and they are not allowed
to). Equally, after a couple of weeks they
08
will start to fly and will be in great form

but again, they are not allowed to push on.
The reason for this is that I believe that in
many athletes any sustained effort near
100% (with similar loading parameters and
in the same or similar exercise) tends to
stop the adaptive cycle athletes will tend to
stagnate and then need to start a new cycle.
So instead, I try to maintain the adaptive
response for as long as possible by using
a regulated increase in intensity. I would
describe this scheme as auto-regulated
however. I have no preconceptions as to
how long each adaptive cycle will run, but
will simply keep incrementing intensity
week on week until I feel that the athlete is
stagnating. At this point I will drop intensity
to a very easy level, and start again.
For me, stagnation is often represented by
a lack of progression. I feel that it is not
productive to continue training at higher
intensity if there is limited adaptation, and
I therefore try to avoid this. Thus, generally,
once the athlete has stopped progressing
I will not spend more time training at that
intensity, but will instead drop the intensity.
Prioritising hot exercises
It should be noted that the prioritisation

of hot exercises/sessions means that the
programme is designed to allow the athlete
to achieve the planned fluctuations in
intensity from relatively easy to hard, and to
ensure that they are fresh enough to perform
the higher effort sessions with quality. It
does not mean that the athlete is encouraged
to lift with the highest intensity in every hot
session, as this would result in a relatively
unvaried intensity of loading which is what
we are trying to avoid.
Thus, higher intensity is a relative term
and does not mean maximal intensity. It
is also important to monitor the ease with
which the athlete is able to perform the
high intensity exercises at the prescribed
intensity. Finding the appropriate intensity
of training (given other training, competition
and life commitments) and ensuring the
sensible progression of that intensity from
relatively easy to hard is one of the key roles
of the coach. If the intensity required by the
programme is too demanding (either the
athlete has to work harder than expected
given where they are in the cycle, or they
cannot meet the requirement expected to) it
is important that the coach recognises this
and makes adjustments where appropriate.
STRONG FOUNDATIONS
to prioritise the higher intensity work over

the volume (for example, if time is limited).
Also note that in this discussion we are just
considering performance enhancement
and not considering injury rehabilitation
or prehabilitation requirements that may
take priority over all other training. This is
in accord with my belief that in the short
term Paretos law (from economics) can
usefully be applied to training. According
to that, 20% of the work you do will account
for 80% of your results (of course, the figures
here are a little arbitrary, but I believe in
the sentiment). In many cases, the higher
intensity stuff will provide the biggest return
in terms of improvement (ie, it will be the
20% that is the most important). Thus, in the
short term it is often most important to make
sure that the hot sessions and exercises are
performed and with the appropriate effort.
However, although in the short term you
can make gains with an intensity-only
programme, I believe that long term
improvements require a volume base.
Therefore Paretos law cannot be applied
to a long term training model and I revert
to the primacy of consistency. Outside of
intense sessions or exercises therefore, I will
tend to prioritise volume over intensity.
Breaking down the programmes
I would characterise my programmes into

three different parts:
1. The intensity bit
2. Grease the groove (GTG) volume
3. Just get it done (JGID) volume.
To me, GTG volume means achieving
a good amount of reps at moderate to
moderate/high intensity, but with a
sufficiently low volume per set, so that it is
not too psychologically demanding. Thus,
during a week, an athlete can build up a
good volume lifting a reasonable weight,
but without having to get too excited about

it. This allows the repeated display of the
desired biomotor qualities at a meaningful
intensity, which then complements the
higher intensity work that they do.
It is my opinion that GTG volume is an
important part of strength and power
training and I use it extensively in Olympic
lifting training. For instance, if an athlete
has a personal best power clean of 100 kg, I
might ask them to get lots of sets of doubles
at between 75 and 80 kg during the week. I
also like the approach in maximum strength
training. For example, if an athlete back
squats 100kg for 1, they might be able to
accumulate GTG volume by front squatting
60-65kg for 6 sets of 3.
Paretos law
that 20% of
the work you
do will account
for 80% of your
results
NB, remember that set/rep guidelines

can mean different things. For instance,
if you take an athlete with a 1RM of 100kg
and ask them to do 5x5 @ 85 kg, this will
be an eyeballs-out, high-intensity session.
However, if they do 5x5 @ 70-75 kg, this
would be a valuable GTG session (in my
opinion) that should not be too draining.
Finally, the JGID volume, which involves
everything else. It can be focused on building
work capacity, hypertrophy, activation
exercises, prehabilitation or rehabilitation,
conditioning type stuff or flexibility training.
It is almost never done with exercises where
technique would be a concern and I am quite
happy for athletes to exercise when tired (of
course, if athletes are using exercises where
technique is important, then they must be
particularly vigilant as to technique despite
being tired).
Equally, I am happy for the athletes to
perform these exercises at relatively lower
intensities the focus is on the volume,
not the intensity. I believe in building work
capacity. One way to achieve this is by
pushing the envelope in terms of the amount
Volume
I have already described my belief in the
importance of consistency. In the short
term, I believe it is important to maintain
the consistency of the higher intensity
training and thus, in general, I would tend
09
STRONG FOUNDATIONS
the demand to increase work capacity has

to be balanced against the need to keep the
athlete fresh for the higher intensity training
of work an athlete can achieve in a given
time frame. This might be during the course
of a training week, or simply within a given
session of defined length (for instance like
the principle of escalating density training).
Often, I try to have a wave progression in
the amount of work an athlete performs
week on week a linear increase in volume
up to a peak, followed by an immediate and
significant decrease in volume and then the
start of another linear increase. This then
allows for recovery and adaptation.
Cutting sessions short
Having said all this, I am quite happy to cut

sessions short when I feel it is appropriate.
Equally, I am comfortable if parts of the
session are often relatively easy in many
cases I dont want the athlete to be spending
psychological energy that they will need
at other times in the training week. It is
important to judge the amount of work an
athlete can usefully perform if you give
them too much volume in a week then this
will not be the best stimulus to improving
work capacity. Again, one must be vigilant
as to the ability of the athlete to adapt to
the demands of the programme it is the
coachs responsibility to provide the optimal
stimulus for increasing work capacity, to
ensure that work capacity is progressed in
the long term, and to make sure that there
are an appropriate amount of lower volume
weeks to allow adaptation and recovery,
while preventing overtraining.
At the same time, the demand to increase
work capacity has to be balanced against
the need to keep the athlete fresh for the
higher intensity training, and the effect of
the higher intensity training, in combination
with the volume, has to be factored into the
calculation of the training load of the athlete
and their ability to adapt and recover.
I should warn the reader that, in the past,
both colleagues and athletes have described
my programmes as being very high volume.
I dont really see them this way, but certainly
they must be of higher volume than those
of my peers. The approach described here
should probably therefore be described as
volume-driven, thus further emphasising
the need to be wary of unplanned
overreaching or overtraining.
10
Overreaching, stagnation and emotional

investment
I am inclined to believe that in some cases
what people describe as overtraining is either
overreaching or a stagnation in adaptation
due to inefficient programming. In the

former cases overreaching may at various
times be either desirable or undesirable.
Certainly, in more junior/inexperienced
athletes, overreaching is not necessary or
appropriate to achieve improvements. Ditto,
an overreached athlete may not perform as
well in the competitive season. However,
in more elite athletes, overreaching may
provide an important training stimulus.
In the case of an athlete who is stagnating,
then it is simply down to the coach to be
smarter with the programme. Key factors in
stagnation are both intensity and volume.
I have already described how a lack of
fluctuation of intensity or too much high
intensity work can lead to an athlete hitting
a plateau. One overlooked aspect, however,
is the emotional investment in training
at high intensity, which is an important
factor in explaining the stagnation that may
result if intensity is an issue. If an athlete
can achieve high intensity performances
without being too emotionally involved (for
instance, psyched up or aggressive), then
this is ideal.
Certainly, at times this type of psychological
involvement can be important, but I will
generally encourage an athlete to save this
extra boost for when it is really needed.
From a volume standpoint, one reason for
stagnation might be a lack of a volume base.
This is why I believe that a JGID approach to
achieving volume can be helpful, as I think
it allows you to train with relatively higher
volumes. It is important however, that the
athlete trains without any great emotional
intensity or psychological investment in
these parts of the programme. Equally, the
coach must still be vigilant for signs of
overtraining, and I believe that it is a serious
error if a coach overtrains their athlete in the
weight room.
Conclusion
I hope that this article is not too self
centred: my purpose is to exemplify how a
consideration of the fundamental training
principles can lead to the evolution of a
personal philosophy, and maybe spark
some debate as to the volume/intensity
trade-off within our community. Hopefully,
I have shown how a focus on consistency
and progression (allied with some practical
experience) in turn leads to a clear
philosophy for the manipulation of volume
and intensity to improve weight room
performance.
A review of complex and contrast training:

implications for current practice. Part 1
Paul Jones, BSc (Hons), MSc, CSCS / University of Salford
Theodoros M Bampouras, BSc (Hons), MSc / University of Cumbria
Paul Comfort, BSc (Hons), MSc, CSCS*D, ASCC / University of Salford
INTRODUCTION
Many authors have stated the advantages of combining
resistance and plyometric training to enhance
performance in a range of athletic tasks including vertical
jumps,1, 28, 48, 59 cycling,49 golf driving,33 or soccer skills.59
Complex and contrast training are methods which
combine resistance training and plyometric training
within the same session, with suggestions for these
practices initially made over 40 years ago.61 Both training
methods alternate kinematically similar high-load
resistance training and low-load plyometric exercises.24
Examples include combining a heavy back squat with a
drop jump or a heavy bench-press with the medicine ball
power drop. This combination of exercises can be referred
to as an exercise pair.
Some confusion around these training methods exists,
as the terms complex and contrast training are often
used interchangeably. Duthie et al 22 provided useful
operational definitions of the two terms: they describe
complex training (COM) as performing all heavy load
exercise sets first, followed by the lighter power exercise
sets (ie, 3 5 back squats at 87% 1RM, followed by 3 6
jump squats at 30% 1RM back squat load); and contrast
training (CON) as alternating heavy and light loads on
a set for set basis (ie, 1 5 back squats at 87% 1RM,
followed three minutes later by 1 6 jump squats at 30%
of back squat 1RM: this pair of exercises can be repeated
for a desired number of sets).
The rationale behind the potential advantages of using
COM and CON over either training components
performed in isolation is that they can potentially take
advantage of post-activation potentiation (PAP). PAP
refers to the phenomenon where previous muscular
contractions enhance subsequent explosive force
generation.31 Despite its widespread use in the field,
conflicting research findings using these training
methods have been reported. 12, 13, 18, 19, 22-24, 33, 37, 38, 40, 41, 55, 56,
63, 64
Furthermore, little consensus is provided on how best
to implement COM/CON.
The aim of this two-part review is therefore to examine the
current literature and provide some recommendations for
the practice of COM and CON, as well as to provide clear
avenues for future research into these training methods.
Post-activation potentiation
Post-activation potentiation (PAP)
refers to the phenomenon of acute
enhancement of muscular force after
previous muscle activity.31, 54 Although
fatigue (reduction in force generation
ability)51 is observed immediately
following repeated muscle activation,
PAP and fatigue can co-exist.51 Indeed,
the fitness-fatigue model can be used to
present PAP as a positive neuromuscular
effect, with fatigue as a negative one
following muscular contractions and
performance as the net product of
these two. (Figure 1)10,15
Fatigue is typically more prominent in
the earlier phases of recovery; hence
there is a performance depression
after conditioning activities.31 However,
lower volume activities have been
shown to induce PAP immediately.30,33
As fatigue diminishes faster than PAP,
performance is enhanced until PAP also
disappears.32,64 The optimal point where
performance is maximally enhanced
appears to depend on factors such as
the volume and intensity of the activity
or the subjects characteristics.58 This
review will consider each of these issues
in regard to COM/CON.
Physiological mechanisms
contributing to PAP
Chemical and neural mechanisms
have been proposed to explain PAP,
including phosphorylation of regulatory
light
chains15,16,60
and
increased
recruitment of higher order motor
units.2, 34, 36 Muscular contraction causes
Ca2+ molecules to be released from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum and bind to the
calmodulin (a calcium-binding protein):
this activates myosin light chain kinase
(MLCK) catalysing regulatory light
chain phosphorylation. This results
in the myosin head moving away from
the filament surface, making it easier
to contact the actin filaments during
contraction.65
On the other hand, intense muscular
contractions enhance motor-neuron
11
D
PAP
Fatigue
Figure 1. Fitness-fatigue diagram of the hypothetical relationship between postactivation potentiation (PAP) and fatigue. The middle line (0) represents baseline. As
a conditioning activity begins, PAP is greater than fatigue at lower volumes (distance
of relevant curve from baseline; point A) while the opposite is true as the activity
progresses (fatigue increasing more than PAP from point A to point B, where both
reach their peak). Subsequently, fatigue is diminished at a faster pace than PAP,
reaching a point where PAP is greater again (point C). Performance (the net product
of this interaction) will therefore be dependent on the volume and rest interval;
increasing when PAP is greater, decreasing when fatigue is greater, or remaining
unchanged if both of these neuromuscular effects have disappeared (point D).
pool excitability, as evidenced by

a potentiated H-reflex response.34
Elevated neural activation was the result
of increased motor unit recruitment.
Consequently, more motor units
are available in subsequent muscle
contractions, resulting in higher force
production;34 this state appears to last
for several minutes.13, 31, 40, 41
The inability to fully elucidate
the mechanisms inducing PAP
and
its
potential
impact
on
improving performance has led to
extensive research in recent years.
The intensity and volume of the
conditioning contractions (conditioning stimulus),4,6,33 along with the
rest period between the end of
the conditioning stimulus and the
subsequent explosive exercise,13, 31, 40, 41
have been indicated as major factors
affecting PAP. The complexity of the
matter increases when the different
activation capacity of muscles11 and
the different biomechanical factors
affecting it are considered.9 Therefore,
different muscle groups, rest intervals
and loads have been used to examine
PAP following COM or CON.
To address the aim of the article, only
literature that has investigated the effect
of PAP on plyometric (ie, depth jumps,
etc) or explosive/ballistic resistance
exercises (ie, bench press throws, jump
squats) has been included. In addition
12
to this, only studies involving typical

weight-room based resistance exercises
(ie, back squats, bench press, etc) as
the PAP conditioning stimuli have
been considered, at the exclusion of
studies involving evoked or isometric
maximum voluntary contractions, as
such methods are not conducive to real
life conditioning settings.
Acute studies: contrast training
Several studies (Table 1) have
investigated the acute effect of prior
resistance exercise on explosive power
performance using a contrast protocol
to evaluate the ergogenic effect of
performing resistance exercise prior
to plyometric or other explosive power
exercise. Of the 29 studies using
contrast protocols (Table 1), 21 have
shown a positive effect from using prior
weight-room based exercises; two of
which were not directly on performance
of the subsequent power exercise, but
the resistance exercise led to increases
in joint or vertical stiffness.18,47
Many of the studies have used
conflicting research designs, making
it difficult to be conclusive regarding
the best way to elicit PAP in training.
The earliest, Young et al,64 examined
whether a loaded countermovement
jump (LCMJ) (20kg) could be enhanced
if preceded by a set of half-squats with a
5RM (87% of 1RM) load. Subjects (n=10)
experienced with the squat exercise

performed 2 5 LCMJ, one set of five
half-squats with a 5RM load, and 1 5
LCMJ, with four minutes rest between
each set. There was no significant
difference between the first two sets of
LCMJ (ICC = 0.95), but LCMJ height
was significantly greater (2.8%) after
the half-squats.64 However, these results
must be regarded with caution, as
there may be learning effects with the
research design used.
To support the findings of Young et al,64
several other studies have since shown
positive effects on explosive power
performance using a separate control
condition for lower body exercises18,
20, 40, 56, 63
and upper body exercises.13,45
Ten studies have shown negligible
effects, 14, 19, 21, 23, 25, 36-38, 43, 55 four of which
manipulated short-term recovery.19,21,
37, 38
A variety of reasons could account
for the negligible effects found in these
studies including: training status of the
subjects (ranging from professional
rugby union or league players and elite
weightlifters to recreational weight
trainers [see Table 1); the conditioning
stimulus; inter-set recovery; and
performance measures used. Each of
these issues will be discussed in the
subsequent sections.
Nine of the 24 studies have performed
CON on the upper body and indicate
that there are no differences between
the lower or upper body in eliciting PAP
using CON methods (Table 1). The first
Ebben et al 23 examined the effect of
a set of high-load bench press (3-5 reps
at 90-95% of 1RM) on a subsequent set
of medicine ball power drops in terms
of ground reaction forces (GRF) and
electromyography (EMG) in 10 male
NCAA Division 1 basketball players.
Results
showed
no
significant
differences between mean GRF,
maximum GRF and EMG for the
pectoralis major and triceps muscles
between the two conditions, indicating
no heightened excitability of the central
nervous system. The authors concluded
that there was no disadvantage of
performing high-load resistance training
and plyometric exercises in exercise
pairs and therefore this may remain
a useful training strategy because of
organisational advantages. No data on
altered movement characteristics was
presented to confirm this.
Several additional criticisms should
be noted in that exercise order was not
counter-balanced and neither condition
was assessed by a pre-post test design.
Maximum and mean GRFs were
reported, indicating maximum strength,

whereas no fast force production
capabilities were examined such as
rate of force development (RFD), which
is likely to be influenced by PAP.31,54 A
similar study assessed RFD, impulse
and peak force during an explosive push
up, finding no potentiation effect.36
Upper body studies
Seven other studies have since been
performed on the upper body (Table
1), with five showing a positive effect
from a prior heavy resistance exercise.
However, these studies again used
contrasting research designs. The
subjects used by Baker6 did not perform
an experimental and control condition,
but were divided into two groups who
performed only one condition, whereas
Evans et al26 did not use a control group.
Kilduff et al40 investigated the effect
of 3RM (93% 1RM) load bench press
on peak power output (PPO) during a
40% 1RM bench press throw. After an
initial significant reduction in PPO 15s
post, PPO was significantly enhanced
8, 12 and 16 minutes post 3RM bench
press, with greatest PPO at 12 minutes.
Matthews et al45 found a 5RM (87% 1RM)
bench press to potentiate medicine
ball (2.3 kg) throwing velocity during a
chest pass, substantiating the findings
of Evans et al.26
Finally, Baker8 found that three bench
press repetitions at 65% 1RM with
an additional 12% 1RM coming from
accommodating resistance via chains
throughout the concentric portion of the
lift led to increases in PPO during three
bench press throw repetitions that were
performed approximately 90 seconds
after the conditioning stimuli. This
complex was repeated throughout two
further sets and continued to enhance
PPO during the subsequent bench press
throw sets. However, this study did not
incorporate a control condition.
Studies using contrast loading
Three of the 24 studies (Table 1) have
used contrast loading (CONL), in that
the same exercises were used (ie, jump
squats) but the load used was varied
to allow potentiation of a lighter load.
Baker5 used loaded jump squats and
found that heavy resistance improved
average power output (APO), whereas
Clark et al17 investigated the effect of
a heavier load jump squat on several
subsequent lighter sets of jumps
squats leading to potentiation of the
subsequent set after the heavy load.
Stone et al57 found that mid-thigh
clean pull velocity could be enhanced
following the performance of priorheavier load mid-thigh clean pulls.

However, this study did not incorporate
a control condition using the same load
for the corresponding number of sets.
PAP has primarily been investigated
on single trials following the stimulus,
with little attention given to any PAP
effect on performance of repeated
trials. Smilios et al56 investigated PAP
effects after each of three intervention
sets that involved either half or jump
squats with loads of 30 and 60% of 1RM.
The results revealed that potentiation
predominantly took place after the first
and second intervention set. Similarly,
Esformes et al25 investigated the effect
on CMJ performance throughout three
sets of exercise pairs involving either
squats or plyometrics with a five-minute
inter-set recovery and 10 minutes
between pairs. However, the lack of
any potentiating effect limited any
significance of investigating multiple
sets. Finally, Walker et al62 found that
squat jump height was significantly
enhanced in only the second set of four
exercise pairs involving back squats
and squat jumps (interspersed with
three minutes rest).
Conversely, Baker7,8 has shown that PPO
can be potentiated throughout three
sets of complexes for the upper8 and
lower body.7 Baker7 used a protocol that
alternated four sets of two repetitions of
80 kg jump squats with four sets of two
repetitions of box squats at 68% 1RM
with the addition of 6-19.6% 1RM coming
from accommodating elastic resistance.
He found that PPO was significantly
enhanced in each of the last three sets
of jumps squats (following a heavy
intervention set). APO for the set was
enhanced for the first set only.
In another study, Baker8 found that
PPO was significantly enhanced for
the last three sets of three bench
press throws (following a bench press
with accommodating resistance from
chains) and APO of the final set. In
summary it would appear that three sets
of complexes for the contrast method
seem optimal.
Key points:
Contrast training involves alternative heavy
and light loads on a set for set basis and has
shown to be effective in acutely enhancing
power output of the lighter load exercise
Contrast training has been shown to be
equally effective for lower and upper body
complexes
Contrast training seems to be effective over
three sets of complexes (exercise pairs).
Acute studies: complex training

Fewer studies have been performed
involving a COM protocol. Of the 11
studies cited in Table 2, eight have
shown a positive effect on explosive
power performance. Only Duthie et
al,22 Farup and Sorenson,27 and Andrews
et al3 have shown negligible effects
from a COM protocol. Duthie et al22
is the only study to compare COM
and CON protocols, comparing total
session and set by set PPO between
different training session structures
(traditional, COM and CON) and found
no significant differences between
CON and COM methods. Andrews et
al,3 using protocols of 3 3 back squats
(75% 1RM) or 3 3 hang cleans (60%
1RM), found no improvement in CMJ
height, but that less decrement resulted
from the hang clean condition. As with
Duthie et al,22 this study used female
athletes only as subjects, unlike the
other COM studies cited in Table 2.
Although Rixon et al52 reported
potentiation to be greater in males
compared to females, given that only
nine studies have been performed on
females with regard to COM or CON
(and often these have been combined
with males16, 19. 37, 46, 47, 50, 57), differences with
gender in regard to muscle potentiation
remains speculative and may just reflect
a lower training status of the females in
the above mentioned studies.3,22
Farup and Sorenson27 also found
negligible effects, despite using a
similar protocol to Gilbert and Lees,31
but this time for the upper body.
However, it could be said that these
protocols are really designed as warmup strategies rather than to be used for
a training session context. It should be
noted that Farup and Sorenson27 used
a much smaller sample size compared
to others studies cited in Table 2.
Conversely, several studies13, 16, 31, 33, 41, 44,
50, 53
have shown positive effects using
COM protocols. However, a variety of
loads, volumes, recovery and exercises
have been used as the heavy resistance
component in these studies, providing
little clarity as to the best way to elicit
potentiation using COM (Table 2).
These issues will be examined in the
following sections both in terms of
CON and COM methods.
Key points:
Complex training involves performing
all heavy resistance exercise sets first
before the lighter power exercise sets.
Complex training can be as effective as
contrast training in acutely enhancing
power output of the lighter exercise.
continued overleaf
13
As with contrast training, loads, volume,

recovery and training status are all factors
that influence the potentiating effect.
Training status
A key finding in some studies is that the
level of potentiation effect is influenced
by the subjects prior strength level
and hence possibly training status.22,
33, 64
Chiu et al16 investigated whether
training status directly impacted on
the responses to PAP. Seven explosive
strength athletes were compared to 17
recreational athletes over the course of
four sessions; they performed rebound
and concentric only jump squats with
30, 50, and 70% 1RM loads, 5 and 18.5
minutes after 5 1 repetition at 90%
1RM back squat. The explosive athletes
had significantly greater percentage
potentiation than the recreational
athletes, which could be partly
explained by well-trained athletes
being more fatigue-resistant to the
warm-up stimulus taking advantage of
PAP.16 Similar findings were previously
reported by Hamada et al,35 who found
PAP to be dependent, not only on the
generic training status of the individual,
but also on the specific muscle group
targeted by that training. In that study,
competitive triathletes demonstrated
PAP on both upper and lower body,
whereas runners only demonstrated the
same on the lower body. However, both
groups had enhanced PAP compared to
active controls.35
Furthermore, Gourgoulis et al33 reported
a 4.01% improvement in jump height
in subjects with higher absolute 1RM
half-squat load, compared to only a
0.42% improvement in subjects with
a lower absolute 1RM half-squat load,
following a combination of various
loads as a warm-up. In addition,
Rixon et al52 examined whether PAP
was influenced by lifting experience.
They found that experienced lifters
benefited significantly more from PAP
than inexperienced lifters. A possible
explanation as to these differentiations
was offered by Chiu et al,16 who found
that the higher percentage of fast twitch
fibres due to resistance training is likely
to be the reason for greater PAP. The
reduced benefit elicited by less trained
individuals could explain the observed
negligible effects in some studies.23, 36, 38, 55
In support of this, Kilduff et al39,41 have
found positive correlations between
3RM (93% 1RM) strength and change
in potentiation. This has important
implications for the use of CON by
athletes, in that only well trained
athletes may primarily benefit from
14
COM/CON or from PAP as a warm-up

strategy.
Key point:
Athletes with higher training status or
greater strength levels are more likely to
benefit from PAP and take advantage of
this phenomenon through complex or
contrast training.
Optimal load
The studies in Tables 1 and 2 also reveal
broad training loads used to elicit
PAP. Typically, 3 to 5RM (93 to 87%
1RM) loads are used for back squats
and bench press, with studies often
incorporating 5RM (87% 1RM) loads
not always revealing a positive effect.19,
23, 36-38, 55
However, lower loads than 5RM
have revealed positive effects for the
upper body6,8 and lower body.7,56
Limited studies have investigated the
effects of different loads on the extent
to which PAP can be evoked. Comyns et
al18 investigated the effects of different
back squat loads on potentiation in
12 elite rugby players. Each subject
performed three sled DJs prior to and
after three back squats performed at 65,
80 and 93% of 1RM. Following the 93%
load, significant reductions in contact
time and increased joint stiffness
were observed, indicating that using
the heavier load results in greater fast
stretch-shortening cycle performance.
Interestingly,
commonly
used
performance variables such as flight
time, peak force and reactive strength
index showed no significant differences
between all loads, whereas flight time
actually showed a significant reduction
following each load. Similarly, Moir
et al47 found that a protocol involving
three back squat repetitions at 90%
1RM resulted in an increase in vertical
stiffness during CMJs (between 4
and 20 minutes post squats) that was
significantly greater than that following
12 back squat repetitions at 37% 1RM in
female volleyball players.
It therefore appears that performance
process (eg, joint kinematics and
kinetics) measures, as well as
performance outcome measures (eg,
jump height, flight time), should also
be considered in future studies. Many
studies measure performance outcome
measures and find little to no effect,
when in fact there may well have been
some kind of positive biomechanical
effect; however, it may be questioned as
to whether this has any real importance
in a training context.
Heavy loads in traditional exercises

Studies using heavy 3RM ( 93% 1RM)
loads for traditional exercises (ie, back
squat, bench press) show that this
appears to be more effective. However,
Baker7,8 has shown that moderate loads
(60 and 80% 1RM) can be used when
greater than 10% of the load is provided
from chains or elastic (resistance)
bands. In such a case, the exercise may
be performed more explosively, as the
athlete explodes out of the bottom,
lighter part of the lift and decelerates
with the increase in external resistance,
suggesting that the intention to move
explosively is a key stimulus to evoke
potentiation from heavy loads.7,8 To
complicate matters further, Smilios et
al56 showed increased jump performance
following both squats jumps and halfsquats with 30% 1RM load.
For more ballistic exercises (ie, jump
squat, bench press throw), the optimal
load to use during CON and COM
is even more confusing as absolute
loads are often reported, but generally
lighter loads seem beneficial.5, 17, 56 It
appears however, that body weight
as the training load or plyometric
exercises are unable to evoke PAP
in subsequent plyometric or highvelocity exercises.25,63 In a comparison
of plyometric exercises and heavy
weight exercises (3RM half-squats)
as the conditioning stimulus for CMJ
performance, heavy weights were found
to be superior to plyometric exercises,25
with prior plyometric exercise showing
lower subsequent CMJ performance,
than a no-exercise control condition.
This substantiates previous work
showing that five squat jumps resulted
in significant reductions in mean and
peak jump squat height three minutes
post exercise, which was contrary to
what was observed following five back
squats at 85% 1RM.63
Limited research has used weightlifting
exercises or their derivatives.3,21,50
Using a COM protocol, Radcliffe and
Radcliffe50 found that 4 4 repetitions
at 75-85% of 4RM for power snatch
enhanced subsequent standing long
jump performance. However, using
a CON protocol, Dinsdale & Bissas21
found three reps of hang clean at
90% 1RM did not enhance CMJ
performance for six minutes post
intervention. Andrews et al3 found no
increase in CMJ performance, after
either 3 3 back squats (75% 1RM) or
3 3 hang cleans (60% 1RM). However,
the smallest decline in jump height
across sets followed the hang power
clean protocol. More research is needed
Table 1. Research involving contrast training protocols

Authors
Subjects
Young et al 64
10 males

Protocol
Measures
2 5 LCMJ, 1 5RM BSQT

LCMJ (Jump height)
& 1 5 LCMJ (4 min between
all sets)
Results
2.8% S in final LCMJ set.
S correlation between performance
enhancement & 5RM load
Jones & Lees 38

8 males
5 BSQT at 85% 1RM vs. no
experienced exercise control.
in strength
training
Kinematic, kinetic &

EMG analysis of CMJ
& DJ at pre, 3, 10 and
20 min post squats
NS differences in jump performance or

EMG regardless of time point & condition
Jensen & Ebben 37

21 NCAA div 1 1 5RM BSQT

athletes (11
males, 10
females).
CMJ (Height & GRF)

performed pre, 10 sec,
1, 2, 3 & 4 minutes post
Reduced performance at 10 sec (S. in women),

progressive increase thereafter
Pre & post CMJ & SLJ

tests (5 min pre/post)
NS main effects on jump height & distance
Scott & Doherty 55 19 males

4 separate sessions of 1 5RM

BSQT
Smilios et al 56

10 male
regional
sports
players
4 test sessions involving; 3 5

SQJ & CMJ height pre, SQJ S with HS 60% after 1st set. CMJ S
loaded HS or JS @ 30 & 60% 1RM 1 min after each set & 5 with JS 60% after sets 2 & 3, JS30% after sets
(3 mins recovery)
and 10 min post session. 1 & 2, and HS 60% after set 1
Comyns et al 19

18 subjects (9 1 5RM BSQT

male/9 female,
sprinters,
jumpers &
rugby players)
Sledge CMJ (flight time S flight time 30 s & 6 min. Only men showed
& peak GRF) performed enhancement @ 4 mins
before, + 30 s, 2 , 4 & 6
min post
12
3 BSQT at 65%, 80% & 93% 1RM Sledge DJs (Flight time, S contact time & S leg stiffness in 93%
Comyns et al 18

professional performed on separate occasions. leg stiffness, contact
1RM condition. S flight time in all

rugby players
time & RSI) performed conditions.

before & 4-min post
Mangus et al 43

11 male
weightlifters
Kilduff et al 41

23
3RM BSQT
professional
rugby players
1 HS @ 90% 1RM vs. 1 QS @

90% 1RM.
CMJ (height) performed NS differences between 2 experimental &

3 min post
control conditions.
CMJ (PPO) performed
before, + 15 s, 4, 8, 12,
16, 20 mins post
S + 15 s, S 8 & 12 min post squats. S

correlation between 3RM strength and
amount of potentiation post 12 min
12 male NCAA 5 BSQT @ 85% 1RM vs. 5 SQJ

7 SQJ (height & peak
S in SQJ peak GRF, mean & peak jump
Weber et al 63

div 1 athletes
GRF) PRE & 3-min post. height post squats. S mean & peak SQJ

height following SQJ protocol.
Walker et al 62

10
3 80% 1RM BSQT followed by 3 3 SQJ (height) 3 min
recreationally SQJs (3 min). This was repeated post
strength
for 4 sets.
trained men
S in set 2, after training only.
10
Baker 7

professional

rugby league

players

4 2 80kg JS alternated with 4 80 kg JS (PPO)

2 paused box squats (68% 1RM +
6-19.6 % 1RM from elastic
resistance). (3 mins per complex
cycle)
S in PPO in last 3 sets compared to set 1. S
13 athletes
Esformes et al 25

1 3RM BSQT vs. 24 contacts of CMJ (height)

plyometrics vs. no activity (5 min
rest). 10 min between complexes
and repeat 3 times.
CMJ height S. Greater following set 1& 3 of

squats compared to set 1 of plyometrics and
set 1 of squats compared to set 3 of control.
McCann &
Flanagan 46

14 NCAA Div1 5RM BSQT or hang clean

Volleyball
players (8
male/8 female)
in APO for set 2 compared to set 1.
NS between exercises. S in CMJ height after

CMJ (height [Vertec])
with 4 or 5 min recovery 4 min recovery.
Dinsdale & Bissas 21 12 University 3 hang clean @ 90% 1RM vs.

Athletes
control.

CMJ (height), 0 6 min CMJ Height S , T0, T2, T3.

(T0-6) post intervention
(separate test occasions)
9 sub elite
3RM BSQT
Crewther et al 20

male rugby

players

CMJ (height), 100kg

S in CMJ 4, 8 & 12 min post squats only
horizontal sledge push,
5/10m sprint; 15s, 4min,
Moir et al 47

CMJ (height & vertical NS CMJ height, but higher load condition
stiffness) (3 CMJs pre, resulted in S greater in vertical stiffness.
and 10 CMJs [2min rec.]
post intervention).
11 female
3 BSQT @ 90% 1RM vs. 12
NCAA Div II BSQT @ 37% 1RM.
volleyball
players
8min, 12min & 16min post
continued on page 16
15
here before advocating loads for

weightlifting exercises in COM/CON.
Key points:
Heavy loads should be used (87% 1RM)
for traditional resistance training exercise
(back squat, bench press) component for
both COM and CON routines.
Ballistic exercises (loaded jump squats,
bench press throws) should use lower
loads (< 60% 1RM) as the stimulating
resistance.
Optimal recovery
There are no empirically established
guidelines for rest interval between
exercises pairs, length of rest between
sets and the number of pairs per
workout.24. Many of the studies in
Table 1 used a three- to five-minute rest
following the heavier exercise to provide
adequate recovery in order to achieve
performance induced by PAP. PAP may
enhance muscular performance for up
to 20 minutes after the conditioning

stimulus.31, 32, 34 Hence, this phenomenon
may have implications for the rest
period necessary between resistance
and plyometric/power exercises in an
exercise pair or the structure of a COM/
CON session to take advantage of this
increased performance potential, whilst
preventing any effects of fatigue during
a training session as depicted in the
fitness-fatigue model (Figure 1).
Upper Body
Subjects
Ebben et al

10 male NCAA 1 3-5RM BPRESS vs.

div 1 basket- No prior exercise control
ball players
23
Protocol
Measures
Results
Force & EMG during a

set of 5 MBPD (5
minutes post BPRESS)
NS difference in max GRF, mean GRF &

pectoralis major & triceps EMG.
10 college
1 5RM BPRESS
Evans et al 26

aged males

2-handed seated
S 31.4 cm . Strong correlation between
medicine ball put pre & improvement & 5RM bench press
4 mins post BPRESS
Hysomallis &
Kidgell 36

12 male
1 5RM BPRESS vs.
recreational No exercise control.
weight trainers
Explosive push up on
force platform (3 mins
after bench press)
Baker 6

16 Rugby
Control session; 2 5 BPT with BPT (PPO) using 50kg
league players, 50 kg load (3 min rest).
load
divided into Experimental group performed 6
experimental repetitions at 65% 1RM BPRESS
& control
between BPT sets.
groups
4.5% PPO post intervention, S different to

other 3 testing occasions.
Brandenburg 14

8 male
5 reps BPRESS @ 100, 75 & 50% BPT( PPO) @ 45% 1RM
recreational 1RM
weight trainers
NS difference in any of the 4 conditions.
NS difference in any force parameter.
PPO from 1 BPT

S + 15 s, S 8, 12 & 16 min post BPRESS.
performed before, + 15s, S correlation between 3RM strength and
4, 8, 12, 16, 20 min post amount of potentiation post 12 min
Matthews et al 45

Basketball push pass

(flight time)
7 prof. rugby
Baker 8

players

4 3 60 kg BPT alternated with 60kg BPT (PPO)

4 3 BPRESS (65.5% 1RM + 12.2%
1RM from chains). (3 mins per
complex cycle)
10 rugby
Esformes et al 25

players

7 s isometric BPRESS vs. 3RM

concentric BPRESS vs. 3RM
eccentric BPRESS vs. 3RM
eccentric-concentric BPRESS.
9 strength
6 6 20-kg LCMJ (3 mins
LCMJ (height & PPO
Clark et al 17

trained males recovery). 2nd set replaced
during final 50ms prior

w/40 kg in experimental condition. to take-off)
7 elite
Stone et al 57

weightlifters

(4 male/

3 female)

Chiu et al 16

Measures
4 4 BSQT @ 75-85% 4RM vs.

SLJ distance.
4 4 power snatch @ 75-85%
4RM. vs. 4 4 loaded jumps @
15-20% BW vs. 4 4 tuck jumps
vs. Standard warm-up (control)
24 (12 male/ 5 1BSQT @ 90% 1RM (2 min

12 female; 7 between sets)
Athletes/ 17
recreationally
trained.
RJS & CJS (PPO & APO)

performed @ 30, 50 &
70% 1RM BSQT (5 &
18.5 min post
intervention)
5 BSQT at 1RM vs. 5 BSQT at Isometric MVC or CMJ

Pmax (5 mins between reps for
both) vs. control.
Results
In male subjects, S. greater SLJ performance
following snatch condition compared to
control.
No effect on group as a whole, except RJS APO

@ 30% load. S. % potentiation PPO in
athletes for CJS @ all loads & APO @ 30%.
S. PPO, APO & average force for RJS @
30%, 18.5 mins post
In 1RM condition, CMJ S. 15 & 20 min
(peaking at 20 min). [S. 2 & 10 min]
In Pmax condition S. 2 min.
11 strength 3 test sessions; 3 4 JS followed JS @ 30% of HS 1RM

Duthie et al 23

trained women by 3 3RM HS [traditional], 3 (height, PPO & peak.

3RM HS followed by 3 4 JS
GRF)

[complex], alternation of the later,

set by set [contrast].
NS difference in JS variables between each
Gourgoulis et al 33 20 active males 5 2 HS @ 20, 40, 60, 80 & 90% 2 CMJs pre and post

1RM
squats.

2.39% S improvement in jump height (not

power). Greater improvement in-group of
stronger subjects (4.01 vs. 0.42%).
20
3 3 BSQT @ 87% 1RM.
Kilduff et al 41

professional

rugby players

Andrews et al 3

19 female
collegiate
athletes
training method.
CMJ (PPO, peak RFD & S post 8 min in all measures. S post 15s.
height) performed
S correlation between 3RM strength and
before, and + 15 s, 4, 8, amount of potentiation post 8 min.
12, 16, 20 & 24 min post
3 4 CMJs vs. 3 3 BSQT @ 75% CMJ height from video

1RM vs. 3 3 hang cleans @ 60% analysis
1RM (3 min between sets)
NS differences in CMJ performance.

S less decline (0.3cm) tin CMJ height across set
following hang cleans.
Markovic et al 44
23 physically

active men.

1 6 reps at 60% 1RM, plus 2 Seated medicine ball

3RM BPRESS. (3 min between
throwing velocity with
sets). Randomised control group 0.55 and 4 kg loads.
design.
S 4kg medicine ball throw in experimental

group.
BPT @ 40% 1RM

(Height & PPO); 15 sec,
4, 8, 12,16, 20 & 24 min
S 15 sec, 8 min S , except @ 12 mins.
S following BPRESS condition
Farup &
Sorenson 27
8 strength
5 1RM BPRESS
trained males (5 min between reps).
Isometic MVC BPT

(30% 1RM) PPO
NS differences in BPT PPO S. RFD post 2,

10 & 20 min intervention.
S in PPO in last 3 sets compared to set 1.

S in APO for set 4 compared to set 1.
Key: (Exercises) BSQT = back squat, BPRESS = bench press, BPT = bench press throw, MBPD = medicine ball power drops, LCMJ = loaded
countermovement jump, JS = Jump squats, RJS = rebound jump squat, CJS = concentric only jump squat, HS = half squats, SQJ = squat jump,
CMJ = counter movement jump, DJ = drop jump, SLJ = standing long jump, RM = repetition maximum, (Measures) GRF = ground reaction force,
PPO = peak power output, APO = average power output, (Results) S = significant, NS = non significant, = increase, = decrease.
S greater PPO post heavy JS compared to all

other occasions.
3rd set after intervention S . PPO S in 2nd

& 3rd sets.
Mid-thigh clean pull at 60, 80,100, Mid-thigh clean pull

Trend for better performance in set 5 vs. Set 2.
120, 80kg for women and 60, 140, (peak GRF, RFD, PPO & S Peak velocity set 5 vs. Set 2.
180, 220, 180 kg for men. (5 reps peak velocity).
at each load, with 2mins
between sets).
K
ey: (Exercises) BSQT = back squat, BPRESS = bench press, BPT = bench press throw, MBPD = medicine ball power drops, LCMJ = loaded
countermovement jump, JS = Jump squats, HS = half squats, QS = quarter squats, SQJ = squat jump, CMJ = counter movement jump, DJ = drop
jump, SLJ = standing long jump, RM = repetition maximum, (Measures) GRF = ground reaction force, PPO = peak power output, APO = average
power output, RSI = reactive strength index. (Results) S = significant, NS = non significant, = increase, = decrease.
16
Radcliffe &
35 NCAA Div 1
Radcliffe 50
Athletes (24

male/ 11

female)

Protocol
26
3 3 BPRESS @ 87% 1RM
professional

rugby players
BPT @ 40% 1RM BPRESS S in PPO following isometric condition only.

(PPO). 10 min pre & 12
min post intervention)
JS (APO during
concentric phase)
Subjects
Bevan et al 12

Contrast Loading
Baker 5
6 prof. rugby 2 6 40-kg JS vs. the same

league players session, but w/ 1 3 60 kg JS

between the 2 lighter sets.
Authors
upper body
Kilduff et al 40
23 prof. rugby 3RM BPRESS

players

12 competitive 5 BPRESS @ 85% 1RM vs.
male athletes 2.3kg medicine ball push pass
Table 2. Research investigating complex training protocols
15 male
Gilbert & Lees 31

athletes

Table 1. Research involving contrast training protocols continued...
Authors
Jones
and
Lees38
measured
performance 3, 10 and 20 minutes post
heavy back squats and found no effect,
whereas Kilduff et al 39, 40 using 23
professional rugby players found that
CMJ and bench press throw PPO was
significantly enhanced 8-12 minutes
post 3RM (93% of 1RM) back squats and
8 to 16 minutes post 3RM bench press,
respectively.
Previous suggestions for the rest
interval between exercises in a exercise
pair included a relatively short 0 to
30-seconds to take advantage of the
possible heightened neural stimulation
afforded by the weight training set.24
This may force a greater contrast
between the heavy load resistance

training and light load plyometric.
However, the negative effects of fatigue
from the resistance training exercise
may still be present, negating the
positive effects of PAP. In support of this,
Jensen and Ebben37 measured vertical
jump performance 10 sec, 1, 2, 3 and 4
minutes post 1 5RM squats in men and
women and found no immediate effect,
but performance did return to baseline
after four minutes, indicating that a
recovery period of at least four minutes
may be required. Similar findings have
been reported by Comyns et al19 and
Dinsdale & Bissas.21 Comyns et al19
found a significant decline in sled jump
flight time observed 30 seconds post
5RM back squats, before a subsequent

increase toward six minutes post
squats, whereas Dinsdale and Bissas 21
found no performance enhancement
in CMJ performance for 6 minutes
following hang cleans at 90% 1RM, with
significant declines in the first three
minutes of recovery. These findings
substantiate the abovementioned
findings of Kilduff et al 39, 40 for longer
recoveries in CON.
In contrast, Smilios et al 56 found that
squat and countermovement jump
performance was enhanced compared
to baseline 1-minute after early sets of
either 3 5 half and jump squats with
lighter loads (Table 1); these studies
17
illustrate the interaction of load / rest

interval on PAP. Similarly, Baker 7, 8
has also found that short recoveries
75 to 90 seconds (three minutes
complex cycle time) can enhance
power performance during a lighter/
high velocity exercise component
providing a suitable volume and load
of the heavy exercise component
is used (ie, 23 reps, 60-80% 1RM
performed explosively maybe by using
accommodating resistance). A small
number of studies have investigated
the effect of multiple sets of contrast
pairs and it would seem that PAP
may be evident during 2 to 3 sets of
an exercise pair 7, 8, 25, 56, but clearly this
aspect is under-researched.
COM protocols: longer recovery
In terms of COM protocols, a longer

recovery period may be required
due to the greater volume of heavy
resistance training exercise (3 sets vs
1 set) used during the conditioning
stimulus. However, similar optimal
recovery durations of 8 minutes have
been reported 13, 46. Kilduff et al41 and
Bevan et al13 have found an optimal
recovery period of 8 minutes following
3 3 back squats at 87% 1RM and 3 3
bench press repetitions at 87% 1RM,
respectively. However, it is clear that
strength and conditioning coaches
should investigate the optimal
recovery necessary on an individual
basis to more effectively design COM
and CON sessions with athletes,
as each athlete will have their own
fitness-fatigue response following a
conditioning stimulus.
Interestingly, Walker et al 62 found that
following 11 weeks of CON, a CONL
protocol that showed potentiation in
the second set of a back squat / squat
jump exercise pair, pre-training, was
no longer present post-training and
showed deterioration in squat jump
height across the four sets. This again
illustrates the need to assess the
optimal recovery period for individual
athletes, as this may change with
training status.
Key points:
At least four minutes should be allowed
for inter-set recovery for contrast pairs.
Eight minutes should be used for complex
routines due to the extra volume used
with the resistance training exercise
component.
As research is conflicting, it is strongly
advisable to test these recommendations
with individual athletes before designing
sessions.
18
Summary
Part 1 of this review has revealed that
both contrast and complex training
have been shown to be effective in
acutely enhancing power output of the
subsequent lighter load exercise, with
load, volume, recovery and training
status all influence the potentiating
effect. Athletes with higher training
status or greater strength levels are
more likely to benefit from PAP and
take advantage of this phenomenon
through complex or contrast training.
For traditional exercises (ie, back
squat, bench press), heavy loads
should be used (87% 1RM) to induce
PAP; in contrast for ballistic exercises
(loaded jump squats, bench press
throws) should use lower loads (< 60%
1RM) as the stimulating resistance.
At least four minutes should be
allowed for inter-set recovery for
contrast pairs, whereas eight minutes
should be used for complex routines
due to the extra volume used with
the resistance training exercise
component, however as research is
conflicting, it is strongly advisable
to test these recommendations with
individual athletes before designing
sessions.
Part 2 will explore the findings of
training studies which have used these
methods in an attempt to enhance
athletic performance.
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19
BOB AND WEAVE
AUTHORS BIOGRAPHIES
PAUL JONES, BSc (Hons), MSc, CSCS. Paul is lecturer in biomechanics and on the MSc strength and conditioning course within
the Directorate of Sport, Exercise and Physiotherapy at the University of Salford. Paul was formerly biomechanist for UK disability
athletics and has over 12 years applied biomechanics experience across a range of sports.
Theodoros M Bampouras, BSc (Hons), MSc. Theodoros is currently a senior lecturer in biomechanics at the University of
Cumbria within the Faculty of Health and Wellbeing. He is also the coach for the National Scottish Womens water polo team.
Paul Comfort, BSc (Hons), MSc, CSCS*D, ASCC. Paul is the programme leader for the MSc Strength and Conditioning course within
the Directorate of Sport, Exercise and Physiotherapy at the University of Salford. He is also the head of sports science support for
Salford City Reds Rugby League Club.
Bob and weave: practical

challenges for strength and
conditioning in team sports
As strength and conditioning professionals, we seek to utilise training programmes based
on scientific principles with our teams and athletes. However, often things do not go to
plan and adjustments need to be made. The authors of this roundtable combine experience
working with youth, collegiate, and professional teams in a multitude of sports, including
American football, basketball, football, rugby league, and rugby union, amongst others. In
this article they are presented with a number of scenarios: from their responses we hope
that readers will understand different ways to bob and weave when faced with challenges
in strength and conditioning.
Howard Gray and Meg Stone in conversation with Clive Brewer, Dwight Daub, Craig Duncan, and Kunle Odetoyinbo
Scenario 1: You start a new

position with a team things are
not how they should be from a
S&C/SS standpoint, and you feel
major changes are needed.
CB: The first rule in performance sport is
to have as few surprises as possible, and so
this should be identified before you accept
the new position! Evaluate what needs
to be done and why as you discuss the
position, especially if you are coming in to
lead the programme.
That said, over the years, I have come
across situations where change has had
to be implemented a few times. In my
early years, I am not sure that I did it that
well! One thing that I have learned over
time is that you want to take people who
have been in the previous system with
you. Life is very hard if you have to fight
to bring about change. Obviously at some
point you need to realise: if you cant
change the people, change the people,
so I would advocate an involved process
that incorporates their thinking into yours.
Key aspects to determine include: What is
important within the existing culture that
you can incorporate into your thinking and
your practice? What is there that needs to
be changed immediately?
20
As a lead S&C coach, being able to identify

what your S&C programme stands for,
and why you do it, is also important. You
also need to be able to justify to the other
coaches why you are doing what you are
doing, and involve them in the process. In
my facility the underpinning principles
for speed and agility, strength and power,
and endurance training, as well as the
direction of the programme, are displayed.
This means that every session, and the
programme overall, can be measured
against this as we progress. It helps to
remind everyone why we go about our
business in the way that we do! Remember
that good coaching is always evidencebased, evaluated and in high-level team
sports fully integrated into the overall
programme.
DD: Stepping into situations like this
can be extremely difficult. Whether the
entire staff ie, medical/training room
etc is changing or not changing will help
to dictate how quickly you may want to
make wholesale changes. The first thing
that must be done is to create a working
relationship with these people. Attempting
to develop a high quality programme
needs the involvement of all parties. This
type of unified front between S&C and
medical staff is by far the best way to reach
21
You will get

the most bang
for your buck
by slowly
infiltrating your
programme
into the old
system
BOB AND WEAVE
Round table contributors

Howard Gray,
Meg Stone,
MA BS ASCC CSCS
MS BS ASCC CSCS
Assistant strength and speed coach,

Florida State University
Director, Center of Excellence for Sport Science &

Coach Education, US Olympic Training Center,
East Tennessee State University
Clive Brewer,
Kunle Odetoyinbo,
MSc BSc (Hons) ASCC CSCS
MSc BSc (Hons) CN Med Dip Nut IOC
Head of strength & conditioning & sports science,

Widnes Vikings RLFC
Accredited sport & exercise scientist,

Esparc Ltd, London
Dwight Daub,
Craig Duncan,
MS BS CSCS PES CES
PhD BHMS Grad Dip AE
Director of athletic performance,

Oklahoma City Thunder
Senior Lecturer, School of Exercise Science,

Australian Catholic University
athletes and give the care that is necessary.

Incremental changes do take time; however,
you will get the most bang for your buck by
slowly infiltrating your programme into the
old system.
CD: Change in management is a vital part
of our work and it is most important to
remember: Rome wasnt built in a day.
Observe first and then identify changes
that you think need to be made, complete
interviews with staff and playing staff and
then plan a timeline of the implementation
of these changes. For example, there may
be no player monitoring and you have an
extensive system to implement, BUT the
players and staff have had no experience
with such a system. It may be that you start
with just collecting post training RPEs
and then the second season you look at
recording pre-training data and then once
you have buy in by the third season you
may have full implementation.
22
to work with day to day. These people are

probably used to a different way of doing
things. Ripping this up completely with a
lack of sensitivity to what has gone on before
could lead to more negative consequences
than positive. A big part of the long-term
plan of the department should be how to
integrate the aspects of sport science and
strength and conditioning that are most
likely to move the team forward. It is how
these practices progress over time that is the
key factor, rather than attempting perfection
from day one onwards.
KO: This is a position that most in this field
will find themselves in: one that I certainly
have. My view now is that it is important not
to change too much too quickly and to find
a range of areas that have priority. Of course
this will be dictated to a certain degree by
the time in the competitive calendar. It is
certainly easier to make changes in the offseason period.
HG: Addressing this issue really starts

during the application and interview
process for the given job. When going
through this, it is important to be very clear
how you wish to move things forward. Your
coaching philosophy and key methodology,
along with progressive goals and objectives,
should be outlined here. Following this,
receiving a job offer gives a certain amount
of power. The hiring organisation will still
hold most of the cards, especially at the
major college and professional levels, as
this is a competitive field. Where we should
attempt to stand firm, however, would be on
items relating to things proposed during the
hiring process. There must be reasons that
they hired you instead of other candidates
and this is something that should not be
overlooked.
Sports science and strength and conditioning

staff are most effective when intrinsically
part of the coaching and medical team.
When combined, this team can have a huge
influence on performance. It should therefore
be a priority to drive an agenda regarding
the concerns that you might have with both
groups and in certain circumstances with
the board of the organisation to which you
are also responsible (although I recognise
that in many instances such access may
be limited). Ultimately in soccer it is the
manager (head coach) who you will have to
convince the most.
Once in the position, attempting to change

the world overnight would be a mistake. All
of the strategic ideas presented in the initial
stages are important to the decision makers
(the people who hired you), but may mean
little to the players and staff that you start
Ultimately, the client is the athlete and

their needs must be understood before your
own ideas regarding change can have real
meaning. Change in itself is often feared
but can be the catalyst for heightened
performances.
A huge window of opportunity exists when

initially appointed, which may not be so
fertile further down the line. It therefore
remains a great time to begin to implement
a longer-term plan.
BOB AND WEAVE
Displaying evidence backing the effectiveness

of your work is a powerful tool
Scenario 2: A new coaching staff

is hired and they have a different
philosophy regarding S&C to youRS
CB: Regardless of who you speak to, you
should always be able to defend both your
profession and your practices. However,
that doesnt mean being dogmatic or
uncompromising. Objectives determine
methods, and there is usually a range of
ways to achieve a given objective.
Ultimately its about what the players needs
are. In a team sport it is about getting the
best out of each individual player and the
group as a whole. Conditioning also needs
to be part of the coaching process, not an
entity in its own right. Conditioners who
work to improve conditioning (versus those
who improve conditioning to improve
performance), will ultimately not integrate
well into any coaching team. Spend time in
discussion with the new head coach and find
out who they have previously worked with
and what experiences have shaped their
philosophy with regards to strength and
conditioning work. This will give you a basis
for communication and finding common
ground between you.
It is worth remembering that you are looking
for a win-win situation, as both parties are
working towards the same aim enhancing
the teams performance. However, behind
closed doors, you should feel comfortable
being challenged in terms of what youre
doing and why. This stimulates debate,
improves understanding and ensures that
you are continually reflecting on your
practice. Produce evidence that shows how
what you are doing is working (or what
hasnt worked when you have tried it).
This evidence needs to be user-friendly for
the coach, who may not have the scientific
understanding that you should have. They
will want to see that what you have done/
recommend will work.
DD: I have had a lot of experience with
changes in coaching staffs. Over the past
15 years in the NBA, I have had seven new
head coaches. Each of them has a different
philosophy/thought about strength and
conditioning and how it relates to their
programmes. Educating the head coach and
his coaching staff on your programme is the
primary way to assist with the transition.
Some examples that I have used during
these staff changes are as follows:
G
ive a detailed state of the union
address about your programme. Be
very detailed and get right down to
specifics.
A
sk the head coach where they feel
strength and conditioning fits into their
programme.
A
sk very specific questions, ie:
Do you feel S&C is important? Will
you support what we are trying
to accomplish? What are your
philosophies about S&C?
T
he most important thing to remember
is: the boss is the boss. Once you
have explained everything to the head
coach, if there are some differences
in opinions you owe it to yourself to
discuss those possible differences
giving your scientifically-based
rationale. If you still have difficulties
convincing the head coach then you can
either come to a compromise or accept
the possible outcome.
CD: First, remember that the head coach
is the boss, so you must respect the ideas
and philosophies of the coaching staff.
In saying that, everyone is more open
once relationships have been built. Speak
to the coaching staff, understand their
philosophies and build the relationship:
remember, we can learn off everyone. Rather
than get offended by their philosophy,
seek first to understand and then look at
educating the staff about your views, taking
your time in the process.
HG: You have lasted the staff change from
the previous regime, so you should have
some backing at the organisation, whether
it is from the sports medicine staff, athletic
director, general manager, etc. When the new
staff arrives, early and open communication
is key. It is important to avoid letting the
players see the disparity in views on certain
subjects because they could easily use this
against you.
Displaying
evidence
backing
the
effectiveness of your work is a powerful
tool. Reduced time lost due to injury,
improvements in performance numbers, and
how these relate to on-field performance, can
only help solidify your position. This is just
one of the reasons why testing, monitoring,
and record-keeping is so vital to the strength
of your position.
23
BOB AND WEAVE
At the end of the day, if your efforts do not

work, then you are going to have to give in
on some or many things. In this situation,
prioritise which things you feel you must
keep (based on evidence you have collected
and/or what is shown in the literature). If
you are unable to have any impact on the
coachs plans, then it may be time to move
on. Alternatively, you can try to be patient
and ride out the storm. This does not,
however, mean that if the coach says jump,
you say how high?. There are some things
where compromise may not be appropriate,
and being walked all over early on does not
bode well for the future.
KO: This does happen to most practitioners
who work in the field for any length of time.
It can be a daunting challenge, but one to be
relished if you have deep belief in why you
do what you do. This is certainly made a lot
easier for those of us that base much of our
work on an evidence-based criteria.
The most important point I think I can
make in this regard is that practitioners
need to try to understand the viewpoint
and experiences of this new coaching team.
If you are able to put that into context, you
might have a better framework against
which to shape your positioning with them.
Finding some common ground is important:
after all, they are the coaches/manager of
your athletes. It is, however, a gratifying
point to reach if you can bring a suspecting
group of coaches round to your way of
thinking. This, however, may take time that
you must buy yourself.
Scenario 3: Following poor
performances and/or illdiscipline, the coaching staff
wants to discipline the players
with physical punishment.
CB: If I was working with children, I would
preface this answer with a view that this
approach is one that often leads children
to associate conditioning work with
punishment, and so I would argue against
it. However, with performance athletes, the
view has to be different, and I think that this

can be explained by ignoring the context of
punishment and looking at the problem in
the same way that I would if the coach wants
to change anything in the agreed schedule.
At Widnes Vikings I work really closely with
all the coaching staff, and Denis Betts (the
head coach) in particular, so that we jointly
control the training volume load in all aspects
of the training. Planning is essentially a
joint process: working on the principle that
it is the head coachs programme (it is he
who is ultimately judged by what happens
on the field at the weekend), I lead the
discussions on the volume loads that can be
incorporated into each week/session/day in
order to enable us to arrive on the game day
as optimally prepared as possible.
On-field drills are all monitored through
GPS player tracking technologies, and we
correlate this with player perceptions of
session physical demand through RPEs. For
example, conditioning games can be really
demanding, but players often feel that they
are less intense than specific drill-based
conditioning sessions (where they have to
make fewer decisions and generally it is
less fun). In the gym, volume load is always
recorded and monitored. We also monitor
the players physio-mechanical responses
to training on a daily basis using a range of
monitoring procedures. This information
means that we can plan in advance how
much fatigue we want training to induce,
and what we therefore need to manipulate
afterwards in order to enable a recovery
response to improve both fitness and
preparation coming in to a weekends game.
If the coach wants to work more on an
aspect of performance, or indeed change
work to incorporate physical work, we are
well placed to look at what we want to do.
We are building classifications for all our
drills, so if the coaches want to work, say,
on defence, I am able to advise from a list of
green (can use at any time), amber (drills are
reasonably intense) and red (high intensity
drills that will induce lasting fatigue or
muscle soreness). We can incorporate
such physical punishment sessions
BOB AND WEAVE
(regardless of whether I think that these are

motivationally a good idea or not) and I can
manipulate the volume and intensity of the
drills to fit into our plan for the week.
CD: This depends on the situation, as I
would need to look at the training loads. I
would advise on or programme a session
that meets the coachs requirements while
assuring the safety of the players at the
same time. Again we must remember that
the coach is the boss.
HG: Communicate with the coaches on what
they have planned and what the desired
response is from the players. Then it is a good
idea to predict, using your knowledge of
training and sport science, the physiological
response and how it may actually impact
performance. Perhaps, the impact may be
minimal? Moderate? Dangerous? This needs
to be communicated explicitly to staff, in
writing if possible (a document or email) as
well as in person. If the planned punishment
is deemed dangerous, then it should be
stated. I personally would not advocate it
and would also pass this information on to
the sports medicine staff. We may not be
able to stop the training from occurring, but
if it falls into the dangerous category then
we need to strongly oppose it.
If, after discussion, the physical punishment
goes ahead, we can try to keep it from falling
outside the volume or intensity of work that
was planned for that group of players for
that particular day or session. An effective
monitoring system would help you assess
this. The players will dislike the punishment,
but it may not overly take away from what
you are trying to do in a global sense. If
this is not possible, then a great amount of
attention should be paid to how training in
that week or phase is modified. The better
our plan is in the first place, then the better
we will be able to make modifications to it.
KO: Historically, I can think of many
occasions where the coaching staff and
manager have done this. It may not sit well
with some sports science staff or strength
and conditioners who have plans and
periodised programmes in place; however, I
have witnessed it serve a positive purpose
under some regimes, although under others
it can play a part in the managers downfall.
We should recognise that this type of
prescription is based more around the
psychological influences on performance
based on a perception that the individuals
concerned might respond with improved
performances. Given the complex nature of
performance and working with teams, one
can never rule out the positive aspects that
may result from its implementation in team
settings like soccer.
24
Scenario 4: As the season

develops you have a number of
players who form part of the
travelling squad but rarely play
in games.
CB: This is a common phenomenon in
team sports, and is a major frustration to
both players and coaching staff. Most team
sports in the UK utilise the reserve grade
fixtures (which are typically mid-week) to
accommodate players who fall into this
category. It is important, as even if the
player isnt playing throughout the whole
game, they need to regularly experience the
speed and intensity of competition in order
to stay match-fit.
The other thing to remember is that,
although squad practices (technical-tactical)
are for all the players, all aspects of physical
conditioning should be individualised. This
means that within the squad, those players
who get less game time will typically have
more conditioning time built into their
training week. Every player in my first grade
squad is on a fully individualised schedule
that will cater for their injury profile, strengths
and weaknesses, game time, training age,
and so on. That way we can keep the players
as fit as possible for when the coach requires
them to perform on the pitch.
I also have an extras club that runs the
day after a game for players who have not
played many minutes or achieved certain
physiological targets within a game. This
runs immediately prior to the regeneration
sessions for those who did play major
minutes.
DD: Our policy is that if you dont play
15 minutes in basketball games you have
extra conditioning. We handle this in a
variety of ways. Firstly, we feel that it is very
important to optimise the time spent on the
court in player development. Almost every
basketball player is going to work on their
game with the assistant coaches. We discuss
the individual basketball workouts with the
assistant coaches and develop strategies
that best fit each player.
Most team
sports in the
UK utilise the
reserve grade
fixtures to
accommodate
players (who
rarely play
in games). It
is important,
as the player
needs to
regularly
experience
the speed and
intensity of
competition in
order to stay
match-fit
For example:
P
layer 1 is not playing at all: this
athlete would have a very intense
individual workout that includes
running within the position specific
workout.
P
layer 2 is playing less than 15
minutes a night, but could be called
upon at any time to play significant
minutes. This one is a little trickier;
however, we normally incorporate
a moderate amount of running into
the on-court 20-30 minute positionspecific training session.
25
BOB AND WEAVE
We have found that a well-structured

individual basketball workout is much more
effective at keeping athletes in condition
than simply getting on the elliptical. 20-30
minute workouts can be structured to the
point that they are actually more difficult
than the 10-12 game minutes that they may
play.
Scenario 5: A player is
approaching late stage rehab
from a long-term injury and you
feel the sports medicine staff
is being protective/possessive,
preventing them from moving on
to more work with the S&C coach.
Utilising cardio equipment becomes a

secondary conditioner if the athlete is
showing signs of overtraining, has an injury,
is of older age, or simply needs a change of
pace mentally.
CB: This has a lot do to with how you

develop your relationship between the
physiotherapists and the S&C staff. I have
always viewed the management of a player
(any player) as being on a continuum in
terms of their performance status, and I fully
involve the medical staff in the development
of the players conditioning programmes.
CD: This is a big issue that must be

addressed. This can only be rectified if you
are monitoring training loads, and the goal
is to ensure that those not getting the game
time are getting the extra sessions to make
up for the loss of load that a player gets in a
game. This can be completed by a session
post game and then a session the next day
to make up for the missed game. If you dont
do this, and most dont, your bench players
will become deconditioned as the season
progresses.
It is important that you do this scientifically
as often I see a token effort by staff, but it is
easy to match the loads if you do it correctly.
HG: This is a very common situation. In fact
I am not sure I have ever worked in a team
setting where this hasnt been something
that needed to be addressed. Predicting
these situations and planning for them is
key. Due to logistical reasons, this group is
more of a challenge to work with physically
than others (such as those that do not travel).
Still, we need to do the best we can to help
them.
These players are not starting for a reason,
so help them with this from a physical
sense, and encourage the coaching staff
to help them from a technical and tactical
standpoint. Having a way of quantifying
exertion so we can assess what the players
actually are doing and how it compares to
our plan for them, will help this process
immensely.
KO: In this instance, an understanding of the
demands of each individuals match playing
roles must be drawn into a supportive
training programme. The challenge is to find
a way to implement it at an appropriate time
such that the potential to play or come off
the bench into the team is not compromised.
In many instances in soccer where teams
play Saturday Tuesday, players will have
to work after matches on Sunday and to a
lesser degree Monday in preparation for a
Tuesday fixture. A similar framework would
follow for the rest of the week if not recruited
on a Tuesday match.
26
For example, at Widnes Vikings the

movement and postural screening is
led by Andy McDonough and the other
physiotherapists, with my involvement. The
data from this informs the development of
the individualised programmes (otherwise,
if you are not going to use the data, why
collect it?).
We have weekly meetings to review the
training/injury status of the players, and
speak on a daily basis about players.
Therefore, every training programme is led
by me, with our physio staff fully involved
in the planning process, but not the delivery.
This significantly strengthens the process.
Conversely, once an injury occurs, I will have
no involvement (other than being informed
of the diagnosis and management plan) in
the initial treatment, but I will be involved in
the rehab process even though the medical
team leads it.
As this progresses, I will have more and
more involvement until I lead the process
with them involved, until the player is back
in full training. This communication is
essential in rugby league, where impacts are
high and frequent, and we will typically have
a minimum of 10% of our squad carrying
injuries (with many more playing hurt) at
any one time.
BOB AND WEAVE
DD: The number one relationship keeping

the best interest of the athlete in mind is
not necessarily the one between the head
coach and the S&C coach; it may actually
be that between the medical staff and the
S&C staff. This relationship is critical to
the game availability of the athletes. Our
overall programme success is ultimately
measured by game availability. Are we
doing everything possible as a unit to create
a programme with preventative measures,
corrective strategies, proper rehab and
reconditioning? Working together from
the inception of the programme will allow
everyone to understand and define the
roles of each portion of the staff. This is
not an easy task, however. Checking egos
at the door is the only way that this system
can work. Being overly protective of ones
territory or stepping into an area of expertise
that is not within our disciplines does not
allow the programme to develop and the
athlete suffers.
CD: This is a communication issue that
can be rectified if you have implemented
a return to play in conjunction with the
medical staff. Again if you are not monitoring
carefully it is guess work and we need to
do much better than this. It is imperative at
your club that there is a procedure in place
and specific data available whereby you can
identify where a player is at in their rehab.
Again, communication skills are vital and it
is important to leave the EGO out of it.
HG: This really depends on the situation.
Once the injury has been diagnosed, the
timeline for the players return needs to be
agreed between all parties early on. Yes,
adjustments can be made due to the rate of
progress, but detailed planning and effective
communication may help to prevent this
issue in the first place.
KO: Again this really boils down to the
relationship and understanding between
staff of roles and interpretations of certain
situations. Developing guidelines often
helps, but the need for regular consultation

meetings between staff and the athlete to
discuss these matters and involve the athlete
make for a more harmonised and supportive
framework to performance goals.
Given that all staff should be open and
honest about the programmes being
implemented with athletes, it remains the
athletes decision as to which direction to
take; they are, after all, responsible for their
performances.
Scenario 6: Your team, in general,
has bought in to your training.
However a star player, HAs not,
and repeatedly acts up and/or
gives less than maximal effort.
CB: Conditioning coaches need to
remember that sport is all about the players,
and all about the on-field performances: we
are a (vital) support service to the process.
Another lesson that I once learned from
a marketing expert is that the impact of
communication is based upon the impact
that a message has on the audience, and the
frequency with which they hear it. In the
rugby environment, where I currently work,
players generally buy into things with both
explanation and feedback. It is also essential
to have consistency in the process players
will not buy-in to your programme if you
follow fads, or trends, or you are inconsistent
in your messages or delivery.
Typical discussions relating to this might
be something like: This number is the
power output you achieve in this exercise.
When you load the bar more, you can see
it moves too slowly so your power output
is less. At this time I want you achieving
this power output so that when you go into
a collision you can break through the first
contact. Similarly, if a player asks why we
are doing something, you need to be able
to answer and explain it in a manner which
they will understand. They want evidence
and arent impressed by the science that
This rehab-performance continuum, and

the communication between both parties,
is a logical one: the first role of a strength
coach is to be a movement coach. The first
stages of rehab are about basic movement
patterning. A close working relationship,
where both parties are working together,
is essential in the context and should be
obvious to the players. Any lack of clarity
between the medical and conditioning
departments will be picked up on straight
away by players within the team! I have
learned a lot from working and listening to
medical practitioners, and similarly I have
worked with physios who have changed
their rehab drills to adapt coaching points
for example, based on mechanically correct
running or jumping technique.
27
Be consistent
in your daily
approach
with energy,
positive
attitude,
enthusiasm,
and great work
ethic of your
own
BOB AND WEAVE
they cant understand. In other sports that

I have worked in, such as track and field,
the athletes are very numbers and evidence
driven, and want an active involvement in
what and why they are doing things.
CD: Prevention is better than cure and there

should be policies in place to prevent this.
However, if it does occur speak with the
player to understand if there are any issues
and address these accordingly
them, has gone through the same hard work.

They need to know it is someone who will
give their all when the going gets tough
and is physically capable of doing what they
need to do.
As I identified earlier, at Widnes Vikings

every
conditioning
programme
is
individualised, so we can find means of
compromising with a player to achieve the
same outcomes: for example, there are a
range of means that we can use to achieve
loaded triple extensions and leg drive in the
players, ranging from squats to pulls from
a range of positions to very heavy 5m sled
pushes. Each of these has advantages and
disadvantages that we can plan for within
the scope of the programme.
HG: The saying you spend 80% of your time

helping 20% of the players comes to mind
here. Yes, this is your best player, however
you should not let the individual take away
dramatically from your work with the other
players who want to work and get better.
HG: It is likely that this trainer has some skillset that has attracted the player. What they
wont have on day one is knowledge of the
team demands and the plan laid out for that
player in other areas (on-field periodisation,
game data, etc ). It is also unlikely that they
will be out there at the training ground
each day, so communication and short-term
adjustments may be challenging.
This year we have had a number of players

who have come from places where their
weight training has been previously based
upon bodybuilding circuits. In this situation
we have used pictures, comparative
performance data, and also practical on-field
demonstrations to illustrate why I place
so much emphasis on total body and rear
kinetic chain work and developing the forcevelocity capability characteristics within
the players. Key messages are strategically
placed around the training facility.
I also think that the strategy that has the
most impact on the players is to get the head
coach and other coaching staff to reinforce
these messages in applied situations and
also in the player review process. This is
really important. It doesnt matter who the
players get the message from; the important
thing is that they get the message, and
the coach delivering this often gives it far
greater credibility.
DD: Continually working at relationships
and showing individualised attention at
all times is a difficult task. To head this
off at the beginning we always conduct
individual meeting with the athletes to
discuss expectations and individual goals.
Try to find out what makes each athlete tick!
Show them the results of your screening
process and discuss the results and how you
are going to individualise their programme
to fit their individual needs. Sell them on
how specific their programme is and how
it will benefit them. If you are working
with professional players and they simply
HATE working out, develop exercises that
dont seem like lifting and yet have value in
maintaining their readiness for games.
Be consistent in your daily approach with
energy, positive attitude, enthusiasm, and
great work ethic of your own. This is very
often infectious. You MUST earn their trust
dont EXPECT it! If you have a bad day
with an athlete, dont let it linger for days. It
is over move on and start each day with a
renewed positive approach.
28
BOB AND WEAVE
Your dissatisfaction should not be hidden,

but letting it affect you too much in public
may give the non-compliant player more
power. If the issue is serious, then meetings
away from the field/weight-room about how
to move forward need to be held. Following
communication with all parties involved
(player, S&C coach, coach, sports med),
if progress is not made then cutting your
losses and focusing on the players that are
with you will be a better use of your time
than chasing the one or two that are not.
KO: This is where a practitioners
personality plays a key role. Undoubtedly,
understanding the attributions of this star
player are important, as well as identifying
those peers that this individual most
respects and might be influenced by and
that you might use to forward your cause.
These situations take on their own
uniqueness and, I am sure, have many
different optimal solutions. Star players by
their very nature are different and that must
be respected too!
Scenario 7: A star player wishes to
work with his/her own S&C coach
rather than with the teams staff.
CB: I dont have any real experience of this,
although I am not sure how it can really work,
especially in a sport such as rugby, where
the volume loading of all the technical and
tactical work has to be so closely integrated
into the conditioning work to ensure that
the players are all as individually prepared
as they can be it would just be too difficult
to control. I have also heard of conditioning
coaches who are operating outside of the
team context making the classic mistake
of looking at the conditioning programme
as a distinct, rather than a fully integrated,
entity. This has led to the coach being asked
if the rugby player could be restricted in the
rugby work as it is getting in the way of his
speed development. You can see the futility
of this process.
In my experience, team sport players want
to see their teammates pushing themselves
physically. They want to see what they can
do. If players are putting their bodies on
the line in a game, they want to know that
the person next to them, who is supporting
If this whole situation is not against team

rules and is unavoidable, then talking with
the player and his/her individual trainer is
vital. Everyone needs to be on the same page.
If there are differences in opinion over certain
subjects, it is best that these disagreements
are known, discussed, and worked out.
KO: Again all support staff/coaches and
management should take a stance on this
so that the individual concerned can remain
part of the team per se. If this is not possible,
then the performance of the team must
come first.
Scenario 8: During a run of poor
performance/results, the head
coach starts to question the
S&C practice and wants to make
significant changes.
CB: This season is my first at the Widnes
Vikings, and we have, at times, struggled in
terms of our on-field performances. As a new
franchise in the Super League, according to
the statistics we will finish last (we hope to
prove statistics wrong!). Being towards the
foot of the table, with high expectations from
fans, has put a lot of pressure on the players
and all of us in the coaching department.
After every game, and every week, we have
been spending long hours looking at what
we have done in the training weeks, and
how the physiological stats (all players wear
GPS and HR monitors in games) stack up.
We look at our training data, testing data,
monitoring data. And we ask the hard
questions of each other: could/should we
have done something different? At one
point we made some significant changes to
the structure of our training weeks and we
got some social and psychological benefit
from the players. Doing this enhanced what
we did, and provided us with an opportunity
to do things differently, which has been
beneficial.
Ultimately, as the lead S&C coach, I am
accountable to the head coach for the
physical performances in the players. If
questioned, I can show what we have done,
and I can provide the data to show that
it is working (ie, the trendline is showing

improvement). This gives me a basis for
discussion with the coach when we look at
do things need changing? (or indeed I am
faced with the scenario of a coach saying
things need to be different!). I am always
looking for new ideas, and new ways to stay
ahead of the competition, but these have to
be evidence-based and justifiable in terms of
having some underpinning science.
DD: This scenario can be potentially avoided
by a great deal of programme planning,
sharing of scientific information, and being
very open and honest with the head coach
about the type of programme that you
intend to conduct. Dont be indecisive; base
everything that you do on sound science
and a practical application approach (ie,
does this fit the athlete and the situation?).
As coaches we must continue to evolve
and adapt. This does not mean that you
compromise your principles and your
knowledge. Figure out creative ways to get
the job done. If you think that its your way
or the highway youd better buy some gas!
HG: Once again, good monitoring and
record keeping, along with suitable statistics
and charts can help this situation. Some of
this work may not be research-quality that
could be published, but we should aim
to be as thorough and consistent in data
collection and analysis as possible.
When bad things occur, such as poor
performance and/or injury, then we need to
analyse more. The same could also be true
so when things are going well. We need to do
our best to find out why and should always
be self-critical. There may be times that your
analysis may back the opinion of the coach
and we should not hide from this. Admitting
mistakes and learning from them is a big
part of development (of both practices and
relationships). Lastly, your information
should to be compared to what counterparts
in your professional network have found
and also relate it to formal research in the
literature.
KO: This suggests that the head coach was
not entirely convinced of the S&C practices
from the outset. You might ask would the
coach have taken the same view of his own
technical practices when things werent
going well? Discourse and discussion as
to the concerns are an important position
against which to act in this situation and I
have learnt not to take this too personally!
In many instances, on reflection, the coach
may acknowledge that it was wrong to make
this change, but ultimately as the head of an
organisation it is his/her job to make such
calls. In elite sport the margins between
success and failure are very small but the
resulting actions can have huge divergence.
29
ICE HOCKEY
ICE HOCKEY
Biomechanics
The use of strength

and conditioning for
ice hockey in the UK
Ice hockey in the UK is a minority sport, despite having several professional and semiprofessional leagues. Physical fitness for most teams is worked on the ice: off-ice
conditioning is often disregarded or left for players to work on individually. This article
is designed to educate coaches and players about the benefits of off-ice conditioning for
ice hockey players and to provide an example of a comprehensive year-long conditioning
programme for adolescent and adult players.
AUTHORS BIO
Steve Nightingale,
MSc, CSCS
Steve is a lecturer at South

Essex College, specialising
in strength and conditioning
and research methods. He
has worked as a strength
and conditioning coach for
several ice hockey teams,
and has worked with junior
and senior national and
international players.
Introduction
Ice hockey is a high-intensity, intermittent,
full contact team sport.7 Games last for
60 minutes, and are divided into three
20-minute periods. Teams are made up of
around 17 to 22 players, split by positions
into forwards, defenders, and goalkeepers.
At any one time, five players plus a
goalkeeper are allowed on the ice from each
team. Throughout the game, unlimited
rolling substitutions are made, keeping
the intensity of the game very high. To
succeed, players need well-developed, allround fitness, including strength, power,
speed, acceleration, balance, and agility.5, 8
fixtures in some leagues. Training on

the ice will consist of around two to five
sessions a week, leaving little time for office training.
Although it is a major sport in the US and

Canada, ice hockey remains a minority
sport in the UK. Only one league can
be considered truly professional, with
a number of semi-professional and
development leagues below. With this in
mind, most teams do not have the resources
to employ strength and conditioning
coaches, and most do not have adequate
if any work-out facilities at their arenas.
Therefore, local fitness and leisure centres
are regularly used by the athletes.
Physiology
The typical ice hockey schedule in the

UK sees games starting in September and
finishing around March/April. Depending
on the league, teams can be expected to
compete in between 36 and 54 games in
this time. Games are played on weekend
evenings, with occasional midweek
30
It is clear to see that a structured

training programme would need to
promote maximal gains and maximal
recovery, while fitting in with a busy onice schedule. The aim of this article is to
present a justified, realistic, fitness testing
battery and an off-ice periodised work-out
schedule for ice hockey players in the UK.
Needs analysis
Ice hockey is played at high intensity, due
to the rolling substitutions made during
a game. In-game studies have shown the
working heart rate of athletes to be at
around 90% of maximum heart rate, with
athletes spending around 20% of game
time at this intensity.26 Average in-game
blood lactate values have been recorded
at 8.2 mmol.L-1, and reaching up to 13.7
mmol.L-1.23 The energy demands are met
primarily through anaerobic glycolysis,
with a smaller contribution from aerobic
metabolism.8 Time motion data from
several studies have shown that shift time
ranges from around 60-90 seconds, with
players completing around 15 shifts per
game.5,23 This would suggest a work to rest
ratio of around 1:4.
The biomechanics of ice hockey

skating strides has been discussed
at length by Manners.20 Ice hockey
S&C coaches should consider these
specific elements of skating when
designing a programme, as there are
several differences to normal running
technique.
In the wind-up phase of forward
skating, the push-off foot and leg
is externally rotated to around 60.
This creates acceleration in the
posterolateral plane, using the hip
extensors and abductors. As the
weight is shifted to the glide leg,
hip and knee flexors and extensors
co-contract to maintain stability
and balance. In the cross-over
step, Manners20 also highlights the
importance of the adductors, which
are activated to push against the
outside edge of the skate and propel
the body sideways.
Injury analysis
As ice hockey is a full contact sport,
injuries are common. In-game
injuries occur eight times as often
as practice-related injuries,1 and
player-player contact is the leading
factor in recorded injuries.1, 13 Knee
internal derangements, concussions,
and shoulder ligament trauma are
the three most common in-game
injuries, and groin strains are the
most common practice injuries.1, 13
Tyler28 investigated the influence of
the hip adductor/abductor concentric
strength ratio on groin injuries, and
found a significant increase in hip
injury occurrence in players with a
large difference. The study concluded
that an adductor:abductor ratio of
less than 1:1.25 was a significant

factor in increasing the occurrence of
injury.
which need to be addressed through

focused training.
Fitness testing and success

markers
Several studies have looked at
the relationship between fitness
measurements and future success.
Burr et al9 found that vertical
jump performance had a moderate
but significant correlation with
NHL draft entry, and Peyer et al24
found repeated sprints, chin ups,
bench press and leg press all to be
moderately significantly correlated
to a players success, measured
with the ice hockey-specific plus/
minus system. This simple scoring
system allows a running total to be
kept for each player over a game, a
series of games, or a whole season
as a measure of overall success. The
system allocates one point a plus
to each player on the ice when a goal
is scored for their team, or deducts
one point a minus if the goal is
scored against them. A higher plus/
minus score may indicate the player
has been influential in scoring goals
whilst also defending their goal.22
When designing a testing battery,

several elements had to be
considered. The needs analysis
provided a base of information on the
movements, specific muscle actions,
and injury factors to be taken into
account. Consideration also had to be
given to the equipment available to
coaches, and the time they had with
their teams.
Other studies have found direct

correlations
between
fitness
measures and sport-specific parameters. Wu et al29 found a significant
correlation between one repetition
maximum bench press and slap
shot velocity, and Farlinger et al11
found a strong significant correlation
between vertical jump performance
and skating speed. Therefore, it can
be concluded that muscular strength,
muscular endurance, power, aerobic
endurance and anaerobic endurance
are all important fitness components
Fitness testing
An appropriate testing protocol

should include on-ice and off-ice
tests. This is due to inconsistencies
in current research when comparing
off-ice performance to on-ice
performance.2,6,10,17 To remain specific
to ice hockey, the components that
should be measured are acceleration,
speed, anaerobic and aerobic power,
upper and lower body strength,
change of direction ability and body
composition. It is also recommended
that the protocol should avoid
retesting similar components (eg, office sprints and on-ice sprints). This
will avoid over-testing the athletes,
and will reduce overall testing time.
The chosen tests have been used in
previous ice hockey studies and have
been recommended previously by the
author,22 due to their high reliability
(Table 1).
Finally, the tests chosen in the
battery have been chosen to be
as practical as possible. The tests
do not require much in the way of
equipment, and due to their short
duration it is realistic to test a whole
team over two sessions. To be as
specific and applicable as possible,
the author feels that acceleration,
Table 1. A suggested fitness testing battery for an ice hockey team

Fitness component
Fitness test
Modality
Intraclass R
Reference
Acceleration
6.1 m sprint
On-ice
0.80
Bracko5
Speed
35 m sprint
On-ice
0.98
Farlinger et al11
Change of direction
Cornering S test
On-ice
0.95
Farlinger et al11
Aerobic power
30-15 IIT
On-ice
0.96
Buchheit et al7
Anthropometry
Height/Weight/Body fat %
Off-ice
0.96
Geithner et al16
Anaerobic power
Vertical Jump (CMJ)
Off-ice
0.99
Burr et al9
Upper body strength
1 Rep Max bench press
Off-ice
Not reported
Ransdell and Murray25
Lower body strength
1 Rep Max front squat
Off-ice
Not reported
Ransdell and Murray25
31
ICE HOCKEY
Figure 1: A season long macrocycle for ice hockey
Month
Jun
Jul
Season phase
Preparatory
Competitive
Off season
Training phase

Strength, maximum
strength and power
Maintenance
Recovery
Working on
GS
MS
U MP
Maintain strength, power and power endurance
Maintain O2 levels
Duration (wks)
1 4
35
GS = General Strength MS = Maximum Strength MP = Maximum Power U = Unloading
speed, aerobic power and change

of direction ability should be tested
with on-ice tests, whereas anaerobic
power, anthropometry and upper and
lower body strength should be tested
off-ice.
Strength and conditioning
A
periodised
strength
and
conditioning macrocycle can be
seen in Figure 1. The focus of this
programme is for athletes who have
reached a certain level of physical
maturation, marked by peak height
velocity.19 According to Lloyd and
Oliver,19 it is at this point in an
individuals physical state that the
window of opportunity for training
the significant components of ice
hockey (speed, power, hypertrophy
and strength) is presented. The
authors acknowledge that younger
athletes will have different training
needs, but feel that this is beyond
the scope of the current article. It
is also acknowledged that even as
adolescents and adults, individual
athletes will respond differently to
any given training programme,27
and therefore there may be a need to
further individualise the programme
presented.
The presented macrocycle shows the
development of general strength,
maximum strength, and maximum
power periods in the preparatory
or preseason phase, with a
maintenance period for the duration
of the competitive season. It is
realistic to assume that athletes will
be able to train off-ice twice a week;
furthermore, this is recommended by
Gamble.15 The individual microcycles
include one heavy session and one
lighter session each week. These
are interchangeable and can be
used to best fit in with an individual
teams schedule, and to encourage
maximum returns due to the recovery
adaptation principle outlined by
Stone et al.27
32
Aug Sep
Oct
Nov Dec
Jan Feb
Additionally, due to the physically

stressful nature of a full contact
sport, a light training session is
recommended during in-season
weeks to promote recovery and
minimise the impact of muscle tissue
damage on quality and volume of
training sessions.14
Off-season phase
Due to the length of playing season,
and physical nature of the sport, it is
vitally important that players ensure
a period of active rest during the offseason (for clarity, the period after
competitive matches have finished
and before structured pre-season
training begins). Many players
choose to play alternative sports in
this period, which can be beneficial.
Golf is a popular choice, which helps
to maintain hand/eye coordination,
and squash is also recommended for
an alternative metabolic conditioning
exercise. These alternative exercise
Mar Apr May
methods are seen as important to

limit the monotony of the training
ground environment.15 Importantly,
the duration of this period should be
monitored to ensure that players do
not become detrained.14
Preparatory phase
The programme begins with a
preparatory mesocycle. The aim of
this is to establish a solid physical
base, allowing the athlete a better
tolerance to the increased training
intensity of the competitive phase.4
To begin the preparatory phase,
a three week general strength
microcycle should be completed
(Figure 2). This general programme
is made up mostly of single joint
exercises, at an intensity of three sets
at 10RM. This is designed to aid neural
and physical development,15 and will
lay foundations for the proceeding
maximal strength microcycles.
Figure 2: General strength cycle

Cycle: General Strength Duration: 3 weeks
Rest: 2 mins between sets
Sets/Reps: 3 x 10 @ 10RM
Week 1
Day 1
Week 2
Day 1
Week 3
Day 1
Front squats
Split squats
SL RDLs
BB bench press
One arm row
Chin ups
Deadlifts
Leg press
Calf raises
Seated row
BB incline bench press Seated shoulder press
Hammer curls
Back extensions
Leg extension
Day 2
Day 2
Day 2
Split squats
Back squats
Front squats
Seated shoulder press
Supine DB pull overs
BB bench press
Calf raises
EZ bar bicep curl
Deadlift
Lat pull downs
Tricep extensions
Bent over row
Tricep extensions
Upright row
Bicep curl to shoulder press
ICE HOCKEY
Remaining in the preparatory

mesocycle, a four week maximum
strength microcycle (Figure 3)
should be started following the
general strength weeks. The purpose
of this cycle is to build maximal
strength
before
progressing
on to developing power, due to
positive correlation between these
components.3 Additionally, maximal
strength training returns high fast
twitch muscle fibre recruitment,
and also inhibition of antagonist
muscles,
resulting
in
better
synchronisation and coordination.3
One of the particular features of the
strength cycles is the inclusion of
exercise which match sport specific
movement patterns. Front squats
and 45 dumbbell lunges have been
included due to their similarities with
the muscular recruitment patterns of
ice skating.20,25
At the end of the maximum strength
phase, there is a one week unloading
microcycle (Figure 4). Stone et al 27
justify the use of unloading weeks,
where intensity is maintained but
volume is dropped, as studies have
shown that this method maximises
increases in strength and power.
Following on from the strength
cycle, a four-week power and power
endurance cycle will take place.
Power is one of the most important
fitness components in ice hockey,
and due to the repeated nature of the
sport, the ability to perform power
movements repeatedly means that
power endurance is also an important
factor.3
In this microcycle (Figure 5), strength
exercises can still be seen, as maximal
strength can only be maintained for
around two weeks without training.12
Also, plyometric exercises have
been introduced between resistance
exercises on the heavy training day.
The use of plyometric exercises in this
way, known as complex exercises,
can be justified in two ways. Complex
training induces high levels of lactic
acid build-up, which mirrors the high
anaerobic demands of ice hockey.
Training in this way can improve an
athletes tolerance to this build-up.3
As Gamble14 notes, complex training
can induce peripheral adaptations
including improved lactate handling,
acid/base buffering and high energy
resynthesis. Additionally, this training method has been shown to
improve power production,21 and
has become popular in programmes
where time is limited.14
Figure 3: Maximum strength cycle

Cycle: Maximum strength
Duration: 4 weeks
Sets/Reps: 3x5, except chin ups (timed 3x45 seconds) and ab crunches (3x20)
Intensity: All exercises performed at 5RM except chin ups, abdominals, and
45 lunges (50% body weight)
Day 1 (Light)
Day 2 (Heavy)
Front squat
Back squat
Push press
Seated row
Wide grip chin ups
Bench press (BB)
Ab crunches
45 lunges (DB)
Lat pull down
Seated shoulder press (DB)
DB= Dumbbell; BB= Barbell

Figure 4: Unloading
Cycle: Unloading
Duration: 1 week
Sets/Reps: 2x4 (P); 3x4 (S)
Intensity: 85% 1RM (P); 4RM (S); jump squats (body weight)
Day 1
Day 2
Power snatch (P)
Power clean (P)
Bench press (BB) (S)
Jump squats (P)
Seated row (S)
Lat pull down (S)
Split squats (S)
Seated shoulder press (DB) (S)
Figure 5: Power/endurance cycle

Cycle: Power
Duration: 4 weeks
Rest: 3 mins between sets for power (P) exercises, 2 mins for strength (S)
exercises
Sets/Reps: 3x3 (P); 3x5 (S); 1x8 between each set (C)
Intensity: 85% 1RM (P); 5RM (S); except single leg bench jumps and jump
squats (body weight), 45 lunges (60% body weight) and MB slams (6kg).
Day 1 (Light)
Day 2 (Heavy)
Power snatch (P)
Power clean (P)
Front squats (S)
Jump squats (P)
MB diagonal slams
Bench press (BB) (S)
Single leg bench jumps (P) MB chest pass (C)

45 lunges (DB) (S)
Russian hops (C)
Seated row (S)
Cycle split squats (C)
(C) = Complex exercise
At the end of the power phase, there

is another one week unloading
microcycle (Figure 4).
Competitive phase
At this stage, players will have
completed the pre-season training
phase and should be at peak strength
and power levels. Throughout the
competitive season, the S&C coach
should be focussing on maintaining

the levels of strength and power
developed in preseason, and
therefore an undulating non-linear
model is suggested. Maintaining
strength levels throughout the season
is vital to prevent significant losses
in strength, power, and body mass,14
which is particularly important for
contact sport athletes. A training
33
ICE HOCKEY
frequency of two sessions a week, and a

training intensity of around 80% 1RM has
been recommended to maintain strength
during the competitive phase in a contact
sport.18
strong opposition, or for a concentrated

period of games. Ratios of 1:1, 2:1 or 3:1
loading:unloading weeks could be used at
the discretion of the S&C coach depending
on the specific demands of the team.14
Two alternating programmes, each

lasting two weeks (Figures 6 and 7), will
include maximal strength exercises,
upper and lower body power exercises
and plyometric complexes, as seen in the
preseason power cycle. The unloading
week previously presented (Figure 4) can
be used intermittently throughout inseason training to alleviate the monotony
that can develop over a long competitive
season.14 Also, studies have shown
increases in overall strength and power
when an unloading week is included
in an undulating non-linear model.27
This approach may also be adapted to
taper a team, either in preparation for a
Conclusion
Ice hockey is a high intensity, full contact
sport which requires high levels of strength,
power and endurance. In the UK, many ice
hockey teams are restricted by a lack of
resources. This article has attempted to
demonstrate a full-season strength and
conditioning programme that would be
practical for teams and athletes. Although
not all aspects/exercises put forward in
this programme will fit with all teams, it is
hoped that sections of this programme can
be used by S&C coaches to help develop
their athletes in the future.
Figure 6: Maintenance cycle 1

Cycle: Maintenance 1
Duration: 2 weeks
Rest: 3 mins between sets for power (P) exercises, 2 mins for strength (S) exercises
Sets/Reps: 3x3 (P); 3x5 (S); 1x8 between each set (C); Chin ups (3x45s)
Intensity: 85% 1RM (P); 5RM (S); except single leg lateral cone hops and jump squats
(body weight), 45 step ups (60% body weight) and MB slams (6kg).
Day 1 (Light)
Power snatch (P)
Day 2 (Heavy)
Power clean (P)
Back squats (S)
Jump squats (P)
MB diagonal slams
Shoulder press (DB) (S)
Single leg lateral cone hops (P)
MB chest pass (C)
45 step ups (DB) (S)
Russian hops (C)
Wide grip chin ups (S)
Figure 7: Maintenance cycle 2
34
ICE HOCKEY
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ISSUE 29 / JUNE 2013

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ISSUE 29 / JUNE 2013

ISSUE 29 / JUNE 2013

Letter from the Editor

they face and solutions they have

The practice of strength

practice, which still underpins the

UKSCAs 9th Annual Conference

will deliver a keynote speech on

With the East Midlands Conference

Andrea Hudy, representing the US

The de Vere Hotel

ISSUE 29 / JUNE 2013

If you are looking to buy equipment in

ISSUE 29 / JUNE 2013

can inform a training philosophy. Finally,

This article was originally written as a

This article will focus on the manipulation

I have several motivations for publishing

Identify and prioritise

It is quite common for coaches to express

ISSUE 29 / JUNE 2013

the amount of higher effort work that they

I think athletes generally try to train as hard

will start to fly and will be in great form

It should be noted that the prioritisation

to prioritise the higher intensity work over

I would characterise my programmes into

ISSUE 29 / JUNE 2013

but without having to get too excited about

NB, remember that set/rep guidelines

ISSUE 29 / JUNE 2013

the demand to increase work capacity has

Having said all this, I am quite happy to cut

Overreaching, stagnation and emotional

due to inefficient programming. In the

COMPLEX AND CONTRAST TRAINING

ISSUE 29 / JUNE 2013

A review of complex and contrast training:

ISSUE 29 / JUNE 2013

COMPLEX AND CONTRAST TRAINING

pool excitability, as evidenced by

to this, only studies involving typical

experienced with the squat exercise

COMPLEX AND CONTRAST TRAINING

reported, indicating maximum strength,

ISSUE 29 / JUNE 2013

following the performance of priorheavier load mid-thigh clean pulls.

As with contrast training, loads, volume,