TUGAS MAKALAH STRATIGRAFI

OLEH:
RIZKI LAMBAS
270110140004
KELAS A

FAKULTAS TEKNIK GEOLOGI

UNIVERSITAS PADJADJARAN
JATINANGOR
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CONTENT

CHAPTER 1 the history of the science of geology and stratigraphy

development.........................................................................................1
1.1 The historical development of
geology................................................................................................1
1.2 Theory of Plate
Tectonics.............................................................................................7
1.3 SEQUENCE
STRATIGRAPHY............................................................................14
CHAPTER 2 stratigraphic

elements..............................................................................................20
1.1 igneous
rocks...................................................................................................20
1.2 Sediment
Rocks..................................................................................................25
1.3 Metamorphic
rocks...................................................................................................32
CHAPTER 3 Traditional principles of

stratigraphy........................................................................................40
1.1 Law of
superposition.......................................................................................40
1.2 Legal
horizontality........................................................................................40
1.3 Original
Continuity...........................................................................................42
1.4 Lateral
Continuity...........................................................................................43
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1.5 LAW OF
uniformitarianism..............................................................................43
1.6 Cross-Cutting
Relationship........................................................................................44
1.7 Strata Identified by
Fossils.................................................................
............................45
1.8 Doctrine
Uniformitarianism................................................
..........................46
Chapter 4 MODIFICATION OF TRADITIONAL TO MODERN

CONCEPTS.......................................................................................48
4.1 Traditional deposition models and sequence
stratigraphy.........................................................................................................48
4.2 The concept of superposition and
bedding................................................................................................................48
4.3 legal lateral lateral continuity and legal termination... ................49
4.4 The original law horizontality and
clinoform.............................................................................................................50
4.5 Legal vertical and lateral accumulation accumulation
..............................................................................................................................50
4.6 the concept of dissonance and stratal
diiscontinuity.......................................................................................................51
4.7 Recycling layer and stratigraphic classification
system...................................................................................................................51

1. the history of the science of geology and

stratigraphy development
1.1 The historical development of geology
And material properties of the earth, as well as the processes that take place on the
surface of the earth is the center of attention since several centuries ago. The
Greeks since 2300 years ago has written about the fossils, gemstones,
earthquakes, and volcanoes. Aristotle was a philosopher, therefore the explanation
more in the form of statements individually rather than as the result of
observations or experiments. For example, how the formation of a rock. He said
that due to the influence of the stars and the earthquake occurred due to explosion
of dense air of the earth due to the heating process by the central fire. The
explanation for that time sufficient philosophers and respected, opinion is more
unacceptable than to opinion based on observations or experiments that somewhat
inhibit the progress of science. Prior to the invention of the general theory of the
Earth, first developing and Mobilist Fixist schools, each of which has several
mutually exclusive hypotheses. Fixist schools rely on the existence of vertical
movement in the Earth's crust, assume that the Earth's crust (crust) settled
somewhere (fixed). Several hypotheses arising from the existence of this ideology
among Contraction, Expansion Continent, Undasi and geosinklin.Mobilist
ideology based on the existence of lateral movement in the Earth's crust, with two
famous hypothesis, namely drift Continental (Continental Drift) and the Division
of Ocean Floor (Sea Floor Spreading).
Schools fixist
In the science of Geology, traces the discovery was first evidenced in ink sketches
of the great artist Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), which carefully describes the
shape of the rock body in the sketch to understand the Earth's natural shape . Later
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in the 17th century, came the first description dedormasi rock. Nicholas Steno
(1631-1686) singkapansingkapan examine rock where the bedding is not
horizontal, and assume that the layers (strata) is not positioned horizontal layers
and definitely has changed position (dislocation) because of something.Perhaps
this Steno statement to mention that in principle the geological structure is
horizontal. In the early 18th century, then the complexity of rock in the mountain
ranges such as the Alps widely known and in need of explanation (Figure 2). Then
the faster discovery trail in a period of half a century 18 to 19. In theory, "Theory
of the Earth with Proofs and Illustrations," James Hutton (1726-1797) proposed
the concept of uniformitarianism and explain the origin of unconformities. Since
the publication of his book in 1785, there was a group of scientists who called
themselves geologist (geologists). Geologists determine the geometry of the
structure of the mountain range, learn how to make a geological map, find the
processes involved in rock formations, and to guess the origin of specific
structures and the range of mountains in general. Ideas about the origin of the
formation of the mountains and then developed. First, the mountain ranges were
formed as a result of the vertical impulse (vertical push). from below, may be
associated with the intrusion of molten rock along zon alemah preexisting, and
folded, and broken in layers (strata) caused by the gravitational force (Figure
3). Next, the importance of horizontal forces (horizontal forces) then emphasized,
and geologists speculate that the mountain ranges and reflects the structure
components (theory) kontaksi of the Earth resulting from the cooling effect of
continuous (progressive). In North America, the theory of permanence associated
with geosynclines theory, developed by Dana and James Hall. One of the
inventions are known (around 1850) is by James Hall (1811-1898) that a layer of
Paleozoic in the Appalachian mountains of North America consisted mostly of
folding stages in the form of sedimentary rocks shallow water, several thousand
feet thick. How can these rocks were folded and lifted into the mountains? In
1947, George Marshall Kay (1904-1975) suggested that the origin (Early
Paleozoic) folds of the Appalachian mountains is as a geosyncline which has a
section in which miogeosynclinal, as in the description of classical geosyncline by
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Hall in 1859, piled up on the continental shelf, and is eugeosynclinal outer portion
that accumulates at the bottom of the deep sea. Kay in Geological Magazine,
1967, with the concept of deterministic geosynclines and tectonic cycle.The
tectonic plates allows for a much more complete interpretation of the continental
margin sedimentation and orogenesis in terms of the fragmentation of the
continent, driftings, and collision. This discovery then led to the development of
the theory of geosyncline, a model of the sedimentary basins, called geosynclines,
arranged into mountain ranges. Undasi hypothesis is based on the ideas of Stille
(1924) and Erich Harman (1930) which was then developed by van Bemmelen
from 1933 to 1960 on the basis of geological research in Indonesia.
Schools mobilist
Contraction and geosynclinal theory, or some combination thereof and, broadly
accepted until the late 1960s. Then comprehension by Alfred Wegener (18801930), Arthur Holmes (1898-1965), and Harry Hess (1906-1969) has led to the
formulation of models that are very different. Holmes (a geologist UK), argued
that the driving force is the convection currents in the mantle. He found
radiogenic heat will generate convection currents: ocean ridges are the site
upwelling convection currents, which split the continent, and the deep ocean
(geosynclines) is the site of downwelling currents. Developments on the work of
Alfred Wegener's theory (1912) that drift theory Continent (continental drift
theory), Figure 4, and Arthur Holmes is mantle convection models. Wegener said
that in 250 million years ago all the continents and islands that exist today
originally a large inland. About 200 million years ago the giant mainland began to
crack and continue to move (float), among others leads to the Americas and Africa
are separated, as well as other continents. This continent drift theory was
criticized by American geologist as well as some spicy reaction (of adherents
Fixist). The debate ensued. Then in the 1950s, the theory of drift Continent
(continental drift) "turned on" again by the British geophysicist who studied the
magnetism of rocks to understand the Earth's magnetic field. Found evidence that
the rocks have moved relative to Earth's magnetic poles, so either continental or
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pole has moved. Initially geophysicist more receptive to the idea of polar wander,
but by the late 1950s the comparative evidence from India and Australia pointed
toward perbergerakan continent. Inspired by these results, American geologist
Harry Hess (1906-1969) revived the idea previously proposed by Arthur Holmes:
that convection currents drove continent movement. Hess colleague, Robert Dietz
(1914-1995) and then proposes a revolutionary idea that mobile seafloor (seafloor
spreading hypothesis) which then leads to the formulation of the theory of plate
tectonics (plate tectonic theory). On this theory, the Earth consists of several solid
plates are changed in space and time. Interaction between the plates provide a
unifying explanation of the existence of mountain ranges, ocean basin,
earthquakes, volcanoes and geological phenomena that were previously isolated
from one another. Interpretation Dietz then confirmed by direct examination of the
seabed. Meanwhile, geophysicists have shown that the Earth's magnetic field has
repeatedly and frequently reversed polarity. Reversal magnetic plus "of sea floor
spreading" added to testable hypotheses, proposed independently by Canadian
Lawrence Morley and geophysical England Frederick Vine and Drummond
Matthews: If seafloor spreading while the Earth's magnetic field turns around,
then basalt forming the seabed will record these events in the form parallel circuit
'line' normal and reversed magnetic rocks. Since World War II, the United States
Office of Naval Research has supported research seabed for military purposes,
and the large volume of magnetic data have been collected.American and British
scientists studied data, and since 1966, Vine and Matthews hypothesis has been
confirmed. In the 1967-1968, evidence of continental drift (drifting continents)
and spread seabed (SPREDING sea floor) incorporated into a global
framework. Work independently, Daniel P. McKenzie and Robert L. Parker at the
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, and Jason Morgan at Princeton University,
shows that existing data can be used to analyze the movement of the crust as a
rigid body rotation on the ball. The result is known as plate tectonics. The opening
and closing of the bottom of the ocean known as the theory Circle Wilson (Wilson
Cycle), Burke et al., 1976, which mentions J. Tuzo Wilson were first described in
1966. J. Tuzo Wilson also was the one who introduced the term "transform faults"
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on geological literature in the early 1960s, which is the third category of the plate
boundary (plate boundary - first, convergent boundaries, second, divergent
boundaries).
Theories ever growing

At the end of the 18th century, a Scottish physicist named James Hutton (1795)
published the book Theory of theEarth. He is the father of modern geology. And
in the same century is the beginning of modern geology. The book that he
published trigger that "the present is the key to the past". Which means that the
current laws of nature always operates in the universe either in the past or at any
place in the universe. Uniformitarianism been a key principle in geology, but
modern geology naturalism, even accepting that the geological appear over a long
time, he no longer holds the principle of strict gradualism. In 1810, a French
national named Baron Georges Cuvier had a theory of catastrophism. It reads:
"What is there at the moment is the result of disasters that happened in the past"
In the past there has been a good extinction of the flora and fauna due to
disasters (catastroph) suddenly and lasts throughout the earth. Charles Lyell (
Principles of Geology.This book explains that the changes Further from the
surface of the earth, with the causes that to happen now. He also concluded the
geological processes that have now is applicable also in the past. In the mid 18th
century james hall put forward a new theory with geosinklin name. This theory
aims to explain the deposition of very thick sedimentary rocks thousands of
meters and extends as in the Himalayas, Alpina and the Andes.
The concept states that geosinklin formed as elongated or basin-scale thousands of
meters, which continues to decline as a result of the accumulation of sedimentary
rocks and volkanik.Sedangkan geosinklin is a narrow area on the earth's crust
depressed for some time so extreme deposited a thick sediment. This deposition
process causes subsidence (decrease) in the base of the basin. Thick sediments
ascribed orogenesa sediment due process that forms the mountains folds and
during this process sediments that have formed will undergo metamorphosis.
Terdeformasinya rocks in it can be explained as a result of the narrowing of the
basin, so that the rocks inside the folded and tersesarkan. These movements are
the result of a balancing force or isostacy.
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The weakness of the theory that is not usually explain the origin volcanic. In
essence, the group of scientists assume that the forces acting on the earth is a
vertical style. That is, all the deformation caused by the main force directed
perpendicular to the plane deformed.

1.2 Theory of Plate Tectonics

A. Plate Tectonics
The theory of plate tectonics hypothesis derived from Shifting
Continent (continental drift) proposed Alfred Wegener in 1912 and developed
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further in his book The Origin of Continents and Oceans, published in 1915. He
argued that the continents that today there is a span advance before moving away
thus releasing the continents of the earth's core as 'iceberg' of granite that kind of
low mass floating on a sea of basalt denser. However, in the absence of detailed
evidence and the calculation of the forces involved, this theory marginalized.
Plate tectonics is a part of the earth's crust and the uppermost layer, which is
also called the lithosphere. Or explain the motion of the Earth with a large scale of
lithoepher earth. The theory includes the concepts of old (continental drift)
developed during the half century since the 20th century by Alfred Wegner on the
ocean floor (seafloor) in the 1960s. The tectonic plates have a thickness of about
100 km (60 miles) which consists of two kinds of staples that oceanic crust (also
called sima consisting of silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (also
called unlucky consisting of silicon and magnesium). The composition of the two
types of the outer layer or skin of the ocean crust is basalt rocks (mafic) and the
continental crust is composed of granitic rock that the principle of low density.
Tetonik plates have different names - varies according to the place or origin
of the plates are located. At 225 million years ago, all the lands on earth is a unity
called Continent Pangaea the Permian era. The movement continues to occur
when the layer of earth 200 million years ago in the Triassic era is divided into 2
Continent Laurasia and Gondwanaland continent. Movement of the layers of the
earth's happening today is divided into 5 continents. Changes in the state of the
Earth's surface occur during the 4 days of approximately 225 million
years.Changes in the earth's surface which resulted in the boundaries - boundaries
of tectonic plates in each - each layer of earth. Movement originating from
endogenous energy has resulted in a cycle of rocks in peroses shifting plates.
The plates that make up Earth's tectonic plates are composed of large and
small. Large tectonic plates, among others:
1. Pacific Plate, covers an area of ocean Fasifik
2. North American Plate, covering North America
3. Plate South America, covering an area of South America

4. Plate Africa, covering an area of Africa, the eastern Atlantic and western Indian
Ocean
5. Eurasia, including Europe, Asia including Indonesia
6. Plate Indies Australia, covering the Indian Ocean region, the Indian subcontinent
and parts of western Australia.
7. Plate Antarctic, covering continents and oceans.
Map Plate Tectonics

Under these plates are convection currents and astenosphere (inner lining
of the plate) into sections such as heated by radioactive decay of uranium,
thorium, and potassium. The heated portion which is the source of lava that we
often see in the volcano and also the source of the material that came out in the
middle embankment ocean and form new ocean floor. Magma is kept out in the
embankment above the ocean and generate a flow of magma flowing both
directions are different and produce a force capable of splitting the dike middle of
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the ocean. At the time of the split in the ocean floor, cracks occur in the middle
embankment and magma melted able to get out and form new ocean floor.
Then the ocean floor is moving away from the embankment until the
middle of the ocean where the continental plates have finally met and will
infiltrate because its density is generally berkomposisi heavier than the specific
gravity of the continental plates. Infiltration into the oceanic plate is what
produces the continental plate subduction or subduction zones and eventually
infiltrate the lithosphere will back down astenosphere and heated again. This
incident took place continuously. Well if it moves, what happened in the meeting
of tectonic plates?
Regional meeting these plates generally produce a lot of earthquakes and
earthquake if the source is in the ocean, the greater the possibility of a
tsunami. The meeting of the plates is the fault zone and can be divided into 3
groups.
Normal Fault (normal fault),
Fault ride (thrust fault), and
Fault shear (strike Slipe fault).
In addition to these three groups there is another one which is usually
called the collision or obduction where both Both relate to compressional or
affirmation or encouragement. Shear fracture lot to do with the style
transformation.
Plate tectonics is a cycle rocks on Earth that occurs in the geological time
scale. The rock cycle occur from the movement of tectonic plates, which are
dynamic. With the movement of tectonic plates happens capable of forming earth
and cause symptoms - symptoms or events - natural occurrences such as tectonic
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. The movement of tectonic plates in
the earth are classified into three kinds of limits movement of the plates, which is
convergent, divergent, and transform (shift).
1.

Transform limit.

2.

Divergent boundary.
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3.

Convergent boundary.

B. Plate Tectonics INDONESIA

If you look at Indonesia, the area we are located at the confluence of the
Australian plate and the Eurasian plate Australian wherein infiltrated the Eurasian
zone so as to form a subduction zone along Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, West
Nusa Tenggara, East and circular in Banda. While Irian Jaya is a meeting place for
some of the plates ie Australian, Eurasian, Pacific and Philippine. As a result of
the inception of this subduction zone once found so many volcanoes in
Indonesia. So many people call our region as a RING OF FIRE.
Of the three plate boundaries which supports the rock cycle on earth. Any
land or country or continent in the world is limited by plates of different different. Due to the dynamic nature and strength of each - each plate is different different, then formed three tectonic plate boundary earthquake in result from
tectonic plate movement.And when seen in the Indonesian area which is an area
ternbanyak passed by the point - the point earthquake scattered throughout the
archipelago. In the west to the south of Indonesia is limited by tectonic plates,
bounded on the north with different plate, and the eastern part is limited to the
different plate. So Indonesia is limited by three major plates different
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world. Therefore Indonesia has a point earthquake which spread almost all over
the archipelago.
Our country is near tectonic plate boundaries Eurasian and IndoAustralian. Type boundary between the two plates are converging. IndoAustralian plate is subducting plate under the Eurasian plate. Also in the east, met
three tectonic plates at once, namely the Philippines plates, the Pacific and IndoAustralian. As previously explained, the subduction between the two plates causes
the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate led to the formation of a row of
volcanoes that nobody else is Bukit Barisan in Sumatra and a row of volcanoes
along the island of Java, Bali and Lombok, and the trenches of the ocean that no
other is Parit Jawa (Sunda). Constantly moving tectonic plates. One time her
movements experienced friction or knocks hard enough. When this occurs, there
arises the earthquake and tsunami, and the increasing rise of magma to the
surface. So, do not be surprised if there was an earthquake originating from the
bottom of the Indian Ocean, which is often followed by a tsunami, volcanic
activity along the islands of Sumatra and Java also increased.
Indonesia sits astride the volcano and is the country with the largest number
of volcanoes. Volcano spreading pattern indicates the line is almost similar to the
pattern of spread of the focus of the earthquake and the type of activity depends
on the Holy Mountain apiannya lempengnya limit. This relationship indicates that
volkanisma is one of the important products tectonic system.
Ak ibatnya various natural phenomena often occur in Indonesia. One of
which many have encountered volcanoes in the southern part of Indonesia which
is the work of the movement of Ino-Australian plate with the Eurasian
plate. Number of volcanoes in Indonesia 177 volcano, volcano Sert also
encountered in the area sebagain of Halmahera island and part of the island of
Sulawesi, which is the meeting place of the Pacific plate with the Eurasian plate.
In terms of geology, Indonesia is really a very interesting area. Significance
lies in rupabuminya, type and distribution of mineral deposits as well as the
energy contained in it, keterhuniannya, and ketektonikaannya. For that reason,

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various draft (draft) geology began to develop here, or get a place to test it
(Sukamto and Purbo-Hadiwidjoyo, 1993).
In addition to the major tectonic plates, the Earth is also composed of
plates taktonik small size, among other things:
Nazca Plate
Cocos Plate
Plate Filipino
Caribbean plate
Arabian Plate
Juan de Fuca Plate
Plate Rivera
Plate Gorda
Plate Scotia
The movement of tectonic plates causes natural formations, thus forming
the boundary that has three properties, namely: divergent or away, converge or
collide with each other, and lateral displacement or horizontal fault.
Divergent boundary

Divergent boundaries occur when the plates move away from each other
(the process of mutual estrangement bottom of the ocean). Magma flow keluara of
the asthenosphere and formed a layer of rock (lithosphere) new. In this case, the
pressure that comes from the very large earth while the earth's crust is very thin,
causing the divergent boundaries. Area of many divergent boundaries is the
eastern part of Africa and the Red Sea.
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Convergent Boundaries

Convergent boundary occurs when a plate is formed and away from each
other in an area, then it will happen elsewhere komvergensi and collisions
between plates. The amount depends on the strength of a pile of rock layers
plate. The period of continental plates are lighter in compare future ocean
plate. Plate with a lighter period will push past the plate with a heavier
bottom. This process is called subdaksi and regions formed subdaksi called
subdaksi zone. Subdaksi zone and convergent boundaries can occur if there is a
meeting between the plate and pile denagn oceanic continental plates, the plates
ocean with oceanic plate and continental shelf with the continental shelf.
Been literally or misguided horizontal displacement / transform / rubbing

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Lateral displacement occurs when two plates move along the same line, do
not repel each other and piled, for example, a move to the north and one to the
south with no fracture or known to shift. This incident did not cause the
disappearance or appearance of the earth's crust, but it will be formed along the
fault. The movement of tectonic plates causes earthquakes and mountain
formation.
In the theory of sequence stratigraphy is a method of deposition-precipitation on a
sedimentation basin, and this sequence can also be applied in an evaluation of
hydrocarbon exploration. Sequence stratigraphic analysis requires comprehensive
data from various disciplines of geology, including
biostratigraphy. Hypothetically, biostratigraphy (foraminifera) can be used as a
tool to identify the sequence. The case studies in low latitude areas has been done
and some parameters such as associations biofasies, bioevent, abundance, and
diversity and composition of fauna has been tried is applied to look for patterns or
certain characteristics that can be used as a tool to identify the
sequence. Foraminifera biostratigraphy role as a tool in the interpretation of the
sequences seem to be affected by the environment where sediments are found. In
the deposition shallow sea, although the resolution of age poorly, boundary
sequence, component sequence, and some horizon in the sequence will be more
recognizable than the distribution pattern foraminifera the contrary, in the deep
ocean, even though the resolution of age will be better, other elements are less
visible to the good, except the areas of condensed section associated with
maximum flooding surface. Sequence stratigraphy is a multidisciplinary approach
and oriented to a process for interpreting sedimentary package. The sediment
package named sequence and bounded by unconformity field or fields
kemenerusannya and regional harmony. Technically, this concept aims to classify
the composition of sedimentary rock sequence into a sequence based on the
chronology as a barrier hose genesa (Vail et al, 1984, Vail, 1987, in Djuhaeni,
1996).

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The term refers to the sequence-order sequence 3 according Vail (1992, in

Handford, 1997) have an interval of 0.5 to 3.0 million years. The sequence caused
by glacio-eustatic change and local and regional tectonics. Mitchum and Van
Wagoner (1991) states that the sequence has a pattern of sediment (stacking
pattern) and is evidence of the high-frequency eustatic cycles. Sequence is
composed of component sequence (depositional system track: lowstand system
track / LST, transgressive system track / TST and high system track / HST) in
response due to changes in sea level relative (Posamentier and Vail, 1988; Van
Wagoner et al., 1988 ). Sequence stratigraphic interpretation and components
sikuennya and horizon such sequence boundaries (SB), field transgression (TS),
the areas of maximum flooding surface (MFS), and condensed section (C)
requires an understanding of the stratigraphic relationships, age, bathymetry, and
facies. Thus, it appears there are some aspects that involve biostratigraphy in
evaluating the stratigraphic sequence.
One example is the effect due to misalignment, misalignment is surface erosion or
non-deposition of separating layers younger than older and represents a significant
time gaps. Unconformity is classified based on the relationship between the
structure carrying rocks and riding. He explained the hiatus in the stratigraphic
sequence, which records periods of indescribable in the stratigraphic
column. Unconformity also record important changes in the environment, ranging
from the deposition process becomes non-deposition and / or erosion, which
generally describe an important tectonic events. See the types of misalignment in
the images below later. Introduction and mapping a disharmony is the first step to
understanding the geologic history of a basin or geological
province.Unconformity known from outcrop, well data and seismic data used as
boundary precipitation sequence.
Type - the type of misalignment
1.

Misalignment angle (angular unconformity)

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Unconformity where the older layer has a different slope (generally steeper)
compared with younger layers. This relationship is the most obvious sign of a
hiatus, because it implies that the older layers deformed and truncated by erosion
before the younger layers deposited.
2.

Disconformity

Unconformity where the layers are at the top and bottom are parallel, but there are
areas of erosion that separates the two (generally in the form of uneven and
irregular).
3.

Paraconformity

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Layers that are above and below the unconformity related field parallel / parallel
where there is no surface evidence of erosion, but can only be known by the time
hiatus rock.
4.

Nonconformity

Misalignment that occurs when riding on top of sedimentary rocks crystalline

rocks (or igneous rocks metamof).
Whereas, in many stratigrafinya analysis using comprehensive data from various
disciplines of geology, including the biostratigraphy. By hypothesis and the results
of several previous studies have shown that biostratigraphy can be used as a tool
to identify the sequence.
A further study to determine the relationship biostratigraphy foraminifera in
relation to the stratigraphic sequence has been carried out in the North East Java
Basin (lower latitudes). The study was conducted at multiple unit sequence and its
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components are deposited on the transition area / land to sea (batial above) to
Middle Miocene age sanmpai Late Pliocene.
Penelititan results showed that the primary role of foraminifera biostratigraphy is
in marine sediment age determination and interpretation of depositional
environments. Foraminifera biostratigraphy role as a tool in the interpretation of
sequences look influenced by the environment in which the sediments were
found. In the shallow ocean sediment although the resolution is not good but the
age limit of sequence, sequence components and some horizon in the sequence
will be recognized. While at sea despite the age of the resolution will be better,
but the other elements are less visible fine except the field of condensed section
associated with maximum flooding surface. Some paramenter which has been
referred to as a feature to recognize the horizon like a condensed section (nmisal:
maximum diversity and abundance, oxygen minimum zones) are not fully able to
clijadikan benchmark, only in certain circumstances.
Sikuenstratigrafi concept has been widely adopted and proven to solve a number
of problems exploration / production in the oil and gas industry. Litho
stratigraphic analysis approach based pemerian layer principle is
observed. Interpretation based on observable criteria, which also became a barrier
of that interpretation. Such criteria can be lithology (litho), fossil (Biostratigraphy)
or a combination of both so that it appears the unit Chronostratigraphy and
geochronology.

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2. stratigraphic elements

2.1 Igneous Rocks

Definition of igneous

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Igneous rock is a type of rock formed from magma that cools and hardens. If the
magma cools and hardens under the surface called the intrusive igneous rock.
While the magma hardens outside the earth's surface is called extrusive igneous
rocks.
The structure of igneous rocks
Because there are two kinds of igneous rocks where freezing is instrusif and
eksterusif, this led to differences in texture on each of these rocks.
Extrusive igneous rock structure
Extrusive igneous rock is a rock formation process takes place outside the Earth's
surface. These igneous rocks have various structures that give clues about the
process of freezing the magma. These structures include:
Massive, which shows the structure of a future that looks uniform

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joint sheeting, which is a structure that looks like a layer.

Columnar joint, which shows the structure of separate polygonal rock like pencils.
Pillow lava, ie a structure resembling a pillow that resembles a lumpy pillow
because pembekuannya process occurs in the aquatic environment.
Vesicular structure showing the holes in igneous rocks due to release of gas when
the freezing process.
Amigdaloidal, vesicular structures that were later filled by another mineral.
Flow structure, ie a structure that shows the alignment of minerals in a particular
direction due to the flow.
Intrusive igneous rock structure
Extrusive igneous rocks are igneous processes taking place below the surface of
the earth pembekuannya. based on its position on the bedding rock diterobosnya
intrusive igneous rock body structure is divided into two concordant and
discordant.
Konkordan

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Konkordan is a structure in which the body of igneous rock that is parallel to the
direction of the bedding around. Types of concordance is:
Sill, a sheet rock body and parallel to the bedding surrounding rock.
Laccolith, igneous body shaped dome (dome), which were originally flat bedding
rocks into curved body as a result of breaches of these rocks, while part remains
essentially flat. Laccolih diameters ranging from 2 to 4 miles with a depth of
thousands of meters.
Lopolith, body shape rock which is the opposite of laccolith, the convex shape of
the rock body down. Lopolith has a larger diameter than laccolith, ie tens to
hundreds of kilometers with a depth of thousands of meters.
Paccolith, igneous body that occupies syncline or anticline preconceived.
Paccolith thickness ranging from hundreds to thousands of kilometers.
Discordant
Discordant is a structure in which the igneous body that intersects with the
direction of the surrounding bedding. Discordant types are:
Dyke, the body of the bedding surrounding rock cut and has a tabular shape or
elongated. Thickness from a few centimeters to tens of kilometers to hundreds of
meters long.
Batolith, the body of rock that has a very large size is> 100 km2 and freezes at
great depths.
Stock, the body of rock that is similar to but smaller Batolith.

23

Igneous rock textures

Because of the reduced temperature variations, changes in pressure during
freezing magma makes the formation of rocks with different textures. When
igneous freeze on the state of the high temperatures and pressures below the
surface with clotting time long enough minerals penyusunya have time to form a
specific crystal system with a relatively large size of the mineral. While in the
freezing conditions of temperature and surface pressure is low, minerals
constituent of igneous rocks could not form a specific crystal system, forming a
glass that does not have a crystal system, and the mineral formed is usually
relatively small. Based on the above texture of igneous rocks can be distinguished
by:
Grain size
Phaneritic, namely igneous rock composed of coarse-sized minerals.
Aphanitic, namely igneous rock composed of fine sized mineral.

A combination of crystalline forms

24

Unidiomorf, mostly euhedral crystal-shaped crystal.

Hypidiomorf, most crystal-shaped crystal subhedral.
Alltriomorf, most crystal crystalline anhedral.

Crystal form
Euhedral, form a perfect crystal.
Subhedral, crystalline form which is less than perfect.
Anhedral, crystal form is not perfect.

The rate of crystallization

Holokristalin, igneous rocks are almost all composed by crystals.
Hipokristalin, igneous rocks composed of glass and crystal.
Holohyalin, igneous rocks are almost all composed by the glass.

Uniformity between butirnya

Equiglanular, the grain size is almost the same constituent.
Inequiglanular, the grain size is not the same constituent.

Classification of igneous rocks

Based on where the formation of igneous rocks:
Plutonic igneous rocks, the rocks that formed deep in the bowels of the earth.
25

Hypabisal igneous rocks, the rocks were formed not far from the earth's surface.
Volcanic igneous rock, igneous rocks formed on the surface of the earth.

Based on igneous rocks by color:

Leucocratic rock, mineral content maficnya <30%
Mesocratic rock, mineral content maficnya 30% - 60%
Melanocratic rock, mineral content maficnya 60% - 90%
Hypermelanic rock, mafic mineral content> 90%
Based on the content of SiO2:

acid igneous rocks, SiO2 content of> 65%

intermediate igneous rocks, SiO2 content of 65% - 52%
alkaline igneous rocks, SiO2 content of 52% - 45%
ulyra alkaline igneous rocks, SiO2 content of <30%

2.2 Sediment Rocks

26

Sedimentary rocks belonging to the secondary rocks because its constituent

material is the result of chemical activity and mechanical denudation of the
existing rock. Precipitated from solution or suspension in water or air at normal
temperatures and pressures. Sediment is a result of the destruction of the earth's
crust rocks, consisting of rock fragments, and a variety of other materials is only
is mineral. And ditransportkan by wind or water are deposited in the indentation
on land and at sea.
The material carried in suspension settles because of the speed of the transport
medium and deposited due to changes in the chemical composition and physics of
the medium itself. Sediment not only coming from the land, but terakulamsi also
at the edges of the basin then melengser caused by gravity. Although in theory
there is no erosion processes in Dawah surface of the water, but because of the
waves and sea currents can erode the coral reefs that exist under the sea,
kikisannya proceeds deposited in the form of destruction.
Sedimentary material can be:
fragments and minerals from rocks that already exist. For example in the river
gravel or sand at the beach
27

organic materials, such as the remnants of the shells of aquatic organisms and
vegetation marshes.
Results of chemical processes such as evaporation and salt in a lake pataudan
calcium carbonate in a shallow sea.
,
Various kinds of sedimentary rocks
Clastic sedimentary rocks
Clastic sedimentary rocks are sedimentary rocks derived from the original rock
before. Rock origin may be composed of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks themselves. Sedimentary rocks deposited by a mechanical process is divided
into two major categories and is based on the division of large grain size is coarse
and fentritus dentritus smooth. The way this rock formation by deposition process
well formed within the land and marine environment. Such a large size rock
breccia deposition can occur directly from volcanic explosions and endapkan
around the mountain and the river can also be deposited in the environment and
can occur within the sandstone rocks of the sea, rivers and lakes. All of the above
rocks belong to the class of coarse detritus. Meanwhile, fine detritus group
consisting of silt rocks, shale and clay and marl Batua. Rocks that belong to this
group are generally in endapkan in the marine environment of the marine shallow
to the deep sea. After experiencing the deposition of sediments the processes that
take place at low temperatures in the sediments are commonly referred to
diagnesa. This causes a sediment into a hard rock.
Diagnesa process include:
Compacting sediments are accumulated sediment grains to one another due to a
force thereon. The style here include pressure and weight.
Cementation is the decline in the materials in the space between the grains of
sediment and chemically bind the grains of sediment with others.
28

Recrystallization is efflorescence back a dissolution of minerals from sedimentary

material.
Autigenesis is the formation of new minerals that are in the neighborhood
diagenesa.
Metasomatisme is the turn of sedimentary material by various authigenic
minerals, without any reduction in the volume of origin.
Non-clastic sediments 2.Batuan
This sedimentary rock is a rock that formed as a result of evaporation of a
solution. The process of forming a non-clastic rocks can be chemical, biological,
and biochemical. Chemically intended is to run through the stages of a chemical
reaction. Organically is the formation of sediments by the activity of animals or
plants, for example, the accumulation of shells of animals.
According to RP Koesoemadinata, sedimentary rocks can be divided into six
groups, namely:
Carbonate groups
These rocks are generally formed from a collection of mollusc shells or by the
deposition process in the form of rock debris before.
The first process is common in the marine environment litoras to neritik, while the
second process in endapkan on the marine environment neritik until bahtial.
Class silica
The process of formation of this rock is a combination of organic and chemical
pross to further refine them.
Class evaporates
In general, these rocks formed in lakes or marine environments are closed, so it is
possible occurs enrichment of certain elements. And an important factor also is the
29

high evaporation it will form a precipitate from the solution. The rocks were
included into this rock is gip, anhydrite, rock salt.
Coal group
The sedimentary rocks are formed from organic elements, namely from plants.
Wherein when the plants die quickly buried under a thick layer on it so it will not
allow the occurrence of weathering.
Class fine dentritus
Dentritus this smooth rocks deposited in shallow marine environment areas to the
deep sea.
Dentritus group rough
Sedimentary rocks deposited by a mechanical process. Included in this class
include breccias, conglomerates and sandstones. The environment in which the
deposition of these rocks in the rivers and lakes or the ocean.
Process of sedimentation
Renewal of sediments is rocks that resulted from the destruction of some types of
rock. The first process is the formation of sedimentary rocks teabrasinya source
rock which then accumulates in a particular area. Processes and stages of
formation of sedimentary rocks called the sedimentation process. This
sedimentation process is divided into two processes, namely:
1.Proses mechanical sedimentation
Mechanically adalahproses sedimentation process where the grains of sediment
accumulates somewhere. This process is influenced by water, gravity, air and ice.
In liquid, there are two kinds of flow, ie laminar (which does not produce grains of
sediment transport) and turbulent (which resulted in the transport and deposition
of sediment grains). This makes the turbulent flow of particles or granules of
sediment precipitate the suspension, so that the granules deposited a fine-grained
30

sediment grain (of sand to clay). Sedimentation processes are influenced by

gravity is divided into three, which are influenced by turbidite flows, grain flows
and debris flows.
Turbiditi flow is influenced by the flow of water and gravity. The main
characteristic pengendpan by this current is more coarse grains will be at the
bottom of the precipitation and the more subtle to the top of the deposition.
Grain flows usually occur when the sediment has boxed and sorting excellent fall
on the slope under gravity. Usually sediment forming a reverse grading.
Debris flows if the volume exceeds the volume of water sediments, and cause the
flow with high viscosity. With a little turbulence, sorting of particles shrink and
eventually produce a precipitate with bad sorting.
Chemical sedimentation process
This chemical process occurs when the pores containing fluid penetrating the rock
caused by reaction of the minerals in the rocks. Chemical processes are as
follows:
Dissolution, dissolution of a mineral in the rock.
Cementation, precipitation in the form of cement in the rock.
Authigenesis, the emergence of new minerals that grow in the pores of rocks.
Recrystallization, changes in crystal structure of minerals teteap tatapi same.
Replacement, dissolution of minerals and then there are other minerals that form
and replace the mineral.
Bioturbasi, sedimentation processes with the help of animals.
TEXTURE
One way to more easily recognize the sedimentary rocks is a way to understand
the texture of the rock itself. Sedimentary rock texture is a characteristic
31

associated with the deposition until the packaging components. Classification of

sedimentary rock texture only be divided into two groups. The first adalan texture
and clastic rocks which are both non-clastic rock texture.
Texture clastic rocks
Tekstue clastic rocks affected by fragments formation, grain shape and size, and
the relationship between the grains. As is well known that the clastic sediments
consist of granules, of which having a uniform grain to diversify. Great diversity
of grain expressed in sorting. If large grain varies then it can be said that bad
pemilahannya. Meanwhile, if a large grain almost uniformly it is said
pemilahannya baik.demikian Similarly, the order of fragments in clastic
sedimentary rocks expressed as boxed. If the sediment grains in contact with each
other is said to be a closed container. And if it does not touch said open containers.
Texture non-clastic sedimentary rocks
Texture is happening is the result of precipitation through chemical reaction.
Crystalline texture develops as a result of an aggregate of crystals that interlock.
These crystals can be small, medium, large or even a mixture of various sizes
sebagaihalnya porphyritic igneous rocks. These crystals exhibit certain forms of
the same dimensions for example. And it is not easy to tell which is formed by the
reaction of organic chemistry and which are formed by reactions due to organisms
endapkan.
Porosity and permeability
Other properties of clastic sedimentary rocks associated with the texture is
porosity and permeability.
Porosity is the number of empty cavities between the grains contained in the rock.
Factors affecting the porosity of the particles depends on the prisoner, big and
particle shape, number of different sizes.

32

Permeability is a rock kemampulan pass a fluid. Rocks that have high porosity
belumtentu has greater permeability because it depends on the relationship
between the pores and cavities between the grains.
STRUCTURE rock sediment
The composition of the particles in the layers of sediment is important
information. Most of the sediment in endapkan gradually, so that the main
characteristic of sedimentary rocks are layered. Bedding plane may differ due to
physical differences such as color, size, type. At umunmnya structure found in the
sedimentary rock composed of layers and layers intersect (cross bedding).
Layer composed happen if susupensi deposited beforehand is the biggest particle
followed by smaller particles. Fine particles that may still exist in susupensi and
will settle. The result is a small sediment on top. Sorting of particles depends on
the size of the grain size. Instead, it happened due to the flow velocity weakening.
When the current weakening of large particles will settle first.
Layer crosswise (cross bedding), this layer consists of grains are larger and is the
result of the deposition by the current flow of the river, wind, or ocean waves. The
material will be collected and brought into the hills. By studying the sedimentary
structures that were found, it can be in the know depositional mechanisms.

2.3 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

33

Or metamorphic rocks that could be called metamorphosis possess the sense of

metamorphic or alteration, as well as with the process. Metamorphism or
metamorphic process is a change in mineral assemblage and texture of rocks, but
distinguished by diagnesa process and the weathering process where both
processes iitu changes. The process of metamorphosis occurs because of changes
in temperature and pressure as high as 200 C and 300 megapascals. While
diagnesa and weathering process takes place at a temperature of 200 C and at a
pressure that is normal. So from there it can be concluded that the process of
metamorphosis is the process by which changes in mineral and rock texture at
temperatures above 200 C and a pressure of 300 megapascals.
TYPE metamorfisme
Metamorfisme kataklastik
Sometimes the process of mechanical deformation in metamorphism can take
place without chemical recrystallization. Although this is rare but if there is only a
local nature only. For example if you have a coarse grained rock stress the strong
34

differentiation of the mineral grains will also be crushed and refined. This
deformation of the call with kataklastik metamorphism. And if this process
continues, the metamorphism of rock fragments will be oblong.
Contact metamorphism
Contact metamorphism occurs due to the intrusion of magma body heat on cold
rocks of the earth's crust. Due to the increase in temperature, the recrystallization
becomes important role. While the mechanical deformation can be said not to take
the role because stressdi around magma is homogeneous. Contact metamorphism
occurs around a granite porphyry intrusion. The composition of limestone
modified by the fluid that comes out of granite when it cools and produce
metamorphism aureole. Metamorphism aureole is the layer which is formed from
rocks are exposed will experience warming intrusion and termetamorfosa. Then
the new minerals form a series of concentric shell in the aureole, each with a
distinctive mineral assemblage. (image)
Burial metamorphism
Burial metamorphosis is the metamorphosis that occurs when sedimentary rocks
that are at a certain depth with temperature above 300 C and the absence of
differential pressure. In these conditions, the new minerals will evolve, but the
rock looks like not undergo metamorphosis. The main minerals produced under
these conditions is a zeolite mineral. Burial metamorphosis generally overlap with
diagenesa and will turn into a regional metamorphosis with increasing pressure
and temperature.
Regional Metemorfisme
Regional metamorphosis is the metamorphosis that occurs in very large areas
where a high degree of deformation under pressure differential. This kind of
metamorphosis will usually result foliasi metamorphic rocks with a very strong
level, such as Slate, schists, and Gneisses. Differential pressure derived from
tectonic force resulting rock pressure (compression), and this pressure generally
35

comes from two time continents collide with one another. Thus it can be said that
the regional metamorphic rocks occur in the core of the mountain range or
mountains eroded. Results of compression pressure on the folded rocks and
thickening crust can encourage the rocks towards the bottom so that it becomes
deeper which has a higher pressure and temperature.
Factors Affecting Process metamorphism
Results of metamorphism process will depend on the composition of the original
rocks and metamorphic conditions. The chemical composition of the rocks of
origin greatly affect the formation of new mineral assemblage. Similarly, the
factors that affect:
The influence of the fluid against chemical reactions
Pores found in igneous or sedimentary filled with fluid, which is a solution of
gases, salts and minerals contained in the rocks. At high temperatures these fluids
have an important role in metamorphism because under high temperatures and
pressures that occur exchange element of the solution to the minerals. So here is
the solution functions as a medium of transport between the elements of the
solution to mineral, sehingg can accelerate the process of metamorphism.
Temperature and Pressure
A rock when heated at a certain temperature will form a new mineral, which will
become metamorphic rocks. The rocks can be heated by magma. Breakthrough
magma on rock also lead to a change in pressure. The pressure in the process of
metamorphism is the stress that has magnitude and direction. Texture of
metamorphic rocks show that these rocks formed at pressures are not equal in
every direction. (Image)
Differ formed by melt and having the same amount from all directions. Therefore
igneous minerals showed irregular orientation. In the picture above shows that the
difference in stress causing different textures.
36

Time
To find out how long the process of metamorphism is not easy and is still not
known how. In laboratory experiments showed that pressure and high
temperatures and long reaction times would produce crystals that are large and
vice versa. Thus for the time being concluded that the coarse grained rock
metamorphism is the result of a long period of high pressure and temperature. In
contrast to the fine grains, the time is short and the low temperatures and
pressures.
Type of metamorphic rocks
Of shale and mudstone
Batusabak

Although shale and mudstone are generally composed of quartz and other
minerals and clay minerals may also feldspar. Low-grade metamorphism will
make batusabak. In this condition, muscovite will crystallize. But the newly
formed mineral will be shaped flat. This proves the existence of a texture like that
of rocks originally been termetemorfose.
Filit
//

37

Increased metamorfose on batusabak to degrees metamorfose medium, produces

mineral mica larger grained and form foliasi. Rock called filit.
Schist and gneiss
////
If metamorfose continues to increase it will form a medium-sized rock called
schist to coarse. Mineral-mineral large enough to be seen without tools and a clear
shape planar structure. While the metamorphic rocks of high degree of coarse
grained and berfoliasi but with layers such as quartz and gneiss felspardinamakan.
From Basalt
Green schist
//
The main minerals in basalt adalan olivine, plagioclase and pyroxene. All of
which are anhydrous. When basalt undergo metamorphism where water can get
into the rock, then formed a collection of new minerals. At low degree, are formed
minerals such as epidote, plagioclase, calcite. The result will be like batusabak.
But because of the folisai sperti filit cause hijaukarena colors containing chlorite,
and so-called green schist.
Amphibolite and Granulit
////
If the green schist until the middle metamorfose rock outcome would have mostly
coarse grained and called amphibolite. At the highest degree of amphibole
replaced pyroxene. And rock berfoliasi, called granulit.
From Limestone and Sandstone
Marble
//
38

Marble consists of calcite mineral grains are rough and interlocking. When there
is recrystallized limestones process, bedding plane, fossils and all the
characteristic of sedimentary rocks would largely disappear. And have the end
result in the form of rock with a Yag uniform grain size.
Quartzite
//
Quartzite sandstone formed from the cavities between the grains of silica and
originally filled entirely crystallized. Sometimes the picture is still not clearly
visible grains of sediment previously.
The important factor in the description of metamorphic rocks
1.colour
The color of the rock is closely related to the composition of the constituent
minerals. minerals making up the rock strongly influenced by the composition of
the magma origin so that it can be seen from the color of its constituent types of
magma.
2.Tekstur rocks
Definition of rock texture refers to the appearance of grains of minerals in it,
which includes the rate of crystallization, grain size, grain shape, granularity, and
the relationship between the grains (fabric). If the color of the rock is closely
related to the chemical and mineralogical composition, the texture associated with
the history of the formation and keterdapatannya. Texture is the result of a series
of processes before and after crystallization. In general, metamorphic texture
consisting of:
Lepidoblastik, if it consists of a tabular minerals.
Nematoblastik, if composed of prismatic minerals.
Porfiroblastik, if it has the texture porfiroblastik
39

Granoblastik, if it consists of minerals that equedimensional (granular) with

boundaries that sutured. Mineral-minerals have anhedral form.
Relic, if the texture is derived from earlier rocks.
Hornfelsik, as granoblastik showing mosaic texture but showed no orientation.
3.Struktur rock
In general the rock structure is divided into two:
Foliasi
Parallel structures caused by minerals flat as a result of the process of
metamorphosis. Can be shown prismatic minerals that indicate certain
orientations. Produced by the process of regional metamorphism, kataklastik.
Non-foliasi
Structure formed by mineral equidimensional consisting of grains of granular
grains. Produced by the process of contact metamorphism.

40

3. Traditional principles of stratigraphy

3.1 Law of superposition (Nicolas Steno, 1669)

In an order of layering of rock, the rock layer that lies beneath the relatively older
age than the layers above it during the rock layers have not been deformed or still
in the normal state.

3.2 Legal horizontality (Nicolas Steno, 1669)

41

Sediment layers deposited closer to the horizontal and essentially parallel to the
plane in which the surface of the sediment layers deposited.
The composition of the layers that are not horizontal position means it has
undergone a process other geological after its deposition, for example, is affected
by tectonic style.

What if there are tectonic processes that can be annoying.

42

3.3 Original Continuity (Nicolas Steno, 1669):

"The original continuity of water-laid sedimentary strata is terminated only by

pincing out againts the basin of deposition, at the time of Reviews their
deposition" (Steno, 1669)
Layers of sediment deposited continuous and ongoing (continuity), to the extent
that the sedimentation basin. Sediment layers may not be cut off suddenly, and
turned into another rock in normal circumstances. Basically the result of a
deposition of the bedding plane, will be sustained even if invisible.
Beheading caused by:
Unconformity
Erosion
Morphology
43

3.4 Lateral Continuity

At first the continuity of sediments experience but layers are separated by a valley,
or no areas of eroded

3.5 LAW OF uniformitarianism (JAMES

HUTTON, 1785)
This law meyatakan that the present situation is the key to the situation of the past
(the present is the key to the past) Geological processes occur at this time also
happened in the past. As an example may be mentioned that at this point
limestone coral growing in the sea, so that at present there are dipucak mountain
can be concluded that at the time that the mountainous region is an ocean floor.
Process (plate tectonics, mountain formation, erosion, etc.) is happening now
believed to have occurred since the earth was formed geological processes that are
happening today happened in the past.

44

3.6 Cross-Cutting Relationship (AWR Potter

& H. Robinson)
If there is a spread of laps. Rock (unit of rock layers), wherein one of the layers
cut another layer, then lithologies cut the relatively young age of the lithologies in
the piece.
Faunal Succession (abble Giraud-Soulavie, 1778)
45

At each layer of different geological ages will be found fossils differently. In

simple terms it could be said to be fossils that are on the bottom layer will be
different from the fossils in the layers above it. Fossils that lived in the past will

be replaced (terlindih) with fossil thereafter, with different physical appearance

(due to evolution). This fossil difference can be used as a barrier unit in the
formation or in a correction lithostratigrafi stratigraphy. and get to know the
neighborhood before become fossil.

3.7 Strata Identified by Fossils (Smith, 1816)

46

At each layer can be distinguished by fossil fossils contained therein specified.

3.8 Doctrine Uniformitarianism

James Hutton (1785): The history of the science of geology has been started
since the 17th century and 18 with the doctrine of catastrophism very popular. The
adherents believe that the shape of the surface of the earth and all life on it are
formed and destroyed in an instant due to a disaster (catastroph) are great. James
Hutton, the father of modern geology, a Scottish physicist, in 1795 published his
book entitled "Theory of the Earth", where he sparked the famous doctrine of
uniformitarianism. Uniformitarianism is the basic concept of modern geology.
This doctrine states that the laws of physics, chemistry and biology that took place
today took place also in the past. That is, the forces and processes that shape the
Earth's surface as we observe today has been going on since the formation of the
earth. This doctrine is more famous as "The present is the key to the past" and
since then people realize that the earth is always changing. Thus it is clear that the
geology is very closely related to time. In 1785, Hutton suggests a clear
distinction between the nature and origin of igneous and sedimentary. James
Hutton managed to sort the order of intrusion that explains the origin of
volcanoes. He introduced the law of superposition which states that at a level that
is not damaged, the most basic layer is the oldest. Paleontologists have begun to
connect the fossils specifically at the individual level and have found the exact
form of the so-called index fossils. Index fossils have been used specifically to
identify the horizon and the relationship of a place to another place.

47

 William Smith (1769-1839): To suggest a concept that is applied to the looping

layers of sedimentary rocks that exist in the UK. Smith has proved that in the
same period of time there will be looping the same rock layers and each layer of
rock formations on will show the same character. Based on that, Smith proposed a
concept known as the law of succession fauna.

48

4.MODIFICATION OF TRADITIONAL
TO MODERN CONCEPTS
4.1 Traditional deposition models and
sequence stratigraphy.

In the traditional model of deposition, accumulation of sediment accumulation

usually occurs in the basin, which on the outskirts of the basin is somewhere
pembajian layer and will pile up vertically in the center of the basin. The existence
of transgressions and regressions occur at the periphery of the basin, and facies
change from land to the sea, in the middle of the basin. Transgression, and this
resulted in regression facies changes around the coast.
In the model the deposition of sequence stratigraphy, sediment accumulation
occurred on the outskirts of the exposure (shelf) .Adanya clinoform is a symptom
that is important in controlling the deposition and facies shift, not only in rural
areas but also exposure to exposure and away on land and at sea, to be recycled
repeated.

4.2 The concept of superposition and bedding

Law of superposition states: layer under, older than layers which are on top of it.
This principle has not changed, but sharpen the sense of layers and bedding plane
as the interface deposition as areas of commonality time.
49

Tradiosional stratigraphic layers in the sense of not emphasized, even

definisinyapun not exist, except on the Law of superposition, which is implicitly
stated that the layers above it is always younger than the layer below. Sequence
stratigraphy, stating that a layer of sediment that is similar, propagated by the
medium (water / wind) in similar circumstances as well. More explicitly stated
that the inter-layer surface which is also known as the depositional interface is
practically constitute a same fields and field time this happened because of the
cessation of the spread of sediment similar circumstances because of changes in
sediment in endapkan and erosion.

4.3 legal lateral lateral continuity and legal

termination

This law states that traditionally laterally continuous layer to layer the wedge to
the edge of the basin.
In the lateral termination in modern law, sequence stratigraphy teaches that the
coating ends on the landward or seaward (basin). Thus the term of the expiration
of layers:
1. Termination of the layer to the bottom layer (termination base / base lapping)
al: onlaping, downlap-ping, backstepping
2. Termination of a layer of the upper layer (termination to ward top / toplapping)
al: toplapping / oflapping, and truncation
Thus the sequence stratigraphic layers termination stressed there is a principle
laterally (lateral termination of strata) of the principle of lateral continuity of the
coating.
50

4.4 The original law horizontality and

clinoform
Traditionally sediment in endapkan in a state of originals horizontally. Later also
recognized the original slope, subpararel in case onlapping.
In sequence stratigraphy the deposition tilt at clinoform (although only a few
degrees only) in addition to the horizontal is a basic principle, because this
situation to control sedimentation and sequence stratigraphy in general. Clinoform
deposition on the principles clearly no longer compatible with the 3rd Steno's law
which states that the sediments in endapkan in its natural state in a state of flat or
horizontal (original Horizontality of strata). Sequence stratigraphy teaches that
the coating is generally deposited on an inclined surface or called clinoform, while
still recognizing the deposition in a horizontal state.

4.5 Legal vertical and lateral accumulation

accumulation

In traditional stratigraphy of sedimentary layers pile up or accumulate vertically,

even though recognized the shift in facies laterally along the layer and the
onlapping. In sequence stratigraphy of sedimentary layers accumulate in principle
not only vertically but akumulai laterally is a predominant process. Sequnece
stratigraphy in principle recognize accumulated in agradasi (vertical),
retrogradation (vertical and lateral) and progradasi (lateral).
The principle of the accumulation of the lateral is also no longer in line with the
principle of Steno who implicitly stressed that the layer of sediment piled
vertically, which is derived the principle of original horizontality.. Sequnce
51

stratigraphy based on the fact that the accumulation of sediment mainly occurred
in the outskirts of the exposure or the edges of the beach area, where the
accumulation occurs lateral. This concept is also familiar with the accumulation
vertically under certain circumstances eg due to subsidence and compation. Thus
the sequence stratigraphy is actually the principle that the buildup of sediment has
lateral and vertical components, wherein the horizontal component is more
dominant. Because the two components of this accumulation, the accumulation
principle also gives lateral-stacking pattern of the various types of bedding such
as:
1. Stacking progradasi (sigmoid pattern, tabular), which gives a shift in both
directions (onlaping and downlaping) or in one direction (toward the ocean)
(truncation or toplapping and downlapping)
2. Stacking retrogradation which provide stacking direction (to land, onlapping,
and backstepping)
3. Stacking agradasi (vertical stacking)

4.6 the concept of dissonance and stratal

diiscontinuity.
The concept of disharmony were exacerbated by james hutton, in the idea
misalignment is evidence ketidaklanjutan vertically in the process of
sedimentation
In sequence stratigraphy to note also that the absence of deposition (surface of
non-DEPOSITI) this is an important field of stratigraphy and principle called SB
type 2, also known as type 2 unconformity.
Surface erosion includes disharmony in the classic sense (classical unconformity)
and is associated with subaerial exposure and the transgression. But besides that
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includes the field of underwater erosion surface (surface of the sub-marne

erosion), a concept which does not exist in the traditional stratigraphy. In the case
of classical ketidakselarsan (surface of erosion with subaerial exposure), also
known as lack of harmony in the form of:
a. Diskordansi by beheading (discordance with truncation) which in terms of
traditional stratigraphic
b. Concordance with erosion valley (concordance with incised valleys) are in
stratigraphic terms traditionally known as disconformity.
Should be clarified that the Indonesian term diskordansi (taken from bhs
Netherlands discordantie, among others hoek-discordantie = angular
unconformity) and unconfornmity (English) translated as unconformity. In this
context discordance and concordance is defined as the relationship between the
layers, and do not need to be in a relationship that implies the existence of
unconformity hiatus. One new concept is that the unconformity can continue
laterally into aligned surfaces (equivalent conformable surface) where there is no
stratal discontinuity.
From the above discussion it is clear that there has been a shift in the
understanding or definition of unconformity, stratal discontinuity even include
other concepts that never existed in traditional stratigraphic principles.

4.7 Recycling layer and stratigraphic

classification system

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The existence of stratigraphic cycle, in fact has long been known and mainly
Wheeler (1958) specifically discussed the existence cyclotheme. However
stratigraphic sequence is explicitly stated that all sedimentary sequences can be
analyzed as cyclical. Although it also recognized the existence of cycles that occur
alone (autocyclus) as the displacement delta lobe, but most cycles interchangeable
explained by down-rising sea levels and global eustatik reply. Recognized also the
process that is repeated (repetitive) attributable tectonics, and which are episodic
(at any time). In terms of the incident and recurrent cycle, the stratigraphic
sequence or order to recognize various levels, each of which has a long or short
period of time. In the case of the cycle at the level lapisanpun or called
parasequence, there is a high frequency cycle (order 4 or more), and low
frequency (order of 3 to 1), and this frequency is expressed in tens of thousands hundreds of millions of years. Tersuperimposisikan high frequency at low
frequency so that the cycle is a complex shape that curves (convolution). One of
the important cycle in the stratigraphic sequence called sequence, which limits the
unconformity which is sedimentation in 1 cyclus down rising sea levels. Portions
of the cycle is called system tracts were divided into lowstand (LST), trangressive
(TST) and higstand system tracts (HST).
One system comprises a set parasequence tract, which is a genetically related
units are interpreted also as a small cycle, which limited the so-called marine
flooding surfaces (MFS). Each small cycles can be known in every sequence
stratigraphy, and is recycled order to 4 s / d to 6, while the cause is interpreted to
climate change and sea level on a small scale were associated with symptoms of
astronomical cycle as axial oblixity and orbit eccentricity and called Milankovich
cycles.
However stratigraphic sequence pay attention to the geological phenomena that
affect the order that is cyclic, such as tectonic symptoms (orogenesa) that is
looping (repetitive) and the symptoms are episodic sedimentation process. Clear
stratigraphic sequence has provided an understanding of the new classification of
the others at all with what we know in stratigraphic traditional such as unit
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lithostratigrafi (formation, member, group), and Chronostratigraphy (stage, epoch,

etc.), which seems to be no connection at all between units The stratigraphy,
because the concept or the way we observe other symptoms already stratigrafinya
altogether, by using other criteria.

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Reference
Sapiie benyamin,dkk.2012.geologi dasar.bandung: ITB
Syarifin.2007.diktat prinsip stratigrafi.bandung:unpad
https://tanaangga.wordpress.com/2010/12/08/sejarahperkembangan-ilmu-geologi/
https://ptbudie.wordpress.com/2010/12/17/sekuen-stratigrafi/
https://wingmanarrows.wordpress.com/geological/petrologi/b
atuan-sedimen/
https://wingmanarrows.wordpress.com/geological/petrologi/b
atuan-beku/
https://wingmanarrows.wordpress.com/geological/petrologi/b
atuan-metamorf/
http://dokumen.tips/documents/sikuen-stratigrafikusumadinata.html
http://geologi.tripod.com/prinsip_stratigrafi.htm

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