DEPARTMENTOFSOCIOLOGY

QUALITATIVEAND
QUANTITATIVEAPPROACHES
TOSOCIALRESEARCH
ChristinaHughes
C.L.Hughes@warwick.ac.uk
Therehasbeenwidespreaddebateinrecentyearswithinmany
ofthesocialsciencesregardingtherelativemeritsof
quantitativeandqualitativestrategiesforresearch.Thepositions
takenbyindividualresearchersvaryconsiderably,fromthose
whoseethetwostrategiesasentirelyseparateandbasedon
alternativeviewsoftheworld,tothosewhoarehappytomix
thesestrategieswithintheirresearchprojects.Forexample,
Bryman(1988)arguedfora`bestofbothworlds'approachand
suggestedthatqualitativeandquantitativeapproachesshouldbe
combined.Hughes(1997),nevertheless,warnsthatsuch
technicistsolutionsunderestimatethepoliticsoflegitimacythat
areassociatedwithchoiceofmethods.Inparticular,quantitative
approacheshavebeenseenasmorescientificand`objective'.
Inexploringissuesofqualitativeandquantitativeresearch,this
materialbuildsdirectlyontheepistemologicalfoundations
presentedinthepackage`WhatisResearch?'Forexample,in
exploringthedistinctionsbetweenqualitativeandquantitative
formsofresearchweneedtoconsiderthedifferentontological
andepistemologicalquestionsweconsideredwhendiscussing
positivism,interpretivismandcriticalparadigms.Thus,onfirst
consideration,theuseofquestionnairesasaresearchtechnique
mightbeseenasaquantitativestrategy,whereasinterviewsand
observationsmightbethoughtofasqualitativetechniques.

Similarly,itisoftenassumedthatquantitativeapproachesdraw
onpositivistontologieswhereasqualitativeapproachesaremore
associatedwithinterpretiveandcriticalparadigms.Afurther
assumptionisthatsomecriticalapproachestoresearch,suchas
feminism,onlyusequalitativeapproaches(seeGraham,1984;
Jayrantine,1993toprovethisassumptionwrong!).Andsoin
practice,ofcourse,itisoftenmorecomplicatedthanthat!Thus,
interviewsmaybestructuredandanalysedinaquantitative
manner,aswhennumericdataiscollectedorwhennonnumeric
answersarecategorizedandcodedinnumericform.Similarly,
surveysmayallowforopenendedresponsesandleadtothein
depthstudyofindividualcases.Inaddition,quantitativeand
qualitativeapproachesarestronglyassociatedwithobjectivity
(quantitative)andsubjectivity(qualitative).Thesewereissues
thatweconsideredintermsoftheroleoftheresearcherwithin
theresearchprocessearlierinthecourse.Finally,thechoiceof
approachislinkedtotheresearchobjectives.
Themainaimofthispackageistointroduceyouto,and
facilitateyourunderstandingof,thekeydebatesconcerning
qualitativeandquantitativeapproaches.Thelearningoutcomes
are:
Tooutlinethequalitativeandquantitativeparadigms;
Toillustratethedistinctivenessofeachparadigm;
Toillustrateissuesofsimilaritybetweeneachparadigms;
Tooutlinethewaysinwhichqualitativeandquantitative
methodscanbecombined;
Toapplythislearningtoindividualresearchprojects.
ANINTRODUCTIONTOTHEQUALITATIVEAND
QUANTITATIVEDIVIDE

Readthequotationsbelow.Drawupalistofthecharacteristics
ofqualitativeandquantitativeresearch.
Aslongagoas1957,Cronbachdrewattentiontotheexistence
oftwoquiteseparate`disciplinesofscientificpsychology'.One
sortofpsychologistattemptstotestgeneralprinciplesabout
humanandanimalbehaviour,andisconcernedwith
documentingaverageperformance;theothersortof
psychologistininterestedindescribingandinterpreting
individualdifferences,inparticularwithrespecttovarious
dimensionsofintellectualability,personalityand
psychopathology.Thefirstsortofpsychologistdoes
experiments,typicallyonsmallsamplesobtainedforreasonsof
convenience.Theothersortofpsychologistdoeslargerscale
questionnairesurveysorinterviewstudies,attemptstoprocure
representativesamples,andtendstousestandard,pre
validatedmeasures.Whenanalysingresults,thefirstsortof
psychologisttendstocomputettestsandanalysesofvariance.
Thesecondsorttendstousecorrelation,regression,andfactor
analytictechniques.(EverittandHay,1992:34)
Quantitativeresearchconsistsofthosestudiesinwhichthedata
concernedcanbeanalysedintermsofnumbers...Researchcan
alsobequalitative,thatis,itcandescribeevents,personsand
soforthscientificallywithouttheuseofnumericaldata...
Quantitativeresearchisbasedmoredirectlyonitsoriginal
plansanditsresultsaremorereadilyanalysedandinterpreted.
Qualitativeresearchismoreopenandresponsivetoitssubject.
Bothtypesofresearcharevalidanduseful.Theyarenot
mutuallyexclusive.Itispossibleforasingleinvestigationtouse
bothmethods.(BestandKhan,1989:8990)
Qualitativeresearchisharder,morestressfulandmoretime
consumingthanothertypes.IfyouwanttogetyourMEd
dissertationorwhateverfinishedquicklyandeasilydoa
straightforwardquestionnairestudy.Qualitativeresearchis

onlysuitableforpeoplewhocareaboutit,takeitseriously,and
arepreparedforcommitment(Delamont,1992:viii)
Quantitativeresearchis,asthetermsuggests,concernedwith
thecollectionandanalysisofdatainnumericform.Ittendsto
emphasizerelativelylargescaleandrepresentativesetsofdata,
andisoften,falselyinourview,presentedorperceivedasbeing
aboutthegatheringof`facts'.Qualitativeresearch,ontheother
hand,isconcernedwithcollectingandanalysinginformationin
asmanyforms,chieflynonnumeric,aspossible.Ittendsto
focusonexploring,inasmuchdetailaspossible,smaller
numbersofinstancesorexampleswhichareseenasbeing
interestingorilluminating,andaimstoachieve`depth'rather
than`breadth'.(Blaxter,HughesandTight,1996:61)
Researchisasystematicinvestigationtofindanswerstoa
problem.Researchinprofessionalsocialscienceareas,like
researchinothersubjects,hasgenerallyfollowedthe
traditionalobjectivescientificmethod.Sincethe1960s,
however,astrongmovetowardsamorequalitative,naturalistic
andsubjectiveapproachhasleftsocialscienceresearchdivided
betweentwocompetingmethods:thescientificempirical
tradition,andthenaturalisticphenomenologicalmode.Inthe
scientificmethod,quantitativeresearchmethodsareemployed
inanattempttoestablishgenerallawsorprinciples.Sucha
scientificapproachisoftentermednomotheticandassumes
socialrealityisobjectiveandexternaltotheindividual.The
naturalisticapproachtoresearchemphasisestheimportanceof
thesubjectiveexperienceofindividuals,withafocuson
qualitativeanalysis.Socialrealityisregardedasacreationof
individualconsciousness,withmeaningandtheevaluationof
eventsseenasapersonalandsubjectiveconstruction.Sucha
focusontheindividualcaseratherthangenerallawmakingis
termedanideographicapproach.(Burns,2000:3)
Quantitativeresearchisempiricalresearchwherethedataare

intheformofnumbers.
Qualitativeresearchisempiricalresearchwherethedataare
notintheformofnumbers.(Punch,1998:4)
QUANTITATIVERESEARCH
KEYCHARACTERISTICS
CONTROL:Thisisthemostimportantelementbecauseit
enablesthescientisttoidentifythecausesofhisorher
observations.Experimentsareconductedinanattemptto
answercertainquestions.Theyrepresentattemptstoidentify
whysomethinghappens,whatcausessomeevent,orunderwhat
conditionsaneventdoesoccur.Controlisnecessaryinorderto
provideunambiguousanswerstosuchquestions.Toanswer
questionsineducationandsocialsciencewehavetoeliminate
thesimultaneousinfluenceofmanyvariablestoisolatethe
causeofaneffect.Controlledinquiryisabsolutelyessentialto
thisbecausewithoutitthecauseofaneffectcouldnotbe
isolated.
OPERATIONALDEFINITION:Thismeansthattermsmust
bedefinedbythestepsoroperationsusedtomeasurethem.
Suchaprocedureisnecessarytoeliminateanyconfusionin
meaningandcommunication.Considerthestatement`Anxiety
causesstudentstoscorepoorlyintests'.Onemightask,`Whatis
meantbyanxiety?'Statingthatanxietyreferstobeingtenseor
someothersuchtermonlyaddstotheconfusion.However,
statingthatanxietyreferstoascoreoveracriterionlevelonan
anxietyscaleenablesotherstorealisewhatyoumeanby
anxiety.Statinganoperationaldefinitionforcesonetoidentify
theempiricalreferents,orterms.Inthismanner,ambiguityis
minimised.Again,introversionmaybedefinedasascoreona
particularpersonalityscale,hungerassomanyhourssincelast
fed,andsocialclassasdefinedbyoccupation.

REPLICATION:Tobereplicable,thedataobtainedinan
experimentmustbereliable;thatis,thesameresultmustbe
foundifthestudyisrepeated.Ifobservationsarenotrepeatable,
ourdescriptionsandexplanationsarethoughttobeunreliable.
HYPOTHESISTESTING:Thesystematiccreationofa
hypothesisandsubjectingittoanempiricaltest.
(AdaptedfromBurns,2000:67)
QUANTITATIVEAPPROACHES
STRENGTHSANDLIMITATIONS
STRENGTHS
Precisionthroughquantitativeandreliablemeasurement
Controlthroughsamplinganddesign
Abilitytoproducecausalitystatements,throughtheuseof
controlledexperiments
Statisticaltechniquesallowforsophisticatedanalyses
Replicable
LIMITATIONS
Becauseofthecomplexityofhumanexperienceitisdifficult
toruleoutorcontrolallthevariables;
Becauseofhumanagencypeopledonotallrespondinthe
samewaysasinertmatterinthephysicalsciences;
Itsmechanisticethostendstoexcludenotionsoffreedom,
choiceandmoralresponsibility;

Quantificationcanbecomeanendinitself.
Itfailstotakeaccountofpeople'suniqueabilitytointerpret
theirexperiences,constructtheirownmeaningsandacton
these.
Itleadstotheassumptionthatfactsaretrueandthesamefor
allpeopleallofthetime.
Quantitativeresearchoftenproducesbanalandtrivialfindings
oflittleconsequenceduetotherestrictiononandthecontrolling
ofvariables.
Itisnottotallyobjectivebecausetheresearcherissubjectively
involvedintheverychoiceofaproblemasworthyof
investigationandintheinterpretationoftheresults.
Questionstoconsider
Whyareonlytestableideasofworthinscience?
Scientificstudyisempiricalandobjective.Whatismeantby
thisstatement?
(AdaptedfromBurns,2000:910)
QUALITATIVERESEARCH
KEYCHARACTERISTICS
Eventscanbeunderstoodadequatelyonlyiftheyareseenin
context.Therefore,aqualitativeresearcherimmerses
her/himselfinthesetting.
Thecontextsofinquiryarenotcontrived;theyarenatural.
Nothingispredefinedortakenforgranted.
Qualitativeresearcherswantthosewhoarestudiedtospeak

forthemselves,toprovidetheirperspectivesinwordsandother
actions.Therefore,qualitativeresearchisaninteractive
processinwhichthepersonsstudiedteachtheresearcherabout
theirlives.
Qualitativeresearchersattendtotheexperienceasawhole,
notasseparatevariables.Theaimofqualitativeresearchisto
understandexperienceasunified.
Qualitativemethodsareappropriatetotheabovestatements.
Thereisnoonegeneralmethod.
Formanyqualitativeresearchers,theprocessentails
appraisalaboutwhatwasstudied.
ElyetaladdthefollowingfromShermanandWebb(1988)to
theirdefinition:
Qualitativeimpliesadirectconcernwithexperienceasitis
`lived'or`felt'or`undergone'...Qualitativeresearch,then,has
theaimofunderstandingexperienceasnearlyaspossibleasits
participantsfeelitorliveit.
QUALITATIVEAPPROACHES
STRENGTHSANDLIMITATIONS
LIMITATIONS
Theproblemofadequatevalidityorreliabilityisamajor
criticism.Becauseofthesubjectivenatureofqualitativedata
anditsorigininsinglecontexts,itisdifficulttoapply
conventionalstandardsofreliabilityandvalidity.
Contexts,situations,events,conditionsandinteractionscannot
bereplicatedtoanyextentnorcangeneralisationsbemadetoa
widercontextthantheonestudiedwithanyconfidence.

Thetimerequiredfordatacollection,analysisand
interpretationislengthy.
Researcher'spresencehasaprofoundeffectonthesubjectsof
study.
Issuesofanonymityandconfidentialitypresentproblemswhen
selectingfindings.
Theviewpointsofbothresearcherandparticipantshavetobe
identifiedandelucidatedbecauseofissuesofbias.
STRENGTHS
Becauseofcloseresearcherinvolvement,theresearchergains
aninsider'sviewofthefield.Thisallowstheresearchertofind
issuesthatareoftenmissed(suchassubtletiesandcomplexities)
bythescientific,morepositivisticenquiries.
Qualitativedescriptionscanplaytheimportantroleof
suggestingpossiblerelationships,causes,effectsanddynamic
processes.
Becausestatisticsarenotused,butratherqualitativeresearch
usesamoredescriptive,narrativestyle,thisresearchmightbeof
particularbenefittothepractitionerassheorhecouldturnto
qualitativereportsinordertoexamineformsofknowledgethat
mightotherwisebeunavailable,therebygainingnewinsight.
Qualitativeresearchaddsfleshandbloodtosocialanalysis.
Questionstoconsider
Whatismeantby`deep'whenreferringtoqualitativedata?
Howlimitingistheproblemofnonreplication?
(AdaptedfromBurns,2000:1314)

QUALITATIVEANDQUANTITATIVEAPPROACHES
TO
SOCIALRESEARCH
THESIMILARITIES
Whilstquantitativeresearchmaybemostlyusedfortesting
theoryitcanalsobeusedforexploringanareaandgenerating
hypothesesandtheory.
Similarlyqualitativeresearchcanbeusedfortesting
hypothesesandtheorieseventhoughitismostlyusedfortheory
generation.
Qualitativedataoftenincludesquantification(egstatements
suchasmorethan,lessthan,mostaswellasspecificnumbers).
Quantitative(iequestionnaire)approachescancollect
qualitativedatathroughopenendedquestions.
Theunderlyingphilosophicalpositionsarenotnecessarilyso
distinctasthestereotypessuggest.

QUALITATIVEAND
QUANTITATIVEAPPROACHES
TOSOCIALRESEARCH
THECOMBINEDAPPROACH
ELEVENWAYSTOCOMBINEQUALITATIVEAND
QUANTITATIVERESEARCH
1.Logicoftriangulation.Thefindingsfromonetypeofstudy

canbecheckedagainstthefindingsderivingfromtheother
type.Forexampletheresultsofaqualitativeinvestigation
mightbecheckedagainstaquantitativestudy.
2.Qualitativeresearchfacilitatesquantitativeresearch.
Qualitativeresearchmay:helptoprovidebackground
informationoncontextandsubjects;actasasourceof
hypotheses;aidscaleconstruction.
3.Quantitativeresearchfacilitatesqualitativeresearch.
Usuallythismeansquantitativeresearchhelpingwiththe
choiceofsubjectsforaqualitativeinvestigation.
4.Quantitativeandqualitativeresearcharecombinedinorder
toprovideageneralpicture.Quantitativeresearchmaybe
employedtoplugthegapsinaqualitativestudywhicharise
because,forexampletheresearchercannotbeinmorethanone
placeatanyonetime.Orifnotallissuesareamenablesolelyto
aquantitativeoraqualitativeinvestigation.
5.Structureandprocess.Quantitativeresearchisespecially
efficientatgettingatthestructuralfeaturesofsociallifewhile
qualitativestudiesareusuallystrongeronprocessaspects.
6.Researchers'andsubjects'perspectives.Quantitative
researchisusuallydrivenbytheresearcher'sconcerns,
whereasqualitativeresearchtakesthesubject'sperspective.
7.Problemofgenerality.Theadditionofsomequantitative
evidencemayhelpgeneralizability.
8.Qualitativeresearchmayfacilitatetheinterpretationof
relationshipsbetweenvariables.Quantitativeresearchreadily
allowstheresearchertoestablishrelationshipsamong
variables,butisoftenweakwhenitcomestoexploringthe
reasonsforthoserelationships.Aqualitativestudycanbeused

toexplainthefactorsunderlyingthebroadrelationships.
9.Relationshipbetweenmacroandmicrolevels.Employing
bothquantitativeandqualitativeresearchmayprovideameans
ofbridgingthemacromicrogulf.Qualitativeresearchcantap
largescalestructuralfeaturesofsociallifewhilequalitative
researchtendstoaddresssmallscalebehaviouralaspects.
10.Stageintheresearchprocess.Useatdifferentstagesofa
longitudinalstudy.
11.Hybrids.Useofqualitativeresearchisaquasiexperimental
quantitativestudy.
(AdaptedfromPunch,1998:247)
QUANTITATIVEANDQUALITATIVEAPPROACHES:
WHICHTOCHOOSE?
SIXFACTORSTOTAKEINTOACCOUNT
1.ResearchQuestions:Whatexactlyareyoutryingtofind
out?Focusonthe`exactly'asthiscanleadyoueitherintothe
quantitativeorqualitativedirection.
2.Areweinterestedinmakingstandardizedandsystematic
comparisonsordowereallywanttostudythisphenomenon
orsituationindetail?
3.TheLiterature:Howhaveotherresearchersdealtwiththis
topic?Towhatextentdoyouwishtoalignyourownresearch
withstandardapproachestothetopic?
4.PracticalConsiderations:Issuesoftime,money,availability
ofsamplesanddata,familiaritywiththesubjectunderstudy,
accesstosituations,gainingcooperation.

5.Knowledgepayoff:Willwelearnmoreaboutthistopicusing
quantitativeorqualitativeapproaches?Whichapproachwill
producemoreusefulknowledge?Whichwilldomoregood?
6.Style:Somepeoplepreferonetotheother.Thismayinvolve
paradigmandphilosophicalissuesordifferentimagesabout
whatagoodpieceofresearchlookslike.
Thequestion`quantitativeorqualitative?'iscommonlyasked,
especiallybybeginningresearchers.Often,theyareputtingthe
`methodscart'beforethe`contenthorse'.Thebestadvicein
thosecasesistostepbackfromquestionsofmethod,andgive
furtherconsiderationtothepurposesandresearchquestions,
bearinginmindthatthewayquestionsareaskedinfluences
whatneedstobedonetoanswerthem.Butwhenthathasbeen
done,andthequestionstillremains,theabovefactorshelpin
makingthedecision.
Ofcourse,areasonabledecisioninanystudymightbeto
combinethetwoapproaches.
(AdaptedfromPunch,1998:244245)
QUALITATIVEANDQUANTITATIVEAPPROACHES
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