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Laboratory Physics
LAB MANUAL
PHY193
BASIC PHYSICS
FOR
ENGINEERING II
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
INTRODUCTION
The scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over time, endeavor
to construct an accurate representation of what is happening in this world. There are four
main steps in scientific method:
1. Observation and description of a phenomena or group phenomena.
2. Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomena.
3. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence tests of the predictions by several
independent experimenters and properly performed experiments.
Hence laboratory experiments play an important role in the learning of science. It helps
students to understand existing theories or to understand new concepts. The main objectives
of laboratory experiments are:
a. To study the phenomena explained only through theories that are read from books or
heard in lectures.
b. To learn methods those are used in researches. Students will learn how to identify
errors or mistakes made during experiments and how to rectify the mistakes in order
to obtain maximum result.
c. Able to record in writing the results and make conclusions.
d. Expand the students ability to organize, analyze, produce ideas and relate the
theories learned in lectures to everyday life.
Laboratory experiments also help to instill in the students good characteristics such as,
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Self-inquiry
Self-confidence and independent
Cooperative
Ability to organize
Precision
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
If you have to plot graphs, the graphs should be drawn to a large scale, preferably covering
the whole graph paper. Make sure your graphs is complete with title, scale of x and y axis,
and the units and symbols of each axis.
7. Discussion
A qualitative and quantitative discussion on the results obtained such as comparing the
experimental value with the standard/read value, discussion on the errors involved etc. As a
guideline, questions you should answer in your conclusion must include, but are not limited
to the following:
i.
ii.
iii.
What are the main results in your experiments? How do you compare or contrast
with the theory?
Has your initial understanding of the situation or concepts changed? How?
If you were to repeat the experiment, how would you change it, if at all?
8. Conclusions:
Conclusion will be just answering the objective of the experiment. It will be short and
precise.
Graph Analysis
If the result of an experiment is a straight line graph, then the quantities that were plotted
have a linear relationship. The equation y = mx + c represents the linear relationship between
two quantities whereby m is the slope of the graph and c is the intercept on the y-axis.
The slope should be measured by drawing a big right-triangle. Again the point or points
selected to draw the slope do not have to be the points that were plotted. They can be any
points selected on the line (Figure 1).
V
. The line drawn in a
t
graph may not be the best-drawn line. Hence the value of the slope or gradient m would have
some range of errors. The errors can be calculated using two simple methods.
The slope measured in the graph from Figure 1 would be m=
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
1. If the experiment is done in group, then each member of the group can plot his/her
own graph and get his/her value of the gradient m. Suppose there are four members
of the group and the value of m obtained are:
9.72, 9.85, 9.97, 9.88 ms-2
'
|9.729.81|+|9.859.81|+|9.979.81|+ 9.889.81
4
0.09+0.04 +0.02+0.07
4
x 100
Standard value
Percentage difference=
If the percentage difference is small, < 0.5%, then the experimental result is acceptable. If the
percentage difference is big, > 10%, then one has to carefully consider the experimental
method or calculations. However, one has to remember that there are limitations to the ability
of the apparatus used.
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
3
Minor parts
are missing
Procedures
Inadequate
procedures.
Minor parts
are missing
Results &
Analysis
Inadequate
data &
analysis
Minor parts
are missing
Discussion &
Conclusions
Inadequate
conclusion
Minor parts
are missing
4
All the
required
elements &
related
equations are
present and
clearly
explained as
basis to
account for the
experiments
All the
procedures
necessary to
successfully
execute the
experiment are
clearly written
and ordered in
logical
sequence
The data:
make sense,
appropriate
significant
figures,
suitably
tabulated,
correctly
analysed and
accompanied
by uncertainty
analysis.
Appropriately
addressed the
objective,
results &
analysis with
stated final
uncertainty.
Significant
sources of
uncertainty are
adequately
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
described.
Name
Partner/s
Title
Objective:
Date
Lecturer
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
Experiment 1
Electrical Resistance In Series
1. Objective
To determine the equivalent resistance for resistors connected in series
2. Theory
A resistor is an Ohmic conducting device that offers a specific electrical to the flow of
charges in an electrical circuit. Resistors are used to control currents and voltages and
are very highly used in electrical instruments. There are many types of resistors and
the carbon resistor is a very common type used. Carbon resistors come in many
ranges and are usually manufactured using the colour-coded circular bands.
In an electrical circuit, resistor can be connected in series as shown in Figure 1. The
resistors can be replaced with an equivalent resistor R eq that could maintain the same
current in the circuit.
Figure 1
The series circuit connection in Figure 1 shows the same amount of charges flow
through the resistor R1, R2, R3. Thus, the current through each resistor is the same
and is equal to the total current It in the circuit. The potential difference of the voltage
supply is Vt is the sum of drops across R1, R2, R3. These quantities can be
mathematically expressed as
It = IR1 = IR2 = IR3
Vt = VR1 +VR2+VR3
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
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Laboratory Physics
ammeter
Figure 2
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Voltage Vt (V)
Current It (Ma)
Req
Value
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
Resistance of R1 (ohm)
Table 3b : Conversion of the colour coding into actual resistance values
Colour
Value
Resistance of R2 (ohm)
Table 3c : Conversion of the colour coding into actual resistance values
Colour
Value
Resistance of R3 (ohm)
h) Calculate the theoretical values of Req for the series connection.
i) Calculate the percentage difference and compare the experimental and the
theoretical resistance Req for series connection
6. Discussion of Results
(a) Briefly discuss on the values of the currents, voltages and equivalent resistances of the
resistors in when they are connected in series.
(b) Discuss the percentage difference value and discuss the source of error and
suggestions to improve your result.
10
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
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PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
Experiment 2
Electrical Resistance In Parallel
1. Objective
To determine the equivalent resistance for resistors connected in parallel
2. Theory
A resistor is an Ohmic conducting device that offers a specific electrical to the flow of
charges in an electrical circuit. Resistors are used to control currents and voltages and
are very highly used in electrical instruments. There are many types of resistors and
the carbon resistor is a very common type used. Carbon resistors come in many
ranges and are usually manufactured using the colour-coded circular bands.
In an electrical circuit, resistor can be connected in parallel as shown in Figure 1. The
resistors can be replaced with an equivalent resistor R eq that could maintain the same
current in the circuit.
It
IR1
IR2
IR3
3
Figure 1
The parallel circuit in Figure 1 shows that the potential drop across each resistor R 1,
R2, R3 is the same because each resistor is similarly connected across the same voltage
supply Vt. The total current It branches out at the junction whereby the sum of currents
entering any junction must be equal to the sum of the currents leaving that junction.
Thus, the total current It in the circuit is the sum of the currents flowing through each
resistor. These quantities can be mathematically expressed as
Vt = VR1 - VR2 = VR3
It = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
(1)
(2)
12
(3)
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Laboratory Physics
(5)
3. Apparatus
(f) Batter y or DC power supply B
(g) Ammeter A
(h) Voltmeter V
(i) Carbon resistors, R1,R2 and R3 (100 ohm 1000 ohm)
(j) Connecting wires
4. Procedure
voltmeter
ammeter
Figure 2
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
13
Req
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
Value
Resistance of R1 (ohm)
Table 3b : Conversion of the colour coding into actual resistance values
Colour
Value
Resistance of R2 (ohm)
Table 3c : Conversion of the colour coding into actual resistance values
Colour
Value
Resistance of R3 (ohm)
h) Calculate the theoretical values of Req for the parallel connection.
i) Calculate the percentage difference and compare the experimental and the
theoretical resistance Req for parallel connection
6. Discussion of Results
(a) Briefly discuss on the values of the currents, voltages and equivalent resistances of the
resistors in when they are connected in series.
(b) Discuss the percentage difference value and discuss the source of error and
suggestions to improve your result.
14
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
15
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
Name
Partner/s
Title
Objective:
Date
Lecturer
OPTIC REFRACTION
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PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
Experiment 3
Optic Refraction
1. Objective
To determine the index of refraction of a glass.
2. Apparatus
Semi-circle or glass or glass plate, soft board, pins, Ruler A sheet of white paper
protector.
3. Theory
Incident ray
Medium 1 (n1 )
Medium 2 (n2 )
Refracted ray
Figure 1
When a light ray is incident on a surface of a transparent medium, part of transmitted ray
is bent as shown in Figure 1. The bending of a light ray as it passes from one medium to
another is called refraction. The angle i is the angle of incidence and r , is the angle of
refraction.
The relation between is given by Snelis law and is written
n1 sin i = n2 sin r
Where n1 and n2 are respective indices of refraction of the media
If the first medium is air, which the refractive index of air is 1.0, so we can write the
refractive index of the second medium as
n =sin i / sin r
4. Procedure
Figure 2
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PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
1. Lay the glass plate in the center of a sheet of paper, and outline its shape with a pencil
(Figure 2). Draw a normal line at the center of the plates side (ON). Then place a pin
R at the intersection of this line and face of the plate.
2. Measure an angle i of 20 relative to this normal line, and place a pin A about 3 to 4
cm from the plate of this angle.
3. Then sighting through the edge of the plate from the eye position shown in Figure 2,
place pin A adjacent to the face of the plate so that it is aligned with R and A. Mark
and label the locations of the pin.
4. Repeat procedures (2) and (3) until 10 angles reading ( i=25,35)
5. Removes the glass plate from the paper and trace the various rays. Measure and
record i and r for each cases in the following table.
6. According to the theory, determine the refractive index of the glass using formula.
7. Next, plot a suitable graph of sin i versus sin r and then calculate the average of
refractive index from the slope of the graph.
No
Incidence
angle,i
Refractive
angle,r
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
18
Sin i
Sin r
n = sin i
sin r
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
Name
Partner/s
Title
Objective:
Date
Lecturer
19
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
Experiment 4
The Law of Reflection
1. Objective
To verify the Law of Reflection.
2. Apparatus
Optics bench, ray table and base, slit plate, ray optics mirror, light source, component
holder and slit mask.
3. Theory
The law of reflection states that the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the
surface of the mirror all lie in the same plane. Furthermore, the angle of reflection is equal to
the angle of incidence. ( i = r)
20
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Laboratory Physics
21
PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
Name
Partner/s
Title
Objective:
Date
Lecturer
1. Objective
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PHY 143
Laboratory Physics
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