Chapter 2

Carbon Compound

Carbon is located in
group 14. A carbon atom
contain 6 electrons,
therefore the electronic
configuration is 2.4.
It has 4 valance electrons
in the outermost orbital,
as shown in the diagram.
In order to achieve a stable outer octet of electrons, it forms four covalent bonds.
Example
Methane

- When a carbon atom

combines with four
hydrogen atoms, it forms a
molecule of methane, CH4
Ethane

- If two carbon
atoms join, each
can still combine
with three
hydrogen atoms to
form a molecule of
ethane, C2H6.
Number of Bonds
Each carbon atom
is tied to other atoms through four covalent bonds. All the four covalent bonds may exist
in three forms as shown below:

Possesses just single bond

Possesses a double bond

Carbon Compounds
Carbon compounds can be divided to:
1 Organic carbon compounds
2 Inorganic carbon compounds

Possesses a triple bond

MUST Remember!
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen.
Hydrocarbons

Saturated Hydrocarbon
1

Hydrocarbon is a compound made out of the elements carbon and hydrogen only.

Examples of hydrocarbon are alkane, alkene and alkyne.

Hydrocarbon can be divided into two groups:

Saturated hydrocarbon
Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons where all its carbon atoms are tied
to each other through single covalent bond only. Examples: alkanes
Unsaturated hydrocarbon
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons which contains at least one
double covalent bond among its carbon atoms. Examples: alkenes

Unsaturated Hydrocarbon
Ethanol ( C2H5OH ), ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), metal methanoat (HCOOCH3),
chloromethane (CH3Cl) and others are not hydrocarbons because the molecule

contains other elements such as chlorine or oxygen other than carbon and hydrogen.

MUST
Know!
1 Satura
ted - All single bond between carbons
2

Unsaturate - Has at least one double/triple bond between carbons

Comparing Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbon

Combustion

Saturated

Unsaturated

Hydrocarbon

Hydrocarbon

Produce less soot

Produce more soot

Reaction with bromine The brown colour of

Decoloarise the brown

water

colour of bromine

bromine remain
unchanged

Reaction with

The purple colour of

Decolourise the purple

potassium

potassium manganate colour of potassium

manganate(VII)

(VII) solution remain manganate (VII)

solution

unchanged

solution

Sources of Hydrocarbon:
The main sources of hydrocarbons are
3

Coal

Natural gas

Petroleum

Combustion of hydrocarbon
All hydrocarbons undergo combustion with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (or carbon
monoxide/carbon) and water. There are 2 types of combustion:
Complete combustion organic compounds burn completely which form CO2 and
H2O
Incomplete combustion organic compounds burn with limited supply of O2 which
form C (soot), CO, CO2 and H2O.
4

Example
Complete combustion
C2H6 + 7/2 O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
C3H6 + 9/2 O2 3CO2 + 3H2O
Incomplete combustion
C2H6 + 5/2 O2 2CO + 3H2O
C2H6 + 3/2 O2 2C + 3H2O
C3H6 + 3O2 3CO + 3H2O
C3H6 + 3/2 O2 3C + 3H2O
Note:
6

The soot from the combustion of a hydrocarbon depends on the percentage of

carbon it contains.
7

Higher carbon percentage in the hydrocarbon molecule will result sootier flame.

8
Homologous Series
A series of compounds with similar chemical properties, in which members differ
from one another by the possession of an additional CH2 group, is called a
homologous series.
Each homologous series must have the following four characteristics:
Every member in the homologous series can be represented by a common formula. For
example:
Alkane: CnH2n+2
Alkene: CnH2n
Alcohol: CnH2n+1OH
Carboxylic acid : CnH2n+1COOH
Ester: CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1
Every member differ from others by the group -CH2- which has the relative mass 14.
For example:

Members
of the same

homologous series can be prepared through one common method. For

examples, All alkenes can be prepared by dehydration of relevant alcohols.
Preparing Ethene (Dehydration of ethanol):

C2H5OH C2H4 + H2O

Preparing Propene (Dehydration of propanol)
C3H7OH C3H8 + H2O
Members of the homologous series have the same chemical properties.
For example:All alkenes show addition reaction as added into bromine.
Members of the same homologous series have the same chemical properties because
of the presence of a common functional group in all the molecules of the series.
Functional group is a group of atoms tied together which will take part in a chemical
reaction therefore determine the chemical properties of the series.
Therefore, the homologous series is a family of organic compound that is made out of
members with common functional group, common chemical properties, and
consecutive members are differ by one carbon atom and two hydrogen atom, namely,
CH2-.

Table below shows some homologous series and their respective general formula and
functional group.

Carbon

General Formula

Functional group

CnH2n+2

Carbon-carbon single bond

Compounds
Alkane

-CCAlkene

CnH2n

Carbon-carbon double bond

-C=C-

Alcohol

CnH2n+1OH

Hydroxyl group
- OH

Carboxylic

CnH2n+1COOH

Carboxyl group

Acids
Esters

- COOH
CnH2n+1COOCmH2 Carboxylate group
m+1

- COO -

General Formula: CnH2n+2, n = 1, 2, 3, ...

Functional Group:
No Functional Group
First 3 Members:
Chemical
Properties:

Alkane are the simplest family of hydrocarbons - compounds containing carbon and
hydrogen only.
They only contain carbon-hydrogen bonds and carbon-carbon single bonds.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbon
Nomenclature = Naming method.
All organic carbon compounds are named according to the number of carbon in the
molecule.
The name is made up of two parts: the stem and the suffix.
The stem tells the number of carbon atoms
The suffix tells the homologous series of the compound.
Example:
Ethane is an alkane, the sten "eth" tell us that it has 2 carbon in the molecule, and the
suffix "ane" indicates that it is a member of the alkanes homologous series.

Table below shows

the naming code
for the stem. In
SPM, You will

need to remember the codes for the number of carbon atoms in a chain up to 6 carbons.
No of

Co No of

carbons

de carbons

1
2
3

met
h

eth 8
pro
p

but 10

pent11

hex 12

Code
hept
oct
non
dec
hende
c
dodec

Name of the First 8 Alkanes

Table below shows the molecular formula and name of the first 8 members of alkane.
Number of Carbon

Molecular Formula

Name

CH4

Methane

C2H6

Ethane

C3H8

Propane

C4H10

Butane

C5H12

Pentane

C6H14

Hexane

C7H16

Heptane

C8H18

Octane

Physical Properties
Alkanes are covalent compounds, hence their physical properties are similar to other
covalent compounds.
The atoms in an alkane molecule are bonded together by strong covalent bonds
(intramolecular forces).
The molecules are held together by weak Van der Waals forces (intermolecular
forces).

Boiling Points

Boiling Point of Alkane

The boiling point of alkane increase when the number of carbons in the molecule
increases.
This is due to the increase of Van der Waal force when the size of the molecule
increases.
The boiling points shown are all for the "straight chain" isomers when there are more
than one.
The first four alkanes are gas at room temperature.
Solubility
Alkanes are insoluble in water, but dissolve in organic solvents.
The liquid alkanes are good solvents for many other covalent compounds.
Density
The density of water is higher than density of most alkanes.
When going down the series, relative molecular mass of alkanes is higher due to the
higher force of attraction between molecules and alkane molecules are packed closer
together.
Electrical Conductivity
All members in alkanes do not conduct electricity.
Alkanes are covalent compounds and do not contain freely moving ions.

10

Chemical Properties Of Alkanes

Alkanes are chemically less reactive compare to the other carbon compound such as
alkene, alcohol or carboxylic acid.
Alkanes do not react with chemicals such as oxidizing agents, reducing agents, acids
and alkalis.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbon with strong carbon-carbon (C C) bonds and
carbon-hydrogen (C H) bonds.
All the bonds are single bonds which require a lot of energy to break.
Alkane just only undergo:
Combustion reaction
Substitution reaction (with the presence of ultraviolet light)
Alkanes are chemically less reative because they contain only strong covalent bonds
which need a lot of energy to break.
Combustion Of Alkanes
All alkanes undergo combustion to produce water and carbon dioxide (or carbon
monoxide/carbon in incomplete combustion).
There are 2 types of combustion:
complete combustion
incomplete combustion
Complete Combustion
Complete combustion (given sufficient oxygen) of any hydrocarbon produces carbon
dioxide and water.
Example:
Combustion of methane
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
Combustion of ethane
C2H6 + 7/2 O2 2CO2 + 3H2O

11

Combustion of propane
C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion occurs when there isn't enough oxygen present.
In an incomplete combustion, carbon or carbon monoxide will be produced as the
product of the reaction.
Carbon monoxide is a colourless poisonous gas.
Example:
Incomplete combustion of ethane
C2H6 + 5/2 O2 2CO + 3H2O
C2H6 + 3/2 O2 2C + 3H2O
Incomplete combustion of propane
C3H8 + 7/2 O2 3CO + 4H2O
C3H8 + 2 O2 3C + 4H2O

MUST Know!
Enough oxygen Complete combustion
Not enough oxygen Incomplete combustion
Trends
The hydrocarbons become harder to ignite as the molecules get bigger.
Combustion of alkanes with bigger molecule will produce more soot as the
percentage of carbon of the molecule is higher.
Percentage of Carbon
The amount of soot produced depends on the percentage of carbon in a hydrocarbon
molecule.
The percentage of carbon in a molecule can be calculated by using the following
formula:

12

Percentage of carbon=Relative mass of carbons in 1 molecule Relative mass of the

molecule100%Percentage of carbon=Relative mass of carbons in 1 moleculeRelative
mass of the molecule100%
Lets calculate the percentage of carbon in a methane and a hexane.
Percentage of carbon in methane (CH4) [Relative Atomic Mass: Carbon: 12;
Hydrogen: 1]
Percentage of carbon=1212+4(1)100%=75%Percentage of
carbon=1212+4(1)100%=75%
Percentage of carbon in hexane (C6H14)
Percentage of carbon=6(12)6(12)+14(1)100%=83.7%Percentage of
carbon=6(12)6(12)+14(1)100%=83.7%
Percentage of carbon in hexane is higher than in methane, therefore combustion of
propane is sootier than combustion of methane
MUST Know!
The bigger the molecule of an alkane, the higher the percentage of carbon, and hence
produces more soot during combustion.
Substitution Reaction
Substitution reaction is a reaction where one atom (or a group of atoms) in a molecule
is replaced by another atom (or a group of atoms).
Substitution reaction of alkanes occurs when an alkane is mixed with a halogen in the
presence of sunlight (ultraviolet light).
Since the substitution reaction of alkanes is the reaction between alkanes and halogen,
hence it is also called the halogenation reaction.
Substitution reaction is a slow reaction.
MUST Know!
Substitution reaction of alkanes take place only in the presence of ultraviolet light (such
as sunlight).

13

Reaction between Methane and Chlorine

We can see that,

in the reaction,
each hydrogen
atom in the
alkane molecule
is substituted
one by one by a
chlorine atom.
The sunlight or
UV light is
needed to break
covalent bond in
halogen and
alkane
molecules to produce hydrogen and chlorine atom.
Alkanes also react with bromine vapour in the presence of UV light, but with a much
lower rate.
Structural Formula Of Carbon Compounds
A molecular formula is a chemical formula which shows the actual number of atoms of
each element present in one molecule of a substance
A
structural
formula is
a chemical
formula
which
shows the

14

arrangement of the

atoms in a molecule of a substance.

Writing the Structural Formulae

Rules to be followed:
All atoms are
bonded together by
covalent bond
represented by a
straight line. The bond can be a single bond, a double bond or a triple bond.
The number of covalent bonds at each atom is as follow:
Hydrogen: 1
Carbon: 4
Oxygen: 2

Steps to be
followed:
Step 1: Determine the number of carbon in the molecule (Let's say 3 carbon atom)
Step 2: Draw all the carbon atoms in a straight line and then draw the covalent bonds to
connect all the carbon atoms.

Step 3: Draw additional single

covalent bonds on each

Step 4: Write the hydrogen

15

atoms

Step 5: Check that each

carbon atom has four single
covalent bonds, each hydrogen
atom has one single covalent bond.
Isomerism
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural
formulae.
Isomerism
is the
existence
of two or
more

compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae.
Examples of two isomers of butane

(The 2 molecules have same molecular formulae but different structural formulae)
Isomers have different physical properties because they have different molecular
structures.
However, isomers have the same chemical properties because they belong to the same
homologous series.
Alkene

16

General Formula: CnH2n, n = 2, 3, 4, ....

Functional Group:
10 Double Bond
11 First 3 Members:

12
13
14 Chemical Properties:

15
16

17

17 MUST Know!
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbon.
18

Alkenes are a family of hydrocarbons (compounds containing carbon and

hydrogen only) containing a carbon-carbon double bond. Therefore, alkenes are

unsaturated hydrocarbon.
19

The general formula for alkene is CnH2n where n = 2, 3, .

20

There is no single carbon alkene because it need at least 2 carbon to form the

double bond. Hence "methene" doesn't exist.

21 Naming Alkene
22

As alkane, the name of straight chain alkenes are also made up of two component

parts, the stem and the suffix.

23

We use the same code for the stem, as alkane.

24

The suffix for alkene is "ene".

25

Table belowe shows the molecular formula and name of the first six alkenes.
26 Formula 27 Name
28 C2H4

29 Ethene

30 C3H6

31 Peopene

32 C4H8

33 Butene

34 C5H10

35 Pentene

36 C6H12

37 Hexene

38 C7H14

39 Heptene

40 Isomerism Of Alkenes

41

All the alkenes with 4 or more carbon atoms in them show isomerism.

42

For example, butene has 3 isomer:

18

43

44 Example
Draw the structural formulae for all 5 isomers of pentene.
Answer:

45
46 Physical Properties Of The Alkenes
47

Alkenes are covalent compounds that consist of simple molecules.

48

The molecules of alkenes are held together by weak Van der Waals forces

19

(intermolecular forces).
49

As covalent componds, the physical properties of alkenes are similar to alkanes.

50 Boiling Points
51 MUST Know!
52

The first 3 alkenes are gases.

53

The Melting and boiling point of alkenes increases as the number of carbon per

molecule increases. (You must also know the explanation).

54

Alkenes have low melting/boiling points, owing to the weak intermolecular force.

55

At room temperature, ethene, propene and butene exist as gases while pentene to

decene exist as liquid .

56

As shown in the diagram below, the boiling point of alkenes increases as the

number of carbon atoms per molecule increases.

57

This is because as the number of carbon atoms per molecule of alkene increases,

the molecular size increases, and hence the inter molecular forces increases.
58

As a result, more heat energy is needed to overcome this forces during melting

and boiling, and hence the melting and boiling points increases.

59
60

As shown in the figure below, alkenes have boiling points lower than the alkanes

that have same number of carbons in their molecules.

61

This is because alkenes have less electrons per molecule compare to the

20

corresponding alkanes (that have same number of carbon per molecule).

62

As a result, the intermolecular force in alkenes is lower than the corresponding

alkanes.
63 IMPORTANT to Know!
64

The strength of the Van der Waals force depends on the number of electrons and

the shape of the molecule.

65

More electrons Stronger Van der Waals force

66
67 MUST Know!
Alkenes have boiling points lower than the alkanes that have same number of carbons in
their molecules.

68 Solubility and Conductivity

69

As most of the other covalent compound, alkenes are insoluble in water, but

dissolve in organic solvents.

70

Alkenes do not conduct electricity, because there is no free moving ions in them.

71 Density
72

The density of alkenes are low (lower than water).

73

However, the density increases as the number of carbon atoms per molecule
21

increases.
74 Preparing Alkene
75 Alkene can be prepared by
76

dehydration of alcohol

77

craking of alkane

78 Dehydration of Alcohol
79 When alcohol is heated, it will decompose to form alkene and water. For example,
heating ethanol will produce ethene, heating propanol will produce propene, and so on.
This process is called dehydration of alcohol.
80 Dehydration of Ethanol
81 C2H5OH C2H4 + H2O
82 Dehydration of Propanol
83 C3H7OH C3H6 + H2O
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92 Dehydration of Alcohols Using Aluminium Oxide as Catalyst
93
94

22

Catalyst:
Aluminium oxide/ Porcelain chips

95 Dehydration of alcohols using an acid catalyst

96
97 Catalyst:
Sulphuric acid or Phosphoric acid
Temperature: 170C
Cracking of Alkane
98

Cracking is the name given to breaking up large hydrocarbon molecules into

smaller and more useful bits.

99

This is achieved by using high pressures and temperatures without a catalyst, or

lower temperatures and pressures in the presence of a catalyst.

100

23

Example: Cracking of butane

101

102
103
Cracking of butane produces a mixture of methane, ethane, ethene and propene.
104 Chemical Properties Of Alkenes
105

Alkenes are chemically more reactive than alkanes.

106

This because alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that have a double bond, C=C,

between two carbon atom.

107

Almost all of the chemical reactions of alkene occur at the double bond.

108

Alkenes can undergo:

1

Combustion reaction

Addition reaction

Polymerisation reaction

109
110
Combustion
Of Alkenes
111

Like

any other

24

hydrocarbons, alkenes burn in air or oxygen.

112

Like alkanes,
1

alkene burns completely in the sufficient oxygen to produce carbon

dioxide and water.

2

alkene burns incompletely in limited supply of oxygen to produce

carbon monoxide,carbon (in the form of soot) and water.

113
Examples
Complete combustion of ethene
114 C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O
115
Incomplete combustion ethene
116 C2H4 + 2O2 2CO + 2H2O
117 C2H4 + O2 2C + 2H2O
118
The combustion of alkenes becomes more difficult and produces more soot when the size
of the alkenes molecules increases.

119 Percentage of Carbon

120 Example
Find and compare the percentage of carbon of ethene, propene and butene. [Relative
atomic mass: C = 12, H = 1]
Answer:
Percentage of carbon of ethene (C2H4)
[Math Processing Error]Percentage of carbon=2(12)2(12)+4(1)100%=85.7%
Percentage of carbon of propene (C3H6)
[Math Processing Error]Percentage of carbon=3(12)3(12)+6(1)100%=85.7%
Percentage of carbon of butene (C4H8)
[Math Processing Error]Percentage of carbon=4(12)4(12)+8(1)100%=85.7%
Note::
All alkenes have the same percentage of carbon.

25

121 Example
Find and compare the percentage of carbon of hexane and hexene.
[Relative atomic mass: C = 12, H = 1]
Answer:
Percentage of carbon of hexane (C6H14)
[Math Processing Error]Percentage of carbon=6(12)6(12)+14(1)100%=83.7%
Percentage of carbon of hexene (C6H12) = 85.7% (Refer to example above)
Note:
122

Percentage of carbon of alkene is higher compare to the alkane that has same

number of carbon per molecule.

123

Therefore, combustion of alkene will produce more sooty flame compared to their

corresponding alkane.
124 Alkenes has higher percentage of carbon compared to their corresponding alkane.
125 Addition Reaction Of Alkene
126

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbon, hence they undergo addition reactions.

127

Addition reaction occurs when other atoms are added to each carbon atom of the

double bond, C=C to form single covalent bond.

128 Example,
129
130 Alkenes
may undergo
addition reaction
with
131

halogen

132

steam

133

hydrogen

134

halogen halide

135

potassium permanganate(VII)

26

136 Hydrogenation Of Alkenes

137

Alkene can undergo reaction with hydrogen gas.

138

The process is also called hydrogenation.

139 Equation:
140
141 Note:
142

This

reaction convert
unsaturated hydrocarbon to saturated hydrocarbon.
143

144

Condition for the reaction:

1

Catalyst: Platinum/nickel

Temperature: 180C

This is the process used to produce margarine.

145 Reaction Of Alkenes With Hydrogen Halide

146 Alkenes react with hydrogen halides (such as hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide
and hydrogen iodide) at room temperature to produce saturated organic compounds called
halogenoalkanes.
147 Ethene React with Hydrogen Chloride
148
149 (Ethene react
with hydrogen
chloride produces chloroethane.)

150 Ethene React with Hydrogen Bromide

151
152 (Ethene react

27

with hydrogen bromide produces bromoethane.)

153 Ethene React with Hydrogen Iodide

154
155 (Ethene react
with hydrogen
iodide produces
iodoethane.)
156 Halogenation Of Alkenes
157

Alkenes undergo addition reaction with halogen such as fluorine, chlorine,

bromine and iodine.

158

Since this is the reaction with the halogens, hence it is also called the halogenation

reaction.
159

Equation below shows the addition reaction between ethene and bromine.

160
161

When

ethane gas is
bubbled into
bromine liquid, the brown colour bromine turn colourless.
162

The product produced is 1,2-dibromoethane.

163

If chlorine gas is used instead of bromine, the yellow colour of chlorine water will

be decolourised.
164 Hydration Of Alkenes
165

Alkene can react with steam (water) to produce alcohol.

166

This process is an addition reaction.

167

It's also called the hydration reaction.

168

Equation below shows the addition reaction of ethene with steam.

169
170

Alkene is

converted to
become alcohol

28

171

172

The condition of the reaction is as below:

1

Catalyst: Phosphoric acid

Temperature: 300C

Pressure: 60 atm

Alcohol can be changed back to alkenes through dehydration reaction.

173 Oxidation Of Alkenes

174

Alkenes can also react with oxidising agents such as potassium

permanganate(VII) to produce a diol.

175

A diol is an alcohol with 2 hydroxyl group (-OH).

176

This process is an addition reaction.

177

Chemical reaction below shows the oxidation reaction (also addition reaction)

between ethene and potassium permanganate(VII).

178
179

In the

reaction, we
use the
square bracket with an O, [O], to represent the oxidising agent.
180

The product produced is ethan-1,2-diol.

181

During the reaction, the purple colour of acidified potassium manganate (VII)

solution change to colourless.

182 Polymerisation Of Alkenes
183

Polymerisation is a process of combining monomer molecules together in a

chemical reaction to form polymer chains.

184

The molecule of alkenes can combine together through addition reaction to form a

long chain polymer.

185

In the reaction, alkene molecules undergo addition reaction at the temperature of

200C and pressure of 1200 atm.

186

Thousands of alkene molecule join together to form a long chain molecules called

poly(ethene) - commonly called polythene..

187

29

188 Differences Between Alkane And Alkene

189

190 Alkane

191 Alkene

192 General Formula

193 CnH2n+2

194 CnH2n

195 Types of hydrocarbon

196 Saturated

197 Unsaturatd

198 Combustion

199 Less sooty flame

when burnt

200 Sootier flame when burn

201 Reaction with bromine

202 No change

203 The reddish brown colour of bromine become

liquid

observed

colourless

204 Reaction with potassium 205 No change

206 The purple colour of potassium

manganete(VII)

manganete(VII) become colourless

observed

207 Table below shows the difference between alkane and alkene.
208 Recommended Videos
209 Testing for unsaturated hydrocarbons
210
[This video shows the reaction between bromine with cyclohexane (an alkane) and
cyclohexene (an alkene). Observe the change of the colour of bromine when dropped into
cyclohexane and cyclohexene]
211 Alcohol
212 General Formula: CnH2n+1OH, n = 1, 2, 3, .......

Functional Group:
213 Hydroxyl

30

214 First 3 Members:

215
216
217 Chemical Properties:

218
219

220 1.

Alcohols are compounds in which one or more hydrogen atoms in an alkane

have been replaced by an -OH group.

221 Naming Alcohols
222

All alcohol members have a suffix 'anol'. For example, methanol, ethanol,

propanol ......
223

The nomenclature of alcohol, like alkanes, is based on the number of carbon

atoms in the molecule, but the suffix 'ane' in the nomenclature of alkanes is replaced with
the suffix 'anol'.

31

224

The positions of the alkyl and hydroxyl groups that the attached to the carbon

chain are shown by numbering the carbon atoms. The hydroxyl group must always get
the smallest possible number.
225

226 Example 1
227
228 (Propan-2-ol)
229
Longest chain: 3 carbon
(propanol)
Position of hydroxyl group: 2
Alkyl: -

Example 2
230
231 (Pentan-1-ol)
232
Longest chain: 5
carbon (pentanol)
Position of
hydroxyl group: 1
Alkyl: 233
234
235
236
237
238
239 Example 3
240

32

241 (2-methylpropan-2-ol)
242
Longest chain: 3 carbon (propanol)
Position of hydroxyl group: 2
Alkyl: Methyl at 2nd carbon

Example 4
243
244 (3-methylbutan-1ol)
245
Longest chain: 4
carbon (butanol)
Position of hydroxyl
group: 1
Alkyl: Methyl at 3rd carbon

246
247
248 Example 5
249
250 (2,2-dimethylpropan1-ol)
251
Longest chain: 3 carbon
(propanol)
Position of hydroxyl
group: 1
Alkyl: 2 Methyls, both at
2nd carbon
252 Isomerism Of Alcohol
33

253 Isomerism of alcohol is because of:

254

the position of hydroxyl group

255

the presence of branch (alkyl group) in the molecule

256
Example
Isomers of propanol
257
258
Isomers of
butanol

259

34

260 Physical Properties Alcohol

261 Boiling Points
262
263

The

boiling point
of an alcohol
is always
much higher
than that of
the alkane
with the
same number
of carbon atoms.
This is because, the presence of the hydroxyl group gives extra force between the
molecules, hence more heat energy is needed to overcome the intermolecular force when
boiling.
The boiling points of the alcohols increase as the number of carbon atoms increases.
This can be explained by the folloowing:
number of carbon increases, size of the molecule increases.
intermolecular force increases.
more heat energy is needed to overcome the intermolecular force.
Solubility of Alcohols in Water

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The small alcohols are completely soluble in water.

However, solubility falls as the length of the hydrocarbon chain in the alcohol increases.
Explanation:
Every alcohol consists of two parts, the hydrocarbon chain which is not
soluble in water, and the hydroxyl functional group, which is soluble in water.
In short chain alcohol, the hydroxyl group plays a major part in forming forces
(hydrogen bond) in between water and alcohol molecule, therefore they are
soluble in water.
For the long chain alcohol, the hydroxyl group is just a small part of the
molecule. Therefore, the insoluble long hydrocarbon chain contribute more to
the forces in between water and alcohol molecule, causes the solubility

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