Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Review
School of Engineering & Science, Curtin University Sarawak, CDT 250 Miri, Sarawak 98009, Malaysia
School of Business, Curtin University Sarawak, CDT 250 Miri, Sarawak 98009, Malaysia
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 9 July 2012
Received in revised form 14 February 2013
Accepted 6 March 2013
Keywords:
Sugarcane bagasse
Composite material
Bio-degradable material
Eco-friendly material
a b s t r a c t
The natural, bio-degradable features and chemical constituents of the sugarcane bagasse (SCB) have been
attracting attention as a highly potential and versatile ingredient in composite materials. Eco-friendly
and low cost considerations have set the momentum for material science researchers to identify green
materials that give low pollutant indexes. Various components of SCB is shown to possess the ability of
being applied as raw material for manufacturing of composite materials at multiple levels of properties
and performances. Studies on the impacts, performances and applications of SCB in its original condition;
transformed forms; treated with appropriate chemicals and/or processes; in combination with materials
of distinct properties and manipulation of manufacturing methodologies have been duly considered.
This paper attempts to summarize a review of current literature on the extensive studies that have been
undertaken in an attempt to explore plausible applications and potentials of SCB for composite material.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical composition of SCB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advantageous utilizations of SCB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Applications of SCB wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multiple utility of SCB with other additives and/or chemical modications in composite materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.
SCB composite materials with manifold additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.
SCB as reinforcement ber in polymeric matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.
Utilizations of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) in cement replacement for manufacturing concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.
Utilizations of sugarcane straw ash (SCSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.
Modications and utilizations of lignin presented in SCB in manufacturing composite materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.
Silane treatment for unpyrolyzed and pyrolyzed SCB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7.
Sugar cane rind and mixed hardwood oriented strand board bonded with PF Resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
The brous residue of sugarcane (Fig. 1) after crushing and
extraction of its juice, known as bagasse, is one of the largest agriculture residues in the world (Pandey et al., 2000; Trejo-Hernndez
et al., 2007; Mulinari et al., 2009; Hernndez-Salas et al., 2009).
Literature illustrates the versatility of sugarcane residue usages;
through its conversion inclusive but not limited to paper, feed
stock and biofuel (Hernndez-Salas et al., 2009; Pandey et al., 2000;
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Reddy et al., 1993). An analysis of SCB indicates that its main constituents are cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, ash, and wax (Walford,
2008). This composition of SCB makes it an ideal ingredient to be
applied and utilized as reinforcement ber in composite materials
for the purposes of creating new materials which possess distinct
physical and chemical properties. These in turn are desired for
anticipated performances based on pre-set objectives. A review
of literature indicates that SCB is favored in the manufacturing
of high quality green products given its low production cost. This
is mainly attributed to the abundant availability of raw materials
from the sugar processing plants and its low pre-treatment costs.
Some research explores the potentials of mixing tapioca starch and
glycerol which results in the production of composite materials;
15
whilst a mix of gelatine, starch and agar produces tableware packaging materials; SCB ash and cane straw ash has the capability to
partially replace cement and act as a pozzolanic additive in the
manufacturing of concrete and ash block. This paper attempts to
review the various studies conducted on the properties, application and future potentials of cellulose, lignin, rind, comrind and
pith enhanced reinforcement materials.
Diverse studies have been carried out to optimize the utilizations of SCB wastes in manufacturing manifold composite materials
that are able to perform well by fullling various purposes. SCB
wastes hereby play a vital role in replacing or minimizing the usages
of materials that are expensive, non-biodegradable, human synthesized and require high cost for pretreatments, extractions and
modications. Besides that, SCB is anticipated to further enhance,
improve or even introduce new properties on the products through
appropriate hybrid combinations and/or modications with different materials, chemicals and processes.
5.1. SCB composite materials with manifold additives
Literature on potentials of sugarcane ber cellulose (SCFC) as
composite material ingredient revealed mixed results (Jeefferie
et al., 2011; Draman et al., 2009). SCFC was considered in combination with tapioca starch (TS) (Jeefferie et al., 2011) as a green
composite for manufacturing disposable packaging food container.
Meanwhile, glycerol was utilized as plasticizer which enhances
exural properties for better exibility by increasing the ability to
decrease hydrogen bonding in polymer chains and improve ber
Fig. 2. Chemical composition and sugar yield of sugar cane bagasse and its fractionated components (percent dry matter) (Youn et al., 1983).
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Table 1
Details of HDPE, cellulose/HDPE and cell/ZrO2 nH2 O/HDPE composites (Mulinari et al., 2009).
Material
Cellulose/HDPE composite
1.96 0.087
16.7 0.15
850.9 28.2
1.62 0.097
14.4 0.58
880.1 63.5
46.6 7.8 (average)
1.2 0.185
15.6 1.11
1324.2 211.0
33.2 5.5 (average)
19
materials for thermal insulation, gasketing and molten metal handling in aluminum, gas and furnace industry provided its properties
can be further improvised through continuous investigations.
Pozzolanic reactivity and cementitious behavior of SCBA (controlled burning) was reported by Goyal et al. (2007) through tests on
blended cement mortars and pastes. It was found that a complete
combustion of SCBA occurred at 800 C (8 h) while crystallization
of minerals occurred at above 650 C. The most suitable burning
condition was identied as 600 C (5 h). SCBA has low density and
higher surface area which favors the pozzolanic reactivity of amorphous silica and other minerals as compared to ordinary Portland
cement (OPC), with ash particles size of 28.9 m. The minerals
show amorphousness with slight crystallization of SiO2 . In addition,
SCBA increased setting time due to water absorption at its surface,
reduction of Ca(OH)2 , silica gel lm form around cement grains
and mutual coagulation of components. Flow values decreased as
SCBA has higher specic surface area which required more water
to wet the surface. All blended mortars (at 7, 28, and 91 days)
had strength activity index (AI) higher than minimum requirement
(75). Beginning from CS test (3 and 7 days) all blended mortar
specimens have higher strength than control due to pozzolanic
activity and relative neness of SCBA. Filler effect was only predominant up to 15% ash substitution, if exceeded, CH increased and
CSH hydrates decreases, un-reacted silica in the gel increases.
Pozzolanic reaction of CH and SiO2 and hydration of SiO2 in alkaline
environment increases CS and FS values. Calcium Silicate Hydrate1
(CSH), CASH, and peak representing C4 AHx hinder the hydration reaction and caused low strength development. XRD showed
free CH gradually consumed by SiO2 . SC-10 and SC-15 reacted more
than other blends, giving better strength result. SEM of SC-10 and
SC-15 showed presence of denser matrix with the progression of
hydration while coarser structure showed that CSH and CASH
increased. 91 days specimens microstructure were more compact
and well arranged, and strength decreased when SCBA contents
increased as traces of un-reacted particles noticed. Therefore, SCBAblended mortar as 1015% substitution of OPC with SCBA should be
utilized to make stronger material than control. Hence, high quality
masonry and concrete blocks with elevated strength can be manufactured. It is anticipated future research can reveal the ways to
incorporating higher amount of SCBA in the composite such that
the negative impacts to the environment can be minimized while
lowering the production cost and increasing the life span of the
buildings.
5.4. Utilizations of sugarcane straw ash (SCSA)
Fras et al. (2007) studied on how calcining temperature (800
and 1000 C, both controlled condit66 ions) affect pozzolanic activation of sugar cane straw (SCS) that associated with pozzolanic
behavior of Portland cements. Results showed that (i) 800 C SCSA
has low crystallinity, vitreous matter (calcite-main compound,
quartz and carbon-minor compound) existed; (ii) 1000 C SCSA
has higher crystallinity and less vitreous matter (alpha cristobalite); (iii) for both SCSA high pozzolanic activity ashes observed
within rst 7 days of their reaction with saturated lime solution
(75 ml) in individual double cap polyethylene asks (100 ml) and
maintained in an oven (40 1 C, 1 day, 7 days, 28 days, and 90
days); (iv) for both ash, non-crystalline compound formed during
reaction; (v) decarbonation phenomenon due to the presence of
calcium carbonate (0 day) caused endothermic effect noticed at
700 C; decomposition of hydrated silicates and aluminates during pozzolanic activity and formation of CSH gel as main phase
resulted in main interval to calculate these weight losses between
100 C and 400 C; (vi) calcined product at 800 C produced higher
weight losses due to higher vitreous matter content; and (vii) 800 C
SCSA showed higher reactivity (order: 102 h1 ). Thus, SCSA that
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Table 2
Izod impact strength of thermoset and phenolic composites reinforced with unmodied and FA-modied bers, and their respective standard deviations (%) (Trindade
et al., 2004).
surface roughness and separated ber bundles (enhanced interdiffusion). Thus, the applicability and effects of different chemicals
like chlorine dioxide in creating quinine should be researched so as
to explore and further rene modication methodologies. Grafting
mechanism of furfuryl alcohol to quinonoid structures should also
be understood deeper through studies such that a better utilization
of lignin can be achieved. The high content of lignin in SCB thus
making it an ideal material to be combined with other ingredient
for product modications and properties enhancement purposes
especially in creating barriers, lms and coatings of manifold characteristics.
Doherty et al. (2007) reported on purication of organosolv
lignin which obtained from bagasse and the lignin physicochemical properties together with its lignin-phenol formaldehyde
(PF) resin coatings, and composites. They indicated that (i) from
acetylated lignin (lignin puried by acid precipitation), la1 and
acetylated lignin (lignin puried using cyclohexane/ethanol mixture) analysis la2 , la2 obtained has less than la1 ; (ii) glass transition
temperature, Tg of la2 was sharply dened relative to la1 , showing
that lignin from la2 were better; (iii) untreated substrate showed
that the cellulosic surface posses certain hydrophobicity due to the
wax coating while lignin lms can reduce water absorption more
than two-folds than the wax coating (the thicker lignin absorbed
least water, with 30 mm most effective); (iv) for lignin-PF resins,
the higher the lignin content, the higher the rate of polymerization
reaction enthalpy; (v) corrugated sheet with a thicker lignin-PF
resin coating can effectively resist burning; (vi) the higher the
bagasse ber content, the lower the exural properties, showing that untreated bagasse bers laminates has superior exural
properties compared to the caustic treated bagasse ber and (vii)
NaOH treated bagasse bers showed voids and surface irregularities while its peak stress, peak load and strain at peak increased
although elastic modulus decreased slightly with higher ber content. The information recorded in Tables 3 and 4 further assured the
Sample
Thermoset
Unmodied sugar cane reinforced phenolic composite
Modied sugar cane reinforced phenolic composite
12.6 1.4
40.7 9.7
24.8 5.0
Table 3
Characteristics of lignin-PF resin coatings (Doherty et al., 2007).
Test
Surface characteristic
(contact angle, )
Control 1
Control 2
Substrateaa 1,1
Substrateaa1,2
Substrateaa 2,1
Substrateaa2,2
153
4002100
370
4002100
260
4002100
148
143
39.6
41.5
45.5
71.8
71.9
81.7
36.6
41.5
42.3
4.6
6.6
5.9
7.3
6.7
>55
The rst letter denotes that the substrate is made from the same material as the control, while the second letter indicates different lm thickness.
Table 4
Flexural properties of bagasse laminates (Doherty et al., 2007).
Flexural properties
30%(v/v)
38%(v/v)
45%(v/v)
30%(v/v)
38%(v/v)
45%(v/v)
13.62 (2.82)
1.42 (0.25)
0.86 (0.15)
1665 (165)
25 (5)
12.57 (2.24)
1.17 (0.19)
0.72 (0.12)
1871 (128)
23 (4)
11.80 (2.60)
1.22 (0.23)
0.73 (0.14)
1729 (228)
21 (4)
10.64 (2.90)
1.15 (0.21)
0.71 (0.13)
1576 (216)
20 (5)
11.33 (4.59)
1.47 (0.34)
0.88 (0.20)
1342 (349)
20 (8)
6.19 (2.23)
0.98 (0.28)
0.60 (0.17)
1097 (190)
11 (4)
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6. Conclusion
The literature review reveals manifold research that have been
carried out on the low cost biodegradable green agriculture waste
material, The review encapsulates the various usage of SCB in composite material using distinctive approaches; highlights some of
the important ndings and results; analysis of SCBs current applications; and future direction and/or trend for further research has
been duly identied.
SCB can act as effective reinforcement ber in the manufacture of polymeric composites. It may also be applied and utilized
for composite materials manufacturing and applications in various
forms, such as cellulose ber, lignin extracted, comrind, pith, sugar
cane bagasse ash (SCBA), sugar cane straw ash (SCSA) and more.
Additionally, SCB produces good reactions when mixed with other
additives and chemicals, which produces materials with improved
and desired properties and sometimes creating new characteristics.
Chemical modications of SCB wastes are vital and can effectively improve the matrix-ber adhesion in the composites thus
enhancing those desired mechanical properties and functions on
the materials manufactured.
The studies reviewed in this paper seem to be in support of
the versatility and adaptability of SCB wastes though limitations
have been invariably identied as well. Extensive research and further experimentations in this area would be merited to espouse the
various other manipulations that can be done with SCB wastes in
the creation of environment friendly materials in the foreseeable
future.
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