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Airplane
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Aeroplane" redirects here. For other uses, see Airplane (disambiguation) and Ae
roplane (disambiguation).
North American P-51 Mustang, a World War II fighter

First flight, Wright Flyer, December 17, 1903
An airplane or aeroplaneA (informally plane) is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft t
hat is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine or propeller. Airplanes com
e in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations. The broad spectrum of
uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, mili
tary, and research. Commercial aviation is a massive industry involving the flyi
ng of tens of thousands of passengers daily on airliners. Most airplanes are flo
wn by a pilot on board the aircraft, but some are designed to be remotely or com
puter-controlled.
The Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, recognized as
"the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight".[1] They bu
ilt on the work of several 19th Century aviation pioneers, including George Cayl
ey, Otto Lilienthal and Octave Chanute.
World War I accelerated the advance of airplane technology, and by World War II
airplanes participated in all major battles.
The first jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178 in 1939. The first jet airl
iner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first
widely successful commercial jet, was in service for more than 50 years, from 19
58 to at least 2013.
Contents [hide]
1
Etymology and usage
2
History
2.1
Antecedents
2.2
Early powered flights
2.3
Development of jet aircraft
3
Propulsion
3.1
Propeller engines
3.2
Jet engines
3.3
Electric engines
3.4
Rocket engines
3.5
Ramjet and scramjet engines
4
Design and manufacture
5
Characteristics
5.1
Airframe
5.2
Wings
5.2.1 Wing structure
5.2.2 Wing configuration
5.3
Fuselage
5.4
Wings vs. bodies
5.4.1 Flying wing
5.4.2 Blended wing body
5.4.3 Lifting body
5.5
Empennage and foreplane
5.6
Controls and instruments
6
Safety
7
See also
8
References
9
Bibliography
10
External links
Etymology and usage
First attested in English in the late 19th century (prior to the first sustained
powered flight), the word airplane, like aeroplane, derives from the French arop
lane, which comes from the Greek ??? (aer), "air"[2] and either Latin planus, "l
evel",[3] or Greek ?????? (planos), "wandering".[4][5] "Aroplane" originally refe

rred just to the wing, as it is a plane moving through the air.[6] In an example
of synecdoche, the word for the wing came to refer to the entire aircraft.
In the United States and Canada, the term "airplane" is used for powered fixed-w
ing aircraft. In the United Kingdom and most of the Commonwealth, the term "aero
plane" is usually applied to these aircraft.
History
Main articles: Aviation history and First flying machine
Le Bris and his glider, Albatros II, photographed by Nadar, 1868
Otto Lilienthal in mid-flight, c. 1895
Antecedents
Many stories from antiquity involve flight, such as the Greek legend of Icarus a
nd Daedalus, and the Vimana in ancient Indian epics. Around 400 BC in Greece, Ar
chytas was reputed to have designed and built the first artificial, self-propell
ed flying device, a bird-shaped model propelled by a jet of what was probably st
eam, said to have flown some 200 m (660 ft).[7][8] This machine may have been su
spended for its flight.[9][10]
Some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-centur
y poet Abbas ibn Firnas and the 11th-century monk Eilmer of Malmesbury; both exp
eriments injured their pilots.[11] Leonardo da Vinci researched the wing design
of birds and designed a man-powered aircraft in his Codex on the Flight of Birds
(1502).
In 1799, George Cayley set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-w
ing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control.[12][
13] Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 180
3, and he built a successful passenger-carrying glider in 1853.[14] In 1856, Fre
nchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider "L
'Albatros artificiel" pulled by a horse on a beach.[citation needed] Then Alexan
der F. Mozhaisky also made some innovative designs. In 1883, the American John J
. Montgomery made a controlled flight in a glider.[15] Other aviators who made s
imilar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, and Octave Chan
ute.
Sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot (34-meter)
wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower (270-kW) steam engines driving t
wo propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it
from rising. The test showed that it had enough lift to take off. The craft was
uncontrollable, which Maxim, it is presumed, realized, because he subsequently
abandoned work on it.[16]
In the 1890s, Lawrence Hargrave conducted research on wing structures and develo
ped a box kite that lifted the weight of a man. His box kite designs were widely
adopted. Although he also developed a type of rotary aircraft engine, he did no
t create and fly a powered fixed-wing aircraft.[17]
Between 1867 and 1896 the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal devel
oped heavier-than-air flight. He was the first person to make well-documented, r
epeated, successful gliding flights.
Early powered flights
The Wright brothers flights in 1903 are recognized by the Fdration Aronautique Inte
rnationale (FAI), the standard setting and record-keeping body for aeronautics,
as "the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight".[1] By 1
905, the Wright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable flight for s
ubstantial periods. The Wright brothers credited Otto Lilienthal as a major insp
iration for their decision to pursue manned flight.
In 1906, Alberto Santos Dumont made what was claimed to be the first airplane fl
ight unassisted by catapult[18] and set the first world record recognized by the
Aro-Club de France by flying 220 meters (720 ft) in less than 22 seconds.[19] Th
is flight was also certified by the FAI.[20][21]
An early aircraft design that brought together the modern monoplane tractor conf
iguration was the Bleriot VIII design of 1908. It had movable tail surfaces cont
rolling both yaw and pitch, a form of roll control supplied either by wing warpi
ng or by ailerons and controlled by its pilot with a joystick and rudder bar. It
was an important predecessor of his later Bleriot XI Channel-crossing aircraft
of the summer of 1909.[22]
In Romania the aircraft, A. Vlaicu nr. 1, was finished in 1909, and was test flo
wn on June 17, 1910. From the first flight the airplane had no need of changes.
The plane was made from a single aluminum spar 10 meters long which supported th
e entire aircraft, making it very easy to fly. Ten planes were made for the Roma
nian Air Force, being the second-ever military air force in the world.
World War I served as a testbed for the use of the airplane as a weapon. Airplan
es demonstrated their potential as mobile observation platforms, then proved the
mselves to be machines of war capable of causing casualties to the enemy. The ea
rliest known aerial victory with a synchronized machine gun-armed fighter aircra
ft occurred in 1915, by German Luftstreitkrfte Leutnant Kurt Wintgens. Fighter ac
es appeared; the greatest (by number of Aerial Combat victories) was Manfred von
Richthofen.
Following WWI, aircraft technology continued to develop. Alcock and Brown crosse
d the Atlantic non-stop for the first time in 1919. The first international comm
ercial flights took place between the United States and Canada in 1919.[citation
needed]
Airplanes had a presence in all the major battles of World War II. They were an
essential component of the military strategies of the period, such as the German
Blitzkrieg, The Battle of Britain, and the American and Japanese aircraft carri
er campaigns of the Pacific War.
Development of jet aircraft
The first 'operational' jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178, which was te
sted in 1939. In 1943, the Messerschmitt Me 262, the first 'operational' jet fig
hter aircraft, went into service in the German Luftwaffe. In October 1947, the B
ell X-1 was the first aircraft to exceed the speed of sound.[23]
The first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was
ng 707, the first widely successful commercial jet,
r more than 50 years, from 1958 to 2010. The Boeing
passenger aircraft from 1970 until it was surpassed
introduced in 1952. The Boei

was in commercial service fo
747 was the world's biggest
by the Airbus A380 in 2005.
Propulsion
See also: Powered aircraft and Aircraft engine
Propeller engines
Main article: Propeller (aeronautics)
An Antonov An-2 biplane
Smaller and older propeller planes make use of reciprocating engines (or piston
engines) to turn a propeller to create thrust. The amount of thrust a propeller
creates is determined by its disk area - the area in which the blades rotate. If
the area is too small, efficiency is poor, and if the area is large, the propel
ler must rotate at a very low speed to avoid going supersonic and creating a lot
of noise, and not much thrust. Because of this limitation, propellers are favor
ed for planes which travel at below mach .5, while jets are a better choice abov
e that speed. Propeller engines may be quieter than jet engines (though not alwa
ys) and may cost less to purchase or maintain and so remain common on light gene
ral aviation aircraft such as the Cessna 172. Larger modern propeller planes suc
h as the Dash 8 use a jet engine to turn the propeller, primarily because an equ
ivalent piston engine in power output would be much larger and more complex.
Jet engines
Main article: Jet engine
The Concorde supersonic transport aircraft
Jet aircraft are propelled by jet engines, which are used because the aerodynami
c limitations of propellers do not apply to jet propulsion. These engines are mu
ch more powerful than a reciprocating engine for a given size or weight and are
comparatively quiet and work well at higher altitude. Most modern jet planes use
turbofan jet engines which balance the advantages of a propeller, while retaini
ng the exhaust speed and power of a jet. This is essentially a ducted propeller
attached to a jet engine, much like a turboprop, but with a smaller diameter. Wh
en installed on an airliner, it is efficient so long as it remains below the spe
ed of sound (or subsonic). Jet fighters and other supersonic aircraft that do no
t spend a great deal of time supersonic also often use turbofans, but to functio
n, air intake ducting is needed to slow the air down so that when it arrives at
the front of the turbofan, it is subsonic. When passing through the engine, it i
s then re-accelerated back to supersonic speeds. To further boost the power outp
ut, fuel is dumped into the exhaust stream, where it ignites. This is called an
afterburner and has been used on both pure jet aircraft and turbojet aircraft al
though it is only normally used on combat aircraft due to the amount of fuel con
sumed, and even then may only be used for short periods of time. Supersonic airl
iners (e.g. Concorde) are no longer in use largely because flight at supersonic
speed creates a sonic boom which is prohibited in most heavily populated areas,
and because of the much higher consumption of fuel supersonic flight requires.
Jet aircraft possess high cruising speeds (700 to 900 km/h (430 to 560 mph)) and
high speeds for takeoff and landing (150 to 250 km/h (93 to 155 mph)). Due to t
he speed needed for takeoff and landing, jet aircraft use flaps and leading edge
devices to control the lift and speed. Many jet aircraft also use thrust revers
ers to slow down the aircraft upon landing.
Electric engines
Main article: Electric motor
An electric aircraft runs on electric motors rather than internal combustion eng
ines, with electricity coming from fuel cells, solar cells, ultracapacitors, pow
er beaming,[24] or batteries. Currently, flying electric aircraft are mostly exp
erimental prototypes, including manned and unmanned aerial vehicles, but there a
re some production models on the market already.[25]
Rocket engines
Main article: Rocket engine
Bell X-1 in flight, 1947
In World War II, the Germans deployed the Me 163 Komet rocket-powered aircraft.
The first plane to break the sound barrier in level flight was a rocket plane
th
e Bell X-1. The later North American X-15 broke many speed and altitude records
and laid much of the groundwork for later aircraft and spacecraft design. Rocket
aircraft are not in common usage today, although rocket-assisted take offs are
used for some military aircraft. Recent rocket aircraft include the SpaceShipOne
and the XCOR EZ-Rocket.
Ramjet and scramjet engines

Main articles: Ramjet and Scramjet
Artist's concept of X-43A with scramjet attached to the underside
A ramjet is a form of jet engine that contains no major moving parts and can be
particularly useful in applications requiring a small and simple engine for high
-speed use, such as with missiles. Ramjets require forward motion before they ca
n generate thrust and so are often used in conjunction with other forms of propu
lsion, or with an external means of achieving sufficient speed. The Lockheed D-2
1 was a Mach 3+ ramjet-powered reconnaissance drone that was launched from a par
ent aircraft. A ramjet uses the vehicle's forward motion to force air through th
e engine without resorting to turbines or vanes. Fuel is added and ignited, whic
h heats and expands the air to provide thrust.
A scramjet is a supersonic ramjet and aside from differences with dealing with i
nternal supersonic airflow works like a conventional ramjet. This type of engine
requires a very high initial speed in order to work. The NASA X-43, an experime
ntal unmanned scramjet, set a world speed record in 2004 for a jet-powered aircr
aft with a speed of Mach 9.7, nearly 7,500 miles per hour (12,100 km/h).
Design and manufacture
Main article: Aerospace manufacturer
SR-71 at Lockheed Skunk Works
Assembly line of the SR-71 Blackbird at Skunk Works, Lockheed Martin s Advanced De
velopment Programs (ADP).
Most airplanes are constructed by companies with the objective of producing them
in quantity for customers. The design and planning process, including safety te
sts, can last up to four years for small turboprops or longer for larger planes.
During this process, the objectives and design specifications of the aircraft ar
e established. First the construction company uses drawings and equations, simul
ations, wind tunnel tests and experience to predict the behavior of the aircraft
. Computers are used by companies to draw, plan and do initial simulations of th
e aircraft. Small models and mockups of all or certain parts of the plane are th
en tested in wind tunnels to verify its aerodynamics.
When the design has passed through these processes, the company constructs a lim
ited number of prototypes for testing on the ground. Representatives from an avi
ation governing agency often make a first flight. The flight tests continue unti
l the aircraft has fulfilled all the requirements. Then, the governing public ag
ency of aviation of the country authorizes the company to begin production.
In the United States, this agency is the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),
and in the European Union, European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). In Canada, th
e public agency in charge and authorizing the mass production of aircraft is Tra
nsport Canada.
In the case of international sales, a license from the public agency of aviation
or transport of the country where the aircraft is to be used is also necessary.
For example, airplanes made by the European company, Airbus, need to be certifi
ed by the FAA to be flown in the United States, and airplanes made by U.S.-based
Boeing need to be approved by the EASA to be flown in the European Union.
An Airbus A321 on final assembly line 3 in the Airbus plant at Hamburg Finkenwer
der Airport.
Quieter planes are becoming more and more necessary due to the increase in air t
raffic, particularly over urban areas, as aircraft noise pollution is a major co
ncern.
Small planes can be designed and constructed by amateurs as homebuilts. Other ho

mebuilt aircraft can be assembled using pre-manufactured kits of parts that can
be assembled into a basic plane and must then be completed by the builder.
There are few companies that produce planes on a large scale. However, the produ
ction of a plane for one company is a process that actually involves dozens, or
even hundreds, of other companies and plants, that produce the parts that go int
o the plane. For example, one company can be responsible for the production of t
he landing gear, while another one is responsible for the radar. The production
of such parts is not limited to the same city or country; in the case of large p
lane manufacturing companies, such parts can come from all over the world.
The parts are sent to the main plant of the plane company, where the production
line is located. In the case of large planes, production lines dedicated to the
assembly of certain parts of the plane can exist, especially the wings and the f
uselage.
When complete, a plane is rigorously inspected to search for imperfections and d
efects. After approval by inspectors, the plane is put through a series of fligh
t tests to assure that all systems are working correctly and that the plane hand
les properly. Upon passing these tests, the plane is ready to receive the "final
touchups" (internal configuration, painting, etc.), and is then ready for the c
ustomer.
Characteristics
An IAI Heron - an unmanned aerial vehicle with a twin-boom configuration
Airframe
Main article: Airframe
The structural parts of a fixed-wing aircraft are called the airframe. The parts
present can vary according to the aircraft's type and purpose. Early types were
usually made of wood with fabric wing surfaces, When engines became available f
or powered flight around a hundred years ago, their mounts were made of metal. T
hen as speeds increased more and more parts became metal until by the end of WWI
I all-metal aircraft were common. In modern times, increasing use of composite m
aterials has been made.
Typical structural parts include:
One or more large horizontal wings, often with an airfoil cross-section shape. T
he wing deflects air downward as the aircraft moves forward, generating lifting
force to support it in flight. The wing also provides stability in roll to stop
the aircraft from rolling to the left or right in steady flight.
The An-225 Mriya, which can carry a 250-tonne payload, has two vertical stabilis
ers.
A fuselage, a long, thin body, usually with tapered or rounded ends to make its
shape aerodynamically smooth. The fuselage joins the other parts of the airframe
and usually contains important things such as the pilot, payload and flight sys
tems.
A vertical stabilizer or fin is a vertical wing-like surface mounted at the rear
of the plane and typically protruding above it. The fin stabilizes the plane's
yaw (turn left or right) and mounts the rudder which controls its rotation along
that axis.
A horizontal stabilizer or tailplane, usually mounted at the tail near the verti
cal stabilizer. The horizontal stabilizer is used to stabilize the plane's pitch
(tilt up or down) and mounts the elevators which provide pitch control.
Landing gear, a set of wheels, skids, or floats that support the plane while it
is on the surface. On seaplanes the bottom of the fuselage or floats (pontoons)
support it while on the water. On some planes the landing gear retracts during f
light to reduce drag.

Wings
Main article: Wing
The wings of a fixed-wing aircraft are static planes extending either side of th
e aircraft. When the aircraft travels forwards, air flows over the wings which a
re shaped to create lift. This shape is called an airfoil and is shaped like a b
ird's wing.
Wing structure
Airplanes have flexible wing surfaces which are stretched across a frame and mad
e rigid by the lift forces exerted by the airflow over them. Larger aircraft hav
e rigid wing surfaces which provide additional strength.
Whether flexible or rigid, most wings have a strong frame to give them their sha
pe and to transfer lift from the wing surface to the rest of the aircraft. The m
ain structural elements are one or more spars running from root to tip, and many
ribs running from the leading (front) to the trailing (rear) edge.
Early airplane engines had little power, and lightness was very important. Also,
early airfoil sections were very thin, and could not have a strong frame instal
led within. So until the 1930s most wings were too lightweight to have enough st
rength and external bracing struts and wires were added. When the available engi
ne power increased during the 1920s and 30s, wings could be made heavy and stron
g enough that bracing was not needed any more. This type of unbraced wing is cal
led a cantilever wing.
Wing configuration
Main article: Wing configuration
Captured Morane-Saulnier L wire-braced parasol monoplane
The number and shape of the wings varies widely on different types. A given wing
plane may be full-span or divided by a central fuselage into port (left) and st
arboard (right) wings. Occasionally even more wings have been used, with the thr
ee-winged triplane achieving some fame in WWI. The four-winged quadruplane and o
ther multiplane designs have had little success.
A monoplane has a single wing plane, a biplane has two stacked one above the oth
er, a tandem wing has two placed one behind the other. When the available engine
power increased during the 1920s and 30s and bracing was no longer needed, the
unbraced or cantilever monoplane became the most common form of powered type.
The wing planform is the shape when seen from above. To be aerodynamically effic
ient, a wing should be straight with a long span from side to side but have a sh
ort chord (high aspect ratio). But to be structurally efficient, and hence light
weight, a wing must have a short span but still enough area to provide lift (lo
w aspect ratio).
At transonic speeds (near the speed of sound), it helps to sweep the wing backwa
rds or forwards to reduce drag from supersonic shock waves as they begin to form
. The swept wing is just a straight wing swept backwards or forwards.
Two Dassault Mirage G prototypes, one with wings swept
The delta wing is a triangle shape which may be used for a number of reasons. As
a flexible Rogallo wing it allows a stable shape under aerodynamic forces, and
so is often used for ultralight aircraft and even kites. As a supersonic wing it
combines high strength with low drag and so is often used for fast jets.
A variable geometry wing can be changed in flight to a different shape. The vari
able-sweep wing transforms between an efficient straight configuration for takeo
ff and landing, to a low-drag swept configuration for high-speed flight. Other f

orms of variable planform have been flown, but none have gone beyond the researc
h stage.
Fuselage
Main article: Fuselage
A fuselage is a long, thin body, usually with tapered or rounded ends to make it
s shape aerodynamically smooth. The fuselage may contain the flight crew, passen
gers, cargo or payload, fuel and engines. The pilots of manned aircraft operate
them from a cockpit located at the front or top of the fuselage and equipped wit
h controls and usually windows and instruments. A plane may have more than one f
uselage, or it may be fitted with booms with the tail located between the booms
to allow the extreme rear of the fuselage to be useful for a variety of purposes
.
Wings vs. bodies
Flying wing
Main article: Flying wing
The US-produced B-2 Spirit is a strategic bomber. It has a flying wing configura
tion and is capable of intercontinental missions
A flying wing is a tailless aircraft which has no definite fuselage. Most of the
crew, payload and equipment are housed inside the main wing structure.[26]
The flying wing configuration was studied extensively in the 1930s and 1940s, no
tably by Jack Northrop and Cheston L. Eshelman in the United States, and Alexand
er Lippisch and the Horten brothers in Germany. After the war, a number of exper
imental designs were based on the flying wing concept, but the known difficultie
s remained intractable. Some general interest continued until the early 1950s bu
t designs did not necessarily offer a great advantage in range and presented a n
umber of technical problems, leading to the adoption of "conventional" solutions
like the Convair B-36 and the B-52 Stratofortress. Due to the practical need fo
r a deep wing, the flying wing concept is most practical for designs in the slow
-to-medium speed range, and there has been continual interest in using it as a t
actical airlifter design.
Interest in flying wings was renewed in the 1980s due to their potentially low r
adar reflection cross-sections. Stealth technology relies on shapes which only r
eflect radar waves in certain directions, thus making the aircraft hard to detec
t unless the radar receiver is at a specific position relative to the aircraft a position that changes continuously as the aircraft moves. This approach event
ually led to the Northrop B-2 Spirit stealth bomber. In this case the aerodynami
c advantages of the flying wing are not the primary needs. However, modern compu
ter-controlled fly-by-wire systems allowed for many of the aerodynamic drawbacks
of the flying wing to be minimized, making for an efficient and stable long-ran
ge bomber.
Blended wing body
Main article: Blended wing
Computer-generated model of the Boeing X-48
Blended wing body aircraft have a flattened and airfoil shaped body, which produ
ces most of the lift to keep itself aloft, and distinct and separate wing struct
ures, though the wings are smoothly blended in with the body.
Thus blended wing bodied aircraft incorporate design features from both a futuri
stic fuselage and flying wing design. The purported advantages of the blended wi
ng body approach are efficient high-lift wings and a wide airfoil-shaped body. T
his enables the entire craft to contribute to lift generation with the result of
potentially increased fuel economy.
Lifting body
The Martin Aircraft Company X-24 was built as part of a 1963 to 1975 experimenta
l US military program.
Main article: Lifting body
A lifting body is a configuration in which the body itself produces lift. In con
trast to a flying wing, which is a wing with minimal or no conventional fuselage
, a lifting body can be thought of as a fuselage with little or no conventional
wing. Whereas a flying wing seeks to maximize cruise efficiency at subsonic spee
ds by eliminating non-lifting surfaces, lifting bodies generally minimize the dr
ag and structure of a wing for subsonic, supersonic, and hypersonic flight, or,
spacecraft re-entry. All of these flight regimes pose challenges for proper flig
ht stability.
Lifting bodies were a major area of research in the 1960s and 70s as a means to
build a small and lightweight manned spacecraft. The US built a number of famous
lifting body rocket planes to test the concept, as well as several rocket-launc
hed re-entry vehicles that were tested over the Pacific. Interest waned as the U
S Air Force lost interest in the manned mission, and major development ended dur
ing the Space Shuttle design process when it became clear that the highly shaped
fuselages made it difficult to fit fuel tankage.
Empennage and foreplane
Main articles: Empennage and Canard (aeronautics)
Canards on the Saab Viggen
The classic airfoil section wing is unstable in flight and difficult to control.
Flexible-wing types often rely on an anchor line or the weight of a pilot hangi
ng beneath to maintain the correct attitude. Some free-flying types use an adapt
ed airfoil that is stable, or other ingenious mechanisms including, most recentl
y, electronic artificial stability.
But in order to achieve trim, stability and control, most fixed-wing types have
an empennage comprising a fin and rudder which act horizontally and a tailplane
and elevator which act vertically. This is so common that it is known as the con
ventional layout. Sometimes there may be two or more fins, spaced out along the
tailplane.
Some types have a horizontal "canard" foreplane ahead of the main wing, instead
of behind it.[27][28][29] This foreplane may contribute to the lift, the trim, o
r control of the aircraft, or to several of these.
Controls and instruments
Main article: Aircraft flight control system
A light aircraft (Robin DR400/500) cockpit
Further information: Fixed-wing aircraft Aircraft controls, and Fixed-wing aircr
aft Cockpit instrumentation
Airplanes have complex flight control systems. The main controls allow the pilot
to direct the aircraft in the air by controlling the attitude (roll, pitch and
yaw) and engine thrust.
On manned aircraft, cockpit instruments provide information to the pilots, inclu
ding flight data, engine output, navigation, communications and other aircraft s
ystems that may be installed.
Safety
Main article: Air safety
When risk is measured by deaths per passenger kilometer, air travel is approxima
tely 10 times safer than travel by bus or rail. However, when using the deaths p
er journey statistic, air travel is significantly more dangerous than car, rail,
or bus travel.[30] Air travel insurance is relatively expensive for this reason
- insurers generally use the deaths per journey statistic.[31] There is a signif
icant difference between the safety of airliners and that of smaller private pla
nes, with the per-mile statistic indicating that airliners are 8.3 times safer t
han smaller planes.[32]
See also
Aviation portal
Abbas Ibn Firnas
Aircraft flight mechanics
Airliner
Aviation
Aviation and the environment
Aviation history
Fuel efficiency
List of altitude records reached by different aircraft types
Maneuvering speed
Rotorcraft
Wright Brothers
Pod plane
References
^A Rare alternative spelling: aroplane
^ Jump up to: a b "FAI News: 100 Years Ago, the Dream of Icarus Became Reality".
Archived from the original on 30 June 2007. Retrieved 5 January 2007.
Jump up ^ ???, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on P
erseus
Jump up ^ "aeroplane", Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.
Jump up ^ ??????, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, o
n Perseus
Jump up ^ aeroplane, Oxford Dictionaries
Jump up ^ "aeroplane, Oxford English Dictionary online.
Jump up ^ Aulus Gellius, "Attic Nights", Book X, 12.9 at LacusCurtius
Jump up ^ "Archytas of Tarentum, Technology Museum of Thessaloniki, Macedonia, G
reece". Tmth.edu.gr. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
Jump up ^ "Modern rocketry". Pressconnects.com. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
Jump up ^ "Automata history". Automata.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
Jump up ^ White, Lynn. "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Cas
e Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition." Technology and
Culture, Volume 2, Issue 2, 1961, pp. 97 111 (97 99 resp. 100 101).
Jump up ^ "Aviation History". Retrieved 26 July 2009. In 1799 he set forth for t
he first time in history the concept of the modern aeroplane. Cayley had identif
ied the drag vector (parallel to the flow) and the lift vector (perpendicular to
the flow).
Jump up ^ "Sir George Cayley (British Inventor and Scientist)". Britannica. Retr
ieved 26 July 2009. English pioneer of aerial navigation and aeronautical engine
ering and designer of the first successful glider to carry a human being aloft.
Cayley established the modern configuration of an airplane as a fixed-wing flyin
g machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control as early as 17
99.
Jump up ^ "Cayley, Sir George: Encyclopadia Britannica 2007." Encyclopadia Brita
nnica Online, 25 August 2007.
Jump up ^ The Journal of San Diego History, July 1968, Vol. 14, No. 3
Jump up ^ Beril, Becker (1967). Dreams and Realities of the Conquest of the Skie
s. New York: Atheneum. pp. 124 125
Jump up ^ Inglis, Amirah. "Hargrave, Lawrence (1850 1915)". Australian Dictionary
of Biography. 9. Melbourne University Press. Retrieved 5 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Bernardo Malfitano - AirShowFan.com". airshowfan.com. Retrieved 1 Apr
il 2015.
Jump up ^ Jones, Ernest. "Santos Dumont in France 1906 1916: The Very Earliest Ear
ly Birds." earlyaviators.com, 25 December 2006. Retrieved: 17 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Les vols du 14bis relats au fil des ditions du journal l'illustration de
1906. The wording is: "cette prouesse est le premier vol au monde homologu par l
'Aro-Club de France et la toute jeune Fdration Aronautique Internationale (FAI)."
Jump up ^ Santos-Dumont: Pionnier de l'aviation, dandy de la Belle Epoque.[dead
link]
Jump up ^ Crouch, Tom (1982). Bleriot XI, The Story of a Classic Aircraft. Smith
sonian Institution Press. pp. 21 and 22. ISBN 0-87474-345-1.
Jump up ^ Hallion, Richard, P. "The NACA, NASA, and the Supersonic-Hypersonic Fr
ontier." NASA. Retrieved: 7 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Power Beaming. Dfrc.nasa.gov.
Jump up ^ Pipistrel Expands Electric Aircraft Line (2013)
Jump up ^ Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 224
. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997. ISBN 1-56027-287-2
Jump up ^ Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 86.
Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997. ISBN 1-56027-287-2
Jump up ^ Aviation Publishers Co. Limited, From the Ground Up, page 10 (27th rev
ised edition) ISBN 0-9690054-9-0
Jump up ^ Federal Aviation Administration (August 2008). "Title 14: Aeronautics
and Space - PART 1 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS". Retrieved 5 August 2008.
Jump up ^ The risks of travel. Numberwatch.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Flight into danger - 7 August 1999 - New Scientist Space. Space.newsci
entist.com (7 August 1999).
Jump up ^ Mantakos, Harry, Is GA Flying Safer Than Driving?, retrieved 13 May 20
12
Bibliography
Blatner, David. The Flying Book: Everything You've Ever Wondered About Flying On
Airplanes. ISBN 0-8027-7691-4
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Airplane
Look up aeroplane, aircraft, or airplane in Wiktionary, the free diction
ary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aircraft by type of wing.
The Aeroplane centre
Airliners.net
Aerospaceweb.org
How Airplanes Work Howstuffworks.com
[show] v t e
Types of aircraft by methods of thrust and lift
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Codex on the Flight of Birds
Ms B Fol 88v: Design for a flying machine or catapul, taken from the codex.
Codex on the Flight of Birds is a relatively short codex of circa 1505[1] by Leo
nardo da Vinci. It comprises 18 folios and measures 21 15 centimetres. Now held
at the Biblioteca Reale in Turin, Italy, the codex begins with an examination of
the flight behavior of birds and proposes mechanisms for flight by machines. Le
onardo constructed a number of these machines, and attempted to launch them from
a hill near Florence. However, his efforts failed.[2]
In the codex, Leonardo notes for the first time that the center of gravity of a
flying bird does not coincide with its center of pressure.
Contents [hide]
1
Summary
1.1
Front Page
1.2
Folio 1
1.3
Folio 2
1.4
Folio 3
1.5
Folio 4
1.6
Folio 5
1.7
Folio 6
1.8
Folio 7
1.9
Folio 8
1.10
Folio 9
1.11
Folio 10
1.12
Folio 11
1.13
Folio 12
1.14
Folio 13
1.15
Folio 14
1.16
Folio 15
1.17
Folio 16
1.18
Folio 17
1.19
Folio 18
1.20
Back Page
2
Display in the U.S.
3
Citations
4
Sources
5
External links
Summary[edit]
The following summaries are from the codex whose English translation was prepare
d by Culturando and Smithsonian Institution.
Front Page[edit]
The front page is titled "On Casting Medals". The first paragraph gives a brief
recipe that consists of "emery", "nitric acid", "iron filings", "vinegar", "ashe
s of walnut leaves", and "finely ground straw ash". The second paragraph tells o
f the process of crushing diamonds into diamond powder and separating the powder
from lead. The last paragraph explains how to crush large crystals into smaller
crystals, and how to grind, purify, and color enamel.[3]
Folio 1[edit]
The first page in the folio one contains 11 diagrams with captions for each that
relate to gravity, density, balance, and oscillations. The next page contains f
our diagrams and a lengthy paragraph on velocity and the differences in movement
along the arc and chord of part of a circle.[4]
Leonardo comments on how gravity, which is caused by the "attraction of one obje
ct to another", takes place when an object is placed above another object and th
e top object is heavier than the bottom object. He also writes on the workings o
f a balance by describing how "the vertical center of a balance must always be p
erpendicular" and how the length of the arm on the balance is proportional to th
e amount of oscillations and the oscillation angle. A short commentary is includ
ed on relating density to weight, and he questions why ice floats in water if it
is the denser of the two.[4]
In the last page of this folio, Leonardo explains why an object falling down the
arc of a curve will fall faster than if the object falls down the chord of a cu
rve. He explains this saying that the angle of the chord is half of the angle th
e curve makes between the midpoint, endpoint, and horizontal, and since this ang
le is half then the speed will also be half. He compares this with the angle the
arc makes with the endpoint, midpoint, and horizontal. An object falling down a
n arc is then said to be 7/8 faster than if it were to fall down the chord of a
curve.[4]
Folio 2[edit]
Folio 2 contains two images on each of the two pages along with commentary on th
e following: gravity, powder amount vs. shot diameter, center of gravity for pyr
amids, and round balances.[5]
In the first paragraph, Leonardo restates his theory on gravity and expands on i
t to say that the motion caused by gravity acts in the direction of the imaginar
y line between the two object's centers. He goes on to say that motion due to gr
avity is only caused because the objects have no way to resist gravity.[5]
Leonardo then goes on to talk about the relation between the amount of powder an
d the size of ball. He writes that the amount of powder needed is proportional t
o the diameter of the ball. Expanding on that, he comes up with the amount of po
wder needed is "directly proportional to the square of the diameter".[5]
The center of gravity of a pyramid is written to lie "in the third point along o
f its length toward the base". He uses this geometry to explain how to find the
center of gravity of a semicircle. If one were to divide the semicircle into pyr
amids whose bases were almost straight, then by finding the center of gravity of
those pyramids one could find the center of gravity for the semicircle.[5]
The last page of folio 2 talks about rounded balances and how they react to grav
ity. Leonardo writes that if a balance was suspended in its center of gravity, t
hen it would not move or oscillate, regardless of position. He then goes on to s
ay that if there are two weights of equal mass on the ends of this balance, then
, when moved from its starting position, the balance will never return to the st
arting position. After this, he theorizes that a balance in this same situation
will move if one of the weights is along a straighter line of descent as compare
d to the other weight. He then disproves his theory by showing the balance and w
eights as symmetrically equal, meaning there is no reason for the balance to mov
e.[5]
Folio 3[edit]
The third folio contains 10 drawings and commentary on the following: science of
machines, balances, energy, and circular motion.[6]
Leonardo begins folio 3 with a declaration stating the science of machines is th
e most useful science overall because of its use by any moving object.[6]
He goes on to state that objects of different shapes that are on different degre
es of slope have different amounts of energy. His next topic is about the constr
uction of a certain balance in which circular motion is prevented. The diagrams
in this folio represent round balances and multiple shaped objects on differing
slopes that are connected together.[6]
Folio 4[edit]
Folio 4 contains nine diagrams and a page of text on gravity and its effect on d
ifferent shapes connected together on a balance. The back page of this folio has
Leonardo's first reference to birds and his explanation on how they fly.[7]
Leonardo writes a lengthy amount of text about two weights that each weigh three
pounds that are connected together on either side of a balance. The slopes that
each object rests on are at different angles, however. Leonardo goes on to writ
e that, because of the slopes, one weight may weigh three pounds, but it is only
providing two pounds of force. The other weight, also three pounds, is similarl
y stated to only provide one pound of force because it is resting on a smaller i
ncline. Later on this page, he writes on the forces a balance experiences depend
ing on the location of weights on the balance. The first reference to pressure f
or this codex is made towards the end of this folio, relating it to the working
of a balance.[7]
The first commentary on birds, for this codex, are made on the second page of th
e fourth folio. Leonardo describes how the tips of a bird's feathers are always
the highest part of the bird, when its wings are lowered, and how the bones in t
he wing are the highest part of a bird when its wings are raised. He writes on t
he heaviest part of a body being the location that guides movement for that body
. He also questions what part of the wing of a bird experiences the greatest amo
unt of air pressure. To end this folio, Leonardo states how an object, "that doe
s not bend under the pressure of objects of different sizes and weights", will d
istribute its weight to its supporting points that surround the center of the ob
ject.[7]
Folio 5[edit]
The fifth folio contains six diagrams and commentary on birds and flight.[8]
Leonardo starts off folio 5 by stating that if a man were to be in a flying mach
ine, nothing should get in his way from the waist up, so that he can balance him
self as one does in a boat. He goes on to write on how a bird's direction will c
hange with the direction of the wind. A bird which is going in a straight line t
hat comes into a cross breeze at a perpendicular angle will now be heading in a
direction that is in between the two endpoints of each direction. He ends the fi
rst page by explaining that if a bird in a descent wants to turn left or right,
then it will lower the wing on the side of the direction it wants to turn.[8]
Birds can gain altitude, as stated by Leonardo, by "[raising] the shoulders and
[beating] the tips of the wings towards itself, thus condensing the air that sta
nds between the tips of [its] wings and itself". He also describes the flight of
a kite as seeking a wind current. When the winds are high, one will see the bir
d very high in the sky, but when the winds are low, the bird stays closer to the
ground. Leonardo describes how a bird rests in the air, after flapping its wing
s to gain altitude, by gliding downward to the ground.[8]
Folio 6[edit]
Folio 6 contains multiple diagrams of birds flying and their bone structure, and
all of the commentary is on flight and how birds fly the way that they do.[9]
Leonardo starts off by describing how a bird ascends or descends in different wi
nd conditions. Here is a summary.
How birds fly depending on wind direction, based on Leonardo's On the Flight of
Birds[9]
Wind Direction Ascent Descent
Headwind
Over the wind, with wind on breast
Under the wind, with win
d on back
Left Wind
Left wing under wind
Left wing under the wind
Tailwind
Under the wind (debatable, according to Leonardo)
He states that the only way for a bird to ascend when in a tailwind is for the b
ird, at its peak ascent, to turn in a semicircle and face the wind to continue i
ts ascension in the opposite direction.[9]
Leonardo explains that a bird should fly above the clouds to prevent its wings f
rom getting wet and to avoid the circular air patterns that come from mountainou
s terrain. If a bird flies above the clouds and somehow gets turned over, then i
t should have plenty of time to turn itself back over by either "[falling] immed
iately with the wingtip downwind, or lowering the opposite wing to below halfway
". He also comments on the rib structure of a bird and theorizes which ribs are
the most useful. He ends folio 6 by stating the he needs to do more practical te
sts on the ribs of birds.[9]
Folio 7[edit]
The seventh folio contains a very detailed diagram of either the tip of a bird's
wing or the wing of a possible flying machine along with five more diagrams of
birds in flight.[10]
Leonardo starts writing on a flying machine and comparing it with the notes he h
as already taken on the flight of birds. He states that "the bird" (machine) mus
t attain a high altitude it case it were to turn over so as to have enough time
to right itself. He notes that the framework needs to be strong with leather lac
es and raw silk for the ribs. He also adds that there should not be any metal in
the machine because of its tendency to wear or break under stress.[10]
He continues his notes on the flying machine by writing on the "nerve" of the ma
chine. It was to be made of a "thick ribbon of tanned leather" that would spread
the wing in flight. He was going to use this same framework in the "nerves" abo
ve and below this one for safety reasons.[10]
The rest of folio 7 is Leonardo's notes and instructions on how to fly his machi
ne like a bird. Here is a quick summary:[10]
Situation
Note
Wingtip is turned toward the wind
This wing must be put above or below the
wind along with the side of the tail and the rudder of the wing's humorous
While descending
The side nearest to the center of gravity will descend f
irst
While descending
The heavier part of the machine will be in front of the
geometric center
While airborne, without wing-flapping, and without assistance from the wind
The machine's geometric center and center of gravity correspond
While descending
The heavier part of the machine will never be equal to o
r higher than the lighter part
While descending tail first
If tail rotates backward, the machine will regai
n balance. If tail rotates forward, the machine will flip over
While stably flying
If the resistance from the wing is moved behind the cent
er of gravity, the machine will descend head first
While stably flying
If the resistance from the wing is moved in front of the
center of gravity, the machine will descend tail first
Folio 8[edit]
Leonardo's eighth folio in On the Flight of Birds contains 11 diagrams of birds
flying and more instructions for his flying machine. Here is a quick summary of
the first half of Folio 8:[11]
Situation
Note
If the wing and belly of the machine are too far above the wind Lower the opposi
te wing to be righted by the wind
If the wing and belly of the machine are too far below the wind Raise the opposi
te wing to be righted by the wind, as long as the lifted wing is less slanted th
an the lower wing
te wing in favor of the wind to straighten the machine
If the wing and back of the machine are too far below the wind Raise the opposi
te wing and shelter it from the wind to straighten the machine
If the back of the machine is to the wind
The tail must be below the wind
If the back of the machine is below the wind
The tail must be above the wind
Leonardo goes on to write that if the "bird" is above the wind but turning into
the wind, the "bird" must lower its tail otherwise it will overturn. He states t
hat the action of lowering the tail to be less susceptible to wind in this situa
tion will make it impossible for the "bird" to be overturned. He goes on to prov
e this by referencing the "Elements of Machinery". Afterwards, he writes on the
compression of air due to the wings, and he states that the entire length of the
wing is not used in the compression of air in front of the wing. To prove this,
he asks readers to examine bird wings for themselves and to check the larger sp
acing in between the not as large feathers.[11]
Folio 9[edit]
Folio 9 contains another 12 diagrams of birds in flight and structure framework.
[12]
Folio 10[edit]
Folio 11[edit]
Folio 12[edit]
Folio 13[edit]
Folio 14[edit]
Folio 15[edit]
Folio 16[edit]
Folio 17[edit]
Folio 18[edit]
Back Page[edit]
Display in the U.S.[edit]
On a rare loan from the Bibliotecha Reale museum in Turin, Italy the original 18
page "Da Vinci Codex on the Flight of Birds" was displayed in the U.S. National
Air and Space Museum in Washington D.C. for 40 days starting 13 September 2013.
[13]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Pedretti, 37
Jump up ^ Cremante, 53
Jump up ^ "Leonardo da Vinci's Codex on the Flight of Birds". Smithsonian Instit
ution. pp. 2 3. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Leonardo da Vinci's Codex on the Flight of Birds". Smithson
ian Institution. pp. 4 5. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Leonardo da Vinci's Codex on the Flight of Birds". Smit
hsonian Institution. pp. 8 9. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Leonardo da Vinci's Codex on the Flight of Birds". Smiths
onian Institution. pp. 20 21. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Leonardo da Vinci's Codex on the Flight of Birds". Smithsonia
n Institution. pp. 24 25. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Display of Da Vinci Codex on the Flight of Birds; "Air and Space Magaz
ine"; p.16; September 2013; Vol. 28; No.4
Sources[edit]
Cremante, Simona. "Leonardo Da Vinci". Giunti, 1698.
Crispino, Enrica; Pedretti, Carlo; Frost, Catherine. Leonardo: Art and Science.
Giunti, 2001. ISBN 88-09-01511-8
Pedretti, Carlo. "A Chronology of Leonardo Da Vinci's Architectural Studies afte
r 1500". Geneva: E. Droz, 1962.
Leonardo Da Vinci's Codex on the Flight of Birds (Smithsonian)
Galluzzi, Paolo. Leonardo da Vinci, Engineer and Architect. [Montral]: Montreal M
useum of Fine Arts, 1987. Print. ISBN 2891920848
Heydenreich, Ludwig H., Bern Dibner, Ladislao Reti, and Ladislao Reti. Leonardo
the Inventor. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980. Print. ISBN 0070286108
External links[edit]
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle, e
xhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which
contains material on Codex on the Flight of Birds (see index)
[hide] v t e
Leonardo da Vinci
List of works Science and inventions Personal life
Paintings
daggerMedusa **The Annunciation **The Baptism of Christ The Madonna of the Carna
tion Ginevra de' Benci Benois Madonna The Adoration of the Magi St. Jerome in th
e Wilderness **Madonna Litta The Virgin of the Rocks (Louvre version) Portrait o
f a Musician Lady with an Ermine **The Virgin of the Rocks (London version) *La
Belle Ferronniere *Salvator Mundi **Madonna of the Yarnwinder (two versions) The
Virgin and Child with St. Anne Mona Lisa *Head of a Woman (La Scapigliata) dagg
erLeda and the Swan St. John the Baptist
Works on walls
The Last Supper **Sala delle Asse daggerThe Battle of Anghiari
Sculptures
Sforza monument (unexecuted) *Horse and Rider
Works on paper
Vitruvian Man *Portrait of a Young Fiance The Virgin and Child with St Anne and S
t John the Baptist Self-portrait Studies of the Fetus in the Womb
Manuscripts
Codex Arundel Codex Atlanticus Codex on the Flight of Birds Codex Leicester Code
x Madrid Codex Trivulzianus Codex Urbinas
Other projects
De divina proportione Architonnerre Leonardo's crossbow Leonardo's fighting vehi
cle Leonardo's robot Leonardo's self-propelled cart Viola organista
Leonardeschi
Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio Cesare da Sesto Giampietrino Giovanni Agostino da Lo
di Bernardino Luini Cesare Magni Marco d'Oggiono Francesco Melzi Giovanni Ambrog
io de Predis Salai Andrea Solari
Posthumous fame
Cultural references Mona Lisa replicas and reinterpretations Things named after
Leonardo
Category Category Commons page Commons Wikiquote page Wikiquote Wikisource page
Wikisource
Key: *Attributed **Collaboration with other artists daggerLost
Authority control
GND: 4629704-2
Categories: Manuscripts1500s booksScientific illuminated manuscriptsCodices by L
eonardo da VinciBird flightHistory of zoologyHistory of physics
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Codex on the Flight of Birds

Ms B Fol 88v: Design for a flying machine or catapul, taken from the codex.
Codex on the Flight of Birds is a relatively short codex of circa 1505[1] by Leo
nardo da Vinci. It comprises 18 folios and measures 21 15 centimetres. Now held
at the Biblioteca Reale in Turin, Italy, the codex begins with an examination of
the flight behavior of birds and proposes mechanisms for flight by machines. Le
onardo constructed a number of these machines, and attempted to launch them from
a hill near Florence. However, his efforts failed.[2]
In the codex, Leonardo notes for the first time that the center of gravity of a
flying bird does not coincide with its center of pressure.
Contents [hide]
1
Summary
1.1
Front Page
1.2
Folio 1
1.3
Folio 2
1.4
Folio 3
1.5
Folio 4
1.6
Folio 5
1.7
Folio 6
1.8
Folio 7
1.9
Folio 8
1.10
Folio 9
1.11
Folio 10
1.12
Folio 11
1.13
Folio 12
1.14
Folio 13
1.15
Folio 14
1.16
Folio 15
1.17
Folio 16
1.18
Folio 17
1.19
Folio 18
1.20
Back Page
2
Display in the U.S.
3
Citations
4
Sources
5
External links
Summary[edit]
The following summaries are from the codex whose English translation was prepare
d by Culturando and Smithsonian Institution.
Front Page[edit]
The front page is titled "On Casting Medals". The first paragraph gives a brief
recipe that consists of "emery", "nitric acid", "iron filings", "vinegar", "ashe
s of walnut leaves", and "finely ground straw ash". The second paragraph tells o
f the process of crushing diamonds into diamond powder and separating the powder
from lead. The last paragraph explains how to crush large crystals into smaller
crystals, and how to grind, purify, and color enamel.[3]
Folio 1[edit]
The first page in the folio one contains 11 diagrams with captions for each that
relate to gravity, density, balance, and oscillations. The next page contains f
our diagrams and a lengthy paragraph on velocity and the differences in movement
along the arc and chord of part of a circle.[4]
Leonardo comments on how gravity, which is caused by the "attraction of one obje
ct to another", takes place when an object is placed above another object and th
e top object is heavier than the bottom object. He also writes on the workings o
f a balance by describing how "the vertical center of a balance must always be p
erpendicular" and how the length of the arm on the balance is proportional to th
e amount of oscillations and the oscillation angle. A short commentary is includ
ed on relating density to weight, and he questions why ice floats in water if it
is the denser of the two.[4]
In the last page of this folio, Leonardo explains why an object falling down the
arc of a curve will fall faster than if the object falls down the chord of a cu
rve. He explains this saying that the angle of the chord is half of the angle th
e curve makes between the midpoint, endpoint, and horizontal, and since this ang
le is half then the speed will also be half. He compares this with the angle the
arc makes with the endpoint, midpoint, and horizontal. An object falling down a
n arc is then said to be 7/8 faster than if it were to fall down the chord of a
curve.[4]
Folio 2[edit]
Folio 2 contains two images on each of the two pages along with commentary on th
e following: gravity, powder amount vs. shot diameter, center of gravity for pyr
amids, and round balances.[5]
In the first paragraph, Leonardo restates his theory on gravity and expands on i
t to say that the motion caused by gravity acts in the direction of the imaginar
y line between the two object's centers. He goes on to say that motion due to gr
avity is only caused because the objects have no way to resist gravity.[5]
Leonardo then goes on to talk about the relation between the amount of powder an
d the size of ball. He writes that the amount of powder needed is proportional t
o the diameter of the ball. Expanding on that, he comes up with the amount of po
wder needed is "directly proportional to the square of the diameter".[5]
The center of gravity of a pyramid is written to lie "in the third point along o
f its length toward the base". He uses this geometry to explain how to find the
center of gravity of a semicircle. If one were to divide the semicircle into pyr
amids whose bases were almost straight, then by finding the center of gravity of
those pyramids one could find the center of gravity for the semicircle.[5]
The last page of folio 2 talks about rounded balances and how they react to grav
ity. Leonardo writes that if a balance was suspended in its center of gravity, t
hen it would not move or oscillate, regardless of position. He then goes on to s
ay that if there are two weights of equal mass on the ends of this balance, then
, when moved from its starting position, the balance will never return to the st
arting position. After this, he theorizes that a balance in this same situation
will move if one of the weights is along a straighter line of descent as compare
d to the other weight. He then disproves his theory by showing the balance and w
eights as symmetrically equal, meaning there is no reason for the balance to mov
e.[5]
Folio 3[edit]
The third folio contains 10 drawings and commentary on the following: science of
machines, balances, energy, and circular motion.[6]
Leonardo begins folio 3 with a declaration stating the science of machines is th
e most useful science overall because of its use by any moving object.[6]
He goes on to state that objects of different shapes that are on different degre
es of slope have different amounts of energy. His next topic is about the constr
uction of a certain balance in which circular motion is prevented. The diagrams
in this folio represent round balances and multiple shaped objects on differing
slopes that are connected together.[6]
Folio 4[edit]
Folio 4 contains nine diagrams and a page of text on gravity and its effect on d
ifferent shapes connected together on a balance. The back page of this folio has
Leonardo's first reference to birds and his explanation on how they fly.[7]
Leonardo writes a lengthy amount of text about two weights that each weigh three
pounds that are connected together on either side of a balance. The slopes that
each object rests on are at different angles, however. Leonardo goes on to writ
e that, because of the slopes, one weight may weigh three pounds, but it is only
providing two pounds of force. The other weight, also three pounds, is similarl
y stated to only provide one pound of force because it is resting on a smaller i
ncline. Later on this page, he writes on the forces a balance experiences depend
ing on the location of weights on the balance. The first reference to pressure f
or this codex is made towards the end of this folio, relating it to the working
of a balance.[7]
The first commentary on birds, for this codex, are made on the second page of th
e fourth folio. Leonardo describes how the tips of a bird's feathers are always
the highest part of the bird, when its wings are lowered, and how the bones in t
he wing are the highest part of a bird when its wings are raised. He writes on t
he heaviest part of a body being the location that guides movement for that body
. He also questions what part of the wing of a bird experiences the greatest amo
unt of air pressure. To end this folio, Leonardo states how an object, "that doe
s not bend under the pressure of objects of different sizes and weights", will d
istribute its weight to its supporting points that surround the center of the ob
ject.[7]
Folio 5[edit]
The fifth folio contains six diagrams and commentary on birds and flight.[8]
Leonardo starts off folio 5 by stating that if a man were to be in a flying mach
ine, nothing should get in his way from the waist up, so that he can balance him
self as one does in a boat. He goes on to write on how a bird's direction will c
hange with the direction of the wind. A bird which is going in a straight line t
hat comes into a cross breeze at a perpendicular angle will now be heading in a
direction that is in between the two endpoints of each direction. He ends the fi
rst page by explaining that if a bird in a descent wants to turn left or right,
then it will lower the wing on the side of the direction it wants to turn.[8]
Birds can gain altitude, as stated by Leonardo, by "[raising] the shoulders and
[beating] the tips of the wings towards itself, thus condensing the air that sta
nds between the tips of [its] wings and itself". He also describes the flight of
a kite as seeking a wind current. When the winds are high, one will see the bir
d very high in the sky, but when the winds are low, the bird stays closer to the
ground. Leonardo describes how a bird rests in the air, after flapping its wing
s to gain altitude, by gliding downward to the ground.[8]
Folio 6[edit]
Folio 6 contains multiple diagrams of birds flying and their bone structure, and
all of the commentary is on flight and how birds fly the way that they do.[9]
Leonardo starts off by describing how a bird ascends or descends in different wi
nd conditions. Here is a summary.
How birds fly depending on wind direction, based on Leonardo's On the Flight of
Birds[9]
Wind Direction Ascent Descent
Headwind
Over the wind, with wind on breast
Under the wind, with win
d on back
Left Wind
Left wing under wind
Left wing under the wind
Tailwind
Under the wind (debatable, according to Leonardo)
He states that the only way for a bird to ascend when in a tailwind is for the b
ird, at its peak ascent, to turn in a semicircle and face the wind to continue i
ts ascension in the opposite direction.[9]
Leonardo explains that a bird should fly above the clouds to prevent its wings f
rom getting wet and to avoid the circular air patterns that come from mountainou
s terrain. If a bird flies above the clouds and somehow gets turned over, then i
t should have plenty of time to turn itself back over by either "[falling] immed
iately with the wingtip downwind, or lowering the opposite wing to below halfway
". He also comments on the rib structure of a bird and theorizes which ribs are
the most useful. He ends folio 6 by stating the he needs to do more practical te
sts on the ribs of birds.[9]
Folio 7[edit]
The seventh folio contains a very detailed diagram of either the tip of a bird's
wing or the wing of a possible flying machine along with five more diagrams of
birds in flight.[10]
Leonardo starts writing on a flying machine and comparing it with the notes he h
as already taken on the flight of birds. He states that "the bird" (machine) mus
t attain a high altitude it case it were to turn over so as to have enough time
to right itself. He notes that the framework needs to be strong with leather lac
es and raw silk for the ribs. He also adds that there should not be any metal in
the machine because of its tendency to wear or break under stress.[10]
He continues his notes on the flying machine by writing on the "nerve" of the ma
chine. It was to be made of a "thick ribbon of tanned leather" that would spread
the wing in flight. He was going to use this same framework in the "nerves" abo
ve and below this one for safety reasons.[10]
The rest of folio 7 is Leonardo's notes and instructions on how to fly his machi
ne like a bird. Here is a quick summary:[10]
Situation
Note
Wingtip is turned toward the wind

This wing must be put above or below the
wind along with the side of the tail and the rudder of the wing's humorous
While descending
The side nearest to the center of gravity will descend f
irst
While descending
The heavier part of the machine will be in front of the
geometric center
While airborne, without wing-flapping, and without assistance from the wind
The machine's geometric center and center of gravity correspond
While descending
The heavier part of the machine will never be equal to o
r higher than the lighter part
While descending tail first
If tail rotates backward, the machine will regai
n balance. If tail rotates forward, the machine will flip over
While stably flying
If the resistance from the wing is moved behind the cent
er of gravity, the machine will descend head first
While stably flying
If the resistance from the wing is moved in front of the
center of gravity, the machine will descend tail first
Folio 8[edit]
Leonardo's eighth folio in On the Flight of Birds contains 11 diagrams of birds
flying and more instructions for his flying machine. Here is a quick summary of
the first half of Folio 8:[11]
Situation
Note
If the wing and belly of the machine are too far above the wind Lower the opposi
te wing to be righted by the wind
te wing to be righted by the wind, as long as the lifted wing is less slanted th
an the lower wing
te wing in favor of the wind to straighten the machine
If the wing and back of the machine are too far below the wind Raise the opposi
te wing and shelter it from the wind to straighten the machine
If the back of the machine is to the wind
The tail must be below the wind
If the back of the machine is below the wind
The tail must be above the wind
Leonardo goes on to write that if the "bird" is above the wind but turning into
the wind, the "bird" must lower its tail otherwise it will overturn. He states t
hat the action of lowering the tail to be less susceptible to wind in this situa
tion will make it impossible for the "bird" to be overturned. He goes on to prov
e this by referencing the "Elements of Machinery". Afterwards, he writes on the
compression of air due to the wings, and he states that the entire length of the
wing is not used in the compression of air in front of the wing. To prove this,
he asks readers to examine bird wings for themselves and to check the larger sp
acing in between the not as large feathers.[11]
Folio 9[edit]
Folio 9 contains another 12 diagrams of birds in flight and structure framework.
[12]
Folio 10[edit]
Folio 11[edit]
Folio 12[edit]
Folio 13[edit]
Folio 14[edit]
Folio 15[edit]
Folio 16[edit]
Folio 17[edit]
Folio 18[edit]
Back Page[edit]
Display in the U.S.[edit]
On a rare loan from the Bibliotecha Reale museum in Turin, Italy the original 18
page "Da Vinci Codex on the Flight of Birds" was displayed in the U.S. National
Air and Space Museum in Washington D.C. for 40 days starting 13 September 2013.
[13]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Pedretti, 37
Jump up ^ Cremante, 53
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Leonardo da Vinci's Codex on the Flight of Birds". Smit
hsonian Institution. pp. 8 9. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Leonardo da Vinci's Codex on the Flight of Birds". Smithsonia
n Institution. pp. 24 25. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Display of Da Vinci Codex on the Flight of Birds; "Air and Space Magaz
ine"; p.16; September 2013; Vol. 28; No.4
Sources[edit]
Cremante, Simona. "Leonardo Da Vinci". Giunti, 1698.
Crispino, Enrica; Pedretti, Carlo; Frost, Catherine. Leonardo: Art and Science.
Giunti, 2001. ISBN 88-09-01511-8
Pedretti, Carlo. "A Chronology of Leonardo Da Vinci's Architectural Studies afte
r 1500". Geneva: E. Droz, 1962.
Leonardo Da Vinci's Codex on the Flight of Birds (Smithsonian)
Galluzzi, Paolo. Leonardo da Vinci, Engineer and Architect. [Montral]: Montreal M
useum of Fine Arts, 1987. Print. ISBN 2891920848
Heydenreich, Ludwig H., Bern Dibner, Ladislao Reti, and Ladislao Reti. Leonardo
the Inventor. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980. Print. ISBN 0070286108
External links[edit]
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle, e
xhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which
contains material on Codex on the Flight of Birds (see index)
[hide] v t e
Leonardo da Vinci
List of works Science and inventions Personal life
Paintings
daggerMedusa **The Annunciation **The Baptism of Christ The Madonna of the Carna
tion Ginevra de' Benci Benois Madonna The Adoration of the Magi St. Jerome in th
e Wilderness **Madonna Litta The Virgin of the Rocks (Louvre version) Portrait o
f a Musician Lady with an Ermine **The Virgin of the Rocks (London version) *La
Belle Ferronniere *Salvator Mundi **Madonna of the Yarnwinder (two versions) The
Virgin and Child with St. Anne Mona Lisa *Head of a Woman (La Scapigliata) dagg
erLeda and the Swan St. John the Baptist
Works on walls
The Last Supper **Sala delle Asse daggerThe Battle of Anghiari
Sculptures
Sforza monument (unexecuted) *Horse and Rider
Works on paper
Vitruvian Man *Portrait of a Young Fiance The Virgin and Child with St Anne and S
t John the Baptist Self-portrait Studies of the Fetus in the Womb

Manuscripts
Codex Arundel Codex Atlanticus Codex on the Flight of Birds Codex Leicester Code
x Madrid Codex Trivulzianus Codex Urbinas
Other projects
De divina proportione Architonnerre Leonardo's crossbow Leonardo's fighting vehi
cle Leonardo's robot Leonardo's self-propelled cart Viola organista
Leonardeschi
Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio Cesare da Sesto Giampietrino Giovanni Agostino da Lo
di Bernardino Luini Cesare Magni Marco d'Oggiono Francesco Melzi Giovanni Ambrog
io de Predis Salai Andrea Solari
Posthumous fame
Cultural references Mona Lisa replicas and reinterpretations Things named after
Leonardo
Category Category Commons page Commons Wikiquote page Wikiquote Wikisource page
Wikisource
Key: *Attributed **Collaboration with other artists daggerLost
Authority control
GND: 4629704-2
Categories: Manuscripts1500s booksScientific illuminated manuscriptsCodices by L
eonardo da VinciBird flightHistory of zoologyHistory of physics
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Leonardo da Vinci created masterpieces of art and sculpture. Equally remarkable,
his aggregate achievements in engineering, mathematics, anatomy, geology, physi
cs, music, military technology, aeronautics, and a wide range of other fields, n
ot only stood without peer in his own time, but were strikingly prescient for th
e distant future. He recorded his forward-looking ideas in thousands of notebook
pages, known as codices. He produced one codex entirely on flight in 1505-1506,

the Codex on the Flight of Birds. Among the many subjects Leonardo studied, the
possibility of human mechanical flight held particular fascination. He produced
more than 35,000 words and 500 sketches dealing with flying machines, the natur
e of air, and bird flight. In the Codex on the Flight of Birds Leonardo outlined
a number of observations and beginning concepts that would find a place in the
development of a successful airplane in the early twentieth century. Hundreds of
years before any real progress toward a practical flying machine was achieved,
Leonardo expressed the seeds of the ideas that would lead to humans spreading th
eir wings. This extraordinary document, exhibited outside of Italy only a few ti
mes, will be displayed in The Wright Brothers & The Invention of the Aerial Age
gallery. The Codex exhibit will be a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to appreciat
e the genius of da Vinci in the same space as the Wright Flyer, which made the a
irplane a reality four centuries after the Leonardo produced the Codex on the Fl
ight of Birds.
This exhibit is organized by the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum and t
he Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Italian Cultural Heritag
e and Activities, the Embassy of Italy in Washington, DC, the Biblioteca Reale i
n Turin, thanks to the support of Bracco Foundation, Finmeccanica, and Tenaris.
It is part of 2013 - Year of Italian Culture in the U.S., an initiative held und
er the auspices of the President of the Italian Republic, organized by the Itali
an Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Embassy of Italy in Washington, DC with t
he support of Corporate Ambassadors, Eni, and Intesa Sanpaolo.
Languages
Catala
Deutsch
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Italiano
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Romn
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Edit links
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This is a scridb upload test. This is a scridb upload test.

This is a scridb upl

North American P-51 Mustang, a World War II fighter

evel",[3] or Greek ?????? (planos), "wandering".[4][5] "Aroplane" originally refe

introduced in 1952. The Boei

Ramjet and scramjet engines

Small planes can be designed and constructed by amateurs as homebuilts. Other ho

light to reduce drag.

ff and landing, to a low-drag swept configuration for high-speed flight. Other f

scridb upload test.

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Codex on the Flight of Birds

Wingtip is turned toward the wind

t John the Baptist Self-portrait Studies of the Fetus in the Womb

pages, known as codices. He produced one codex entirely on flight in 1505-1506,

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