Network overview and concepts.

Brian Brown, 1996-2000. Used and modified by Jacob Romeyn, with

permission.
Networks are an interconnection of computers. These computers can be
linked together using a wide variety of different cabling types, and for a
wide variety of different purposes. In the following module we will study all
the basic concepts of the network

BASIC NETWORK CONCEPTS

The basis reasons why computers are networked are
to share resources (files, printers, modems, fax machines)
to share application software (MS Office, Corel WordPerfect

o
o

etc.)
increase productivity (make it easier to share data amongst

users)
Take for example a typical office scenario where a number of users in a
small business require access to common information. As long as all user
computers are connected via a network, they can share their files,
exchange mail, schedule meetings, send faxes and print documents all
from any point of the network.
It would not be necessary for users to transfer files via electronic mail
or floppy disk, rather, each user could access all the information they
require, thus leading to less wasted time and hence greater productivity.
Imagine the benefits of a user being able to directly fax the Word
document they are working on, rather than print it out, then feed it into the
fax machine, dial the number etc.
Networks are often called Local Area Networks [LAN]. A LAN is a network
allowing easy access to other computers or peripherals. The typical
characteristics of a LAN are,
o
o
o
o
o

physically limited (< 2km)

high bandwidth ( 10 to 100 Mbps)
inexpensive cable media (coax or twisted pair)
data and hardware sharing between users
owned by the user

BASIC NETWORK COMPONENTS

There are a number of components which are used to build networks. An
understanding of these is essential in order to support networks. The
following lessons will discuss some of the elements which make up a
Local Area Network [LAN].
We will learn about:

Network Adapter Cards

Resources used by Network Cards
Installing a Network Card
Summary of Installing Network Cards in Servers and Work
Stations

Network Adapter Cards

A network adapter card plugs into the workstation, providing the
connection to the network. Adapter cards come from many different
manufacturers, and support a wide variety of cable media and bus
types [ISA, MCA, EISA, PCI, PCMCIA].
New network cards are software configurable, using a software
program to configure the resources used by the card. Other cards
are PNP [plug and Play], which automatically configure their
resources when installed in the computer, simplifying installation.
With an operating system like Windows 95/98/ME, auto-detection of
new hardware makes network connections simple and quick.
On power-up, the computer detects the new network card, assigns
the correct resources to it, and then installs the networking software
required for connection to the network. All the user need do is
assign the network details like computer name.
For Ethernet or 10BaseT cards, each card is identified by a twelve
digit hexadecimal number. This number uniquely identifies the
computer. These network card numbers are used in the Medium
Access [MAC] Layer to identify the destination for the data. When
talking to another computer, the data you send to that computer is
prefixed with the number of the card you are sending the data to.
This allows intermediate devices in the network to decide in which
direction the data should go, in order to transport the data to its
correct destination.

A typical adapter card looks like,

A PCMCIA adapter card, suitable for connecting to a portable laptop

computer to a network, looks like,

A wireless PCMCIA adapter card, suitable for connecting to a

portable laptop computer to a network, looks like:

Peripheral cards associated with EISA and MCA are normally self
configuring.
The major problem arises with cards for the ISA bus found in older
computers. This is because the cards are configured by the user
(using either jumpers or a software program).
Users make mistakes, and often configure cards so that they
conflict with other cards already present in this system. This causes
intermittent or immediate non-operation of the computer system.
For instance, a networking card that is allocated the same
resources as a serial communications program may function
perfectly, except when the user is logged into the network and then
tries to use the serial port, at which time the machine will crash.
Resources Used By Peripheral Cards
We have already mentioned that resources used by ISA peripheral cards
must not be shared (two cards cannot use the same resources). So what
are the resources used by peripheral cards?
Essentially, there are FOUR resources which are user configurable for
peripheral cards. Some cards may only use one (a port location(s)), others
may require all four.
The FOUR resources are:
1. Input/Output Port Address
In the PC, the port numbers used by peripheral cards range from
200h to 3FFh. The I/O port address is used by the PC to

communicate with the peripheral card (issue commands, read

responses, and perform data transfer).

Common I/O Port Addresses

Port Address Peripheral
200-207h

Game I/O Adaptor

210-217h

XT Expansion Unit

220h

SoundBlaster

278-27Fh

LPT2

2E8-2EFh

COM4

2F8-2FFh

COM2

300-30Fh

Color Video Adaptor

320-32F

XT Hard Disk

330h

SoundBlaster MIDI

378-37Fh

LPT1

3A0-3A9h

IBM Synchronous Adaptor

3B0-3BFh

Monochrome Video

3E8-3EFh

COM3

3F0-3F7h

Floppy Disk

3F8-3FFh

COM1

2. Interrupt Request Line

The interrupt request line is used by the card to signal the processor
that the card requires the processors attention. ISA peripherals
cannot share the same interrupt request line.
Common Interrupts
IRQ Line Peripheral
2

EGA/VGA

COM2

COM1

LPT2, Bus mouse, Network

Floppy Disk

LPT1

13

Co-Processor

14
AT Disk Controller
3. Direct Memory Request Line
The DMA request line is used to transfer data between the

peripheral card and the computers memory at high speed. DMA

channel 0 cannot be used, as it is reserved for system use.
Common DMA Lines
DMA Line Peripheral
0

Memory Circuitry

Spare

Floppy Drive

4. Buffer Memory Address

Some peripheral cards prefer to use memory space rather than an
I/O port address to transfer data to the processor. This memory
space occupied by the peripheral card appears in the main system
memory RAM area available to the processor (usually between
C0000h to EFFFFh). Care must be taken to ensure this space is not
being used for other purposes (like shadow RAM, EMS for windows,
VBGA BIOS).
Common Memory Addresses
Address

Peripheral

A0000-BFFFFh EGA/VGA
B0000-B7FFFh Monochrome
B8000-BFFFFh CGA
C8000-CFFFFh XT Disk
F4000-FFFFFh AT ROM BIOS
F8000-FFFFFh PC/XT ROM BIOS

Installing A Peripheral Card

This section discusses basic techniques for installing peripheral cards. By
following standardized procedures, this will help to minimize damage to
the system or peripheral card, and reduce the possibility of incorrect
installation.
1. Determine the resources used by the computer
Use the previous tables to determine the interrupts, memory and
port addresses used by the current hardware in the computer.
2. Read the install manual
Check the disk for a read.me file (and read it). Read the manual and
take note of the jumper switches used by the card. Identify where
these are located on the card.

3. Determine resources to be used by the card

Allocate resources to the card which do not conflict with existing
hardware.
4. Observe electrostatic protection in handling the card
Use a wrist strap and ground yourself properly before handling the
card. Handle the card by the edges. Do not touch the components
or edge connector. Use electrostatic bags or an electrostatic mat.
5. Configure the card jumpers
Set the jumpers on the card
6. Insert the card
Remove the system base unit cover and insert the card into a spare
peripheral bus slot. Observe electrostatic precautions.
7. Load the software driver
If the card was provided with a software driver, install the software
driver. This might involve running an INSTALL program, or copying
the drivers to the hard disk. It might also mean adding the driver
name to the config.sys file (DEVICE=xxxxx.sys).
8. Configure the driver software
If the driver software needs to be configured (specify which
resources the card is using), this information might be stored in a
separate file (.ini or .cfg). Often, when installing the software, it will
ask for configuration details. These must be the same as the
hardware jumpers used by the card.
9. Test card (run diagnostics where provided)
If the card was provided with diagnostic software, run that now to
test the card and driver. This is a good way to test if the installation
was done correctly.
10.Test the machine
Test some of the other software packages on the system (like
networking, serial communications and printing) to see if they still
work. If they don't, this indicates a probable conflict of resources. In
Windows 95/98/ME or NT, run the diagnostic program to check for
interrupt and resource conflicts (MSD or WINMSD).
11. Windows 2000/XP will usualy install the card automaticly, without
much interaction or problems.

Installing A Peripheral Card

This section discusses basic techniques for installing peripheral cards. By
following standardized procedures, this will help to minimize damage to
the system or peripheral card, and reduce the possibility of incorrect
installation.
Note:
In most newer computer using Windows 2000/XP installations are basicly
"Plug and Play" with some interaction by the user.
1. Determine the resources used by the computer
Use the previous tables to determine the interrupts, memory and
port addresses used by the current hardware in the computer.

2. Read the install manual

Check the disk for a read.me file (and read it). Read the manual and
take note of the jumper switches used by the card. Identify where
these are located on the card.
3. Determine resources to be used by the card
Allocate resources to the card which do not conflict with existing
hardware.
4. Observe electrostatic protection in handling the card
Use a wrist strap and ground yourself properly before handling the
card. Handle the card by the edges. Do not touch the components
or edge connector. Use electrostatic bags or an electrostatic mat.
5. Configure the card jumpers
Set the jumpers on the card
6. Insert the card
Remove the system base unit cover and insert the card into a spare
peripheral bus slot. Observe electrostatic precautions.
7. Load the software driver
If the card was provided with a software driver, install the software
driver. This might involve running an INSTALL program, or copying
the drivers to the hard disk. It might also mean adding the driver
name to the config.sys file (DEVICE=xxxxx.sys).
8. Configure the driver software
If the driver software needs to be configured (specify which
resources the card is using), this information might be stored in a
separate file (.ini or .cfg). Often, when installing the software, it will
ask for configuration details. These must be the same as the
hardware jumpers used by the card.
9. Test card (run diagnostics where provided)
If the card was provided with diagnostic software, run that now to
test the card and driver. This is a good way to test if the installation
was done correctly.
10.Test the machine
Test some of the other software packages on the system (like
networking, serial communications and printing) to see if they still
work. If they don't, this indicates a probable conflict of resources. In
Windows 95/98/ME or NT, run the diagnostic program to check for
interrupt and resource conflicts (MSD or WINMSD).
Summary of Installing Network Cards in Servers and Workstations
ISA cards are a problem
Check what resources are already being used
Do not share resources between two cards
Interrupts can only be shared on EISA and MCA cards
Run the diagnostics software after installation
If the computer hangs, remove one board at a time until the problem
disappears

<>Brief Guide to BUILDING WIRING

Cable specifications and maximum lenghts

EIA/TIA-568 UTP Wiring Standard Specifications

Desktop to Wall Outlet: 5 Meters

Wall Outlet to Wiring Closet: 90 Meters
Patch Cable in Wiring Closet: 5 Meters
Fiber Optic Link between Wiring Closets: 2000 Meters
UTP Backbone between Wiring Closets: 800 Meters

100Base-T Wiring Standard Specifications

Fast Ethernet for Category 5 UTP. This standard is based on CDDI ( FDDI
over copper).
Segment Lengths: Two pairs of UTP cable with a maximum length of
100 Meters.
Cable Types: As the signalling frequency is 20Mhz, the minimum is
Category 3 standard UTP.
Connector Types: Category 5 type RJ45 connectors.

100Base-FX Wiring Standard Specifications

Fast Ethernet over Fiber Optic Cable

Cable Types: Twin strands of Multimode fiber.

Connector Types: SC, MIC and ST
Segment Lengths: Full Duplex links are 2000 Meters, two switches or a
switch adapter is 412 Meters. Repeater segment lengths can be a
maximum of 320 Meters (typically less)

100Base-T4 Wiring Standard Specifications

Fast Ethernet for Category 3 UTP Cable

Cable Types: Category 3 UTP

Connector Types: RJ-45
Segment Lengths: 100 Meters maximum.

Categories of UTP Cabling

EIA/TIA-568B and AT&T258A Connector Specifications
IEEE 10Base-T Connector Specifications

Categories of UTP Cabling

The EIA/TIA standard specifies FIVE categories of UTP cabling

Category 1
uses 22 or 24 AWG (American Wire Gauge Standard) solid wire and
is not suitable for data transmission
Category 2
uses 22 or 24 AWG solid wire, used for PABX and alarm systems,
and has a maximum bandwidth of 1Mhz
Category 3
uses 24 AWG solid wire having an impedance of 100 ohms with a
maximum bandwidth of 16Mhz
Category 4
same as Category 3 but rated to 20Mhz
Category 5
uses 22 or 24 AWG pair wire having an impedance of 100 ohms
with a maximum bandwidth of 100Mhz, typically using an RJ45
connector and used to implement 10BaseT
Most Network cabling uses Category 5, some older instalations
may be Category 3.
IEEE 10Base-T Connector Specifications

Label Color Code Pin Number

T2

White/Orange

R2

Orange/White

T3

White/Green

R1

T1

R3

Green/White

T4

R4

IEEE 100Base-T Connector Specifications

Recommended by the IEEE for 100Base-TX and T4 operation

Label Color Code Pin Number

T2

White/Orange

R2

Orange/White

T3

White/Green

R1

Blue/White

T1

White/Blue

R3

Green/White

T4

White/Brown

R4

Brown/White

Cable Types
Cable is used to interconnect computers and network components
together. There are THREE main cable types used today:

Twisted Pair (Shielded Twisted Pair and Unshielded

Twisted Pair)
Coaxial Cable
Fibre Optics

The choice of cable depends upon a number of factors, like:

cost
distance
number of computers involved
speed requirements [called bandwidth] i.e., how fast data is to be
transferred

Twisted Pair (Shielded Twisted Pair and Unshielded Twisted

Pair)
Becoming the cable of choice for new installations, twisted pair cable is
readily accepted as the preferred solution to cabling. It provides support

for a range of speeds and configurations, and is widely supported by

different vendors.
Shielded twisted pair uses a special braided wire which surrounds all the
other wires, which helps to reduce unwanted interference.
The features of twisted pair cable are,

used in token ring (4 or 16MBps), 10BaseT (Ethernet 10MBps),

100BaseT (100Mbps)
reasonably cheap
reasonably easy to terminate [special crimp connector tools are
necessary for reliable operation
UTP often already installed in buildings
UTP is prone to interference, which limits speed and distances
low to medium capacity
medium to high loss
category 2 = up to 1Mbps (Telephone wiring)
category 3 = up to 10Mbps (Ethernet and 10BaseT)
category 5 = 100MBps (supports 10BaseT and 100BaseT)

Unshielded Twisted Pair cable used in Category 5 looks like

Category 5 cable uses 8 wires. The various jack connectors used in the
wiring closet look like,

The patch cord which connects the workstation to the wall jack looks like,

Distance limitations exist when cabling. For category 5 cabling at

100Mbps, the limitations effectively limit a workstation to wall outlet of 3
meters, and wall outlet to wiring closet of 90 meters.
All workstations are wired back to a central wiring closet, where they are
then patched accordingly. Within an organization, the IT department either
performs this work or sub-contracts it to a third party.

In 10BaseT, each PC is wired back to a central hub using its own cable.
There are limits imposed on the length of drop cable from the PC network

card to the wall outlet, the length of the horizontal wiring, and from the wall
outlet to the wiring closet.
Patch Cables
Patch cables come in two varieties, straight through or reversed. One
application of patch cables is for patching between modular patch panels
in system centers. These are the straight through variety. Another
application is to connect workstation equipment to the wall jack, and these
could be either straight through or reversed depending upon the
manufacturer. Reversed cables are normally used for voice systems.
How to determine the type of patch cable
Align the ends of the cable side by side so that the contacts are facing
you, then compare the colors from left to right.

If the colors are in the same order on both plugs, the cable is straight
through. If the colors appear in the reverse order, the cable is reversed.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has traditionally been the cable of choice for low cost, small
user networks. This has been mainly due to its ease of use and low cost.
The general features of coaxial cable are,

medium capacity
Ethernet systems (10Mbps)
slighter higher priced than UTP
more difficult to terminate
not as subject to interference as UTP
care when bending and installing is needed
10Base2 uses RG-58AU (also called Thin-Net or Cheaper Net)
10Base5 uses a thicker solid core coaxial cable (also called ThickNet)

Thin coaxial cable RG-58AU rated at 50 ohms], as used in Ethernet LAN's,

looks like

The connectors used in thin-net Ethernet LAN's are T connectors (used to

join cables together and attach to workstations) and terminators (one at
each end of the cable). The T-connectors and terminators look like

Fiber Optic
Fiber optic cable is considered the default choice for connections involving
high speed [large bandwidth requirements like video, large database
systems], long distances and interconnecting networks. It costs more than
either twisted pair or coax, and requires special connectors and jointing
methods.
The features of fiber-optic cable systems are,

expensive
used for backbones [linking LAN?s together] or FDDI rings
(100Mbps)
high capacity [100Mbps]
immune to electromagnetic interference
low loss
difficult to join
connectors are expensive
long distance

Fiber optic is often used to overcome distance limitations. It can be used

to join two hubs together, which normally could not be connected due to
distance limitations. In this instance, a UTP to Fiber transceiver [often
referred to as a FOT] is necessary. Fiber optic cable looks like

In addition, fiber optic patch panels are used to interconnect fiber cables.
These patch panels look like

Fiber Optic
Fiber optic cable is considered the default choice for connections involving
high speed [large bandwidth requirements like video, large database
systems], long distances and interconnecting networks. It costs more than
either twisted pair or coax, and requires special connectors and jointing
methods.
The features of fiber-optic cable systems are,

expensive
used for backbones [linking LAN?s together] or FDDI rings
(100Mbps)
high capacity [100Mbps]

immune to electromagnetic interference

low loss
difficult to join
connectors are expensive
long distance

Fiber optic is often used to overcome distance limitations. It can be used

to join two hubs together, which normally could not be connected due to
distance limitations. In this instance, a UTP to Fiber transceiver [often
referred to as a FOT] is necessary. Fiber optic cable looks like

In addition, fiber optic patch panels are used to interconnect fiber cables.
These patch panels look like

NETWORK SEGMENTS:

REPEATERS
ROUTERS, HUBS
ETHERNET
SW ITCHES

A network segment

is a length of cable
devices can be attached to the cable
has its own unique address
has a limit on its length and the number of devices which can be
attached to it

Large networks are made by combining several individual network

segments together, using appropriate devices like routers and/or bridges.

When network segments are combined into a single large network, paths
exist between the individual network segments. These paths are called
routes, and devices like routers and bridges keep tables which define how
to get to a particular computer on the network. When a packet arrives, the
router/bridge will look at the destination address of the packet, and
determine which network segment the packet is to be transmitted on in
order to get to its destination.

In the above diagram, a packet arrives whose destination is segment B.

The bridge forwards this incoming packet from segment A to the B
REPEATERS
Repeaters EXTEND network segments. They amplify the incoming signal
received from one segment and send it on to all other attached segments.
This allows the distance limitations of network cabling to be extended.
There are limits on the number of repeaters which can be used. The
repeater counts as a single node in the maximum node count associated
with the Ethernet standard [30 for thin coax].

Repeaters also allow isolation of segments in the event of failures or fault

conditions. Disconnecting one side of a repeater effectively isolates the
associated segments from the network.
Using repeaters simply allows you to extend your network distance
limitations. It does not give you any more bandwidth or allow you to
transmit data faster.

It should be noted that in the above diagram, the network number

assigned to the main network segment and the network number assigned
to the other side of the repeater are the same. In addition, the traffic
generated on one segment is propagated onto the other segment. This
causes a rise in the total amount of traffic, so if the network segments are
already heavily loaded, it's not a good idea to use a repeater.
A repeater works at the Physical Layer by simply repeating all data from
one segment to another.

Summary of Repeater features

increase traffic on segments
have distance limitations
limitations on the number that can be used
propagate errors in the network
cannot be administered or controlled via remote access
cannot loop back to itself (must be unique single paths)
no traffic isolation or filtering

ROUTERS

Packets are only passed to the network segment they are destined for.
They work similar to bridges and switches in that they filter out
unnecessary network traffic and remove it from network segments.
Routers generally work at the protocol level.
Routers were devised in order to separate networks logically. For instance,
a TCP/IP router can segment the network based on groups of TCP/IP
addresses. Filtering at this level (on TCP/IP addresses, also known as
level 3 switching) will take longer than that of a bridge or switch which only
looks at the MAC layer.
Most routers can also perform bridging functions. A major feature of
routers, because they can filter packets at a protocol level, is to act as a
firewall. This is essentially a barrier, which prevents unwanted packets
either entering or leaving designated areas of the network.
Typically, an organization which connects to the Internet will install a router
as the main gateway link between their network and the outside world. By
configuring the router with access lists (which define what protocols and
what hosts have access) this enforces security by restricted (or allowing)
access to either internal or external hosts.
For example, an internal WWW server can be allowed IP access from
external networks, but other company servers which contain sensitive data
can be protected, so that external hosts outside the company are
prevented access (you could even deny internal workstations access if
required).

A router works at the Network Layer or higher, by looking at information

embedded within the data field, like a TCP/IP address, then forwards the
frame to the appropriate segment upon which the destination computer
resides.

Summary of Router features

use dynamic routing
operate at the protocol level
remote administration and configuration via SNMP
support complex networks
the more filtering done, the lower the performance
provides security
segment networks logically
broadcast storms can be isolated
often provide bridge functions also

more complex routing protocols used [such as RIP, IGRP, OSPF]

HUBS
There are many types of hubs. Passive hubs are simple splitters or
combiners that group workstations into a single segment, whereas active
hubs include a repeater function and are thus capable of supporting many
more connections.
Nowadays, with the advent of 10BaseT, hub concentrators are being very
popular. These are very sophisticated and offer significant features which
make them radically different from the older hubs which were available
during the 1980's.
These 10BaseT hubs provide each client with exclusive access to the full
bandwidth, unlike bus networks where the bandwidth is shared. Each
workstation plugs into a separate port, which runs at 10Mbps and is for the
exclusive use of that workstation, thus there is no contention to worry
about like in Ethernet.
These 10BaseT hubs also include buffering of packets and filtering, so that
unwanted packets (or packets which contain errors) are discarded. SNMP
management is also a common feature.

In standard Ethernet, all stations are connected to the same network

segment in bus configuration. Traffic on the bus is controlled using the
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) protocol, and all stations share the
available bandwidth.
10BaseT Hubs dedicate the entire bandwidth to each port (workstation).
The workstations attach to the hub using UTP. The hub provides a number
of ports, which are logically combined using a single backplane, which
often runs at a much higher data rate than that of the ports.

Ports can also be buffered, to allow packets to be held in case the hub or
port is busy. And, because each workstation has it's own port, it does not
contend with other workstations for access, having the entire bandwidth
available for it's exclusive use.
The ports on a hub all appear as one Ethernet segment. In addition, hubs
can be stacked or cascaded (using master/slave configurations) together,
to add more ports per segment. As hubs do not count as repeaters, this is
a better option for adding more workstations than the use of a repeater.

Hub options also include an SNMP (Simple Network Management

Protocol) agent. This allows the use of network management software to
remotely administer and configure the hub. Detailed statistics related to
port usage and bandwidth are often available, allowing informed decisions
to be made concerning the state of the network.
In summary, the advantages for these newer 10BaseT hubs are,

each port has exclusive access to its bandwidth (no CSMA/CD)

hubs may be cascaded to add additional ports
SNMP managed hubs offer good management tools and statistics
utilize existing cabling and other network components
becoming a low cost solution

ETHERNET SWITCHES
Ethernet switches increase network performance by decreasing the
amount of extraneous traffic on individual network segments attached to
the switch. They also filter packets a bit like a router does. In addition,
Ethernet switches work and function like bridges at the MAC layer, but
instead of reading the entire incoming Ethernet frame before forwarding it
to the destination segment, usually only read the destination address in
the frame before retransmitting it to the correct segment. In this way,
switches forward frames faster than bridges, offering less delays through
the network, hence better performance.
When a packet arrives, the header is checked to determine which segment
the packet is destined for, and then its forwarded to that segment. If the
packet is destined for the same segment that it arrives on, the packet is
dropped and not retransmitted. This prevents the packet being
"broadcasted" onto unnecessary segments, reducing the traffic.
Nodes which inter-communicate frequently should be placed on the same
segment. Switches work at the MAC layer level.
Switches divide the network into smaller collision domains [a collison
domain is a group of workstations that contend for the same bandwidth].
Each segment into the switch has its own collision domain (where the
bandwidth is competed for by workstations in that segment). As packets
arrive at the switch, it looks at the MAC address in the header, and
decides which segment to forward the packet to. Higher protocols like IPX
and TCP/IP are buried deep inside the packet, so are invisible to the
switch. Once the destination segment has been determined, the packet is
forwarded without delay.
Each segment attached to the switch is considered to be a separate
collision domain. However, the segments are still part of the same
broadcast domain [a broadcast domain is a group of workstations which
share the same network subnet, in TCP/IP this is defined by the subnet

mask]. Broadcast packets which originate on any segment will be

forwarded to all other segments (unlike a router). On some switches, it is
possible to disable this broadcast traffic.
Some vendors implement a broadcast throttle feature, whereby a limit is
placed on the number of broadcasts forwarded by the switch over a certain
time period. Once a threshold level has been reached, no additional
broadcasts are forwarded till the time period has expired and a new time
period begins.
Cut-Through Switches

only the first few bytes of the packet are read to obtain the source
and destination addresses
the packets are then passed through to the destination segment
without checking the rest of the packet for errors
invalid packets can still be passed onto other segments
there is little delay involved in packet throughput

Cut through switches use either a cross-bar or cell-backplane

architecture.
Cross-bar switches
o read the destination address then immediately forward
o acts as a simple repeater once the path is established
o can introduce delay: If the destination port is busy, it may
need to buffer the packet
Cell-backplane switches
o break the frame into small fixed cell lengths
o each cell is labeled with special headers which contain the
addresses of the destination port
o the cells are buffered at the destination port
o the cells are then reassembled and transmitted
o the data rate on the backplane is significantly greater than
the aggregate data rate of the ports
o in heavily overloaded networks, cell-backplane switching
offers better performance than cross-bar switching
Store-Forward Switches
examine the entire packet
each incoming packet is buffered, then examined
filters out any bad packets it detects
good packets are forwarded to the correct segment
detect more errors than the cut-through variety
impose a small delay in packet throughput
Back Pressure Switches
Switches often employ buffering of packets. This is done so when packets
arrive for a busy port, the packet is temporarily stored till the port becomes
free. When the buffer becomes fill, packets become lost.

Back pressure switches overcome this problem by sending the overflow

packets back to the workstation. This effectively slows the workstation
transmission rate, and hence slows the arrival of new packets at the port.
Ethernet Switching: Advantges

existing cabling structure and network adapters is preserved

switches can be used to segment overloaded networks
switches can be used to create server farms or implement
backbones
technology is proven, Ethernet is a widely used standard
improved efficiency and faster performance due to low latency
switching times
each port does not contend with other ports, each having their own
full bandwidth (there is no
contention like there is on Ethernet)

ETHERNET SWITCHES
Ethernet switches increase network performance by decreasing the
amount of extraneous traffic on individual network segments attached to
the switch. They also filter packets a bit like a router does. In addition,
Ethernet switches work and function like bridges at the MAC layer, but
instead of reading the entire incoming Ethernet frame before forwarding it
to the destination segment, usually only read the destination address in
the frame before retransmitting it to the correct segment. In this way,
switches forward frames faster than bridges, offering less delays through
the network, hence better performance.
When a packet arrives, the header is checked to determine which segment
the packet is destined for, and then its forwarded to that segment. If the
packet is destined for the same segment that it arrives on, the packet is
dropped and not retransmitted. This prevents the packet being
"broadcasted" onto unnecessary segments, reducing the traffic.
Nodes which inter-communicate frequently should be placed on the same
segment. Switches work at the MAC layer level.
Switches divide the network into smaller collision domains [a collison
domain is a group of workstations that contend for the same bandwidth].
Each segment into the switch has its own collision domain (where the
bandwidth is competed for by workstations in that segment). As packets
arrive at the switch, it looks at the MAC address in the header, and
decides which segment to forward the packet to. Higher protocols like IPX
and TCP/IP are buried deep inside the packet, so are invisible to the
switch. Once the destination segment has been determined, the packet is
forwarded without delay.

Each segment attached to the switch is considered to be a separate

collision domain. However, the segments are still part of the same
broadcast domain [a broadcast domain is a group of workstations which
share the same network subnet, in TCP/IP this is defined by the subnet
mask]. Broadcast packets which originate on any segment will be
forwarded to all other segments (unlike a router). On some switches, it is
possible to disable this broadcast traffic.
Some vendors implement a broadcast throttle feature, whereby a limit is
placed on the number of broadcasts forwarded by the switch over a certain
time period. Once a threshold level has been reached, no additional
broadcasts are forwarded till the time period has expired and a new time
period begins.
Cut-Through Switches

only the first few bytes of the packet are read to obtain the source
and destination addresses
the packets are then passed through to the destination segment
without checking the rest of the packet for errors
invalid packets can still be passed onto other segments
there is little delay involved in packet throughput

Cut through switches use either a cross-bar or cell-backplane

architecture.
Cross-bar switches
o read the destination address then immediately forward
o acts as a simple repeater once the path is established
o can introduce delay: If the destination port is busy, it may
need to buffer the packet
Cell-backplane switches
o break the frame into small fixed cell lengths
o each cell is labeled with special headers which contain the
addresses of the destination port
o the cells are buffered at the destination port
o the cells are then reassembled and transmitted
o the data rate on the backplane is significantly greater than
the aggregate data rate of the ports
o in heavily overloaded networks, cell-backplane switching
offers better performance than cross-bar switching
Store-Forward Switches
examine the entire packet
each incoming packet is buffered, then examined
filters out any bad packets it detects
good packets are forwarded to the correct segment
detect more errors than the cut-through variety
impose a small delay in packet throughput

Back Pressure Switches

Switches often employ buffering of packets. This is done so when packets
arrive for a busy port, the packet is temporarily stored till the port becomes
free. When the buffer becomes fill, packets become lost.
Back pressure switches overcome this problem by sending the overflow
packets back to the workstation. This effectively slows the workstation
transmission rate, and hence slows the arrival of new packets at the port.
Ethernet Switching: Advantges

existing cabling structure and network adapters is preserved

switches can be used to segment overloaded networks
switches can be used to create server farms or implement
backbones
technology is proven, Ethernet is a widely used standard
improved efficiency and faster performance due to low latency
switching times
each port does not contend with other ports, each having their own
full bandwidth (there is no
contention like there is on Ethernet)

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is
connected. Each topology is suited to specific tasks and has its own
advantages and disadvantages.

The choice of topology is dependent upon:

type and number of equipment being used

planned applications and rate of data transfers
required response times
cost

There are FOUR major competing topologies:

Bus
Ring
Star
FDDI

In this course we will look at the two most popular topologies,

Bus and Star
STAR Topology

Bus Topology

Star Topology

all wiring is done from a central point (the server or hub)

has the greatest cable lengths of any topology (and thus uses the
most amount of cable)
generally STP or UTP, four wire

Summary

Advantages

Disadvantages

Easy to add new workstations

Hub failure cripples all workstations

connected to that hub

Centralized control

Hubs are slighty more expensive than thinEthernet

Centralized network/hub
monitoring

Bus Topology

all workstations connect to the same cable segment

commonly used for implementing Ethernet at 10mbps
the cable is terminated at each end
wiring is normally done point to point
a faulty cable or workstation will take the entire LAN down
two wire, generally implemented using coaxial cable during the
1980's

The bus cable carries the transmitted message along the cable. As the
message arrives at each workstation, the workstation computer checks the
destination address contained in the message to see if it matches it's own.
If the address does not match, the workstation does nothing more.
If the workstation address matches that contained in the message, the
workstation processes the message. The message is transmitted along
the cable and is visible to all computers connected to that cable.
There are THREE common wiring implementations for bus networks

10Base2 (thin-net, CheaperNet) 50-ohm cable using BNC T

connectors, cards provide transceiver
10Base5 (ThickNet) 50-ohm cable using 15-pin AUI D-type
connectors and external transceivers
10BaseT (UTP) UTP cable using RJ45 connectors and a wiring
centre

Bus Topology

all workstations connect to the same cable segment

commonly used for implementing Ethernet at 10mbps
the cable is terminated at each end
wiring is normally done point to point
a faulty cable or workstation will take the entire LAN down
two wire, generally implemented using coaxial cable during the
1980's

The bus cable carries the transmitted message along the cable. As the
message arrives at each workstation, the workstation computer checks the
destination address contained in the message to see if it matches it's own.
If the address does not match, the workstation does nothing more.
If the workstation address matches that contained in the message, the
workstation processes the message. The message is transmitted along
the cable and is visible to all computers connected to that cable.
There are THREE common wiring implementations for bus networks

10Base2 (thin-net, CheaperNet) 50-ohm cable using BNC T

connectors, cards provide transceiver
10Base5 (ThickNet) 50-ohm cable using 15-pin AUI D-type
connectors and external transceivers
10BaseT (UTP) UTP cable using RJ45 connectors and a wiring
centre

Physical Implementation Of A Bus Network

The above diagram shows a number of computers connected to a Bus

cable, in this case, implemented as Thin Ethernet. Each computer has a
network card installed, which directly attaches to the network bus cable via
a T-Connector.
It is becoming common to use 10BaseT (UTP) for implementing Ethernet
LANS. Each workstation is wired in star fashion back to a concentrator

wiring centre (hub). The hub is a multi-port device supporting up to about

32 ports. One of these ports is connected to a server, or the output of the
hub can be connected to other hubs.
Physical Implementation Of A Bus Network

The above diagram shows a number of computers connected to a Bus

cable, in this case, implemented as Thin Ethernet. Each computer has a
network card installed, which directly attaches to the network bus cable via
a T-Connector.
It is becoming common to use 10BaseT (UTP) for implementing Ethernet
LANS. Each workstation is wired in star fashion back to a concentrator
wiring centre (hub). The hub is a multi-port device supporting up to about
32 ports. One of these ports is connected to a server, or the output of the
hub can be connected to other hubs.
Physical Bus Cable Limits
10Base2 THIN ETHERNET NETWORK LAYOUT
Limitations

maximum number of trunk segments = 5

maximum trunk segment length = 607 feet (185 meters)
maximum network trunk cable = 3035 feet (925 meters)
maximum number of stations on a trunk segment = 30
minimum distance between T connectors = 1.5 feet (0.5 meters)

Rules

each end of the trunk segment is terminated in 50-ohms

one of the terminators is grounded
connector splices are kept to a minimum

Cabling
BNC-T type connectors
RG58-AU 50-ohm cable, 0.2"

10BaseT UTP Network Layout

maximum segment length of 100 Meters

Hub to Hub or repeater to repeater links limited to 100 Meters

Rules

star topology
4 repeater/5 segment rule of 10Base5 is retained
only two nodes per segment are allowed

Cabling
RJ-45 Connectors
Category 3 UTP minimum, preferably Category 5

Bus Network Topology Summary

Advantages

Disadvantages

Easy to
implement

Limits on cable length and Workstation numbers

Low Cost

Difficult to isolate network faults

A cable fault affects all workstations
As the number of workstations increase, the speed of the
network slows down

Peer To Peer [Windows Workgroups]

In peer networks, each computer is considered a server, and holds its own
accounts database. Each computer can share resources that it owns, like
files, CD-ROM drives, printers, modems and fax machines.

The advantages of peer to peer networks are,

workstations make available their resources
no centralized server required
security responsibility of each workstation
each station runs same software
each computer has its own accounts database
cheap and easy to set up for small groups

When the number of workstations in the network increase, problems will

arise due to the cost of administration [maintenance of security on so
many workstations which have their own accounts] and security [it is easy
for loop holes to develop in which unauthorized users could gain access].

Workgroups

Sharing Resource
Accessing Resources

Peer To Peer [Windows Workgroups]

In peer networks, each computer is considered a server, and holds its own
accounts database. Each computer can share resources that it owns, like
files, CD-ROM drives, printers, modems and fax machines.

The advantages of peer to peer networks are,

workstations make available their resources
no centralized server required
security responsibility of each workstation
each station runs same software
each computer has its own accounts database
cheap and easy to set up for small groups

When the number of workstations in the network increase, problems will

arise due to the cost of administration [maintenance of security on so
many workstations which have their own accounts] and security [it is easy
for loop holes to develop in which unauthorized users could gain access].

Workgroups

Sharing Resource
Accessing Resources

Workgroups
A workgroup is a collection of computers which are logically grouped
together for a common purpose. In any organization, logical workgroups
exist, like sales, marketing, accounts, salaries and support. By allowing
like people to share their files and resources, it assists the way in which
people work and leads to increased productivity.
A workgroup is a Peer to Peer network.

Resources in a workgroup
Typically, computers in a workgroup make available resources for other
members of the workgroup to use. Features of resources are,

a typical resource is a file, directory or printer

resources given names (share names)

resources assigned permissions (like a password)

permissions can be read-only or full
any user knowing the password can access the resource

Both Windows 95/98 and Windows NT Workstation support workgroups.

Each user in a workgroup can decide which resources on their computer
they will share. Ideally, in a workgroup, each person has their own
computer which is normally identified on the network by their first name.

Belonging to a workgroup
In Windows 95/98/ME, a computer is set up to be part of a workgroup via
Control Panel->Networks.

The primary network logon is set to Client For Microsoft Networks.

Selecting the Identification tab enables the user to specify the workgroup
to which the computer belongs. Please note that a computer can only
belong to a single workgroup.

Workgroups
A workgroup is a collection of computers which are logically grouped
together for a common purpose. In any organization, logical workgroups
exist, like sales, marketing, accounts, salaries and support. By allowing
like people to share their files and resources, it assists the way in which
people work and leads to increased productivity.
A workgroup is a Peer to Peer network.

Resources in a workgroup
Typically, computers in a workgroup make available resources for other
members of the workgroup to use. Features of resources are,

a typical resource is a file, directory or printer

resources given names (share names)
resources assigned permissions (like a password)
permissions can be read-only or full
any user knowing the password can access the resource

Both Windows 95/98 and Windows NT Workstation support workgroups.

Each user in a workgroup can decide which resources on their computer
they will share. Ideally, in a workgroup, each person has their own
computer which is normally identified on the network by their first name.

Belonging to a workgroup
In Windows 95/98/ME, a computer is set up to be part of a workgroup via
Control Panel->Networks.

The primary network logon is set to Client For Microsoft Networks.

Selecting the Identification tab enables the user to specify the workgroup
to which the computer belongs. Please note that a computer can only
belong to a single workgroup.

Sharing Resources
To share any resource on your computer, File and Printer Sharing must
first be enabled. This is under Control Panel->Networks->File and Printer
Sharing.

Once this is enabled, passwords may be assigned to each resource that is

made available. Users cannot use that resource unless they know the
password.
To share a resource such as a directory where sales reports are kept, start
Windows Explorer and right mouse click the directory that is to be shared.
In the diagram below, this has been done on the directory Corel\Versions
on drive c:.

Clicking on the Sharing property brings up the following dialog box.

This allows the user to specify a password and name to the resource. In
Windows format, the name of the resource is then known on the
workgroup as
\computername\resourcename

For instance, if the computer name was sue, and the resource was
specified as temp, then the resource is known as
\sue\temp

This is known as the Uniform Naming Convention [UNC] for the resource.

Sharing Resources
To share any resource on your computer, File and Printer Sharing must
first be enabled. This is under Control Panel->Networks->File and Printer
Sharing.

Once this is enabled, passwords may be assigned to each resource that is

made available. Users cannot use that resource unless they know the
password.
To share a resource such as a directory where sales reports are kept, start
Windows Explorer and right mouse click the directory that is to be shared.
In the diagram below, this has been done on the directory Corel\Versions
on drive c:.

Clicking on the Sharing property brings up the following dialog box.

This allows the user to specify a password and name to the resource. In
Windows format, the name of the resource is then known on the
workgroup as
\computername\resourcename

For instance, if the computer name was sue, and the resource was
specified as temp, then the resource is known as
\sue\temp

This is known as the Uniform Naming Convention [UNC] for the resource.

Accessing Resources
Accessing resources is done by selecting the resource and entering in the
appropriate share password for that resource. Using Network
Neighbourhood, a list of available computers which hold resources will
appear as a list. Only those computers that have resources to share
appear in the list.
In the following diagram, a number of computers are shown. Each of these
computers has resources which can be accessed.

Double clicking on any computer will bring up a list of resources available

on that computer. For instance, selecting the computer Ice reveals the
following available resources [iceflow is a shared printer].

In summary, the features of Work-groups are

collection of computers organized for a specific purpose (suits the

needs of the group)
is peer to peer
no centralized administration
each computer has its own accounts database and permission lists
share files, printers and applications
each computer identified by unique name (normally person using
that computer)

Exercise:
After completing this section:
1. Create a folder on your local drive and share it on the Network.
2. Map your network drive to your folder on the TKS server.
3. Write a report on the concept of Peer to Peer sharing.

Accessing Resources
Accessing resources is done by selecting the resource and entering in the
appropriate share password for that resource. Using Network
Neighbourhood, a list of available computers which hold resources will
appear as a list. Only those computers that have resources to share
appear in the list.
In the following diagram, a number of computers are shown. Each of these
computers has resources which can be accessed.

Double clicking on any computer will bring up a list of resources available

on that computer. For instance, selecting the computer Ice reveals the
following available resources [iceflow is a shared printer].

In summary, the features of Work-groups are

collection of computers organized for a specific purpose (suits the

needs of the group)
is peer to peer
no centralized administration
each computer has its own accounts database and permission lists
share files, printers and applications
each computer identified by unique name (normally person using
that computer)

Exercise:
After completing this section:
1. Create a folder on your local drive and share it on the Network.
2. Map your network drive to your folder on the TKS server.
3. Write a report on the concept of Peer to Peer sharing.

File and Print Service

Linux, Novell networks, Windows NT and Windows 2000 are based on the
concept of dedicated file and print servers. Each server has its own
accounts database, and assigns resources on that server to clients who
access the network.
Client computers login to a server using an account and password.
Resources on that server are protected via permission rights, which define
what the user is permitted to do. Typical permissions are read, write,
execute, delete, and modify.
If a user wishes to access a resource on a different server, they must have
an account on that server. .

The workstations in the network communicate only with the server and can
access resources on the server if

they have a login account

supply the correct password
have the appropriate access permissions for the resources

In summary, the features of a typical network are

workstations communicate with a host computer
security enforced by server
requires a high end machine as a server
resources on workstations (disks) not available
server runs special networking software
each server has its own accounts database
as the number of servers increase, administration becomes more

difficult

Domains
Domain User Accounts

Domain Machine Accounts

Groups

Domains
Microsoft introduced the concept of domains with the release of Windows
NT Server v3. We have already covered the problems of peer to peer
workgroups and Netware networks, where increases in the number of
computers offering resources leads to a dramatic increase in
administration associated with those resources.
The domain concept attempts to solve the issues of management and
security by providing a central point of logon to the network. This central
point of logon validates the user as authentic, and only grants those
resources to the user that have been pre-assigned to them.
Having a single point of logon validation simplifies administration, as there
is now only one place where accounts need to be updated.
A domain is a logical grouping of one or more Windows NT server based
computers that allow them to be managed as a single unit. Using domains,
the administrator creates one account for each user. Users logon to the
domain, not the individual servers in the domain.
Users do not need a separate account on each server in the domain. They
only need one user account in the domain. This account can then used to
access any resource on any server in the domain.
A domain consists of the following

one primary domain control

one or more backup domain controllers
resource servers
participating clients like Windows 95 and Windows NT Workstation
based computers

A primary domain controller

validates user logon to the domain
centralizes user accounts and security policies into a single
database
provides a single administrative unit for the network
A backup domain controller

also validates user logon to the domain

provides redundancy in the event of the PDC going off-line
keeps a copy of the domain accounts database [replicated
automatically from PDC]

A resource server
provides data storage or application software for users
does not handle domain logon, so is more efficient
runs applications like SQL database or Remote Access
In addition, multiple domains can be combined into larger organization
units or models. One domain can utilize [trust] the accounts of another
domain. This provides scalability as the organization grows.
To summarize, domains

are logical groupings of Windows NT Server based computers

provide a single network logon to server based resources
simplify administration by providing a single point of administering
user accounts and security policies
provide backup systems [redundancy] to take over in the event of a
PDC going off-line
replicate the accounts database to backup domain controllers

A Windows NT network consists of one or more domains, and may be

spread geographically over many different sites [connected via remote
links]. Each domain must have at least one server running Windows NT
Server, and be configured as a Primary Domain Server for that domain.
The domain can also comprise other servers, configured either as Backup
Domain Controllers or resource Servers, as well as workstations running
Windows NT Workstation or Windows 95.
The role of the computer [either as a PDC, BDC or resource Server] is
determined when the computer is installed. The PDC is installed first, in
order to create the domain and generate the master accounts database.
Resource Servers and BDC?s are then added to the domain.
Typically, each Windows NT 3.5 domain is capable of supporting as many
as 40,000 user accounts. In addition, BDC?s, which participate in
validating user logon requests, can each handle 2,000 users. Thus, if you
are implementing a network for 5,000 users, you would require 1 PDC and
2 BDC servers just to handle user logon requests.
When a Windows PDC is installed, it creates a database for the domain
which will hold user accounts and security information. This is stamped
with a unique identifier, and when a BDC is added to the domain, the
unique identifier of the database held on the PDC is used for the BDC.
This means that if you want to move the BDC to a different domain, the
BDC will need to be re-installed.

Domain User Accounts

A windows NT domain keeps user account details in a centralized
database which is held by the PDC for that domain. Each user who
requires access to the resources on the domain requires a user account in
that domain.
User accounts are created by the domain administrator. This creates a
unique security identifier (SID) for the user, and is stored in the security
account manager (SAM) database of the Windows NT Registry.
The user account provides access to resources in the domain, even if they
reside on other servers. To access servers in other domains, trust
relationships between the domains must be established.
At regular intervals, the user account database is copied to the BDC?s in
the domain. This allows BDC?s to authenticate logon requests, providing
quicker access to the network.

Domain Machine Accounts

When a computer is added to the domain, an account is created for the
machine. This account, in the case of BDC?s, is used to enable replication
of the user accounts database. For PDC?s, the account is used to
establish trusts between the domains.
It requires a user with administrative privilege to add a computer to the
domain. Each computer, when installed, must be given a unique name
which identifies the name of the computer in the domain. It is not possible
for two computers to share the same name.

GROUPS
To ease the management of users in a domain, Windows NT server allows
the administrator of the domain to group users together into logical groups.
Assigning users to groups simplifies administration. Assigning permissions
to a group also assigns those permissions to all members of the group.
In a domain, users can belong to one or more groups. Windows NT Server
provides a number of built-in groups, and these should be used whenever
possible. Two types of groups are provided in Windows NT Server,

local groups
define permissions to resources within the current domain [or local
computer] only. These groups cannot be exported to other domains.
Local groups can contain global groups which have been exported
from other domains, which allow users from other domains to have

access to resources in the current domain. Use local groups to

control access to resources in the current domain.
global groups
define groups of users which can be exported to other domains for
inclusion into local groups on the other domain. They contain user
accounts on the current domain which you want to export to another
domain. They are well suited to large networks which have multiple
domains.

GROUPS
To ease the management of users in a domain, Windows NT server allows
the administrator of the domain to group users together into logical groups.
Assigning users to groups simplifies administration. Assigning permissions
to a group also assigns those permissions to all members of the group.
In a domain, users can belong to one or more groups. Windows NT Server
provides a number of built-in groups, and these should be used whenever
possible. Two types of groups are provided in Windows NT Server,

local groups
define permissions to resources within the current domain [or local
computer] only. These groups cannot be exported to other domains.
Local groups can contain global groups which have been exported
from other domains, which allow users from other domains to have
access to resources in the current domain. Use local groups to
control access to resources in the current domain.
global groups
define groups of users which can be exported to other domains for
inclusion into local groups on the other domain. They contain user
accounts on the current domain which you want to export to another
domain. They are well suited to large networks which have multiple
domains.