Introduction to Marine Ecology

Physical limiting factors

light, temperature, salinity, nutrients, gases
variation within the ocean: depth and
geography

Marine habitats: where to make a living

Marine feeding types: how to make a
living

Ecology
The study of the relationships among
physical and biological aspects of the
environment.
how organisms adapt to and alter their
environment
factors that control distribution and
abundance of organisms
How do organisms meet their needs?
Physiological tolerances, food, mates,

Ecological communities
and ecosystems
Ecological community: Interacting organisms
living in a specific habitat
Marine examples: coral reef, mangrove, estuary,
intertidal

Community ecology studies the distribution

and abundance of species in a community, and
their interactions
E.g. patterns of species richness and productivity;
processes such as predator-prey interactions and
succession

Ecosystem ecology studies how the biotic and

abiotic components of an ecosystem interact

Limiting factors
Some aspect of the environment that
limits an organisms distribution.
Physical limiting factors
temperature, salinity, nutrients, light...

Biological limiting factors

competition, predation, herbivory

E.g. how climate, nutrients, etc. influence species and

their interactions - and how the biota influence the
physical and biogeochemical aspects of the system

Limiting factors

Physical factors: light penetration

Coastal
ocean
Light penetrates
deeper in clear, open
ocean than it does in
turbid, coastal water
Open
ocean

Physical factors:
light and light penetration
Photic zone: depth to which light
penetrates

Photosynthesis
6 CO2 + 6 H2O

sunlight

glucose

Defines zone of photosynthesis and

primary productivity (base of the food web).

Aphotic zone is below photic zone.

Most of the ocean is dark.
Dysphotic zone is very low light; too
little for photosynthesis

C6H12O6 + 6 02

Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy

Light limitation

Example: Whale-fall communities

-2891 m deep
-Monterey
Canyon

Confines most
productivity to
upper 100-200 m
Organisms below this have to be creative
in how they obtain food
Feed on detritus
Chemosynthesis at black smokers

-Worms and
sea cucumbers

New species of worm that feeds

exclusively on whale carcasses
Roots that extend into bone
Massive egg sacs, and dozens of
microscopic males (larval, with
copious sperm) living in the
female
Why??
http://w w w .mbari.org/new s/new s_releases/2004/w halefall.html

Limiting factors: temperature

Temperature affects metabolic rate: the rate at
which reactions proceed in an organism
Metabolic rate doubles for every 10C increase in
body temperature
Most marine organisms are ectothermic

Limiting factors: temperature

Endotherms can tolerate a broader range of
external temperature than ectotherms.
But endotherms require more energy (food)
than ectotherms.

same body temperature as the surrounding water.

clams, shrimp, most fish...

Some marine organisms are endothermic constant and usually higher body temperature than the
surrounding water.
marine mammals, birds, some tuna and sharks.

Temperature
affects activity
Barnacle cirri beat
faster at higher
temperature
Faster beat = more
efficient feeding

Limiting factors: salinity

Normal marine salinity is 35
Too high or too low is damaging
Low diversity in estuaries (low salinity)
Low diversity in areas of high evaporation (high
salinity)

Maintaining salt balance is critical organisms do this by:

Temperatures
in the ocean
Extremophiles beyond
this range
- submarine hot springs
- in polar ice: antifreeze
glycoproteins in blood

Diffusion
Passive equalizing of concentrations
Substance (or temperature) diffuses from high to
low concentration, equalizing them
Examples: diffusion of gases into ocean, into cells;
diffusion of nutrients into (and wastes out of)
phytoplankton

Diffusion passive movement from areas of high

concentration to low concentration
Osmosis diffusion of water through a membrane
Active transport active removal of substances
from an area of low concentration to high
concentration

Limiting factor Pressure

Osmosis
Type of diffusion that
equalizes water
concentration

High pressure in deep:

makes life impossible?
No! Most organisms do not
perceive this

Water (but not salts) flows

thru cell membranes into
region of higher salt
concentration

No gases in body (gases are

compressible)

Can create osmotic stress if

cell is moved into region of
contrasting salinity

Fishes with gas bladders are

adjusted for this pressure
Die (explode) if brought rapidly
to surface
Can adjust to move up and
down gradually on their own

Salt water is dehydrating;

it removes water from
within the cell.

Limiting factors:
dissolved nutrients
Required for the production of organic
matter
Required for photosynthesis - the base of
the food web

NO3-

Phosphates PO4-

surface
Low in the
photic zone,
High in
upwelling
areas

Limiting nutrients:
Nitrates

Global nitrates

200 m

Slides/
global
nitrate

fertilizers
1,000 m

Sometimes, Fe (iron), Si (silicon)

Global
phosphates

Fig/ nutrient/energy cycling

surface

Low in the
photic zone,
High in
upwelling
areas

200 m

Slides/
global
phospho
rus

1,000 m

Ocean has a tremendous

variety of physical habitats!

Fig/ typical ocean

profiles

Marine habitats:
Where to make a living
Pelagic zone: living in the water
neritic zone: nearshore, over the continental
shelf
oceanic zone: beyond the continental shelf

Benthic zone: living on the bottom

littoral - between high and low tide intertidal
sublittoral - out to edge of continental shelf
bathyal - continental slope
abyssal - abyssal plain
hadal - deep sea trenches

Plankton

Marine lifestyles
Planktonic: drift almost passively; cannot
counteract a current.
phytoplankton (plants)
zooplankton (animals)

Nektonic: active swimmers:

fish
reptiles
mammals
birds

Need ways to
stay in photic
zone
Small mass =
slow settling
High friction =
more drag

Benthic: Live on the bottom

Epifaunal
Infaunal

An organism can change modes through its

lifetime, e.g. larvae or juvenile vs adult

Benthic Habitats

infaunal, epifaunal

Infauna

Animals that burrow into soft substrates

(sand and mud)
Challenges include:
Displacing sediment
(digging/burrowing)
Constructing
structurally sound
burrows
Protecting tissues from
abrasion

Benefits include:
Protection from
predators, wave
energy, desiccation

Whats the best way to swim?

Minimize drag
Be fast
Accelerate
Cruising

Be maneuverable

How to swim fast?

Speed of a fish is dependent upon:
body length (long = fast)
beat frequency (more beats/sec = faster)
the aspect ratio of the caudal fin (high = fast)

Aspect ratio is the ratio of the square of the

caudal fin height to caudal fin area:
AR = (Caudal Fin Height)2/Caudal Fin Area
Faster
Slower

Marine habitats:
how to make a living

Note specialists
vs generalists

Primary producers: Autotrophs (make

own food)
Phytoplankton - floating
photosynthetic algae

Marine habitats:
how to make a living
Primary producers: autotrophs
Benthic macroalgae

Sea grass

Marine habitats:
how to make a living
Primary producers: autotrophs
Suspension (filter) feeders: filter
water for food:
pelagic suspension feeders: zooplankton
benthic suspension feeders:many
mollusks, sponges, baleen whales

Whale shark
(http://en.w ikipedia.org/w iki/Image:
W hale_shark_Georgia_aquarium.jpg

Jellyfish

Yellow
tube
sponge
http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen
/images/phylum_porifera.htm

Slide/ sponge - colonial

Copepod

Marine habitats:
how to make a living
Primary producers: autotrophs
Suspension feeders: filter water for food
Benthic grazers: scrape the bottom for
algae: sea urchins, snails, nudibranchs,
manatees

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Marine habitats:
how to make a living

Sea urchin

Nudibranch

Gastropod (snail)

Primary producers: autotrophs

Suspension feeders: filter water for food
Benthic grazers: scrape the bottom for
algae
Benthic deposit feeders: eat sediment:
many worms, crabs, some sea urchins,
some fish

Manatee

Heart urchin

Marine habitats:
how to make a living
Primary producers: autotrophs
Suspension feeders: filter water for food
Benthic grazers: scrape the bottom for
algae
Benthic deposit feeders: eat sediment
Predators: eat other animals: sharks,
many fish, dolphins, octopus, killer
whales, barnacles, corals
Primary, secondary, tertiary....

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Shark

Coral polyps

Barnacle
Frogfish (camouflaged)

Orca

http://w w w .s hiftingbaselines.org/
blog/archives/2005_11.html

Tuna

http://e n.wik ipe dia.o rg/wik i/Im a ge :Mo nta stre a _ca ve rno sa .jpg

Octopus

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