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Vitamin
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Avitaminisanorganiccompoundandavitalnutrientthatanorganism
requiresinlimitedamounts.Anorganicchemicalcompound(orrelatedsetof
compounds)iscalledavitaminwhentheorganismcannotsynthesizethe
compoundinsufficientquantities,anditmustbeobtainedthroughthediet
thus,theterm"vitamin"isconditionaluponthecircumstancesandthe
particularorganism.Forexample,ascorbicacid(oneformofvitaminC)isa
vitaminforhumans,butnotformostotheranimalorganisms.
Supplementationisimportantforthetreatmentofcertainhealthproblems,[1]
butthereislittleevidenceofnutritionalbenefitwhenusedbyotherwise
healthypeople.[2]
Byconventionthetermvitaminincludesneitherotheressentialnutrients,
suchasdietaryminerals,essentialfattyacids,oressentialaminoacids(which
areneededingreateramountsthanvitamins)northegreatnumberofother
AbottleofhighpotencyBcomplexvitamin
nutrientsthatpromotehealth,andarerequiredlessoftentomaintainthe
supplementpills.
healthoftheorganism.[3]Thirteenvitaminsareuniversallyrecognizedat
present.Vitaminsareclassifiedbytheirbiologicalandchemicalactivity,not
theirstructure.Thus,each"vitamin"referstoanumberofvitamercompoundsthatallshowthebiologicalactivityassociated
withaparticularvitamin.Suchasetofchemicalsisgroupedunderanalphabetizedvitamin"genericdescriptor"title,suchas
"vitaminA",whichincludesthecompoundsretinal,retinol,andfourknowncarotenoids.Vitamersbydefinitionareconvertible
totheactiveformofthevitamininthebody,andaresometimesinterconvertibletooneanother,aswell.
Vitaminshavediversebiochemicalfunctions.Some,suchasvitaminD,havehormonelikefunctionsasregulatorsofmineral
metabolism,orregulatorsofcellandtissuegrowthanddifferentiation(suchassomeformsofvitaminA).Othersfunctionas
antioxidants(e.g.,vitaminEandsometimesvitaminC).[4]Thelargestnumberofvitamins,theBcomplexvitamins,functionas
enzymecofactors(coenzymes)ortheprecursorsforthemcoenzymeshelpenzymesintheirworkascatalystsinmetabolism.In
thisrole,vitaminsmaybetightlyboundtoenzymesaspartofprostheticgroups:Forexample,biotinispartofenzymesinvolved
inmakingfattyacids.Theymayalsobelesstightlyboundtoenzymecatalystsascoenzymes,detachablemoleculesthatfunction
tocarrychemicalgroupsorelectronsbetweenmolecules.Forexample,folicacidmaycarrymethyl,formyl,andmethylene
groupsinthecell.Althoughtheserolesinassistingenzymesubstratereactionsarevitamins'bestknownfunction,theother
vitaminfunctionsareequallyimportant.[5]
Untilthemid1930s,whenthefirstcommercialyeastextractvitaminBcomplexandsemisyntheticvitaminCsupplement
tabletsweresold,vitaminswereobtainedsolelythroughfoodintake,andchangesindiet(which,forexample,couldoccur
duringaparticulargrowingseason)usuallygreatlyalteredthetypesandamountsofvitaminsingested.However,vitaminshave
beenproducedascommoditychemicalsandmadewidelyavailableasinexpensivesemisyntheticandsyntheticsource
multivitamindietaryandfoodsupplementsandadditives,sincethemiddleofthe20thcentury.Studyofstructuralactivity,
functionandtheirroleinmaintaininghealthiscalledvitaminology.[6]

Contents
1 Listofvitamins
2 Healtheffects
2.1 Supplements
2.2 Effectofcooking
2.3 Deficiencies
2.4 Sideeffects
3 Pharmacology
4 History
4.1 Etymology
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5 Societyandculture
5.1 Governmentalregulation
5.2 Naming
6 Antivitamins
7 Seealso
8 References
9 Externallinks

Listofvitamins
Eachvitaministypicallyusedinmultiplereactions,and,therefore,mosthavemultiplefunctions.[7]

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Vitamin
generic
descriptor
name

VitaminA

VitaminWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Vitamer
chemical
name(s)(list
notcomplete)

Retinol,retinal,
and
fourcarotenoids
includingbeta
carotene

VitaminB1 Thiamine

VitaminB2 Riboflavin

VitaminB3 Niacin,
niacinamide

VitaminB5 Pantothenicacid

Pyridoxine,
VitaminB6 pyridoxamine,
pyridoxal

VitaminB7 Biotin

VitaminB9 Folicacid,folinic
acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin

Solubility

Fat

Water

Water

Recommended
dietary
allowances
(male,age19
70)[8]

Deficiency
disease

900g

1.2mg

Beriberi,
Wernicke
Korsakoff
syndrome

Drowsinessor
musclerelaxation
withlarge
doses.[11]

1.3mg

N/D[10]

Pellagra

Water

Paresthesia

1.31.7mg

Anemia[15]
peripheral
neuropathy

Pork,
oatmeal,
brownrice,
vegetables,
potatoes,
liver,eggs
Dairy
products,
bananas,
popcorn,
green
beans,
asparagus

Ariboflavinosis,
glossitis,
N/D
angular
stomatitis

5.0mg[13]

Water

Food
sources

Night
blindness,
hyperkeratosis, 3,000g
and
keratomalacia[9]

16.0mg

Water

Overdose
disease

Liver,
orange,ripe
yellow
fruits,leafy
vegetables,
Hypervitaminosis
carrots,
A
pumpkin,
squash,
spinach,
fish,soya
milk,milk

Water

Water

Upper
Intake
Level
(UL/day)[8]

Meat,fish,
eggs,many
vegetables,
mushrooms,
treenuts

35.0mg

Liverdamage
(doses>
2g/day)[12]and
otherproblems

N/D

Diarrhea
Meat,
possiblynausea broccoli,
andheartburn.[14] avocados

100mg

Impairmentof
proprioception,
nervedamage
(doses>
100mg/day)

30.0g

Dermatitis,
enteritis

400g

Megaloblastic
anemiaand
deficiency
during
pregnancyis
1,000g
associatedwith
birthdefects,
suchasneural
tubedefects

Meat,
vegetables,
treenuts,
bananas
Rawegg
yolk,liver,
peanuts,
leafygreen
vegetables

N/D

Maymask
symptomsof
vitaminB12
deficiencyother
effects.

Leafy
vegetables,
pasta,
bread,
cereal,liver

Acnelikerash

Meat,
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VitaminB12 Cyanocobalamin, Water

hydroxocobalamin,
methylcobalamin

2.4g

Megaloblastic
anemia[16]

N/D

[causalityisnot
conclusively
established].

poultry,
fish,eggs,
milk
Manyfruits
and
vegetables,
liver

VitaminC

Ascorbicacid

Water

90.0mg

Scurvy

2,000mg

VitaminC
megadosage

VitaminD

Cholecalciferol
(D3),
Ergocalciferol
(D2)

Fat

10g[17]

Ricketsand
osteomalacia

50g

Fish,eggs,
Hypervitaminosis
liver,
D
mushrooms

15.0mg

Deficiencyis
veryrare
sterilityin
malesand
abortionsin
females,mild
hemolytic
anemiain
newborn
infants[18]

1,000mg

Increased
congestiveheart
failureseenin
onelarge
randomized
study.[19]

Manyfruits
and
vegetables,
nutsand
seeds

N/D

Increases
coagulationin
patientstaking
warfarin.[20]

Leafygreen
vegetables
suchas
spinach,
eggyolks,
liver

VitaminE

VitaminK

Tocopherols,
tocotrienols

phylloquinone,
menaquinones

Fat

Fat

120g

Bleeding
diathesis

Healtheffects
Vitaminsareessentialforthenormalgrowthanddevelopmentofamulticellularorganism.Usingthegeneticblueprintinherited
fromitsparents,afetusbeginstodevelop,atthemomentofconception,fromthenutrientsitabsorbs.Itrequirescertainvitamins
andmineralstobepresentatcertaintimes.Thesenutrientsfacilitatethechemicalreactionsthatproduceamongotherthings,
skin,bone,andmuscle.Ifthereisseriousdeficiencyinoneormoreofthesenutrients,achildmaydevelopadeficiencydisease.
Evenminordeficienciesmaycausepermanentdamage.[21]
Forthemostpart,vitaminsareobtainedwithfood,butafewareobtainedbyothermeans.Forexample,microorganismsinthe
intestinecommonlyknownas"gutflora"producevitaminKandbiotin,whileoneformofvitaminDissynthesizedinthe
skinwiththehelpofthenaturalultravioletwavelengthofsunlight.Humanscanproducesomevitaminsfromprecursorsthey
consume.ExamplesincludevitaminA,producedfrombetacarotene,andniacin,fromtheaminoacidtryptophan.[8]
Oncegrowthanddevelopmentarecompleted,vitaminsremainessentialnutrientsforthehealthymaintenanceofthecells,
tissues,andorgansthatmakeupamulticellularorganismtheyalsoenableamulticellularlifeformtoefficientlyusechemical
energyprovidedbyfooditeats,andtohelpprocesstheproteins,carbohydrates,andfatsrequiredforrespiration.[4]

Supplements
Inthosewhoareotherwisehealthy,thereislittleevidencethatsupplementshaveanybenefitswithrespecttocancerorheart
disease.[2][22]VitaminAandEsupplementsnotonlyprovidenohealthbenefitsforgenerallyhealthyindividuals,buttheymay
increasemortality,thoughthetwolargestudiesthatsupportthisconclusionincludedsmokersforwhomitwasalreadyknown
thatbetacarotenesupplementscanbeharmful.[22][23]WhileotherfindingssuggestthatvitaminEtoxicityislimitedtoonlya
specificformwhentakeninexcess.[24]

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TheEuropeanUnionandothercountriesofEuropehaveregulationsthatdefinelimitsofvitamin(andmineral)dosagesfortheir
safeuseasfoodsupplements.Mostvitaminsthataresoldasfoodsupplementscannotexceedamaximumdailydosage.Vitamin
productsabovetheselegallimitsarenotconsideredfoodsupplementsandmustberegisteredasprescriptionornonprescription
(overthecounterdrugs)duetotheirpotentialsideeffects.Asaresult,mostofthefatsolublevitamins(suchasthevitaminsA,
D,E,andK)thatcontainamountsabovethedailyallowancearedrugproducts.Thedailydosageofavitaminsupplementfor
examplecannotexceed300%oftherecommendeddailyallowance,andforvitaminA,thislimitisevenlower(200%).Such
regulationsareapplicableinmostEuropeancountries.[25][26]
Dietarysupplementsoftencontainvitamins,butmayalsoincludeother
ingredients,suchasminerals,herbs,andbotanicals.Scientificevidencesupports
thebenefitsofdietarysupplementsforpersonswithcertainhealthconditions.[1]
Insomecases,vitaminsupplementsmayhaveunwantedeffects,especiallyif
takenbeforesurgery,withotherdietarysupplementsormedicines,orifthe
persontakingthemhascertainhealthconditions.[1]Theymayalsocontain
levelsofvitaminsmanytimeshigher,andindifferentforms,thanonemay
ingestthroughfood.[27]

Effectofcooking
Shownbelowispercentagelossofvitaminsaftercookingaveragedforcommon
foodssuchasvegetables,meatorfish.

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500mgcalciumsupplementtablets,with
vitaminD,madefromcalciumcarbonate,
maltodextrin,mineraloil,hypromellose,
glycerin,cholecalciferol,polyethyleneglycol,
andcarnaubawax.

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TypicalMaximumNutrientLossesduetocooking[28]
Vitamin&Minerals
Freeze
Dry
Cook
Cook+Drain
VitaminA

Reheat

5%

50%

25%

35%

10%

VitARetinolActivityEquivalent 5%

50%

25%

35%

10%

VitAAlphaCarotene

5%

50%

25%

35%

10%

VitABetaCarotene

5%

50%

25%

35%

10%

VitABetaCryptoxanthin

5%

50%

25%

35%

10%

VitALycopene

5%

50%

25%

35%

10%

VitALutein+Zeaxanthin

5%

50%

25%

35%

10%

VitaminC

30%

80%

50%

75%

50%

Thiamin

5%

30%

55%

70%

40%

Riboflavin

0%

10%

25%

45%

5%

Niacin

0%

10%

40%

55%

5%

VitaminB6

0%

10%

50%

65%

45%

Folate

5%

50%

70%

75%

30%

FoodFolate

5%

50%

70%

75%

30%

FolicAcid

5%

50%

70%

75%

30%

VitaminB12

0%

0%

45%

50%

45%

Calcium

5%

0%

20%

25%

0%

Iron

0%

0%

35%

40%

0%

Magnesium

0%

0%

25%

40%

0%

Phosphorus

0%

0%

25%

35%

0%

Potassium

10%

0%

30%

70%

0%

Sodium

0%

0%

25%

55%

0%

Zinc

0%

0%

25%

25%

0%

Copper

10%

0%

40%

45%

0%

Itshouldbenotedhoweverthatsomevitaminsmaybecomemore"bioavailable"thatis,usablebythebodywhensteamedor
cooked.[29]
Thetablebelowshowswhethervariousvitaminsaresusceptibletolossfromheatsuchasheatfromboiling,steaming,cooking
etc.andotheragents.Theeffectofcuttingvegetablescanbeseenfromexposuretoairandlight.Watersolublevitaminssuch
asBandCseepintothewaterwhenavegetableisboiled.[30]

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Vitamin

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SolubleinWater

ExposuretoAir

ExposuretoLight

ExposuretoHeat

VitaminA

no

partially

partially

relativelystable

VitaminC

veryunstable

yes

yes

yes

VitaminD

no

no

no

no

VitaminE

no

yes

yes

no

VitaminK

no

no

yes

no

Thiamine(B1)

highly

no

>100C

Riboflavin(B2)

slightly

no

insolution

no

Niacin(B3)

yes

no

no

no

PantothenicAcid(B5) quitestable

no

yes

VitaminB6

yes

yes

Biotin(B7)

somewhat

no

FolicAcid(B9)

yes

whendry

athightemp

VitaminB12

yes

yes

no

Deficiencies
Humansmustconsumevitaminsperiodicallybutwithdifferingschedules,toavoiddeficiency.Thebody'sstoresfordifferent
vitaminsvarywidelyvitaminsA,D,andB12arestoredinsignificantamounts,mainlyintheliver,[18]andanadult'sdietmaybe
deficientinvitaminsAandDformanymonthsandB12insomecasesforyears,beforedevelopingadeficiencycondition.
However,vitaminB3(niacinandniacinamide)isnotstoredinsignificantamounts,sostoresmaylastonlyacoupleof
weeks.[9][18]ForvitaminC,thefirstsymptomsofscurvyinexperimentalstudiesofcompletevitaminCdeprivationinhumans
havevariedwidely,fromamonthtomorethansixmonths,dependingonpreviousdietaryhistorythatdeterminedbody
stores.[31]
Deficienciesofvitaminsareclassifiedaseitherprimaryorsecondary.Aprimarydeficiencyoccurswhenanorganismdoesnot
getenoughofthevitamininitsfood.Asecondarydeficiencymaybeduetoanunderlyingdisorderthatpreventsorlimitsthe
absorptionoruseofthevitamin,duetoa"lifestylefactor",suchassmoking,excessivealcoholconsumption,ortheuseof
medicationsthatinterferewiththeabsorptionoruseofthevitamin.[18]Peoplewhoeatavarieddietareunlikelytodevelopa
severeprimaryvitamindeficiency.Incontrast,restrictivedietshavethepotentialtocauseprolongedvitamindeficits,whichmay
resultinoftenpainfulandpotentiallydeadlydiseases.
Wellknownhumanvitamindeficienciesinvolvethiamine(beriberi),niacin(pellagra),[32]vitaminC(scurvy),andvitaminD
(rickets).[33]Inmuchofthedevelopedworld,suchdeficienciesarerarethisisdueto(1)anadequatesupplyoffoodand(2)the
additionofvitaminsandmineralstocommonfoods(fortification).[8][18]Inadditiontotheseclassicalvitamindeficiencydiseases,
someevidencehasalsosuggestedlinksbetweenvitamindeficiencyandanumberofdifferentdisorders.[34][35]

Sideeffects
Inlargedoses,somevitaminshavedocumentedsideeffectsthattendtobemoreseverewithalargerdosage.Thelikelihoodof
consumingtoomuchofanyvitaminfromfoodisremote,butoverdosing(vitaminpoisoning)fromvitaminsupplementationdoes
occur.Athighenoughdosages,somevitaminscausesideeffectssuchasnausea,diarrhea,andvomiting.[9][36]Whensideeffects
emerge,recoveryisoftenaccomplishedbyreducingthedosage.Thedosesofvitaminsdifferbecauseindividualtolerancescan
varywidelyandappeartoberelatedtoageandstateofhealth.
In2008,overdoseexposuretoallformulationsofvitaminsandmultivitaminmineralformulationswasreportedby68,911
individualstotheAmericanAssociationofPoisonControlCenters(nearly80%oftheseexposureswereinchildrenunderthe
ageof6),leadingto8"major"lifethreateningoutcomes,butnodeaths.[37]
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Pharmacology
Vitaminsareclassifiedaseitherwatersolubleorfatsoluble.Inhumansthereare13vitamins:4fatsoluble(A,D,E,andK)and
9watersoluble(8BvitaminsandvitaminC).Watersolublevitaminsdissolveeasilyinwaterand,ingeneral,arereadily
excretedfromthebody,tothedegreethaturinaryoutputisastrongpredictorofvitaminconsumption.[38]Becausetheyarenotas
readilystored,moreconsistentintakeisimportant.[39]Manytypesofwatersolublevitaminsaresynthesizedbybacteria.[40]Fat
solublevitaminsareabsorbedthroughtheintestinaltractwiththehelpoflipids(fats).Becausetheyaremorelikelyto
accumulateinthebody,theyaremorelikelytoleadtohypervitaminosisthanarewatersolublevitamins.Fatsolublevitamin
regulationisofparticularsignificanceincysticfibrosis.[41]

History
Thevalueofeatingacertainfoodtomaintainhealth
wasrecognizedlongbeforevitaminswere
identified.TheancientEgyptiansknewthatfeeding
livertoapersonwouldhelpcurenightblindness,an
illnessnowknowntobecausedbyavitaminA
deficiency.[42]Theadvancementofoceanvoyages
duringtheRenaissanceresultedinprolonged
periodswithoutaccesstofreshfruitsand
vegetables,andmadeillnessesfromvitamin
deficiencycommonamongships'crews.[43]

Thediscoverydatesofthevitaminsandtheirsources
Yearofdiscovery
Vitamin
Foodsource
1913

VitaminA(Retinol)

Codliveroil

1910

VitaminB1(Thiamine)

Ricebran

1920

VitaminC(Ascorbicacid)

Citrus,mostfreshfoods

1920

VitaminD(Calciferol)

Codliveroil

1920

VitaminB2(Riboflavin)

Meat,dairyproducts,eggs

1922

(VitaminE)(Tocopherol)

Wheatgermoil,
unrefinedvegetableoils

1926

VitaminB (Cobalamins)

Liver,eggs,animalproducts

12
In1747,theScottishsurgeonJamesLind
1929
VitaminK1(Phylloquinone) Leafvegetables
discoveredthatcitrusfoodshelpedpreventscurvy,
Meat,wholegrains,
aparticularlydeadlydiseaseinwhichcollagenis
1931
VitaminB5(Pantothenicacid)
inmanyfoods
notproperlyformed,causingpoorwoundhealing,
1931
VitaminB7(Biotin)
Meat,dairyproducts,eggs
bleedingofthegums,severepain,anddeath.[42]In
1753,LindpublishedhisTreatiseontheScurvy,
1934
VitaminB6(Pyridoxine)
Meat,dairyproducts
whichrecommendedusinglemonsandlimesto
1936
VitaminB3(Niacin)
Meat,grains
avoidscurvy,whichwasadoptedbytheBritish
1941
VitaminB9(Folicacid)
Leafvegetables
RoyalNavy.Thisledtothenicknamelimeyfor
Britishsailors.Lind'sdiscovery,however,wasnot
widelyacceptedbyindividualsintheRoyalNavy'sArcticexpeditionsinthe19thcentury,whereitwaswidelybelievedthat
scurvycouldbepreventedbypracticinggoodhygiene,regularexercise,andmaintainingthemoraleofthecrewwhileonboard,
ratherthanbyadietoffreshfood.[42]Asaresult,Arcticexpeditionscontinuedtobeplaguedbyscurvyandotherdeficiency
diseases.Intheearly20thcentury,whenRobertFalconScottmadehistwoexpeditionstotheAntarctic,theprevailingmedical
theoryatthetimewasthatscurvywascausedby"tainted"cannedfood.[42]

Duringthelate18thandearly19thcenturies,theuseofdeprivationstudiesallowedscientiststoisolateandidentifyanumberof
vitamins.Lipidfromfishoilwasusedtocurericketsinrats,andthefatsolublenutrientwascalled"antirachiticA".Thus,the
first"vitamin"bioactivityeverisolated,whichcuredrickets,wasinitiallycalled"vitaminA"however,thebioactivityofthis
compoundisnowcalledvitaminD.[44]In1881,RussiansurgeonNikolaiLuninstudiedtheeffectsofscurvywhileatthe
UniversityofTartuinpresentdayEstonia.[45]Hefedmiceanartificialmixtureofalltheseparateconstituentsofmilkknownat
thattime,namelytheproteins,fats,carbohydrates,andsalts.Themicethatreceivedonlytheindividualconstituentsdied,while
themicefedbymilkitselfdevelopednormally.Hemadeaconclusionthat"anaturalfoodsuchasmilkmustthereforecontain,
besidestheseknownprincipalingredients,smallquantitiesofunknownsubstancesessentialtolife."[45]However,hisconclusions
wererejectedbyhisadvisor,GustavvonBunge,evenafterotherstudentsreproducedhisresults.[46]AsimilarresultbyCornelius
PekelharingappearedinaDutchmedicaljournalin1905,butitwasnotwidelyreported.[46]
InEastAsia,wherepolishedwhitericewasthecommonstaplefoodofthemiddleclass,beriberiresultingfromlackofvitamin
B1wasendemic.In1884,TakakiKanehiro,aBritishtrainedmedicaldoctoroftheImperialJapaneseNavy,observedthat
beriberiwasendemicamonglowrankingcrewwhooftenatenothingbutrice,butnotamongofficerswhoconsumedaWestern
stylediet.WiththesupportoftheJapanesenavy,heexperimentedusingcrewsoftwobattleshipsonecrewwasfedonlywhite
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rice,whiletheotherwasfedadietofmeat,fish,barley,rice,andbeans.Thegroupthat
ateonlywhitericedocumented161crewmemberswithberiberiand25deaths,whilethe
lattergrouphadonly14casesofberiberiandnodeaths.ThisconvincedTakakiandthe
JapaneseNavythatdietwasthecauseofberiberi,buttheymistakenlybelievedthat
sufficientamountsofproteinpreventedit.[47]Thatdiseasescouldresultfromsome
dietarydeficiencieswasfurtherinvestigatedbyChristiaanEijkman,whoin1897
discoveredthatfeedingunpolishedriceinsteadofthepolishedvarietytochickenshelped
topreventberiberiinthechickens.[32]Thefollowingyear,FrederickHopkinspostulated
thatsomefoodscontained"accessoryfactors"inadditiontoproteins,carbohydrates,
fatsetc.thatarenecessaryforthefunctionsofthehumanbody.[42]Hopkinsand
EijkmanwereawardedtheNobelPrizeforPhysiologyorMedicinein1929fortheir
discoveries.[48]
In1910,thefirstvitamincomplexwasisolatedbyJapanesescientistUmetaroSuzuki,
whosucceededinextractingawatersolublecomplexofmicronutrientsfromricebran
andnameditabericacid(laterOrizanin).HepublishedthisdiscoveryinaJapanese
TheAncientEgyptiansknewthat
scientificjournal.[49]WhenthearticlewastranslatedintoGerman,thetranslationfailedto
feedingapersonliverwouldhelp
statethatitwasanewlydiscoverednutrient,aclaimmadeintheoriginalJapanesearticle,
curenightblindness.
andhencehisdiscoveryfailedtogainpublicity.In1912PolishbornbiochemistCasimir
Funk,workinginLondon,isolatedthesamecomplexofmicronutrientsandproposedthe
complexbenamed"vitamine".ItwaslatertobeknownasvitaminB3(niacin),thoughhedescribeditas"antiberiberifactor"
(whichwouldtodaybecalledthiamineorvitaminB1).Funkproposedthehypothesisthatotherdiseases,suchasrickets,
pellagra,coeliacdisease,andscurvycouldalsobecuredbyvitamins.MaxNierensteinafriendandreaderofBiochemistryat
BristolUniversityreportedlysuggestedthe"vitamine"name(from"vitalamine").[50]).[51]Thenamesoonbecamesynonymous
withHopkins'"accessoryfactors",and,bythetimeitwasshownthatnotallvitaminsareamines,thewordwasalready
ubiquitous.In1920,JackCecilDrummondproposedthatthefinal"e"bedroppedtodeemphasizethe"amine"reference,after
researchersbegantosuspectthatnotall"vitamines"(inparticular,vitaminA)haveanaminecomponent.[47]
In1930,PaulKarrerelucidatedthecorrectstructureforbetacarotene,themainprecursorofvitaminA,andidentifiedother
carotenoids.KarrerandNormanHaworthconfirmedAlbertSzentGyrgyi'sdiscoveryofascorbicacidandmadesignificant
contributionstothechemistryofflavins,whichledtotheidentificationoflactoflavin.Fortheirinvestigationsoncarotenoids,
flavinsandvitaminsAandB2,theybothreceivedtheNobelPrizeinChemistryin1937.[52]
In1931,AlbertSzentGyrgyiandafellowresearcherJosephSvirbelysuspectedthat"hexuronicacid"wasactuallyvitaminC,
andgaveasampletoCharlesGlenKing,whoproveditsantiscorbuticactivityinhislongestablishedguineapigscorbuticassay.
In1937,SzentGyrgyiwasawardedtheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicineforhisdiscovery.In1943,EdwardAdelbert
DoisyandHenrikDamwereawardedtheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicinefortheirdiscoveryofvitaminKandits
chemicalstructure.In1967,GeorgeWaldwasawardedtheNobelPrize(alongwithRagnarGranitandHaldanKefferHartline)
forhisdiscoverythatvitaminAcouldparticipatedirectlyinaphysiologicalprocess.[48]

Etymology
Thetermvitaminwasderivedfrom"vitamine",acompoundwordcoinedin1912bythePolishbiochemistKazimierzFunk[53]
whenworkingattheListerInstituteofPreventiveMedicine.Thenameisfromvitalandamine,meaningamineoflife,becauseit
wassuggestedin1912thattheorganicmicronutrientfoodfactorsthatpreventberiberiandperhapsothersimilardietary
deficiencydiseasesmightbechemicalamines.Thiswastrueofthiamine,butafteritwasfoundthatothersuchmicronutrients
werenotaminesthewordwasshortenedtovitamininEnglish.

Societyandculture
Oncediscovered,vitaminswereactivelypromotedinarticlesandadvertisementsinMcCall's,GoodHousekeeping,andother
mediaoutlets.[32]Marketersenthusiasticallypromotedcodliveroil,asourceofVitaminD,as"bottledsunshine",andbananasas
anaturalvitalityfood".Theypromotedfoodssuchasyeastcakes,asourceofBvitamins,onthebasisofscientifically
determinednutritionalvalue,ratherthantasteorappearance.[54]WorldWarIIresearchersfocusedontheneedtoensureadequate
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nutrition,especiallyinprocessedfoods.[32]RobertW.Yoderiscreditedwithfirstusingthetermvitamania,in1942,todescribe
theappealofrelyingonnutritionalsupplementsratherthanonobtainingvitaminsfromavarieddietoffoods.Thecontinuing
preoccupationwithahealthylifestylehasledtoanobsessiveconsumptionofadditivesthebeneficialeffectsofwhichare
questionable.[33]

Governmentalregulation
Mostcountriesplacedietarysupplementsinaspecialcategoryunderthegeneralumbrellaoffoods,notdrugs.Asaresult,the
manufacturer,andnotthegovernment,hastheresponsibilityofensuringthatitsdietarysupplementproductsaresafebeforethey
aremarketed.Regulationofsupplementsvarieswidelybycountry.IntheUnitedStates,adietarysupplementisdefinedunder
theDietarySupplementHealthandEducationActof1994.[55]ThereisnoFDAapprovalprocessfordietarysupplements,andno
requirementthatmanufacturersprovethesafetyorefficacyofsupplementsintroducedbefore1994.[32][33]TheFoodandDrug
AdministrationmustrelyonitsAdverseEventReportingSystemtomonitoradverseeventsthatoccurwithsupplements.[56]In
2007,theUSCodeofFederalRegulations(CFR)Title21,partIIItookeffect,regulatingGMPpracticesinthemanufacturing,
packaging,labeling,orholdingoperationsfordietarysupplements.Eventhoughproductregistrationisnotrequired,these
regulationsmandateproductionandqualitycontrolstandards(includingtestingforidentity,purityandadulterations)fordietary
supplements.[57]IntheEuropeanUnion,theFoodSupplementsDirectiverequiresthatonlythosesupplementsthathavebeen
provensafecanbesoldwithoutaprescription.[58]Formostvitamins,pharmacopoeialstandardshavebeenestablished.Inthe
UnitedStates,theUnitedStatesPharmacopeia(USP)setsstandardsforthemostcommonlyusedvitaminsandpreparations
thereof.Likewise,monographsoftheEuropeanPharmacopoeia(Ph.Eur.)regulateaspectsofidentityandpurityforvitaminson
theEuropeanmarket.

Naming
Thereasonthatthesetof
vitaminsskipsdirectly
fromEtoKisthatthe
vitaminscorrespondingto
lettersFJwereeither
reclassifiedovertime,
discardedasfalseleads,
orrenamedbecauseof
theirrelationshipto
vitaminB,whichbecame
acomplexofvitamins.

Previousname

Nomenclatureofreclassifiedvitamins
Chemicalname
Reasonfornamechange[59]

VitaminB4

Adenine

DNAmetabolitesynthesizedinbody

VitaminB8

Adenylicacid

DNAmetabolitesynthesizedinbody

VitaminF

Essentialfattyacids

Neededinlargequantities(does
notfitthedefinitionofavitamin).

VitaminG

Riboflavin

ReclassifiedasVitaminB2

VitaminH

Biotin

ReclassifiedasVitaminB7

VitaminJ

Catechol,Flavin

CatecholnonessentialflavinreclassifiedasVitaminB2

VitaminL1[60]

Anthranilicacid

Nonessential

TheGermanspeaking
Adenylthiomethylpentose RNAmetabolitesynthesizedinbody
VitaminL2[60]
scientistswhoisolated
VitaminM
Folicacid
ReclassifiedasVitaminB9
anddescribedvitaminK
(inadditiontonamingit
VitaminO
Carnitine
Synthesizedinbody
assuch)didsobecause
VitaminP
Flavonoids
Nolongerclassifiedasavitamin
thevitaminisintimately
VitaminPP
Niacin
ReclassifiedasVitaminB3
involvedinthe
VitaminS
Salicylicacid
Proposedinclusion[61]ofsalicylateasanessentialmicronutrient
coagulationofblood
VitaminU
SMethylmethionine
Proteinmetabolitesynthesizedinbody
followingwounding
(fromtheGermanword
Koagulation).Atthetime,most(butnotall)ofthelettersfromFthroughtoJwerealreadydesignated,sotheuseoftheletterK
wasconsideredquitereasonable.[59][62]Thetablenomenclatureofreclassifiedvitaminslistschemicalsthathadpreviouslybeen
classifiedasvitamins,aswellastheearliernamesofvitaminsthatlaterbecamepartoftheBcomplex.
ThereareothermissingBvitaminswhichwerereclassifiedordeterminednottobevitamins.Forexample,B9isfolicacidand
fiveofthefolatesareintherangeB11throughB16,formsofothervitaminsalreadydiscovered,notrequiredasanutrientbythe
entirepopulation(likeB10,PABAforinternaluse[63]),biologicallyinactive,toxic,orwithunclassifiableeffectsinhumans,or
notgenerallyrecognisedasvitaminsbyscience,[64]suchasthehighestnumbered,whichsomenaturopathpractitionerscallB21
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andB22.TherearealsonineletteredBcomplexvitamins(e.g.Bm).ThereareotherDvitaminsnowrecognisedasother
substances,[63]whichsomesourcesofthesametypenumberuptoD7.Thecontroversialcancertreatmentlaetrilewasatone
pointletteredasvitaminB17.ThereappearstobenoconsensusonanyvitaminsQ,R,T,V,W,X,YorZ,norarethere
substancesofficiallydesignatedasVitaminsNorI,althoughthelattermayhavebeenanotherformofoneoftheothervitamins
oraknownandnamednutrientofanothertype.

Antivitamins
Antivitaminsarechemicalcompoundsthatinhibittheabsorptionoractionsofvitamins.Forexample,avidinisaproteininegg
whitesthatinhibitstheabsorptionofbiotin.[65]Pyrithiamineissimilartothiamine,vitaminB1,andinhibitstheenzymesthatuse
thiamine.[66]

Seealso
Provitamin

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