Applied Mechanics of Solids (A.f. Bower) Chapter 9 - Modeling Failure - 9

Applied Mechanics of Solids (A.F. Bower) Chapter 9: Modeling Failure...
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1. Objectives and Applications
>
1.1 Defining a Problem >
1.1.1 Deciding what to
calculate
1.1.2 Defining geometry
1.1.3 Defining loading
1.1.4 Choosing physics
1.1.5 Defining material
behavior
1.1.6 A representative problem
1.1.7 Choosing a method of
analysis
2. Governing Equations >
2.1 Deformation
measures >
2.1.1 Displacement and Velocity
2.1.2 Deformation gradient
2.1.3 Deformation gradient from
two deformations
2.1.4 Jacobian of deformation
gradient
2.1.5 Lagrange strain
2.1.6 Eulerian strain
2.1.7 Infinitesimal Strain
2.1.8 Engineering Shear Strain
2.1.9 Volumetric and Deviatoric
strain
2.1.10 Infinitesimal rotation
2.1.11 Principal strains
2.1.12 Cauchy-Green deformation
tensors
2.1.13 Rotation tensor, Stretch
tensors
2.1.14 Principal stretches
2.1.15 Generalized strain measures
2.1.16 Velocity gradient
2.1.17 Stretch rate and spin
2.1.18 Infinitesimal strain/rotation
rate
2.1.19 Other deformation rates
2.1.20 Strain equations of
compatibility
2.2 Internal forces >
2.2.1 Surface traction/body force
2.2.2 Internal tractions
2.2.3 Cauchy stress
2.2.4 Kirchhoff, Nominal, Material
stress
2.2.5 Stress for infinitesimal
motions
2.2.6 Principal stresses
2.2.7 Hydrostatic, Deviatoric, Von
Mises stress
2.2.8 Stresses at a boundary
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2.3 Equations of motion >

2.3.1 Linear momentum
balance
2.3.2 Angular momentum
balance
2.3.3 Equations using other
stresses
2.4 Work and Virtual
Work >
2.4.1 Work done by Cauchy
stress
2.4.2 Work done by other
stresses
2.4.3 Work for infinitesimal
motions
2.4.4 Principle of virtual work
2.4.5 Virtual work with other
stresses
2.4.6 Virtual work for small
strains
3. Constitutive Equations >
3.1 General requirements
3.2 Linear elasticity >
3.2.1 Isotropic elastic behavior
3.2.2 Isotropic stress-strain laws
3.2.3 Plane stress & strain
3.2.4 Isotropic material data
3.2.5 Lame, Shear, & Bulk modulus
3.2.6 Interpreting elastic constants
3.2.7 Strain energy density
(isotropic)
3.2.8 Anisotropic stress-strain laws
3.2.9 Interpreting anisotropic
constants
3.2.10 Anisotropic strain energy
density
3.2.11 Basis change formulas
3.2.12 Effect of material symmetry
3.2.13 Orthotropic materials
3.2.14 Transversely isotropic
materials
3.2.15 Transversely isotropic data
3.2.16 Cubic materials
3.2.17 Cubic material data
3.3 Hypoelasticity
3.4 Elasticity w/ large
rotations
3.5 Hyperelasticity >
3.5.1 Deformation measures
3.5.2 Stress measures
3.5.4 Incompressible
materials
3.5.5 Energy density
functions
3.5.6 Calibrating material
models
3.5.7 Representative
properties
3.6 Viscoelasticity >
3.6.1 Polymer behavior
3.6.2 General constitutive
equations
3.6.3 Spring-damper
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approximations
3.6.4 Prony series
3.6.5 Calibrating constitutive
laws
3.6.6 Calibrating material
models
3.6.7 Representative properties
3.7 Rate independent
plasticity >
3.7.1 Plastic metal behavior
3.7.2 Elastic/plastic strain
decomposition
3.7.3 Yield criteria
3.7.4 Graphical yield surfaces
3.7.5 Hardening laws
3.7.6 Plastic flow law
3.7.7 Unloading condition
3.7.8 Summary of stress-strain
relations
3.7.9 Representative properties
3.7.10 Principle of max. plastic
resistance
3.7.11 Drucker's postulate
3.7.12 Microscopic perspectives
3.8 Viscoplasticity >
3.8.1 Creep behavior
3.8.2 High strain rate behavior
3.8.3 Constitutive equations
3.8.4 Representative creep
properties
3.8.5 Representative high rate
properties
3.9 Large strain plasticity >
3.9.3 Elastic stress-strain
relations
3.5.4 Plastic stress-strain
relations
3.10 Large strain
viscoelasticity >
3.10.3 Stress-strain energy
relations
3.10.4 Strain relaxation
properties
3.11 Critical state soils >
3.11.1 Soil behavior
3.11.2 Constitutive laws
(Cam-clay)
3.11.3 Response to 2D loading
properties
3.12 Crystal plasticity >
3.12.1 Basic crystallography
3.12.2 Features of crystal
plasticity
3.12.5 Elastic stress-strain
relations
3.12.6 Plastic stress-strain
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relations
properties
3.13 Surfaces and interfaces
>
3.13.1 Cohesive interface models
3.13.2 Contact and friction
4. Solutions to simple problems
>
4.1 Axial/Spherical linear
elasticity >
4.1.1 Elastic governing equations
4.1.2 Spherically symmetric
equations
4.1.3 General spherical solution
4.1.4 Pressurized sphere
4.1.5 Gravitating sphere
4.1.6 Heated spherical shell
4.1.7 Axially symmetric
equations
4.1.8 General axisymmetric
solution
4.1.9 Pressurized cylinder
4.1.10 Spinning circular disk
4.1.11 Interference fit
4.2 Axial/Spherical
elastoplasticity >
4.2.1 Plastic governing equations
equations
4.2.4 Cyclically pressurized
sphere
4.2.5 Axisymmetric equations
4.2.6 Pressurized cylinder
4.3 Spherical hyperelasticity >
4.3.1 Governing equations
equations
4.4 1D elastodynamics >
4.4.1 Surface subjected to
pressure
4.4.2 Surface under tangential
loading
4.4.3 1-D bar
4.4.4 Plane waves
4.4.5 Wave speeds in isotropic
solid
4.4.6 Reflection at a surface
4.4.7 Reflection at an interface
4.4.8 Plate impact experiment
5. Solutions for elastic solids >
5.1 General Principles >
5.1.2 Navier equation
5.1.3 Superposition &
linearity
5.1.4 Uniqueness &
existence
5.1.5 Saint-Venants
principle
5.2 2D Airy function solutions
>
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5.2.1 Airy solution in rectangular

coords
5.2.2 Demonstration of Airy
solution
5.2.3 Airy solution in polar coords
5.2.4 End loaded cantilever
5.2.5 Line load perpendicular to
surface
5.2.6 Line load parallel to surface
4.4.7 Pressure on a surface
4.4.8 Uniform pressure on a strip
4.4.8 Stress near a crack tip
5.3 2D Complex variable
solutions >
5.3.1 Complex variable
solution
5.3.2 Demonstration of CV
solution
5.3.3 Line force
5.3.4 Edge dislocation
5.3.5 Circular hole in infinite
solid
5.3.6 Slit crack
5.3.7 Bimaterial interface
crack
5.3.8 Rigid flat punch on a
surface
5.3.9 Parabolic punch on a
surface
5.3.10 General line contact
4.3.11 Frictional sliding
contact
4.3.12 Dislocation near a
surface
5.4 3D static problems >
5.4.1 Papkovich-Neuber
potentials
5.4.2 Demonstration of PN
potentials
5.4.3 Point force in infinite solid
5.4.4 Point force normal to
surface
5.4.5 Point force tangent to
surface
5.4.6 Eshelby inclusion problem
5.4.7 Inclusion in an elastic solid
5.4.8 Spherical cavity in infinite
solid
5.4.9 Flat cylindrical punch on
surface
5.4.10 Contact between spheres
4.4.11 Relations for general
contacts
4.4.12 P-d relations for
axisymmetric contact
5.5 2D Anisotropic elasticity >
5.5.2 Stroh solution
5.5.3 Demonstration of Stroh
solution
5.5.4 Stroh matrices for cubic
materials
5.5.5 Degenerate materials
5.5.6 Fundamental elasticity matrix
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5.5.7 Orthogonality of Stroh

matrices
5.5.8 Barnett/Lothe & Impedance
tensors
5.5.9 Properties of matrices
5.5.10 Basis change formulas
5.5.11 Barnett-Lothe integrals
5.5.12 Uniform stress state
5.5.13 Line load/dislocation in
infinite solid
5.5.14 Line load/dislocation near a
surface
5.6 Dynamic problems >
5.6.1 Love potentials
5.6.2 Pressurized spherical
cavity
5.6.3 Rayleigh waves
5.6.4 Love waves
5.6.5 Elastic waves in
waveguides
5.7 Energy methods >
5.7.1 Definition of potential energy
5.7.2 Minimum energy theorem
5.7.3 Simple example of energy
minimization
5.7.4 Variational approach to beam
theory
5.7.5 Estimating stiffness
5.8 Reciprocal theorem >
5.8.1 Statement and proof of
theorem
5.8.2 Simple example
5.8.3 Boundary-internal value
relations
5.8.4 3D dislocation loops
5.9 Energetics of dislocations >
5.9.1 Potential energy of isolated
loop
5.9.2 Nonsingular dislocation
theory
5.9.3 Dislocation in bounded
solid
5.9.4 Energy of interacting loops
5.9.5 Peach-Koehler formula
5.10 Rayleigh Ritz method >
5.10.1 Mode shapes, nat.
frequencies, Rayleigh's principle
5.10.2 Natural frequency of a beam
6. Solutions for plastic solids >
6.1 Slip-line fields >
6.1.1 Interpreting slip-line
fields
6.1.2 Derivation of slip-line
fields
6.1.3 Examples of solutions
6.2 Bounding theorems
>
6.2.1 Definition of plastic
dissipation
6.2.2 Principle of min plastic
dissipation
6.2.3 Upper bound collapse
theorem
6.2.4 Lower bound collapse
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theorem
6.2.5 Examples of bounding
theorems
6.2.6 Lower bound shakedown
theorem
6.2.7 Examples of lower bound
shakedown theorem
6.2.8 Upper bound shakedown
theorem
6.2.9 Examples of upper bound
shakedown theorem
7. Introduction to FEA >
7.1 Guide to FEA >
7.1.1 FE mesh
7.1.2 Nodes and elements
7.1.3 Special elements
7.1.4 Material behavior
7.1.5 Boundary conditions
7.1.6 Constraints
7.1.7 Contacting surface/interfaces
7.1.8 Initial conditions/external
fields
7.1.9 Soln procedures / time
increments
7.1.10 Output
7.1.11 Units in FEA calculations
7.1.12 Using dimensional analysis
7.1.13 Scaling governing equations
7.1.14 Remarks on dimensional
analysis
7.2 Simple FEA
program >
7.2.1 FE mesh and connectivity
7.2.2 Global displacement vector
7.2.3 Interpolation functions
7.2.4 Element strains & energy
density
7.2.5 Element stiffness matrix
7.2.6 Global stiffness matrix
7.2.7 Boundary loading
7.2.8 Global force vector
7.2.9 Minimizing potential energy
7.2.10 Eliminating prescribed
displacements
7.2.11 Solution
7.2.12 Post processing
7.2.13 Example code
8. Theory & Implementation of
FEA >
8.1 Static linear elasticity
>
8.1.1 Review of virtual work
8.1.2 Weak form of governing
equns
8.1.3 Interpolating displacements
8.1.4 Finite element equations
8.1.5 Simple 1D implementation
8.1.6 Summary of 1D procedure
8.1.7 Example 1D code
8.1.8 Extension to 2D/3D
8.1.9 2D interpolation functions
8.1.10 3D interpolation functions
8.1.11 Volume integrals
8.1.12 2D/3D integration
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schemes
8.1.13 Summary of element
matrices
8.1.14 Sample 2D/3D code
8.2 Dynamic elasticity >
8.2.2 Weak form of governing eqns
8.2.4 Newmark time integration
8.2.5 Simple 1D implementation
8.2.6 Example 1D code
8.2.7 Lumped mass matrices
8.2.8 Example 2D/3D code
8.2.9 Modal time integration
8.2.10 Natural frequencies/mode
shapes
8.2.11 Example 1D modal dynamic
code
8.2.12 Example 2D/3D modal
dynamic code
8.3 Hypoelasticity >
8.3.2 Weak form of governing eqns
8.3.4 Newton-Raphson iteration
8.3.5 Tangent moduli for
hypoelastic solid
8.3.6 Summary of Newton-Raphson
method
8.3.7 Convergence problems
8.3.8 Variations on NewtonRaphson
8.3.9 Example code
8.4 Hyperelasticity >
eqns
8.4.4 Newton-Raphson
iteration
8.4.5 Neo-Hookean tangent
moduli
8.4.6 Evaluating boundary
integrals
8.4.7 Convergence problems
8.4.8 Example code
8.5 Viscoplasticity >
eqns
8.5.4 Integrating the stress-strain
law
8.5.5 Material tangent
8.5.6 Newton-Raphson solution
8.5.7 Example code
8.6 Advanced elements >
8.6.1 Shear locking/incompatible
modes
8.6.2 Volumetric locking/Reduced
integration
8.6.3 Incompressible
materials/Hybrid elements
9. Modeling Material Failure >
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9.1 Mechanisms of failure >

9.1.1 Monotonic
loading
9.1.2 Cyclic loading
9.2 Stress/strain based criteria
>
9.2.1 Stress based criteria
9.2.2 Probabilistic methods
9.2.3 Static fatigue criterion
9.2.4 Models of crushing
failure
9.2.5 Ductile failure criteria
9.2.6 Strain localization
9.2.7 High cycle fatigue
9.2.8 Low cycle fatigue
9.2.9 Variable amplitude
loading
9.3 Elastic fracture mechanics
>
9.3.1 Crack tip fields
9.3.2 Linear elastic fracture
mechanics
9.3.3 Calculating stress
intensities
9.3.4 Using FEA
9.3.5 Measuring toughness
9.3.6 Values of fracture
toughness
9.3.7 Stable tearing
9.3.8 Mixed mode fracture
9.3.9 Static fatigue
9.3.10 Cyclic fatigue
9.3.11 Finding cracks
9.4 Energy methods in fracture
>
9.4.1 Definition of energy release
rate
9.4.2 Energy based fracture
criterion
9.4.3 G-K relations
9.4.4 G-compliance relation
9.4.5 Calculating K with
compliance
9.4.6 Integral expression for G
9.4.7 The J integral
9.4.8 Calculating K using J
9.5 Plastic fracture mechanics
>
9.5.1 Dugdale-Barenblatt
model
9.5.2 HRR crack tip fields
9.5.3 J based fracture
mechanics
9.6 Interface fracture
mechanics >
9.6.1 Interface crack tip fields
9.6.2 Interface fracture
mechanics
9.6.3 Stress intensity factors
9.6.4 Crack path selection
10. Rods, Beams, Plates &
Shells >
10.1 Dyadic notation
10.2 Deformable rods -
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general >
10.2.1 Characterizing the
x-section
10.2.2 Coordinate systems
10.2.3 Kinematic relations
10.2.4 Displacement, velocity
and acceleration
10.2.6 Strain measures
10.2.7 Kinematics of bent rods
10.2.8 Internal forces and
moments
10.2.9 Equations of motion
10.2.10 Constitutive equations
10.3 String / beam theory >
10.3.1 Stretched string
10.3.2 Straight beam (small
deflections)
10.3.3 Axially loaded beam
10.4 Solutions for rods >
10.4.1 Vibration of a straight beam
10.4.2 Buckling under gravitational
loading
10.4.3 Post buckled shape of a rod
10.4.4 Rod bent into a helix
10.4.5 Helical spring
10.5 Shells - general >
10.5.1 Coordinate systems
10.5.2 Using non-orthogonal
bases
10.5.4 Displacement and
velocity
10.5.6 Other strain measures
10.5.7 Internal forces and
moments
10.5.8 Equations of motion
10.5.9 Constitutive relations
10.5.10 Strain energy
10.6 Plates and membranes >
10.6.1 Flat plates (small strain)
10.6.2 Flat plates with in-plane
loading
10.6.3 Plates with large
displacements
10.6.4 Membranes
10.6.5 Membranes in polar
coordinates
10.7 Solutions for shells >
10.7.1 Circular plate bent by
pressure
10.7.2 Vibrating circular membrane
10.7.3 Natural frequency of
rectangular plate
10.7.4 Thin film on a substrate
(Stoney eqs)
10.7.5 Buckling of heated plate
10.7.6 Cylindrical shell under axial
load
10.7.7 Twisted open walled
cylinder
10.7.8 Gravity loaded spherical
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shell
A: Vectors & Matrices
B: Intro to tensors
C: Index Notation
D: Using polar coordinates
E: Misc derivations
Problems
1. Objectives and Applications
>
1.1 Defining a Problem
2. Governing Equations >
2.1 Deformation
measures
2.2 Internal forces
2.3 Equations of motion
2.4 Work and Virtual
Work
3. Constitutive Equations >
3.1 General requirements
3.2 Linear elasticity
3.3 Hypoelasticity
3.4 Elasticity w/ large
rotations
3.5 Hyperelasticity
3.6 Viscoelasticity
3.7 Rate independent
plasticity
3.8 Viscoplasticity
3.9 Large strain plasticity
3.10 Large strain
viscoelasticity
3.11 Critical state soils
3.12 Crystal plasticity
3.13 Surfaces and interfaces
4. Solutions to simple problems
>
4.1 Axial/Spherical linear
elasticity
4.2 Axial/Spherical
elastoplasticity
4.3 Spherical hyperelasticity
4.4 1D elastodynamics
5. Solutions for elastic solids >
5.1 General Principles
5.2 2D Airy function solutions
5.3 2D Complex variable
solutions
5.4 3D static problems
5.5 2D Anisotropic elasticity
5.6 Dynamic problems
5.7 Energy methods
5.8 Reciprocal theorem
5.9 Energetics of dislocations
5.10 Rayleigh Ritz method
6. Solutions for plastic solids >
6.1 Slip-line fields
6.2 Bounding theorems
7. Introduction to FEA >
7.1 Guide to FEA
7.2 Simple FEA
program
8. Theory & Implementation of
FEA >
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8.1 Static linear elasticity

8.2 Dynamic elasticity
8.3 Hypoelasticity
8.4 Hyperelasticity
8.5 Viscoplasticity
8.6 Advanced elements
9. Modeling Material Failure >
9.1 Mechanisms of failure
9.2 Stress/strain based criteria
9.3 Elastic fracture mechanics
9.4 Energy methods in fracture
9.5 Plastic fracture mechanics
9.6 Interface fracture
mechanics
10. Rods, Beams, Plates &
Shells >
10.1 Dyadic notation
10.2 Deformable rods general
10.3 String / beam theory
10.4 Solutions for rods
10.5 Shells - general
10.6 Plates and membranes
10.7 Solutions for shells
A: Vectors & Matrices
B: Intro to tensors
C: Index Notation
D: Using polar coordinates
E: Misc derivations
FEA codes
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Chapter 9
Modeling Material Failure
9.4 Energy methods in fracture mechanics
Energy methods provide additional insight into fracture, and also provide a foundation for a range of analytical
and numerical methods in fracture mechanics. In this section, we outline some of the most important results.
9.4.1 Definition of crack tip energy release rate for cracks in linear elastic solids
The crack tip energy release rate quantifies the rate of change of the potential energy of
a cracked elastic solid as the crack grows.
To make this precise, consider an ideally elastic solid, subjected to some loading
(applied tractions, displacements, or body forces). Suppose the solid contains a crack
(the figure shows a circular crack with radius a as a representative example). Define
the potential energy of the solid in the usual way (Sect 5.6.1) as
Suppose the crack increases in size, so that the crack advances a distance
with loading kept fixed, where
s measures position around the crack front. The principle of minimum potential energy (sect 5.6.2) shows that
, since the displacement field associated with
is a kinematically admissible field for the
solid with a longer crack. The energy release rate
around the crack front is defined so that
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Energy release rate has units of
(energy per unit area).
For the special case of a 2D slit crack with length a, the energy release rate is
where
is now the potential energy per unit out-of-plane distance.
9.4.2 Energy release rate as a fracture criterion

Phenomenological fracture (or fatigue) criteria can be based on energy release rate arguments as an alternative
to the K based fracture criteria discussed earlier.
The argument is as follows. Regardless of the actual mechanisms involved, crack propagation involves
dissipation (or conversion) of energy. A small amount of energy is required to create two new free surfaces
(twice the surface energy per unit area of crack advance, to be precise). In addition, there may be a complex
process zone at the crack tip, where the material is plastically deformed; voids may be nucleated; there may be
chemical reactions; and generally all hell breaks loose. All these processes involve dissipation of energy. We
postulate, however, that the process zone remains self-similar during crack growth. If this is the case, energy
will be dissipated at a constant rate during crack growth. The crack can only grow if the rate of change of
potential energy is sufficient to provide this energy.
This leads to a fracture criterion of the form
for crack growth, where
is a property of the material. Unfortunately
is often referred to as the fracture
toughness of a solid, just like
defined earlier. It is usually obvious from dimensional considerations which
one is being used, but its an annoying source of confusion.
9.4.3 Relation between energy release rate and stress intensity factor
The energy release rate G is closely related to the stress intensity factors defined in Sect 9.3. Specifically, for an
isotropic, linear elastic solid with Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio the energy release rate is related to
stress intensity factors by
HEALTH WARNING: The result relating G to

crack tip.
and
is valid only for plane strain deformation at the
Derivation A neat argument due to Irwin provides the connection.

A crack of length a can be regarded as a crack with
which is being pinched closed
by an appropriate distribution of traction acting on the crack faces between
and
. We can therefore calculate the change in potential energy as the crack propagates
by distance
by computing the work done as these tractions are progressively relaxed to
zero. To this end, note that
1. The tractions that pinch the crack tip closed can be calculated from the asymptotic
crack tip field (Sect 9.3.1)
2.
(equal and opposite tractions must act on the lower crack face).
As the crack is allowed to open, the upper crack face displaces by
3.
where we have assumed plane strain deformation.

The total work done as the tractions are relaxed quasi-statically to zero is
(the work done by tractions acting on the upper crack face per unit length is
crack faces).
4. Evaluating the integrals gives
, and there are two
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The same result can be obtained by applying crack tip energy flux integrals, to be discussed below.
9.4.4 Relation between energy release rate and compliance

Energy release rate is related to the compliance of a
structure or specimen, as follows. Consider the compact
tension specimen shown in the picture. Suppose that the
specimen is subjected to a load P, which causes the point of
application of the load to displace by a distance
in a
direction parallel to the load. The compliance of the
specimen is defined as
As the crack grows, the compliance of the specimen always increases, so C is a function of crack length. The
energy release rate is related to compliance C by
This formula applies to any structure or component, not just to compact tension specimens. The formula is
useful for two reasons:
(i) It can be used to measure energy release rate in an experiment. All you need to do is to measure the
crack length as it grows, and at the same time measure the compliance of your specimen.
(ii) It can be used to calculate stress intensity factors, as outlined in the next section.
Derivation: This result can be derived by calculating the change in energy of the system as the crack grows.
Note that
1.
The load P induces a total strain energy
in the specimen. To see this, note that the the
solid is elastic and so behaves like a linear spring this is just the formula for the energy in a spring.
Now, suppose that the crack extends by a distance
. During crack growth, the load increases to
and displaces to
. In addition, the strain energy changes to
, while the compliance
increases to
.
3. The energy released during crack advance is equal to the decrease in potential energy of the system, so that
2.
4.
Note that
5.
Substituting these results into the expression in step (3) and simplifying shows that
The energy release rate therefore is related to compliance by
9.4.5 Calculating stress intensity factors using compliance

The relation between compliance and energy release rate can be used to
determine energy release rates, and sometimes also stress intensity
factors, for structures whose rate of change of compliance with crack
length can be easily determined. One example is the cantilever beam
specimen shown in the figure. The mode I stress intensity factor for this
specimen can be derived as
Derivation This result is derived by first calculating the compliance of the solid;
then using the formula to deduce the energy release rate, and finally using the
relationship between stress intensity factor and energy release rate. To proceed,
1. Note that the deflection d of the loaded point can be calculated by visualizing
the specimen as two cantilever beams, length a, width B and height h, clamped
on their right hand end and subjected to a load P at their left hand ends. From
elementary beam theory, the deflection is
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2.
where E is the Youngs modulus of the specimen.

The compliance follows as
3.
The energy release rate formula in Sect 9.4.4 gives
4.
By symmetry, the crack must be loaded in pure mode I. We can therefore deduce the stress intensity factor
using the relation
9.4.6 Integral expressions for energy flux to a crack tip

In this section we outline a way to compute the energy release rate for a crack, which applies not only to linear
elastic solids under quasi-static loading conditions, but is completely independent of the constitutive response of
the solid, and also applies under dynamic loading (it is restricted to small strains, however). The approach will
be to find an expression for the flux of energy through a cylindrical surface enclosing the crack tip, which
moves with the crack. We will get the energy release rate by shrinking the surface down onto the crack tip.
Energy flux across a surface in a solid: We first derive a formula that can be
used to calculate the flux of kinetic and potential energy across a surface in a
deformable solid. To this end,
Consider an arbitrary surface S, which encloses some volume V in a solid.
The surface need not necessarily be a material surface it could move with
respect to the solid. We will denote the velocity of S (with respect to a fixed
origin) by
Assume that the solid is free of body forces, for simplicity.
Let
denote the displacement, (infinitesimal) strain and stress field in the solid, and let
denote the velocity of a material point with respect to a fixed origin.
Let
denote the kinetic energy of a material particle in the solid
Let
denote the rate of work done by stresses at a point in the solid
Define the rate of change of mechanical energy density at an arbitrary point in the solid as
, and
let
Denote the total energy within V as
Define the work flux vector as
The energy flux across S can be calculated in terms of these quantities as follows:
The right hand side of this expression denotes the energy flux across the surface; the left hand side is the rate of
change of the total energy within V. The two are equal by energy conservation, as shown below.
Derivation:
Begin by showing that the energy flux vector and the rate of change of mechanical energy density are
1.
related by
To see this, note that
where we have used the linear and angular momentum balance equations
2.
Now, integrate both sides of this equation over the volume V and apply the divergence theorem to see that
3.
Next note that the total rate of change of
within the volume V bounded by S can be expressed as
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Here, the first term on the right represents the rate of change due to the time derivative of within V, while
the second term represents the flux of energy crossing S as the surface moves with velocity .
4. Combining (2) and (3) shows that
The term on the right hand side clearly represents the total rate of change of mechanical energy in V.
Consequently, the term on the left hand side must represent the mechanical energy flux across . This is the
result we need.
Energy flux to a crack tip. We can use the energy flux integral to obtain an
expression for the energy flux to a crack tip. Suppose the crack tip runs with steady
speed v in the direction. Let denote a cylindrical surface enclosing the crack
tip, which moves with the crack tip. The energy flux through follows as
where
is the net work done on the solid per unit volume by stresses, and
energy flux to the crack tip follows by taking the limit as
is the kinetic energy density. The
shrinks down onto the crack tip.
Contour integral formula for energy release rate. To obtain an expression for the energy release rate, assume
that the crack tip fields remain self-similar (i.e. an observer traveling with the crack tip sees a fixed state of
strain and stress). In addition, assume that the crack front is straight, and has length L in direction perpendicular
to the plane of the figure. Under these conditions
, and
. Consequently
where C is a contour enclosing the crack tip. (Equivalent results can be derived for general 3D cracks, but these
details are omitted here).
This result is valid for any material response (including plastic materials), and applies to both static and dynamic
conditions.
9.4.7 Rices J integral

The result derived in the preceding section becomes particularly useful if we make
two further assumptions:
1. Loading is quasi-static;
2. The material is elastic.
In this case T=0 and is simply the strain energy density in the solid - e.g. for a
linear elastic solid with no thermal stress,
The expression for energy flux through a surface surrounding the crack tip reduces to
This is the famous J integral. It has the following properties:

The crack tip energy integral is path independent, as long as the material enclosed by the contour is
1.
homogeneous. There is no need then to shrink the contour down onto the crack tip we get the same
answer for any contour that encloses the crack tip.
2. J=G for an elastic solid - so the contour integral gives an elegant way to calculate the crack tip energy
release rate.
Path independence of J: To show this, we first show that if the J integral is
evaluated around any closed contour that does not enclose the crack tip, it is zero.
To see this, apply the divergence theorem
where A is the area enclosed by

side is zero, note that
. To see that the area integral on the right hand
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where we have used the equilibrium equation
Now, evaluate the integral around the closed contour shown on the right. Note
that the integrand vanishes on
and
so that
Now reverse the direction of integration around
(note that m = -n) to get
showing that the integral is equal for any two contours that start and end on the two crack faces.
9.4.8 Calculating energy release rates using the J integral

The J integral has many applications. In some cases it
can be used to compute energy release rates. For
example, consider the problem shown below. A cracked
linear elastic cracked sheet is clamped between rigid
boundaries. The bottom boundary is held fixed; the top
is displaced vertically by a distance . Calculate the
energy release rate for the crack.
For this case G=J, and we can easily evaluate the J integral around the contour shown. To do so, note that
) the solid is stress free. The J integral vanishes on and
1. Far behind the crack tip (
The displacement field is constant on
so that
there. In addition
on
2.
and . The J integral vanishes on
and , therefore.
Far ahead of the crack tip
, the displacement, stress and strain energy density can easily be
3.
calculated as
The contribution to the J integral from
4.
follows as
The energy release rate is therefore
Symmetry conditions show that the crack must be loaded in pure mode I, so the stress intensity factor can also
be computed.
(c) A.F. Bower, 2008

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2014-04-01 18:00

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