Obesity WHO

This report contains the collective views of an international group of experts and
does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the World Health Organization
WHO Technical Report Series
894
OBESITY: PREVENTING AND MANAGING

THE GLOBAL EPIDEMIC
Report of a
WHO Consultation
World Health Organization

Geneva 2000
WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

WHO Consultation on Obesity (1999 : Geneva, Switzerland)
Obesity : preventing and managing the global epidemic : report of a WHO consultation.
(WHO technical report series ; 894)
1.0besity- epidemiology 2.0besity- prevention and control
4.Nutrition policy 5.National health programs I.Title II.Series
ISBN 92 4 120894 5
ISSN 0512-3054
3.Cost of illness
(NLM Classification : WD 710)
World Health Organization 2000

Reprinted 2004
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Contents
1.
Introduction
1.1
1 .2
Structure of the report

Themes of the report
Part I The problem of overweight and obesity

2.
3.
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4
5
Defining the problem

2.1 Introduction
2 2 Why classify overweight and obesity?
2.3 Body mass index
2.3.1 Use of other cut-off points in the classification of obesity
2.3.2 Variation in the relationship between BMI and body
fatness
2.3.3 Use of BMI to classify obesity
24 Waist circumference and waist: hip ratio
2.5 Additional tools for the assessment of obesity
2.6 Classifying obesity in childhood
2.6.1 Use of growth charts
2.6.2 International childhood reference population
2.6.3 BMI-for-age reference curves
References
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Global prevalence and secular trends in obesity

3.1 Introduction
3.2 A note of caution
3.3 The WHO MONICA project
34 African Region
3.4.1 Secular trends in obesity
3.4.2 Current prevalence of obesity
3.5 Region of the Americas
3.6 South-East Asia Region
3.7 European Region
3.8 Eastern Mediterranean Region
3.9 Western Pacific Region
3.1 o Body mass index distribution in adult populations
3.11 Obesity during childhood and adolescence
References
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Part 11
4.
5.
iv
Establishing the true costs of the problem of overweight

and obesity
Health consequences of overweight and obesity in adults

and children
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Obesity as a risk factor for noncommunicable diseases
4.3 Difficulties in evaluating the health consequences of obesity
4.4 Relative risk of obesity-associated health problems
4.5 Intra-abdominal (central) fat accumulation and increased risk
4.6 Obesity-related mortality
4.7 Chronic diseases associated with obesity
4.7.1 Cardiovascular disease and hypertension
4.7.2 Cancer
4.7.3 Diabetes mellitus
4.7.4 Gallbladder disease
4.8 Endocrine and metabolic disturbances associated with obesity
4.8.1 Endocrine disturbances
4.8.2 Metabolic disturbances
4.9 Debilitating health problems associated with obesity
4.9.1 Osteoarthritis and gout
4.9.2 Pulmonary diseases
4.10 Psychological problems associated with obesity
4.1 0.1 Social bias, prejudice and discrimination
4.10.2 Psychological effects
4.10 3 Body shape dissatisfaction
4.10.4 Eating disorders
4.11 Health consequences of overweight and obesity in childhood
and adolescence
4.11.1 Prevalence
4.11.2 Psychosocial effects
4.11.3 Cardiovascular risk factors
4.11.4 Hepatic and gastric complications
4.11.5 Orthopaedic complications
4.11.6 Other complications of childhood obesity
References
Health benefits and risks of weight loss
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Problems in evaluating the effects of long-term weight loss
5.3 Weight loss and general health
5.3.1 Modest weight loss
5.3.2 Extensive weight loss
5.4 Weight loss and mortality
5.5 Impact of weight loss on chronic disease, and on endocrine
and metabolic disturbances
5.5.2 Diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance
5.5.3 Dyslipidaemia
5.5.4 Ovarian function
5.6 Weight loss and psychosocial functioning
5.7 Hazards of weight loss
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5.8 Weight cycling

5.9 Effects of weight loss in obese children and adolescents
References
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Economic costs of overweight and obesity

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Cost-of-illness studies
6.2.1 Uses of cost-of-illness studies
6.2.2 Limitations of cost-of-illness studies
6.2.3 Steps in undertaking a cost-of-illness study
6.2.4 The disability-adjusted life year
6.3 International estimates of the cost of obesity
6.3.1 Studies in developed countries
6.3.2 Studies on the broader economic issues
6.3.3 Studies in developing countries
6.3.4 Conclusions
6.4 Economic costs and benefits of obesity treatment
6.4.1 Analyses of obesity-control trials
6.4.2 Potential cost savings associated with a reduction in the
prevalence of obesity
6.4.3 Cost-effectiveness of obesity prevention and treatment
References
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Part Ill
7.
Factors influencing the development of overweight and obesity

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Energy balance and the physiological regulation of body weight
7.2.1 Fundamental principles of energy balance
7.2.2 Physiological regulation of body weight
7.2.3 Dynamics of weight gain
7.2.4 Implications for public health
7.3 Dietary factors and physical activity patterns
7.3.1 Dietary factors
7.3.2 Physical activity patterns
7.4 Environmental and societal influences
7.4.1 Changing societal structures
7.4.2 Variation within societies
7.4.3 Cultural influences
74.4 Impact of societal changes on food intake and activity
patterns
7.5 Individual/biological susceptibility
7.5.1 Genetic susceptibility
7.5.2 Non-genetic biological susceptibility
7.5.3 Other factors promoting weight gain
7.6 Weight loss
References
Part IV
8.
Understanding how overweight and obesity develop
Addressing the problem of overweight and obesity
Principles of prevention and management of overweight and obesity

8.1 Introduction
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8.2
Strategies for addressing the problem of overweight

and obesity
8.3 Prevention strategies
8.3.1 Effectiveness
8.3.2 Aims
8.3.3 Levels of preventive action
8.3.4 Integrating obesity prevention into efforts to prevent
other noncommunicable diseases
8.4 Dealing with individuals with existing overweight and obesity
8.4.1 The current situation
8.4.2 Knowledge and attitudes of health professionals
8.4.3 Improving the situation
8.5 Partnerships for action on obesity
8.5.1 Shared responsibility
8.5.2 Coordination of government policies
References
9.
vi
Prevention and management of overweight and obesity in

populations: a public health approach
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Intervening at the population level
9.2.1 Relationship between average population BMI and the
level of obesity
9.2.2 Optimum population BMis
9.2.3 Will population-based approaches to preventing weight
gain lead to increased levels of underweight and eating
disorders?
9.3 Public health intervention strategies
9.3.1 Improving the knowledge and skills of the community
9.3.2 Reducing population exposure to an obesity-promoting
environment
9.4 Priority interventions
9.4.1 Increasing physical activity
9.4.2 Improving the quality of the diet
9.4.3 Measures for use in evaluating obesity-prevention
programmes
9.5 Results of public health programmes for the control of
obesity
9.5.1 Countrywide public health programmes
9.5.2 Communitywide CHD prevention programmes
9.5.3 Programmes targeting factors important in the
development of obesity
9.5.4 Implications for future public health programmes to
control obesity
9.6 Lessons to be learned from successful public health
campaigns
9.7 Public health strategies to improve the prevention and
management of obesity
9.7.1 Developed countries
9.7.2 Developing and newly industrialized countries
References
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10.
Prevention and management of overweight and obesity in at-risk

individuals: an integrated health-care services approach in
community settings
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Management strategies for at-risk individuals and groups
10.2.1 Prevention of weight gain
10.2.2 Weight maintenance
10.2.3 Management of obesity comorbidities
10.2.4 Weight loss
10.3 A health-care services approach to the new concept of
weight management
10.3.1 Recruitment and referral
10.3.2 Comprehensive health assessment
10.3.3 Setting appropriate targets
10.3.4 Selection and implementation of appropriate
management strategies
10.3.5 Monitoring, rewards and evaluation
10.4 Patient support in obesity treatment
10.4.1 Support within the health-care service
10.4.2 Involvement of family
10.4.3 Self-help and support groups
10.4.4 Commercial weight-loss organizations
10.5 Treatment of obesity
10.5.1 Dietary management
10.5.2 Physical activity and exercise
10.5.3 Behaviour modification
10.5.4 Drug treatment
10.5.5 Gastric surgery
10.5.6 Traditional medicine
10.5.7 Other treatments
10.6 Management of obesity in childhood and adolescence
10.6.1 Evidence that treatment of childhood obesity prevents
later adult obesity
10.6.2 Treatment of overweight and obese children
10.6.3 Obesity-management programmes for children
References
Part V
11.
Challenges for the new millennium
Conclusions and recommendations

11.1 General conclusions
11.2 Recommendations
11.2.1 Defining the problem of overweight and obesity
11.2.2 Establishing the true costs of the problem of
overweight and obesity
11.2.3 Understanding how the problem of overweight and
obesity develops
11.2.4 Addressing the problem of overweight and obesity
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24 7
Acknowledgements
251
Annex
Criteria for evaluating commercial institutions involved in weight loss
253
vii
WHO Consultation on Obesity

Geneva, 3-5 June 1997
Members*
Professor D-S. Akram, Department of Paediatrics, Dow Medical College, Civil

Hospital, Karachi, Pakistan
Professor AV. Astrup, Research Department of Human Nutrition, Royal Veterinary
and Agricultural University, Copenhagen, Denmark
Professor T. Atinmo, Head, Department of Human Nutrition, College of Medicine,
University of lbadan, lbadan, Nigeria
Or J-L. Boissin, Director, Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Polynesian
Institute of Research on Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders (IPRAME),
Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia
Professor G.A. Bray, Executive Director, Pennington Biomedical Research Center,
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
Or K.K. Carroll, Director, Centre for Human Nutrition, Department of Biochemistry,
University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
Or P. Chitson, Noncommunicable Diseases Office, Ministry of Health, Port Louis,
Mauritius
Professor C. Chunming, Senior Advisor, Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine,
Beijing, China (Vice-Chairman)
Or W.H. Dietz, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, The Floating Hospital for Children, North-east Medical Centre, Boston, MA,
USA
Or J.O. Hill, Centre for Human Nutrition, University of Colorado, Denver, CO, USA
(Chairman)
Professor E. Jequier, Institute of Physiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne,
Switzerland
Or C. Komodiki, Chief Health Officer, Ministry of Health, Nicosia, Cyprus
Professor Y. Matsuzawa, The Second Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka
University School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
Professor W.F. Mollentze, Department of Internal Medicine, University of the
Orange Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
Or K. Moosa, Head, Nutrition Unit, Ministry of Health, Manama, Bahrain
Or M. I. Noor, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Kebangsaan Malaysia University,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Or K.S. Reddy, Department of Cardiology, Cardiothoracic Centre, All-lndia Institute
of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
* Unable to attend: Professor M.J. Gibney, Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Centre
for Health Sciences, St James's Hospital, Dublin, Ireland; ProfessorS. Rossner, Health
Behaviour Research, Obesity Unit, Karolinska Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden; Or F.
Shaheen, Director, Nutrition Institute, Cairo, Egypt.
viii
Or J. Seidell, Department of Chronic Diseases and Environmental Epidemiology,

National Institute of Public Health and Environment, Bilthoven, Netherlands
(Joint Rapporteur)
Or V. Tanphaichitr, Professor of Medicine and Deputy Dean for Academic Affairs,
Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok,
Thailand
Or R. Uauy, Director, Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology, University of Chile,
Casilla, Santiago, Chile (Joint Rapporteur)
Professor P. Zimmet, Chief Executive Officer, International Diabetes Institute,
Caulfield South, Victoria, Australia
Representatives of other organizationst
Administrative Committee on Coordination Subcommittee on Nutrition (ACC/SCN)
Or S. Rabeneck, Technical Secretary, ACC/SCN, Geneva, Switzerland

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Or G. Nantel, Senior Nutrition Officer, Food and Nutrition Division, FAO, Rome, Italy
WHO Collaborating Centres for Nutrition
Or P. Deurenberg, Department of Human Nutrition and Epidemiology, Agricultural
University, Wageningen, Netherlands
Or M. Jarosz, Vice-Director, National Food and Nutrition Institute, Warsaw, Poland
Secretariat
Professor P. Bjbrntorp, Department of Heart and Lung Diseases, University of
Gothenburg Sahlgren's Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden (Temporary Adviser)
Or G.A. Clugston, Director, Programme of Nutrition, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland

Or T. Gill, Scientific Secretary, International Obesity Task Force, Rowett Research
Institute, Aberdeen, Scotland (Temporary Adviser)
Professor W.P.T. James, Chairman, International Obesity Task Force, Director,
Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen, Scotland (Temporary Adviser)
Or N. Khaltaev, Responsible Officer, Division of Noncommunicable Diseases,
WHO, Geneva, Switzerland (Go-Secretary)
Ms V. Lakin, Secretariat, International Obesity Task Force, Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen, Scotland (Temporary Adviser)
Or N.P. Napalkov, Assistant Director-General, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland
Mrs C. Nishida, Responsible Officer, Programme of Nutrition, WHO, Geneva,
Switzerland (Go-Secretary)
Or M. Pena, Regional Adviser in Food and Nutrition, WHO Regional Office for the
Americas, WHO, Washington, DC, USA
Invited but unable to send a representative: United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF),
New York, NY, USA; United Nations University (UNU), Tokyo, Japan.
ix
Or A. Robertson, Acting Regional Adviser, Nutrition Policy, Infant Feeding and

Food Security Programme, WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen,
Denmark
Or M.S. Tsechkovski, Director, Division of Noncommunicable Diseases, WHO,
Geneva, Switzerland
Or T. Turmen, Executive Director, Family and Reproductive Health, WHO, Geneva,
Switzerland
Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this report:
AIHW
ALCO
BMI
BMR
CHD
CHNS
CHO
CINDI
CVD
DALY
DEXA
ENDEF
EPI
EPOC
FDA
HCG
HDL
HMR
HPA
IGT
INTERHEALTH
INTERSALT
IOTF
LDL
LDL-apoB
LMS
LPL
MONICA
NCD
NCHS
NEFA
NHANES
NHES
NHMRC
NIDDM
NNS Ill
OA
PAF
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare

Anonymous Fighters Against Obesity (Argentina)
body mass index
basal metabolic rate
coronary heart disease
China Health and Nutrition Survey
carbohydrate
community interventions in noncommunicable
diseases
cardiovascular disease
disability-adjusted life-year
dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry
National Study of Family Expenditure (Brazil)
Expanded Programme on Immunization
excess post-exercise oxygen consumption
Food and Drug Administration (USA)
human chorionic gonadotropin
high-density lipoprotein
health management resources
hypothalamic-pituitary axis
impaired glucose tolerance
Integrated Programme for Community Health in
Noncommunicable Diseases
International Cooperative Study on the Relation
of Blood Pressure to Electrolyte Excretion in
Populations
International Obesity Task Force
low-density lipoprotein
low-density lipoprotein apolipoprotein B
least mean square
lipoprotein lipase
Monitoring of trends and determinants in
cardiovascular diseases (WHO MONICA study)
noncommunicable disease
National Center for Health Statistics (USA)
non-esterified fatty acid
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(USA)
National Health Examination Survey (USA)
National Health and Medical Research Council
non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
Third Nationwide Nutritional Survey in China (1992)
Overeaters Anonymous
population-attributable fraction
xi
PAL
PNSN
POP
REDP
RMR
RR
SBW
SHBG
SOS
SSRI
STD
TEF
TOPS
VLCD
WHR
xii
physical activity level

National Survey on Health and Nutrition (Brazil)
Pound of Prevention
reduced-energy diet programme
resting metabolic rate
relative risk
standard body weight
sex hormone-binding globulin
Swedish Obese Subjects
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
sexually transmitted disease
thermic effect of food
Taking Off Pounds Sensibly
very-low-calorie diet
waist : hip circumference ratio or waist : hip ratio
1.
Introduction
The WHO Consultation on Obesity met in Geneva from 3 to 5 June
1997. Dr F.S. Antezana, Deputy-Director General ad interim, opened
the meeting on behalf of the Director-General. This consultation was
the culmination of a two-year preparatory process, involving more
than 100 experts worldwide, undertaken in close collaboration with
the Rowett Research Institute (a WHO collaborating centre for nutrition) in Aberdeen, Scotland, and the International Obesity Task
Force (IOTF) chaired by Professor Philip James, Director of the
Rowett Research Institute.
The overall aim of the Consultation was to review current epidemiological information on obesity, and draw up recommendations for
developing public health policies and programmes for improving the
prevention and management of obesity. The specific objectives of the
Consultation were:
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to review global prevalence and trends of obesity among children

and adults, factors contributing to the problem of obesity, and
associated consequences of obesity, such as chronic noncommunicable diseases;
to examine health and economic consequences of obesity and
their impact on development;
to develop recommendations to assist countries in developing
comprehensive public health policies and strategies for improving
the prevention and management of obesity;
to identify the issues requiring further research.
In order to achieve these objectives, six peer-reviewed background

documents were prepared by experts in related fields. WHO takes
pleasure in drawing attention to these contributions, in the absence of
which many preparatory activities would not have been possible. The
individuals and institutions that contributed are mentioned in the
Acknowledgements section (page 251).
Throughout most of human history, weight gain and fat storage have
been viewed as signs of health and prosperity. In times of hard labour
and frequent food shortages, securing an adequate energy intake to
meet requirements has been the major nutritional concern.
Today, however, as standards of living continue to rise, weight gain
and obesity are posing a growing threat to health in countries all
over the world. Obesity is a chronic disease, prevalent in both developed and developing countries, and affecting children as well as
adults. Indeed, it is now so common that it is replacing the more
traditional public health concerns, including undernutrition and
infectious disease, as one of the most significant contributors to ill

health. Furthermore, as obesity is a key risk factor in the natural
history of other chronic and noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), it is
only a matter of time before the same high mortality rates for such
diseases will be seen in developing countries as those prevailing 30
years ago in industrialized countries with well established market
economies.
Clinical evidence of obesity can be dated as far back as GraecoRoman times, but little scientific progress was made towards understanding the condition until the 20th century. In the 19th century, the
work of Lavoisier and others indicated that metabolism was similar to
slow combustion, and that obese and lean humans obeyed the laws of
thermodynamics. Also, the discovery that fat is stored in "cells", the
basic units of biology, led to the idea that obesity could be caused by
the presence of too many fat cells. Interestingly, the 19th century also
saw the publication of the first diet book, entitled Letter on corpulence
addressed to the public, by a Mr W. Banting.
In the early 20th century, analysis of life insurance data indicated that
obesity was associated with an increased death rate. A familial basis
for obesity was suggested in the 1920s, and Cushing disease and
hypothalamic obesity were described. Later, the introduction of
thyroid hormone, dinitrophenol and amfetamine as pharmacological
treatments for obesity opened the door to the use of drugs, and
genetics improved the understanding of several specific forms of
obesity resulting from genetic defects.
Considerable advances have been made in diet, exercise and
behavioural approaches to treatment for obesity since their advent in
the first half of the 20th century, and new drugs with ever-better
profiles of pharmacological activity continue to be introduced on a
regular basis. Gastric surgery has had the most effective long-term
success in treating the severely obese. Despite this progress, however,
obesity prevalence continues to increase sharply, and the challenge to
public health workers and scientists has never been greater.
This report provides an assessment of current data on the prevalence
of obesity, its health consequences and its economic costs. Strategies
for implementing a systematic approach to the prevention and management of obesity in different health service systems are described,
and recommendations by leading international obesity experts are
also given. It is hoped that these recommendations will be used in the
development of new policies to address the escalating public health
problem of obesity.
2
1.1
Structure of the report
The report is divided into five parts, the first four of which deal with
different aspects of the global epidemic of obesity. The final part
outlines the conclusions and recommendations of the WHO Consultation on Obesity.
Part I examines the definition and classification of obesity, and sets
out the most recent data on the global prevalence and secular trends
in all regions of the world. Defining and identifying the extent of the
problem of obesity is a critical first step in a coherent approach to its
prevention and management.
Part 11 covers the true costs of obesity in terms of physical and mental
ill health, and the human and financial resources diverted to deal with
the problem. The amount of suffering that obesity causes, and the
money spent by health agencies in dealing with it, are enormous and
reinforce the need for urgent action.
Part Ill examines what is known about this complex, multifactorial
disease and identifies the major factors implicated in its development.
Most of the information about risk factors for weight gain and obesity
comes from studies in developed countries because developing countries have only recently seen a rise in chronic diseases and therefore
have little experience in carrying out research in this area. Examination of the factors involved in weight gain and obesity in developed
countries, however, is of worldwide relevance in predicting the future
impact in countries in the early stages of frequently dramatic socioeconomic change and provides a unique opportunity for taking preventive action. It is also important that these factors should be taken
into account in any coordinated strategy designed to tackle the problem of obesity.
Part IV takes account of the matters considered in the preceding
three parts and presents the foundations of a comprehensive strategy
for the prevention and management of obesity through health care
services and public health policy. Policy-makers, health professionals
and the community at large need to join forces in tackling this major
global public health problem.
Part V outlines the final conclusions and recommendations of the
WHO Consultation on Obesity. Priority areas for further research are
identified, and recommendations on strategies and actions for the
effective prevention and management of the global epidemic of
obesity are made.
3
1.2
Themes of the report
Obesity is a complex and incompletely understood disease. This report highlights key issues central to the development of a coherent
strategy for the effective prevention and management of obesity on a
worldwide basis. A number of important themes have dictated the
content and style of the report, including the following:
Obesity is a serious disease, but its development is not inevitable. It
is largely preventable through lifestyle changes.
The health risks of excessive body fat are associated with a relatively small increase in body weight, not only with marked obesity.
Effective management of obesity cannot be separated from
prevention.
Obesity is not just an individual problem. It is a population problem
and should be tackled as such. Effective prevention and management of obesity will require an integrated approach, involving actions in all sectors of society.
Obesity is a chronic disease that requires long-term strategies for its
effective prevention and management.
Obesity affects all age groups. The effective prevention of adult
obesity will require the prevention and management of childhood
obesity.
Obesity is a global problem. Prevention and management strategies
applicable to all regions of the world should be developed.
Obesity can be seen as just one of a defined cluster of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) now observed in both developed and developing countries. The global epidemic of obesity is a reflection of
the massive social, economic and cultural problems currently facing
developing and newly industrialized countries, as well as the ethnic
minorities and the disadvantaged in developed countries.
Examination of the factors involved in weight gain and obesity in
developed countries is crucial for predictions about the future impact in countries in the early stages of frequently dramatic socioeconomic change and provides a unique opportunity for taking
preventive action.
In countries with developing economies, the problem of obesity is
emerging at a time when undernutrition remains a significant problem. Strategies that take account of both these important nutritional problems will need to be developed, particularly when dealing with children whose growth may be stunted.
4
PART I
The problem of overweight

and obesity
2.
Defining the problem
2.1
Introduction
Obesity is often defined simply as a condition of abnormal or excessive fat accumulation in adipose tissue, to the extent that health may
be impaired (1). The underlying disease is the undesirable positive
energy balance and weight gain. However, obese individuals differ
not only in the amount of excess fat that they store, but also in the
regional distribution of that fat within the body. The distribution of
fat induced by weight gain affects the risks associated with obesity,
and the kinds of disease that result. Indeed, excess abdominal fat is as
great a risk factor for disease as is excess body fat per se. It is useful,
therefore, to be able to distinguish between those at increased risk as
a result of "abdominal fat distribution", or "android obesity" as it is
often known, from those with the less serious "gynoid" fat distribution, in which fat is more evenly and peripherally distributed around
the body.
Classifying obesity during childhood or adolescence is further complicated by the fact that height is still increasing and body composition
is continually changing. Furthermore, there are substantial international differences in the age of onset of puberty and in the differential
interindividual rates of fat accumulation.
This section outlines the most appropriate methods for: (a) classifying
overweight and obesity in adults; and (b) identifying abdominal fat
distribution. It also briefly discusses the use of additional tools for use
in the more detailed characterization of obese individuals. The final
section outlines the current lack of consistency and agreement
between studies in the classification of obesity in childhood and
adolescence, and highlights the need for a globally standardized
classification system.
The key issues covered include the following:
Obesity can be defined simply as the disease in which excess body
fat has accumulated to such an extent that health may be adversely
affected. However, the amount of excess fat, its distribution within
the body, and the associated health consequences vary considerably between obese individuals.
The graded classification of overweight and obesity: (a) permits
meaningful comparisons of weight status within and between populations; (b) makes it possible to identify individuals and groups at
increased risk of morbidity and mortality; (c) enables priorities to
be identified for intervention at individual and community levels;
and (d) provides a firm basis for the evaluation of interventions.
6
Body mass index (BMI) (see section 2.3) provides the most useful,
albeit crude, population-level measure of obesity. It can be used to
estimate the prevalence of obesity within a population and the risks
associated with it. However, BMI does not account for the wide
variation in body fat distribution, and may not correspond to the
same degree of fatness or associated health risk in different individuals and populations.
Obese individuals with excess fat in the intra-abdominal depots are
at particular risk of the adverse health consequences of obesity.
Therefore, measurement of waist circumference provides a simple
and practical method of identifying overweight patients at increased risk of obesity-associated illness due to abdominal fat
distribution.
Ethnic populations differ in the level of risk associated with a
particular waist circumference, and a globally applicable grading
system of waist circumference has not yet been developed.
Additional tools available for the more detailed characterization of
the obese state include methods of measuring body composition
(e.g. underwater weighing), determining the anatomical distribution of body fat (e.g. magnetic resonance imaging), and measuring
energy intake (e.g. prospective dietary record) and energy expenditure (e.g. doubly labelled water). However, the cost of such techniques and the practical difficulties involved in applying them limit
their usefulness to research.
As previously mentioned, the classification of the weight status of
children and adolescents is complicated by the fact that height and
body composition are continually changing, and that such changes
often occur at different rates and times in different populations,
making simple universal indices of adiposity of little value. To date,
there has not been the same level of agreement on the classification
of obesity for children and adolescents as there is for adults.
2.2
Why classify overweight and obesity?
The graded classification of overweight and obesity is valuable for a

number of reasons. In particular, it allows:
-
meaningful comparisons of weight status within and between

populations;
the identification of individuals and groups at increased risk of
morbidity and mortality;
the identification of priorities for intervention at individual and
community levels;
a firm basis for evaluating interventions.
7
2.3
Body mass index
BMI is a simple index of weight-for-height that is commonly used to

classify underweight, overweight and obesity in adults. It is defined as
the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in metres
(kg/m 2 ).
For example, an adult who weighs 70kg and whose height is 1.75m
will have a BMI of 22.9:
BMI = 70(kg)/1.75 2 (m 2 )
= 22.9
The classification of overweight and obesity, according to BMI, is

shown in Table 2.1. Obesity is classified as a BMI 2::30.0. The classification shown in Table 2.1 is in agreement with that recommended by
WHO (2), but includes an additional subdivision at BMI 35.0-39.9 in
recognition of the fact that management options for dealing with obesity differ above a BMI of 35. The WHO classification is based primarily on the association between BMI and mortality (see section 4.6).
2.3.1 Use of other cut-off points in the classification of obesity
A BMI of 30 or more is now widely accepted as denoting obesity. In

some studies, however, other BMI cut-off points both above and
below 30 have been used (3). Differences in cut-off points have a
major impact on estimates of the prevalence of obesity. For meaningful comparisons between or within populations it is therefore advisable to use the single BMI cut-off points proposed in Table 2.1.
2.3.2 Variation in the relationship between BM/ and body fatness
Although it can generally be assumed that individuals with a BMI of

30 or above have an excess fat mass in their body, BMI does not
distinguish between weight associated with muscle and weight associated with fat. As a result, the relationship between BMI and body fat
content varies according to body build and proportion, and it has
been shown repeatedly that a given BMI may not correspond to the
same degree of fatness across populations. Polynesians, for example,
tend to have a lower fat percentage than Caucasian Australians at an
identical BMI (4). In addition, the percentage of body fat mass increases with age up to 60-65 years in both sexes (5, 6), and is higher
in women than in men of equivalent BMI (7). In cross-sectional
comparisons, therefore, BMI values should be interpreted with caution if estimates of body fat are required.
Differences in body proportions and in the relationship between BMI
and body fat content can affect the BMI range considered to be
healthy. Calculations based on the ratio of sitting height to standing
8
Table 2.1
Classification of adults according to BMia
Classification
BMI
Risk of comorbidities
Underweight
<18.50
Low (but risk of other clinical

problems increased)
Normal range
Overweight:
Preobese
Obese class I
Obese class 11
Obese class Ill
a
18.50-24.99
:2:25.00
25.00-29.99
30.00-34.99
35.00-39.99
:2:40.00
Average
Increased
Moderate
Severe
Very severe
These BMI values are age-independent and the same for both sexes. However, BMI may not
correspond to the same degree of fatness in different populations due, in part, to differences
in body proportions (see section 2.3.2). The table shows a simplistic relationship between BMI
and the risk of comorbidity, which can be affected by a range of factors, including the nature
of the diet, ethnic group and activity level. The risks associated with increasing BMI are
continuous and graded and begin at a BMI above 25. The interpretation of BMI gradings in
relation to risk may differ for different populations. Both BMI and a measure of fat distribution
(waist circumference or waist: hip ratio (WHR)) are important in calculating the risk of obesity
comorbidities.
height that allow BMI to be corrected to take account of unusual

leg lengths are now available. Thus, very tall and lean Australian
Aboriginals tend to have a deceptively low BMI; a healthy BMI range
for this population appears to be between 17 and 22, metabolic complications developing rapidly as BMI increases above 22. Recalculating Aboriginal data to allow for their unusual body proportions
increases both the mean BMI and the BMI distribution, so that the
percentage with a BMI >25 increases from 8% to 15% (8).
2.3.3 Use of BM/ to classify obesity
BMI can be considered to provide the most useful, albeit crude,

population-level measure of obesity. The robust nature of the measurements and the widespread routine inclusion of weights and
heights in clinical and population health surveys mean that a more
selective measure of adiposity, such as skinfold thickness measurements, provides additional rather than primary information. BMI can
be used to estimate the prevalence of obesity within a population and
the risks associated with it, but does not, however, account for the
wide variation in the nature of obesity between different individuals
and populations.
2.4
Waist circumference and waist:hip ratio
Abdominal fat mass can vary dramatically within a narrow range of

total body fat or BMI. Indeed, for any accumulation of total body fat,
9
men have on average twice the amount of abdominal fat than is

generally found in premenopausal women (9). Other methods in
addition to the measurement of BMI would therefore be valuable in
identifying individuals at increased risk from obesity-related illness
due to abdominal fat accumulation.
Over the past 10 years or so, it has become accepted that a high WHR
(WHR >1.0 in men and >0.85 in women) indicates abdominal fat
accumulation (10). However, recent evidence suggests that waist circumference alone - measured at the midpoint between the lower
border of the rib cage and the iliac crest - may provide a more
practical correlate of abdominal fat distribution and associated ill
health (11-13).
Waist circumference is a convenient and simple measurement that is
unrelated to height (10), correlates closely with BMI and WHR (13)
and is an approximate index of intra-abdominal fat mass (14-16) and
total body fat (17). Furthermore, changes in waist circumference reflect changes in risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) (18) and
other forms of chronic disease, even though the risks seem to vary in
different populations.
Some experts consider that the hip measurement provides additional
valuable information related to gluteofemoral muscle mass and bone
structure (19). The WHR may therefore remain a useful research
tool, but individuals can be identified as being at increased risk of
obesity-related illness by using waist circumference alone as an initial
screening tool.
Populations differ in the level of risk associated with a particular
waist circumference, so that globally applicable cut-off points cannot
be developed. For instance, abdominal fatness has been shown to
be less strongly associated with risk factors for CVD and noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) in black women than
in white women (20). Also, people of South Asian (Bangladeshi,
Indian and Pakistani) descent living in urban societies have a higher
prevalence of many of the complications of obesity than other ethnic
groups (21). These complications are associated with abdominal fat
distribution that is markedly higher for a given level of BMI than in
Europeans. Finally, although women have almost the same absolute
risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) as men at the same WHR
(22, 23), they show increases in relative risk of CHD at lower waist
circumferences than men. Thus, there is a need to develop sexspecific waist circumference cut-off points appropriate for different
populations.
10
Table 2.2
Sex-specific waist circumference and risk of metabolic complications associated
with obesity in Caucasians
Risk of metabolic complications
Waist circumference (cm)

Men
Increased
Substantially increased
a
Women
~94
~80
~102
~88
This table is an example only. The identification of risk using waist circumference is
population-specific and will depend on levels of obesity and other risk factors for CVD and
NIDDM. This issue is currently under investigation.
The sex-specific waist circumferences given in Table 2.2 denote enhanced relative risk for a random sample from the Netherlands of
2183 men and 2698 women aged 20-59 years (23).
2.5
Additional tools for the assessment of obesity
In addition to the anthropometric assessment methods previously

outlined, there are various other tools that are useful for measuring
body fat in certain clinical situations and in obesity research. These
tools are particularly useful when trying to identify the genetic and
environmental determinants of obesity and their interactions, as they
enable the variable and complex nature of obesity to be split up into
separate components. Thus, obese individuals can be characterized by
measuring body composition, anatomical distribution of fat, energy
intake, and insulin resistance, among others.
A list of those characteristics of obesity considered suitable for measuring in genetic studies has recently been agreed (24) and is summarized in Table 2.3. Measures in a given category are not necessarily of
equal validity.
2.6
Classifying obesity in childhood

To date, there has not been the same level of agreement over the
classification of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents as
in adults. There has been confusion both in terms of a globally applicable reference population and of the selection of appropriate cut-off
points for designating a child as obese.
2.6.1 Use of growth charts
Many countries have produced reference charts for growth based on

weight-for-age and height-for-age. However, these measures are a
reflection only of the child's size (height and girth) and provide no
indication of relative fatness. The close correlation between height
11
Table 2.3
Currently recommended characteristics for measurement in genetic studies
Characteristic of
obesity measured
Examples of measurement tools
Body composition
BMI; waist circumference; underwater weighing; dualenergy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA); isotope dilution;
bioelectrical impedance; skinfold thickness
Anatomical distribution
of fat
Waist circumference; WHR; computer tomography;

ultrasound; magnetic resonance imaging
Partitioning of nutrient
storage
Energy intake
"Total" by prospective dietary record or recall;

"macronutrient composition" by prospective dietary record
or recall or by dietary questionnaire
Energy expenditure
"Total" by double-labelled water; "resting" by indirect

calorimetry; physical activity level (PAL) by questionnaire,
motion detector, heart-rate monitor, etc.
13
C] palmitic acid; extended overfeeding challenge
and weight during childhood means that an index of weight adjusted

for height can provide a simple measure of fatness.
2.6.2 International childhood reference population
The most widely used growth reference, which WHO has recommended for international use since the late 1970s (25, 26), was developed by the US National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS).
However, a WHO Expert Committee (2) has drawn attention to a
number of serious technical and biological problems with this growth
reference. WHO is therefore currently undertaking the development
of a new growth reference for infants and children from birth to 5
years. This will be based on a sample of infants and children from
different parts of the world whose caregivers follow internationally
recognized health recommendations. A similar reference will also be
required for older children and adolescents.
2.6.3 BMI-for-age reference curves
Adult BMI increases very slowly with age, so age-independent cut-off

points can be used to grade fatness. In children, however, BMI
changes substantially with age, rising steeply in infancy, falling during
the preschool years, and then rising again during adolescence and
early adulthood. For this reason, child BMI needs to be assessed using
age-related reference curves.
12
Such curves have been produced for a number of countries (6, 27-29).
However, many are imperfect either because the data are old or
because the age range is restricted. More recent BMI-for-age charts
have been developed for British, Italian and Swedish children (30-32)
using the least mean square (LMS) method of Cole (33), which adjusts BMI distribution for skewness and allows BMI in individual
subjects to be expressed as an exact centile or standard deviation
score. The use of BMI-for-age is currently being explored, in parallel
with other potential techniques, by an expert working group in order
to determine the best method of classifying overweight and obesity in
childhood. A common standard should allow the comparative evaluation of childhood obesity internationally.
References
1. Garrow JS. Obesity and related diseases. London, Churchill Livingstone,
1988:1-16.
2. Physical status: the use and interpretation of anthropometry. Report of a

WHO Expert Committee. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1995
(Technical Report Series, No. 854):329.
3. Kuczmarski RJ et al. Increasing prevalence of overweight among US adults.
The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1960 to 1991.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 1994, 272:205-211.
4. Swinburn BA et al. Body composition differences between Polynesians and
Caucasians assessed by bioelectrical impedance. International Journal of
Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders, 1996, 20:889-894.
5. Forbes GB, Reina JC. Adult lean body mass decline with age: some
longitudinal observations. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 1970,
19:653-663.
6. Rolland-Cachera MF et al. Body mass index variations - centiles from birth
to 87 years. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1991, 45:13-21.
7. Ross R et al. Sex differences in lean and adipose tissue distribution by
magnetic resonance imaging: anthropometric relationships. American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1994, 59:1277-1285.
8. Norgan NG, Jones PRM. The effect of standardising the body mass index
for relative sitting height. International Journal of Obesity and Related
Metabolic Disorders, 1995, 19:206-208.
9. Lemieux S et al. Sex differences in the relation of visceral adipose tissue
accumulation to total body fatness. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,
1993, 58:463-467.
10. Han TS et al. The influences of height and age on waist circumferences as
an index of adiposity in adults. International Journal of Obesity and Related
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11. James WPT. The epidemiology of obesity. In: Chadwick DJ, Cardew GC,
eds. The origins and consequences of obesity. Chichester, Wiley, 1996:116 (Ciba Foundation Symposium 201 ).
12. Seidell JC. Are abdominal diameters abominable indicators? In: Angel A,
Bouchard C, eds. Progress in Obesity Research: 7. London, Libbey,
1995:305-308.
13. Lean MEJ, Han TS, Morrison CE. Waist circumference as a measure for
indicating need for weight management. British Medical Journal, 1995,
311:158-161.
14. Han TS et al. Waist circumference relates to intra-abdominal fat mass better
than waist:hip ratio in women. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 1995,
54:152A.
15. Pouliot MC et al. Waist circumference and abdominal sagittal diameter: best
simple anthropometric indexes of abdominal visceral adipose tissue
accumulation and related cardiovascular risk in men and women. American
Journal of Cardiology, 1994, 73:460-468.
16. Ross R et al. Quantification of adipose tissue by MRI: relationship with
anthropometric variables. Journal of Applied Physiology, 1992, 72:787-795.
17. Lean MEJ, Han TS, Deurenberg P. Predicting body composition by
densitometry from simple anthropometric measurements. American Journal
of Clinical Nutrition, 1996, 63:4-14.
18. Han TS et al. Waist circumference reduction and cardiovascular benefits
during weight loss in women. International Journal of Obesity and Related
Metabolic Disorders, 1997, 21: 127-134.
19. Bjorntorp P. Etiology of the metabolic syndrome. In: Bray GA, Bouchard C,
James WPT, eds. Handbook of obesity. New York, Marcel Dekker,
1998:573-600.
20. Dowling HJ, Pi-Sunyer FX. Race-dependent health risks of upper body
obesity. Diabetes, 1993, 42:537-543.
21. McKeigue PM. Metabolic consequences of obesity and body fat pattern:
lessons from migrant studies. In: Chadwick DJ, Cardew GC, eds. The
origins and consequences of obesity. Chichester, Wiley, 1996:54-67 (Ciba
Foundation Symposium 201 ).
22. Larsson Bet al. Is abdominal body fat distribution a major explanation for
the sex difference in the incidence of myocardial infarction? The study of
men born in 1913 and the study of women, Gbteborg, Sweden. American
Journal of Epidemiology, 1992, 135:266-273.
23. Han TS et al. Waist circumference action levels in the identification of
cardiovascular risk factors: prevalence study in a random sample. British
Medical Journal, 1995, 311:1401-1405.
24. Warden CH. Group report: How can we best apply the tools of genetics to
study body weight regulation? In: Bouchard C, Bray GA, eds. Regulation of
body weight: biological and behavioural mechanisms. Chichester, Wiley,
1996:285-305.
25. Measuring change in nutritional status. Geneva, World Health Organization,
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14
26. WHO Working Group. Use and interpretation of anthropometric indicators of

nutritional status. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 1986, 64:929941.
27. Must A, Dallal GE, Dietz WH. Reference data for obesity: 85th and 95th
percentiles of body mass index and triceps skinfold thickness. American
28. Hammer LD et al. Standardized percentile curves of body mass index for
children and adolescents. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 1991,
145:259-263.
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Ceskoslovenska Pediatrie, 1993, 48(10):621-630.
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the UK, 1990. Archives of Diseases of Children, 1995, 73:25-29.
31. Luciano A, Bressan F, Zoppi G. Body mass index reference curves for
children aged 3-19 years from Verona, Italy. European Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, 1997,51:6-10.
32. Lindgren G et al. Swedish population reference standards for height, weight
and body mass index attained at 6 to 16 years (girls) or 19 years (boys).
Acta Paediatrica, 1995, 84(9) 1019-1028
33. Cole TJ. The LMS method for constructing normalised growth standards.
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1990, 44:45-60.
15
3.
Global prevalence and secular trends in obesity
3.1
Introduction
Evidence is now emerging to suggest that the prevalence of overweight and obesity is increasing worldwide at an alarming rate. Both
developed and developing countries are affected. Moreover, as the
problem appears to be increasing rapidly in children as well as in
adults, the true health consequences may only become fully apparent
in the future.
The value of estimating the prevalence of, and secular trends in,
overweight and obesity cannot be overemphasized. Knowledge of the
level and changing distribution of overweight and obesity can be used
to:
-
identify populations at particular risk of obesity and its associated

health and economic consequences;
help policy-makers and public health planners in the mobilization
and reallocation of resources for the control of disease;
provide baseline data for monitoring the effectiveness of national
programmes for the control of obesity.
This section provides a global overview of secular trends in obesity

among adults. It begins with a note of caution on comparisons between different studies, and then outlines the results of the comprehensive WHO MONICA (MONitoring of trends and determinants in
CArdiovascular diseases) study. The bulk of the section, however, is
a review of secular trends over the past 10-20 years and the most
recent prevalence data available within each of the six WHO regions
-Africa, the Americas, South-East Asia, Europe, the Eastern Mediterranean and the Western Pacific.
Despite the limited availability of nationally representative data (particularly secular trend data), the following conclusions can be drawn:
Obesity prevalence is increasing worldwide at an alarming rate in
both developed and developing countries.
In many developing countries, obesity coexists with undernutrition
(BMI <18.5). It is still relatively uncommon in African and Asian
countries, but is more prevalent in urban than in rural populations.
In economically advanced regions, prevalence rates may be as high
as in industrialized countries.
Women generally have higher rates of obesity than men, although
men may have higher rates of overweight.
The current lack of consistency and agreement between different
studies in the classification of obesity in children and adolescents
16
makes it difficult to give an overview of the global prevalence of

obesity in younger age groups. Nevertheless, irrespective of the
classification system used, studies of obesity during childhood and
adolescence have generally reported that its prevalence has increased.
3.2
A note of caution
Several factors can make comparisons of data between different

cross-sectional studies problematic, namely:
Classification of obesity: in a number of studies, the recommended
WHO international classification of obesity, i.e. BMI ~30, has not
been used.
Age group: the age group chosen affects the proportion of obese
individuals identified.
Age standardization: in many studies, the age structure of the population has not been standardized according to a reference such as
the new standard world population data (1).
Time period/year of data collection: there is a need for the continuous monitoring of programmes so that current data are always
available.
Measured versus self-reported weight and height: self-reported
weight and height are notoriously unreliable, especially in the
obese.
Many studies have been excluded from this review because of problems caused by the factors listed above, or because they were conducted several years ago without any follow-up and are therefore of
limited value. The prevalence data cited in this section are those most
recently available and illustrate the global nature of the prevalence of
obesity; they have generally been derived from representative national surveys. However, due to the limited availability of longitudinal
data, secular trends have often been illustrated with data from representative samples.
In all the tables in this section, obesity is classified as BMI ~ 30 unless
otherwise stated.
3.3
The WHO MONICA project
The most comprehensive data on the prevalence of obesity worldwide

are those of the WHO MONICA project (2). Although the populations are not necessarily representative of the countries in which they
are located, the 48 populations shown in Figs 3.1 and 3.2 can be
17
Figure 3.1
BMI distribution: age-standardized proportions of selected categories in MONICA
populations, age group 35-64 years (men)
Country
Districtrrown
BMI
25-29.9
:0:30
Malta
France
USSR
Czechoslovakia
Germany, Fed. Rep.
Belgium
Switzerland
Hungary
Finland
German Dem. Rep.
Germany, Fed. Rep.
Finland
German Dem. Rep.
Italy
Yugoslavia
Finland
German Dem. Rep.
Poland
Italy
Canada
German Dem. Rep.
Hungary
Germany, Fed. Rep.
Germany, Fed. Rep.
USSR
Australia
France
Belgium
German Dem. Rep.
Poland
USSR
USSR
USSR
Switzerland
Sweden
Italy
Northern Ireland
Scotland
Belgium
Denmark
Iceland
USA
Spain
France
Australia
New Zealand
Sweden
China
of
of
of
of
< 25
Malta
Bas-Rhin
Kaunas
Czechoslovakia
Augsburg: rural
Charleroi
Ticino
Pecs
Turku/Loimaa
Rest of GDR-Monica
Augsburg: urban
Kuopio Province
Halle County
Area Latina
No vi-Sad
North Karelia
Kottbus County
Warsaw
Friuli
Halifax County
Kari-Marx-Stadt County
Budapest
Bremen
Rhein-Neckar Region
Novosibirsk: control
Newcastle
Lille
Luxembourg Province
Berlin-Lichtenberg
Tarnobrzeg Voivodship
Novosibirsk: intervention
Moscow: control
Moscow: intervention
Vaud/Fribourg
Northern Sweden
Area Brianza
Belfast
Glasgow
Ghent
Glostrup
Iceland
Stanford
Catalonia
Haute-Garonne
Perth
Auckland
Gothenburg
Beijing
20
40
60
80
100
Note 1. The proportions of men classified as obese, overweight and normal weight in 48
populations (mainly European) taking part in the WHO MONICA study are shown.
Although these populations are not necessarily representative of the countries in which
they are located, they can be compared because the data were collected in the same
time period, are age-standardized, and are based on heights and weights measured in
accordance with identical protocols. The WHO MONICA study has generated one of the
most comprehensive data sets on the prevalence of obesity worldwide. The data were
collected over the period 1983-1986 (3).
Note 2. Names of countries are those that were valid at the time of data collection.
18
Figure 3.2
BMI distribution: age-standardized proportions of selected categories in MONICA
populations, age group 35-64 years (women)
Country
District/Town
BMI
"30
USSR
USSR
USSR
Malta
USSR
USSR
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Italy
Yugoslavia
German Dem. Rep.
Belgium
Hungary
Poland
German Dem. Rep.
Spain
France
Finland
German Dem. Rep.
Germany, Fed. Rep.
Finland
German Dem. Rep.
Italy
Germany, Fed. Rep.
Hungary
France
Belgium
German Dem. Rep.
Finland
Canada
Scotland
Germany, Fed. Rep.
Italy
USA
Belgium
Switzerland
Australia
Northern Ireland
Sweden
Germany, Fed. Rep.
Switzerland
Iceland
France
Denmark
Australia
Sweden
New Zealand
China
of
of
of
of
< 25
25-29.9
Kaunas
Novosibirsk: intervention
Novosibirsk: control
Malta
Mo~cow: intervention
Moscow: control
Tarnobrzeg Voivodship
Czechoslovakia
Area Latina
Novi-Sad
Rest of GDR-Monica
Charleroi
Pecs
Warsaw
Halle County
Cataloia
Bas-Rhin
North Karelia
Kottbus County
Augsburg: rural
Kuopio province
Kari-Marx-Stadt County
Friuli
Bremen
Budapest
Lille
Luxembourg Province
Berlin-Lichtenberg
Turku/Loimaa
Halifax County
Glasgow
Augsburg: urban
Area Brianza
Stanford
Ghent
Ticino
Newcastle
Belfast
Northern Sweden
Rhein-Neckar Region
Vaud/Fribourg
Iceland
Haute-Garonne
Glostrup
Perth
Gothenburg
Auckland
Beijing
20
40
60
80
100
Note 1. The proportions of women classified as obese, overweight and normal weight in 48
populations (mainly European) taking part in the WHO MONICA study are shown.
Although these populations are not necessarily representative of the countries in which
they are located, they can be compared because the data were collected in the same
time period, are age-standardized, and are based on heights and weights measured in
accordance with identical protocols. The WHO MONICA study has generated one of the
most comprehensive data sets on the prevalence of obesity worldwide. The data were
collected over the period 1983-1986 (3).
Note 2. Names of countries are those that were valid at the time of data collection.
19
compared because the data were collected in the same time period,
are age-standardized, and are based on weights and heights measured
in accordance with identical protocols. The data presented were collected in the first round between 1983 and 1986, and more recent data
have been published since the time of the WHO Consultation. 1 The
majority of the data are for European populations.
Figs 3.1 and 3.2 show the BMI distributions in 48 MONICA populations for men and women, respectively (3). Although this report
focuses on data relating to obesity, i.e. BMI ~30, it is important to
note that a BMI between 25 and 29.9 is responsible for the major
part of the impact of overweight on certain obesity comorbidities;
it has been estimated, for example, that about 64% of male and 77%
of female cases of NIDDM would theoretically be prevented if no
one had a BMI ~25. These figures may be compared with those for a
BMI cut -off point of less than 30, namely 44% and 33%, respectively
(4, 5).
Figs 3.1 and 3.2 show that, in all but one male population, and in the
majority of female populations, between 50% and 75% of adults aged
35-64 years were either overweight or obese during the period 19831986. In a few populations, this figure was over 75%. Thus, between
1983 and 1986, the majority of adults in these populations were at
increased risk of illness due to overweight or obesity. Based on the
evidence that the prevalence of obesity is increasing worldwide, the
situation is now likely to be even worse.
3.4
African Region
Many countries in the African Region have necessarily focused principally on undernutrition and food security. As a result, trends in
obesity have been documented in only a few African countries or
populations. However, one recent study in Mauritius has shown the
same trend as that seen in the other five WHO regions- a dramatic
increase in obesity prevalence over a five-year period in both men and
women aged 25-74 years. The proportion of obese men increased
from 3.4% in 1987 to 5.3% in 1992, while the proportion of obese
women increased from 10.4% to 15.2% in the same period. This
increase was seen in all age groups and ethnic groups (6, 7). Although
1
20
Tunstaii-Pedoe H et al. Contribution of trends in survival and coronary-event rates to

changes in coronary heart disease mortality: 10 year results from 37 WHO MONICA
Project populations. Lancet, 1999, 353:1547-1557.
Table 3.1
Obesity prevalence (BMI 2': 30) in some African countries and populations
Country or population
Ghana
Mali
Mauritius
Rodrigues (creoles)
South Africa, Cape
Peninsula (blacks)
United Republic of
Tanzania
Year
Age
(years)
Prevalence of obesity(%)
Reference
Women
Men
0.9
0.8
8
8
7
1987-1988
1991
1992
1992
1990
20+
20+
25-74
25-69
15-64
5
10
8
15
31
44
10
1986-1989
35-64
0.6
3.6
11
it could be argued that Mauritius is not typical of other countries in

the African Region, this study highlights both the adverse effects of
lifestyle change in rapidly modernizing populations and how quickly
obesity can become a public health problem.
From the fragmentary and limited prevalence data available, it is

evident that obesity does exist in the developing as well as in the more
developed countries in the African Region, particularly among
women. Table 3.1 shows data from a number of studies carried out in
African countries.
In developing countries, rural adults still maintaining a traditional
lifestyle gained little or no weight with age until relatively recently.
This was formerly the case in Africa, and still is today in the few
remaining hunter-gatherer populations, such as the San people, in
northern Botswana (12). However, with the improvement in socioeconomic status and increasing changes due to rapid urbanization, the
prevalence of obesity among some groups of black women has risen
markedly to levels exceeding those in populations in industrialized
countries (13). In fact, approximately 44% of African women living in
the Cape Peninsula were estimated to be obese in 1990 (10).
3.5
Region of the Americas
Secular trend data are available for Brazil, Canada and the USA, and
are summarized in Table 3.2. These data indicate that obesity rates for
both men and women are increasing not only in developed countries,
but also in developing countries and in countries such as Brazil going
through rapid socioeconomic transition.
21
Table 3.2
Trends in obesity (BMI
Country
Brazil
Canada
United States
of America
::e:
30) in selected countries in the Americas
Year
1975
1989
1978
1981
1988
1986-1990
1960-1962
1971-1974
1976-1980
1988-1994
Age
(years)
25-64
25-64
20-70
20-70
20-70
18-74
20-74
20-74
20-74
20-74
Men
Women
3.1
5.9
6.8
8.5
9.0
15.0
8.2
13.3
9.6
9.3
9.2
15.0
15.1
16.1
16.5
24.9
10.4
11.8
12.3
19.9
Reference
15
15
16
17
18
19
14
14
14
14
The most comprehensive data on national trends in the prevalence of

obesity in a developed country in the Region are those for the USA.
These are based on comparisons of data from NHES I (1960-1962),
NHANES I (1971-1974), NHANES II (1976-1980), and NHANES
Ill (1988-1994) (14). The figures for the USA presented in Table 3.2
are particularly valuable as they have been recalculated from those of
the above-mentioned NHES and NHANES surveys for the WHO
classification of obesity, i.e. BMI ~ 30. These suggest that obesity is an
escalating problem in the USA; there was a slight increase in the
overall estimated prevalence of obesity during the period covered by
the first three surveys, but a much larger increase between the third
and the fourth surveys.
Data from Brazil provide the most valuable information on obesity
prevalence and trends in a country in transition in the Region; two
comparable, nationally representative, random nutrition surveys
made 15 years apart make possible a detailed investigation of changing patterns of the nutritional status of children and adults, men and
women, rich and poor. These surveys, which were undertaken by the
Brazilian agency in charge of national statistics in 1974-1975 (the
National Study of Family Expenditure (ENDEF) survey) and in 1989
(the National Survey on Health and Nutrition (PNSN)), show that
adult obesity has increased in all groups of men and women. However, a greater increase has been observed among lower-income families. The problem of dietary deficit in Brazil is rapidly being replaced
by one of dietary excess (15).
The most recent data for the prevalence of obesity in the USA are
those from NHANES Ill (1988-1994). A recent reanalysis of the data
22
Table 3.3
Obesity prevalence (BMI
Country
Brazil
Canada
USA
Year
1989
1986-1990
1988-1994
30) in selected countries in the Americas

Age
(years)
25-64
18-74
20-74
Men
6
15.0
19.9
Reference
Women
13
15.0
24.9
15
19
14
using BMI 230 to classify obesity is particularly valuable for use in

global comparisons, and showed that around 20% of all men and 25%
of all women in the USA are obese. Table 3.3 shows that, in the early
1990s, obesity was more widespread in the USA than in Canada.
Detailed subgroup analysis of the data shows that black women and
other minority populations in the USA tend to have particularly high
rates of obesity.
The only Latin American country to have conducted a nationally
representative survey in the last 10 years is Brazil. The PNSN survey
indicated that obesity is prevalent in Brazil, affecting about 6% of
men and 13% of women in 1989 (15).
Evidence from the Caribbean, specifically Barbados, Cuba, Jamaica
and Saint Lucia, indicates that obesity is a significant problem in this
region. It is more common in those countries with a higher per capita
GNP, affects women more than men, and is associated with a parallel
increase in the prevalence of hypertension and NIDDM (20). However, as an unusual classification system (obese males: BMI 231.1;
obese females: BMI 232.3) is used, the study is not cited in Table 3.3.
3.6
South-East Asia Region
Good-quality, nationally representative, secular trend data for countries in the South-East Asia Region were unavailable. However, data
from two studies conducted by the same research centre in Thailand
do suggest that diet-related chronic diseases, including obesity, are
increasing in affluent urban populations. The first study was conducted in 1985 among 35-54-year-old Thai officials; it was found that
2.2% of the 2703 men, and 3.0% of the 792 women, had a BMI 230
(21). The second study in 1991 was smaller (66 men and 453 women),
and had a broader age range (19-61 years), but also assessed nutritional factors in affluent urban Thais. Results of this study showed
that 3.0% of men and 3.8% of women had a BMI 230. Prevalence
23
figures for BMI 25-29.9 were considerably higher (15.2% in men and
23.2% in women) (22).
Only limited obesity prevalence data are available for countries in the
Region. Various studies on nutritional status have been carried out,
particularly in India, but these have generally been on undernutrition
and on selected population groups and have not used the WHO
classification of obesity. As many countries in south-east Asia are
currently going through the so-called "nutrition transition"/ there is a
special need to collect good-quality, nationally representative obesity
prevalence data. The nutrition transition is associated with a change
in the structure of the diet, reduced physical activity and rapid
increases in the prevalence of obesity (23).
3.7
European Region
Although the most comprehensive data on the prevalence of obesity

in Europe are those of the WHO MONICA study (2), the 42 populations in 38 centres chosen across Europe are not necessarily representative of their host countries, and only data from the first cycle have so
far been published. 2 The best picture of secular trends in obesity
prevalence in European countries should therefore be provided by
data from national surveys. Population-level trend data on obesity
prevalence in Europe are available for several countries, including
England, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden. Some of
these data are summarized in Table 3.4, from which it can be seen that
the prevalence of obesity has increased by about 10-40% in the
majority of European countries in the past 10 years. The most dramatic increase has been observed in England, where it has more than
doubled during this period (24). There is some evidence, however,
that there has been less of an increase among women in recent years,
at least in some Scandinavian countries (25).
Obesity is relatively common in Europe, especially among women

and in southern and eastern European countries. The average preva1
24
The rapid transition, or shift, from the problem of dietary deficit (or undernutrition) to one
of dietary excess (or overnutrition and/or unbalanced nutrition).
Updated material has been published since the Consultation: Tunstaii-Pedoe H et al.
Contribution of trends in survival and coronary-event rates to changes in coronary heart
disease mortality: 10-year results from 37 WHO MONICA project populations. Lancet,
1999, 3531547-1557.
Table 3.4
Trends in obesity (BMI ;::: 30) in selected European countries
Country
England
Finland
Former German
Democratic
Republic
Netherlands
Sweden
Year
1980
1986-1987
1991
1994
1995
1978-1979
1985-1987
1991-1993
1985
1989
1992
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1980-1981
1988-1989
Age
(years)
Prevalence of obesity (%)
16-64
20-75
25-65
2Q-29
16-84
Men
Women
6.0
7
12.7
13.2
15.0
10
12
14
13.7
13.4
20.5
8.0
12
15.0
16.0
16.5
10
10
11
22.2
20.6
26.8
6.0
6.3
6.2
7.4
7.5
7.5
7.1
8.8
8.4
4.9
5.3
8.5
7.6
7.4
9.0
8.8
9.3
9.1
9.4
8.3
8.7"
9.1 8
Reference
26
27
24
28
L. Heinman,
personal
communication,
1996
29
30
Obesity is defined as BMI >28.6.
lence of obesity in European centres participating in the WHO

MONICA study between 1983 and 1986 was about 15% in men and
22% in women, although there was great variability both within and
between countries. The lowest prevalence was found in Gothenburg,
Sweden (men 7%, women 9%) and the highest in Kaunas, USSR
(now Lithuania) (men 22%, women 45% ).
The most recent data from individual national studies suggest that the
prevalence of obesity in European countries is currently in the range
10-20% in men and 10-25% in women (Table 3.5). In agreement
with the MONICA data, the prevalence of obesity is generally higher
in women than in men.
3.8
Eastern Mediterranean Region
Good-quality, nationally representative, secular trend data for countries in the Eastern Mediterranean Region are not available.
25
Table 3.5
Country
Former
Czechoslovakia
England
Finland
Former Federal
Republic of
Germany
Former German
Democratic
Republic
Netherlands
30) in selected European countries
Year
Age
(years)
Men
Reference
Women
1988
20-65
16
20
1995
1991-1993
1990
16-64
20-75
25-69
15
14
17
16.5
11
19
1992
25-69
21
27
1995
20-59
V. Hainer,
personal
communication,
1997; 31
24
28
32
L. Heinman,
personal
communication,
1996
29
Data on the prevalence of adult obesity in the Eastern Mediterranean

Region have not been well documented at the national level except in
Saudi Arabia. Various surveys have been conducted but these have
tended to be only for specific population groups within a country,
such as women attending an infertility clinic, and/or have not classified obesity as BMI ~30. Nevertheless, the limited data available,
some of which are shown in Table 3.6, indicate that the prevalence of
adult obesity in countries in the Region is high, and that women in
particular are affected. In general, the prevalence of obesity among
women is higher than that reported for women in most industrialized
countries.
A nationally representative, cross-sectional survey was conducted
between 1990 and 1993 to study the effects of sex, age and regional
distribution on the prevalence of overweight and obesity among
13177 randomly selected adult Saudi subjects. The prevalence of
obesity among the female subjects was several-fold higher than the
reported prevalence in more highly industrialized countries, and was
higher than among male subjects for all regions of Saudi Arabia (33).
In the United Arab Emirates, obesity is recognized as a major public
health problem that may play an important role in the increasing
incidence of other chronic diseases. Data from the National Nutrition
Survey showed that 38% of married women and 15.8% of married
26
Table 3.6
Obesity prevalence (BMI :2: 30) in selected Eastern Mediterranean countries
Country
Bahrain:
Urban
Rural
Cyprus
Iran, Islamic
Republic of
(south)
Kuwait
Saudi Arabia:
Total
Urban
Rural
United Arab
Emirates
Year
1991-1992
Age
(years)
Men
Women
9.5
6.5
19
2.5
30.3
11.2
24
7.7
32
41
16
18
12
16
24
28
18
38
35
20-65
1989-1990
1993-1994
35-64
20-74
1994
1990-1993
18+
15+
1992
17+
Reference
13
36
37
33
34
men were obese (34). In Bahrain, obesity was more common in urban
than in rural areas, especially in women (35).
Finally, a recent study in the south of the Islamic Republic of Iran
revealed that obesity is prevalent in the adult population, and is more
frequent among women than men (36).
3.9
Western Pacific Region
Trend data on the prevalence of overweight and obesity in countries

in the Western Pacific Region are available for Australia, China,
Japan and Samoa. These are summarized in Table 3.7 and show an
increasing prevalence of obesity among Australians and Samoans.
The Australian data are from three National Heart Foundation studies conducted in the six state capitals in 1980 and 1983, with two extra
cities added in 1989 (38). Rural residents were not included.
Detailed analysis of data from the National Nutrition Survey in Japan
conducted by the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare (n = 5000
per year) has shown that there has been a secular increase in obesity
in both men and women during the period 1976-1993. Obesity among
men increased by a factor of about 2.4; in women, in the 20-29-year
age group, obesity increased by a factor of about 1.8 (S. Inoue, personal communication).
27
Table 3.7
Trends in obesity (BMI ;::: 30) in selected Western Pacific countries
Country
BMI
cut-off
Australia
27
China
30
26.4
Japan
30
Samoa:
Urban
Rural
30
30
Year
Age
(years)
1980
1983
1989
1989
1991
1989
1991
25-64
1976
1982
1987
1993
1976
1982
1987
1993
1978
1991
1978
1991
20+
Men
Women
9.3
9.1
11.5
8.0
10.5
13 2
4.3
4.3
0.89
0.86
20--45
20-45
2.9
0.29
0.36
20+
25-69
25-69
7.1
8.4
10.3
11.8
0.7
0.9
1.3
1.8
38.8
58.4
17.7
41.5
12.3
12.3
12.6
130
2.8
2.6
2.8
2.6
59.1
76.8
37.0
59.2
Reference
38
39
C. Chunm1ng,
personal
communication
S. lnoue,
personal
communication
S. lnoue,
personal
communication
40
40
Data for 1989 and 1991 from the China Health and Nutrition Survey
(CHNS) show an increase in the proportion of adult men, but not
women, who are severely overweight (BMI ~ 27) and obese (BMI ~
30) (39). This longitudinal survey, which is now under way, is considered to be representative of all provinces in China. As the plan is for
surveys to be conducted every two years, the CHNS should prove a
valuable source of data for documenting the secular trends in obesity
in a country in economic transition. Data from the 1993 survey have
been published since the time of the WHO Consultation. 1
Secular trends have also been observed in Samoa, where there has
been a marked increase in the prevalence of obesity between 1978
28
Wang Y, Popkin B, Zhai F. The nutritional status and dietary pattern of Chinese
adolescents, 1991 and 1993. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1998, 52(12):908916.
Guo X et al. Food price policy can favorably alter macronl!trient intake in China. Journal
of Nutrition, 1999, 129:994-1001.
and 1991, especially among men living in rural areas. Obesity is not
new to Pacific populations and has long been regarded as attractive
and a symbol of high social status and prosperity (40). However, there
is evidence that these traditional notions are being replaced by an
image of small body size (41).
Table 3.8 shows the most recent estimates of obesity rates in a number
of countries in the Western Pacific. The prevalence of obesity in the
general population of both Australia and New Zealand appears to be
in the range 10-15%. Studies of Aborigines living in different regions
of Australia are not consistent with this finding; depending on the
degree of "westernization" of Aboriginal communities, they have
either a much higher or a substantially lower prevalence of obesity
than the general Australian population (42).
Interim data from the Japanese National Nutrition Survey show that
the prevalence of obesity in Japan is around 2% in males and 3%
in females. When a BMI cut-off point of 26.4 is used (2120% of
standard body weight (SBW)), the figures are around 12% and 13%,
respectively. Various studies have also been conducted on specific
population groups and centres within Japan (S. Inoue, personal
communication).
The current prevalence of obesity in China is probably best documented by the 1992 third Nationwide Nutritional Survey (NNS Ill).
This survey was conducted throughout both urban and rural provinces, and data were collected from a larger representative sample of
men (n = 14964) and women (n = 14590) aged 20-45 years than the
CHNS cohort (n = 5000 approximately). Data from NNS Ill show that
obesity does exist in China, albeit at a low prevalence, is more common in women than in men (Table 3.8), and is more prevalent in
urban than in rural areas. These findings are supported by a study in
11478 randomly selected Chinese adults aged 40 years and older,
although slightly higher rates were reported than in the younger age
group studied in NNS Ill (C. Chunming, personal communication). A
number of other data sets are available but the WHO classification of
obesity is rarely used in them, they are not age-standardized and tend
not to be nationally representative.
The most striking feature of Table 3.8 is the extremely high agestandardized prevalence of obesity observed in the Pacific island
populations of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. In urban Samoa,
for example, the prevalence of obesity has been estimated to be
over 75% in adult women and almost 60% in adult men. However,
29
Table 3.8
Country
Year
30) in selected Western Pacific countries

Age
(years)
Men
Women
Australia
China
1989
1992
25-64
20-45
11.5
1.20
13.2
1.64
Japan
1993
20+
1.7
2.7
Nauru (Micronesia)
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
(Melanesia):
Coastal urban
Coastal rural
Highlands
Samoa (Polynesia):
Urban
Rural
1987
1989
25-69
18-64
64.8
10
70.3
13
1991
25-69
36.3
23.9
4.7
54.3
18.6
5.3
584
41.5
76.8
59.2
1991
Reference
38
C. Chunming,
personal
communication
S. lnoue,
personal
communication
40
43
40
25-69
40
Swinburn et al. (44) recently concluded that Polynesians seem leaner

than Caucasians at any given body size, so that the prevalence of
obesity in Polynesian populations may not be quite as high as is
currently estimated using Caucasian-derived classifications based on
BMI. The prevalence in rural populations is also extremely high, but
lower than in urban areas.
Among adults aged 18-60 years in Malaysia, 4.7% of men and 7.9% of
women were found to have a BMI above 30. In the women, overweight and obesity problems were more serious in the Indian population; 17.1% of Indian women had a BMI over 30 compared to 8.8% of
Malay and 4.3% of Chinese women. Among the Malay population, a
considerably higher proportion of both men and women had a BMI
over 30 (men: 5.6% urban, 1.8% rural; women: 8.8% urban, 2.6%
rural), whereas the reverse was true for undernutrition; prevalence
rates of undernutrition for men and women were 7% and 11% in
urban areas and 11% and 14% in rural areas, respectively. Overall,
overweight (BMI ~25) was more prevalent than undernutrition in
both urban and rural settings (45).
3.10
Body mass index distribution in adult populations
BMI distribution varies significantly according to the stage of development reached in a transitional society. As the proportion of the
30
Figure 3.3
BMI distribution of various adult populations worldwide (both sexes)
Overweight
Thinness
Peru
Tunisia
Colombia
Brazil
Costa Rica
Cuba
Morocco
Chile
Mexico
Togo
Zimbabwe
China
Mali
Ghana
Haiti
Senegal
Ethiopia
India
BMI Classes
D< 16 016-16.9
D 11-18.4 1111 >25
L_~~~~~======~~--~--~~--~~
60
50
40
30
20
10
10
% Population
20
30
40
50
60
WH098275
There is a tendency for an almost symmetrical increase in the proportion of a population with
high BMI as the proportion of the population with low BMI decreases.
a
Source: reference 11.
population with a low BMI decreases, there is an almost symmetrical

increase in the proportion with a BMI above 25 (Fig. 3.3). This indicates a tendency for a population-wide shift to take place as socioeconomic conditions improve, with overweight replacing thinness.
In the first stages of the transition, the wealthier sections of society
show an increase in the proportion of people with a high BMI,
whereas thinness remains the main concern among the less wealthy.
Thus, in countries in the early stage of transition, overweight can
coexist with underweight, so that the burden of disease may be
doubled.
The distribution of BMI tends to change again in the later phases of the
transition, with an increase in the prevalence of high BMI among the
poor.
3.11
Obesity during childhood and adolescence

The lack of consistency and agreement between different studies in
the classification of obesity in children and adolescents (see section 2)
31
means that it is not yet possible to give an overview of the global

prevalence of obesity in these younger age groups. Nevertheless,
whatever method is used to classify obesity, studies of this disease
during childhood and adolescence have generally reported both a
high prevalence and rates that are increasing. In the USA, for example, the prevalence of overweight (defined by the 85th percentile
of weight-for-height) among 5-24-year-olds from a biracial community of Louisiana (total n = 11564) increased approximately twofold
between 1973 and 1994. Furthermore, the yearly increases in relative
weight and obesity during the latter part of the study period (19831994) were approximately 50% greater than those between 1973 and
1982 (46). A similar trend has been observed in Japan; the frequency
of obese schoolchildren (>120% SBW) aged 6-14 years increased
from 5% to 10%, and that of extremely obese (>140% SBW) children
from 1% to 2% during the 20 years between 1974 and 1993. The
increase was most prominent in male students aged 9-11 years. Early
obesity leads to an increased likelihood of obesity in later life, as well
as to an increased prevalence of obesity-related disorders. In the
Japanese study, approximately one-third of obese children grew into
obese adults (47).
Childhood obesity is not confined to the industrialized countries, as
high rates are already evident in some developing countries. The
prevalence of obesity among schoolchildren aged 6-12 years in Thailand, as diagnosed by weight-for-height exceeding 120% of the
Bangkok reference, rose from 12.2% in 1991 to 15.6% in 1993 (48),
and in a recent study of 6-18-year-old male schoolchildren in Saudi
Arabia, the prevalence of obesity was found to be 15.8% (49).
The only integrated data currently available that give an overview of
the global prevalence of obesity during childhood are those compiled
by the WHO Programme of Nutrition (50, 51). In the WHO analysis,
children were classified as obese when they exceeded the NCHS
median weight-for-height plus two standard deviations or Z-scores. 1
The reported prevalence of obese children for the age group 0-4.99
years is shown in Fig. 3.4. It should be noted, however, that some
children classified as obese under this system may actually have a
higher relative weight due to stunting rather than as a result of excess
adiposity. This is of particular significance in developing countries
32
The Z-score is the deviation of an individual's value from the median value of a
reference population divided by the standard deviation of the reference population.
Figure 3.4
Prevalence of obese preschool children (0-59 months) in selected countries and
territories
Papua New Guinea
Bangladesh
Philippines
Burkina Faso
Singapore
Togo
Tunisia
Rwanda
India
Indonesia
Belize
Jordan
Tahiti
Nicaragua
Brazil
Saint Lucia
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
Antigua
Zambia
Venezuela
Italy
Panama
Peru
Barbados
Honduras
Lesotho
Bolivia
Trinidad & Tobago
Iran (Islamic Republic of)
Mauritius
Canada
Jamaica
Chile
0
10
Percentage of obese preschool children

Obesity is defined as more than two standard deviations above the reference median weightfor-height (NCHS reference population).
a
Source: reference 52.
undergoing the nutrition transition, where a higher risk of obesity in

stunted children has been described (53).
There is an urgent need to evaluate existing and future data sources
concerning children and adolescents from across the world based on
a standardized obesity classification system.
33
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34. Musaiger AO. Trends in diet-related chronic diseases in United Arab

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37
PART 11
Establishing the true

costs of the problem of
38
4.
Health consequences of overweight and obesity

in adults and children
4.1
Introduction
The health consequences of obesity are many and varied, ranging

from an increased risk of premature death to several non-fatal but
debilitating complaints that have an adverse effect on quality of life.
Obesity is also a major risk factor for NCDs such as NIDDM, CVD
and cancer, and in many industrialized countries is associated with
various psychosocial problems. Abdominal obesity is of particular
concern as it is associated with greater risks to health than is a more
peripheral fat distribution.
The health consequences of overweight and obesity in both adults and
children are considered here, while the effect of weight loss on these
conditions is discussed in section 5.
The key issues covered are:
The major health consequences associated with overweight and
obesity, namely NIDDM, CHD, hypertension, gallbladder disease,
psychosocial problems and certain types of cancer.
The lack of detailed relative risk data for the various health problems associated with obesity. These are available only for a few
industrialized countries, and show that the risks of suffering from
NIDDM, gallbladder disease, dyslipidaemia, insulin resistance and
sleep apnoea are greatly increased in the obese (relative risk (RR)
much greater than 3). The risks of CHD and osteoarthritis are
moderately increased (RR 2-3) and the risks of certain cancers,
reproductive hormone abnormalities and low back pain are slightly
increased (RR 1-2).
Biases such as failure to control for cigarette smoking and unintentional weight loss. When these are removed from the analysis of
mortality data, there is an almost linear relationship between BMI
and death. The longer the duration of obesity, the higher the risk.
Severe obesity is associated with a 12-fold increase in mortality in
25-35-year-olds compared with lean individuals. This highlights the
importance of preventing weight gain throughout adult life.
Excess abdominal fat. This is an independent predictor for
NIDDM, CHD, hypertension, breast cancer and premature death.
Weight gain during early adulthood. Most of this is body fat, which
increases health risks.
The many non-fatal but debilitating conditions that affect the
obese. These are responsible for a much reduced quality of life in
39
overweight patients and are often the primary reason for contact
with the health care system. Most of these conditions can be improved with modest weight loss.
The psychosocial consequences of obesity. These have important
implications for disease management, and are compounded by the
fact that health professionals often view obese individuals as weakwilled and unlikely to benefit from counselling.
The association between obesity and certain psychosocial consequences m adolescence, and the persistence of obesity into
adulthood.
4.2
Obesity as a risk factor for noncommunicable diseases
Although obesity should be considered as a disease in its own right, it

is also one of the key risk factors for other NCDs, such as NIDDM
and CHD, together with smoking, high blood pressure and hypercholesterolaemia (1). The adverse health consequences of obesity are
influenced to a greater or lesser extent by body weight, the location of
body fat, the magnitude of weight gain during adulthood, and a sedentary lifestyle (2).
As a chronic disease, obesity has many similarities to hypertension
and hypercholesterolaemia. Fig. 4.1 shows the positive relationship
between relative risk of mortality and: (a) BMI (as an index of
obesity); (b) cholesterol; and (c) diastolic blood pressure. In the
"moderate-risk" category, which corresponds to the ranges between
widely accepted cut-off points for lower and higher risk levels, an
increase in any of the three variables greatly increases the risk of
mortality. The increase is even steeper in the "high-risk" category,
implying greater individual risk. However, from a population perspective, the middle range is of most concern as this encompasses the
greatest number of people (2).
4.3
Difficulties in evaluating the health consequences of obesity
Most of the evidence linking health problems with obesity comes

from prospective and cross-sectional population-based studies,
although there is additional information from community interventions and clinical trials. Some confusion over the consequences of
excess weight may arise because studies have used different BMI cutoff points for defining obesity, and because the presence of many
medical conditions involved in the development of obesity may confound the effects of obesity itself.
Specific problems in evaluating the health consequences of obesity
include:
40
Figure 4.1
Relationship between (a) BMI, (b) cholesterol and (c) diastolic blood pressure
and relative risk of mortality
Moderate risk
Low risk
High risk
(a) 2.5
2.0
~
VI
.:::
~
1.5
'+='
Ill
Qj
0:::
1.0
0.5
20
25
35
30
BMI
(b)
VI
.:::
~
-.::;
Ill
Qj
0:::
3.8
5.2
7.5
6.1
Cholesterol (mmoUI)
(c)
5
4
~
VI
.:::
~
'+J
Ill
Qj
0:::
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)

WHO 98286
a
Adapted from reference 2 with the permission of the publisher. Copyright John Wiley & Sons
Ltd. Based on data from Stamler et al. (3, 4) for the construction of the blood pressure and
cholesterol plots, and from the Nurses' Health Study (5) for the BMI plot. There are similar
continuous graded increases in the RR of mortality as BMI, blood pressure and cholesterol
increase. However, the RR rises more rapidly for cholesterol and blood pressure than it does
for BM I. The rise in the RR of mortality is notably steeper from BMI >30, cholesterol >6 mmol/
litre, and diastolic blood pressure> 100 mmHg (13.3 kPa).
41
The continuous relationship between gradations of excess weight and

morbidity. Individuals who have gained weight but still lie within
the normal range will be assigned to a normal weight category even
though they may be at increased risk of comorbidity because of
excess weight gain.
Present health status and health behaviours (such as smoking).
These may have an impact on current weight and confuse its association with future health or even current well-being. For example,
smoking is associated with a reduced BMI, so that the incidence of
lung cancer caused by smoking appears to decrease with increased
body weight.
The duration and design of epidemiological studies. These will influence the strength of the association between weight and morbidity.
Long-term monitoring is required to identify the range of health
consequences of obesity, whereas studies of shorter duration with a
large study population can be useful in identifying the major impact
of obesity. Longer-term studies are also required where the outcome, e.g. cancer, is the result of a multistage process, with obesity
having an effect on some but not necessarily all the stages. Most
epidemiological studies measure prevalence rather than incidence,
with the result that they are often confounded by survival bias and
post-morbid modification of risk.
The age group studied. This affects the relationship between obesity
and health. For example, if the incidence of CHD in men is being
analysed, obesity is a much more important predictor at younger
than at older ages. The reverse is true, however, if total mortality is
the end-point. The reason for this may be that obesity at an earlier
age affects intervening risk factors much more strongly than in later
life.
The use of initial weight criteria. Most epidemiological studies adopt
(by necessity) a static approach to classifying people by weight, i.e.
subjects are generally placed in a weight group at the beginning of
the study. The association with future illness or events is therefore
based on that initial classification even if weight is subsequently
gained or lost. This may give the impression that there is a risk-free
zone up to BMI 27 or 28, which is misleading; weight gain independent of BMI is an important risk factor, as is the distribution of the
fat gained.
4.4
Relative risk of obesity-associated health problems
The non-fatal but debilitating health problems associated with obesity

include respiratory difficulties, chronic musculoskeletal problems,
skin problems and infertility.
42
Table 4.1
Relative risk of health problems associated with obesity"
Greatly increased
(relative risk much
greater than 3)
Moderately increased
(relative risk 2-3)
Slightly increased
(relative risk 1-2)
NIDDM
CHD
Gallbladder disease
Hypertension
Dyslipidaemia
Insulin resistance
Breathlessness
Sleep apnoea
Osteoarthritis (knees)
Hyperuricaemia and gout
Cancer (breast cancer in

postmenopausal women,
endometrial cancer, colon
cancer)
Reproductive hormone
abnormalities
Polycystic ovary syndrome
Impaired fertility
Low back pain due to obesity
Increased risk of anaesthesia
complications
Fetal defects associated with
maternal obesity
All relative risk values are approximate.
The more life-threatening, chronic health problems associated with

obesity fall into four main areas: (a) cardiovascular problems, including hypertension, stroke and CHD; (b) conditions associated with
insulin resistance, e.g. NIDDM; (c) certain types of cancers, especially
the hormonally related and large-bowel cancers; and (d) gallbladder
disease.
It is important to recognize that ethnic differences have a bearing on
the prevalence of a particular disease; some minority populations in

the USA have a higher prevalence of certain obesity-related diseases
(particularly NIDDM but, for black Americans, also CVD, stroke and
osteoarthritis of the knee) compared with the white population (6).
Nevertheless, although the absolute prevalence may vary, the relative
risk of any particular disease (i.e. whether the risk is slightly, moderately or greatly increased for an obese person as compared with a lean
person) is fairly similar throughout the world (Table 4.1).
4.5
Intra-abdominal (central) fat accumulation and increased risk
Compared with subcutaneous adipose tissue, intra-abdominal adipose tissue has:

more cells per unit mass;
higher blood flow;
more glucocorticoid (cortisol) receptors;
43
probably more androgen (testosterone) receptors;

greater catecholamine-induced lipolysis.
These differences make intra-abdominal adipose tissue more susceptible to both hormonal stimulation and changes in lipid accumulation
and metabolism. Furthermore, intra-abdominal adipocytes are
located upstream from the liver in the portal circulation. This means
that there is a marked increase in the flux of nonesterified fatty acid
(NEFA) to the liver via the portal blood in patients with abdominal
obesity.
There is good evidence that abdominal obesity is important in the
development of insulin resistance (see section 4.8.1), and in the metabolic syndrome (hyperinsulinaemia, dyslipidaemia, glucose intolerance, hypertension) that links obesity with CHD (see section 4.8.2).
Some non-Caucasian populations appear to be especially susceptible
to this type of syndrome, in which lifestyle changes may play a particularly important etiological role (7).
Premenopausal women have quantitatively more lipoprotein lipase
(LPL) and higher LPL activity in the gluteal and femoral subcutaneous regions, which contain fat cells larger than those in men, but
these differences disappear after the menopause (8). In contrast,
men show minimal regional variations in LPL activity or fat cell size.
These differences may explain the tendency for premenopausal
women to deposit fat preferentially in lower body fat depots. The
higher level of intra-abdominal adipose tissue found in men compared with premenopausal women seems to explain, in part, the
greater prevalence of dyslipidaemia and CHD in men than in premenopausal women.
4.6
Obesity-related mortality
There has been much controversy about the relationship between

obesity and mortality. While a number of studies have found a U- or
J-shaped association, with higher mortality rates at both the upper
and lower weight ranges, some have shown a gradual increase in
mortality with increasing weight, while others have reported no association at all.
Many studies relating obesity and mortality have included biases in
their design that have led to a systematic underestimate of the impact
of obesity on premature mortality. These include the failure to control for cigarette smoking (producing an artificially high mortality in
leaner subjects), inappropriate control for conditions such as hypertension and hyperglycaemia, which were assumed to be confounding
44
Figure 4.2
Relationship between BMI and relative risk of premature mortality
2.5
-~
lii
All women
Women who never smoked
2.0
Women who never smoked
and recently had stable weight
~
Q)
e;
0
~
;::
"'
1.5
~
.p
CO
&
1.0
0.5 L . . . L . . - - - - - 1 - - - - L . - - - - . . 1 . - - - - . . J . _ - - - - - l . . . - - - - - ' 82.0

19.0--21.9
22.0--24.9
27-28.9
29-31.9
25--26.9
<19.0
Body mass index (BM I)
WH098285
The relationship between BMI and all-cause mortality was examined using data from the
Nurses' Health Study, which involved 115195 middle-aged women. A total of 4726 deaths
occurred during the 16-year follow-up. The apparent excess relative risks of mortality associated with leanness, suggested when the analysis included all women, were found to be
artefacts as they were eliminated by accounting for smoking (leaving 1499 deaths) and
subclinical disease (leaving 531 deaths). By excluding former and current smokers, women
with BMI < 22 were found to have the lowest mortality among the remaining women. When
disease-related health loss was also accounted for, the leanest women (BM I < 19) had the
lowest mortality. This analysis is based on professional middle-aged women and so may not
be representative of all population groups.
a
Based on data from Manson et al. (5), with permission, and reproduced from Gill PG, Key
issues in the prevention of obesity, British Medical Bulletin, 1997, 53:359-388, with the
permission of the publisher, Churchill Livingstone.
factors but are to a large degree the effects of obesity (hence some
factorial analyses distort the true association between obesity and
mortality), failure to control for weight loss associated with illness
(leading to an underestimate of the impact of obesity on mortality),
and failure to standardize for age (9, 10).
The Nurses' Health Study (5) in the USA found that, when biases are
removed from the analysis, an almost linear, continuous relationship
between BMI and mortality is found, with no specific lower threshold
(see Fig. 4.2). This is not surprising, given the largely linear relationship between body weight and conditions such as CHD, hypertension
and NIDDM when BMI increases from 20 to 30 (11-13). Similar
results and conclusions have been reached by others (10, 14) but a
45
follow-up study of NHANES has continued to show U-shaped curves

after control of the pertinent variables. Nevertheless, whatever the
shape of the curve, it appears that the lowest mortality risk is associated with a BMI between 18 and 25. This conclusion was reached by
the American Institute of Nutrition (15) after analysing numerous
studies of obesity and mortality risk.
Although the increase in mortality rate with increased relative body
weight is steeper for both men and women under age 50, the effect of
overweight on mortality persists well into the ninth decade of life. The
increased risk observed in younger people is linked to the duration of
overweight, so that a special effort should be made to control the
weight of younger adults (14, 16, 17).
Finally, if obesity is associated with an increased risk of premature
mortality, it may seem paradoxical that obesity rates are rising in
many countries at a time when overall death rates in these same
countries are actually falling. However, the decline in overall death
rates is essentially the consequence of the reductions in CVD. These,
in turn, are the result largely of falling rates of smoking and the
improvement in dietary quality (higher intake of fruits and vegetables
and reduced intake of salt, saturated fat and cholesterol). The incidence of NIDDM, however, is increasing, and there is evidence that
this is a consequence of the rise in the prevalence of obesity. Increased obesity cannot be completely explained by reduced rates of
smoking, which appear to be associated with only small increases in
the average body weight of the population. The expected effect over
time is an increase in mean BMI worldwide that will lead to a further
increase in NIDDM, gallbladder disease, hypertension and atherosclerosis. Although these effects may not be reflected in overall mortality rate figures, they will surely lead to a higher frequency of the
debilitating and prolonged morbidity from NCDs that require expensive health care.
4.7
Chronic diseases associated with obesity
4. 7.1 Cardiovascular disease and hypertension
Cardiovascular disease
CVD encompasses CHD, stroke and peripheral vascular disease.

CHD and stroke account for a large proportion of deaths in men and
women in most industrialized countries, and their incidence is increasing in developing countries.
Obesity predisposes an individual to a number of cardiovascular risk
factors including hypertension, raised cholesterol and impaired glucose tolerance. However, longer-term prospective data now suggest
46
that obesity is also important as an independent risk factor for CHDrelated morbidity and mortality (18). The Framingham Heart Study
ranked body weight as the third most important predictor of CHD
among males, after age and dyslipidaemia (19). Similarly, in women,
a large-scale prospective study in the USA found a positive correlation between BMI and the risk of developing CHD. Weight gain
substantially increased this risk (20). These findings are consistent
with data from other countries. A 15-year follow-up study of 16000
men and women in eastern Finland concluded that obesity is an
independent risk factor for CHD mortality in men and contributes to
the risk of CHD in women (21).
On the basis of the Framingham Heart Study and other studies, it can
be concluded that the degree of overweight is related to the rate of
development of CVD (22). The CHD risk associated with obesity is
higher in younger age groups and also in people with abdominal
obesity than in those with excess fat around the hips and thighs (23)
(see section 4.5). In addition, mortality from CHD has been shown to
be increased in overweight individuals, even at body weights only
10% above the average (24).
Interestingly, Asian Indians have the highest rates of CHD of any
ethnic group studied, despite the fact that nearly half this group are
lifelong vegetarians. CHD occurs at an early age and generally follows a severe and progressive course. Although the prevalence of
classic risk factors is relatively low, there is a substantial prevalence in
this population of high triglyceride and low high-density lipoprotein
(HDL) cholesterol levels, high lipoprotein (a) levels, hyperinsulinaemia and abdominal obesity (25). These appear to constitute weightrelated risk factors in this population that may, in particular, reflect
the central distribution of body fat.
Hypertension and stroke
The association between hypertension and obesity is well documented. Both systolic and diastolic blood pressure increase with BMI,
and the obese are at higher risk of developing hypertension than lean
individuals (4, 26). Community-wide surveys in the USA (NHANES
11) show that the prevalence of hypertension in overweight adults is
2.9-fold higher than that for non-overweight adults (27). The risk in
those aged 20-44 years is 5.6 times greater than that in those aged 4574 years (28), which in turn is twice as high as that for non-overweight
adults (29). The risk of developing hypertension increases with the
duration of obesity, especially in women, and weight reduction leads
to a fall in blood pressure (see section 5.3.1).
47
A l.OOkPa (7.5mmHg) difference in diastolic pressure within the

range 70-llOmmHg (9.33-14.7kPa) is accompanied by a 29% difference in CHD risk and a 46% difference in the risk of stroke, irrespective of sex, age group or ethnicity (30).
While many large studies have examined the relationship between
obesity and CHD, there has not been the same emphasis on stroke.
One study in Honolulu, in which 1163 non-smoking men aged between 55 and 68 years were examined, found that elevated BMI was
associated with increased risk of thromboembolic stroke (31). However, preliminary results obtained from women in the Swedish Obese
Subjects (SOS) study were not conclusive (32). Other studies found
that a high WHR rather than BMI was the risk factor associated with
stroke and that this relationship was stronger than for any other
anthropometric variable tested (33, 34). It was suggested that a lifelong history of obesity rather than weight in middle age is more
important in assessing risk of stroke (13).
The reason for the association between increased body weight and
elevated blood pressure is unclear. One possibility is that obesity is
associated with higher circulating levels of insulin (a consequence of
insulin resistance) and consequently with enhanced renal retention of
sodium, resulting in increased blood pressure (35). As exercise is
known to improve insulin sensitivity, this would perhaps explain why
exercise also reduces blood pressure. Other possible etiological
factors include elevated plasma renin or enhanced catecholamine
activity (36).
4. 7.2 Cancer
A number of studies have found a pos1t1ve association between

overweight and the incidence of cancer, particularly of hormonedependent and gastrointestinal cancers (Table 4.2).
Greater risks of endometrial, ovarian, cervical and postmenopausal
breast cancer have been documented for obese women, while there is
some evidence for an increased risk of prostate cancer among obese
men. The increased incidence of these cancers in the obese is greater
in those with excess abdominal fat and is thought to be a direct
consequence of hormonal changes (37). The incidence of gastrointestinal cancers, such as colorectal and gallbladder cancer, has also been
reported to be positively associated with body weight or obesity in
some but not all studies, and renal cell cancer has consistently been
associated with overweight and obesity, especially in women (38, 39).
In addition to overall obesity, intra-abdominal fat distribution and
adult weight gain have been independently associated with an
48
Table 4.2
Cancers with a higher reported incidence in obese persons
Hormone-dependent
Gastrointestinal/hepatic/renal
Endometrial
Ovarian
Breast
Cervical
Prostate
Colorectal
Gallbladder
Pancreatic
Hepatic
Renal
increased risk of breast cancer. For example, it has been reported that
an increase in intra-abdominal fat accumulation increases the risk of
postmenopausal breast cancer, independently of relative weight and
particularly when there is a family history of the disease. Furthermore, weight gain during adulthood has consistently been associated
with increased risk of breast cancer, even in cohort studies that
showed no association between baseline relative weight and subsequent risk of breast cancer (40, 41).
In one major prospective study, in which 750000 men and women
were followed for 12 years, it was found that the mortality ratios 1 for
any cancer were 1.33 and 1.55 for obese men and women, respectively
( 42). It should be noted, however, that in some studies of gastrointestinal and breast cancer, it has been difficult to determine whether it is
the effect of dietary components that promote weight gain, such as a
high fat content, or the effect of obesity per se that is important.
Further research in this area is necessary.
High levels of physical activity have been shown to decrease the risk
of colon cancer in men in the majority of studies, and in women in half
the studies. However, the effect of physical activity on rectal cancer
was not significant in most cases. Breast cancer and cancers of the
reproductive system were less prevalent in women who had been
athletes at college (43) compared with less active women. NHANES
I data indicate that a high level of non-recreational activity is important in reducing the risk of cancer, but that there is only a
weak relationship between recreational exercise and cancer, with the
exception of prostate cancer (44).
4. 7.3 Diabetes mellitus
A positive association between obesity and the risk of developing

NIDDM has been repeatedly observed in both cross-sectional
1
Ratio of premature deaths (<65 years) in a population with BMI ?30 to premature deaths
in a population with BMI <25.
49
(45-57) and prospective studies (53, 58-66). The consistency of the

association across populations despite different measures of fatness
and criteria for diagnosing NIDDM reflects the strength of the relationship. When women aged 30-55 years were monitored for 14 years,
the additional risk of developing NIDDM for those who were obese
was over 40 times greater than for women who remained slim (BMI
<22) (61). The risk of NIDDM increases continuously with BMI and
decreases with weight loss. Analysis of data from two recent large
prospective studies illustrates the impact of overweight and obesity
on NIDDM; about 64% of male and 74% of female cases of NIDDM
could theoretically have been prevented if no one had had a BMI over
25 (61, 66).
Detailed analyses of the relationship between obesity and NIDDM
have identified certain characteristics of obese persons that further
increase the risk of developing this condition, even after controlling
for age, smoking and family history of NIDDM. These include obesity
during childhood and adolescence, progressive weight gain from 18
years, and intra-abdominal fat accumulation. In particular, intraabdominal fat accumulation has been implicated as an independent
risk factor for NIDDM in a variety of populations and ethnic groups
around the world and, in some studies, has been an even stronger
predictor of NIDDM than overall fatness (52, 56, 60).
Lack of physical activity and an unhealthy diet, both of which are
associated with lifestyle in industrialized countries, are also important
modifiable risk factors for overweight and obesity. The prevalence of
NIDDM is 2-4-fold higher in the least physically active individuals
compared with the most physically active (67, 68), an effect which is
independent of the level of body mass, and a healthy diet can reverse
the deterioration in glucose tolerance commonly seen with diets high
in fat and low in carbohydrate and fibre (69).
Intra-abdominal fat accumulation, as well as obesity per se, are also
associated with an increase in the risk of prediabetic conditions such
as impaired glucose tolerance and insulin resistance. The benefits of
weight loss in controlling NIDDM are discussed in section 5.
4. 7.4 Gallbladder disease
In the general population, gallstones are more common in women and

the elderly. However, obesity is a risk factor for gallstones in all age
groups and, in both men and women, gallstones occur three to four
times more often in obese compared with non-obese individuals, and
the risk is even greater when excess fat is located around the abdomen. The relative risk of gallstones increases with BMI, and data from
50
the Nurses' Health Study suggest that even moderate overweight may
increase the risk (70).
Supersaturation of the bile with cholesterol and reduced motility of
the gallbladder, both of which are present in the obese, are thought to
be factors underlying gallstone formation. Furthermore, since gallstones enhance the propensity to gallbladder inflammation, acute and
chronic cholecystitis is also more common in the obese. Biliary colic
and acute pancreatitis are other potential complications of gallstones.
Paradoxically, gallstones are also a common clinical problem in those
losing weight (see section 5).
4.8
Endocrine and metabolic disturbances associated with

obesity
4.8.1 Endocrine disturbances
Recent research has shown that adipocytes (fat cells) are more than
just fat depots. They also function as endocrine cells, producing many
locally and distantly acting hormones, and as target cells for a great
many hormones. Altered hormonal patterns have been observed in
obese patients, especially in those with intra-abdominal fat accumulation (71, 72). Common hormonal abnormalities associated with intraabdominal fat accumulation are listed in Table 4.3.
Insulin resistance
Sensitivity to insulin varies widely among any group of people, but

insulin resistance is very often associated with obesity. It is especially
pronounced with intra-abdominal fat accumulation and, since abdominal fat mass increases with increasing adiposity, is universally
found in very severe obesity (BMI 2':40).
It has been suggested by some investigators that insulin resistance is
an adaptation to obesity that tends to limit further fat deposition (73).
In insulin resistance, the oxidation of fat tends to be favoured rather
than its storage and the oxidation of glucose. Thus, if an individual
Table 4.3
Common hormonal abnormalities associated with intra-abdominal fat
accumulation
Insulin resistance and increased insulin secretion
Increased free testosterone and free androstenedione levels associated with
decreased sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) in women
Decreased progesterone levels in women
Decreased testosterone levels in men
Increased cortisol production
Decreased growth hormone levels
51
who is gaining weight continues to eat the same amount, there will
come a time at which net fat oxidation will, through insulin resistance,
equal dietary fat intake and the individual will be in fat balance. A
corollary, suggested by data from prospective studies (74), is that the
more insulin resistant among a group of individuals of normal body
weight will be protected from future weight gain. However, this is
only a theory and is by no means universally accepted (75). In addition, insulin resistance is clearly maladaptive in terms of risk of CVD
and other chronic diseases.
Insv Ii:J norm:::.Uy inhibits fat mobilization from adipose tissue and
activates LPL. These are both metabolic processes that become insulin resistant in obesity. However, in contrast to the direct regulation of
insulin secretion by plasma glucose concentration, the regulation of
insulin secretion by fat metabolites is relatively weak. This means that
oversecretion of insulin (due to insulin resistance) compensates for
defects in glucose metabolism to a much greater degree than for
defects in lipid metabolism. Disruption of the postprandial response
by insulin leads to the dyslipidaemic state (section 4.8.2). Differential
insulin resistance of specific organs or tissues may account for
regional fat accumulation. For instance, the relative insulin sensitivity
of intra-abdominal fat is thought to be required for central fat accumulation.
Physical activity improves insulin sensitivity through weight reduction
and increased cardiorespiratory fitness. However, it also improves
insulin sensitivity independently of these factors (76).
Hormones affecting reproductive function
Significant associations are seen in reproductive endocrinology between excess body fat, particularly abdominal obesity, and ovulatory
dysfunction, hyperandrogenism and hormone-sensitive carcinomas
(77). Changes in circulating sex hormones appear to underlie these
abnormalities. Androstenedione and testosterone concentrations are
commonly elevated whereas that of sex hormone binding globulin
(SHBG) is reduced, while the plasma ratio of estrone to estradiol is
also increased in obesity. A decrease in SHBG is associated with an
increased clearance of free testosterone and estradiol, resulting in a
disturbed sex hormone equilibrium.
Moderate obesity is frequently associated with polycystic ovary syndrome, which is the most common endocrine disorder of reproduction
(78). Obesity contributes to or worsens, and weight loss generally
improves, the associated hormonal abnormalities and menstrual function of obese women with polycystic ovary syndrome (79).
52
Adrenocortical function
Obese subjects have a normal circulating plasma cortisol concentration with a normal circadian rhythm, and normal urinary free cortisol.
However, the cortisol production rate is increased in obesity to compensate for an accelerated rate of cortisol breakdown (80, 81). Cortisol inhibits the antilipolytic effect of insulin in human adipocytes, an
effect that may normally be particularly pronounced in abdominal fat
because it contains a high density of glucocorticoid receptors. This
mechanism may contribute to the manifestations of insulin resistance
(82).
Studies have shown that patients with intra-abdominal fat accumulation have increased cortisol secretion, probably because they have
increased activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis (HPA). Stress,
alcohol and smoking have all been shown to stimulate the activity of
the HPA (83).
4.8.2 Metabolic disturbances
Dyslipidaemia
Obese individuals are frequently characterized by a dyslipidaemic

state in which plasma triglycerides are raised, HDL cholesterol concentrations are reduced and low-density lipoprotein apo B (LDLapoB) levels are raised. This metabolic profile is most often seen in
obese patients with a high accumulation of intra-abdominal fat and
has consistently been related to an increased risk of CHD (84).
Excessive intra-abdominal fat accumulation is also associated with a
greater proportion of small, dense low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
particles. The high proportion of these small dense LD L particles may
be the result of metabolic disturbances related to the accompanying
high triglyceride or low HDL levels. Indeed, the hypertriglyceridaemic state may be the combined result of an increased production and a reduced breakdown of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (84,
85). This process results in lower HDL cholesterol levels and favours
the triglyceride enrichment of LDL. The triglyceride-rich LDL is then
enzymically degraded by hepatic lipase to produce small, dense LDL
particles. A large proportion of these particles cannot be identified
simply by the measurement of total or LDL cholesterol levels because
these cholesterol levels are frequently in the normal range in obese
individuals. A better indicator of small, dense LDL particle levels is
an elevated ratio of LDL-apoB to LDL cholesterol.
Impaired fat tolerance (i.e. prolonged and/or exaggerated lipaemia
following fat ingestion) is now also recognized as a component both of
insulin resistance and of the atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype (86).
53
The metabolic syndrome and obesity
The common association of obesity with other CVD risk factors is

well recognized. This clustering has been given several labels, including syndrome X and the insulin resistance syndrome, but the term
metabolic syndrome is now favoured. There is no internationally
agreed definition of the syndrome, but a suitable working definition
would include two or more of the following:
-
impaired glucose tolerance;

elevated blood pressure;
hypertriglyceridaemia and low HDL cholesterol;
insulin resistance;
central obesity.
Insulin resistance and/or hyperinsulinaemia have been suggested as

the underlying cause(s) linking these conditions (87). Each individual
component of the syndrome increases the CVD risk but, in combination, they interact to increase risk in a synergistic fashion.
Epidemiological studies confirm that the metabolic syndrome occurs
commonly in a wide variety of ethnic groups including Caucasoids,
Afro-Americans, Mexican Americans, Asian Indians and Chinese,
Australian Aborigines, Polynesians and Micronesians. However,
there is some evidence that the patterns of risk factors observed vary
between and even within populations (88).
4.9
Debilitating health problems associated with obesity
Before chronic, life-threatening illness develops, overweight and

obese patients usually present to primary care physicians with a range
of conditions that adversely affect their quality of life, are often
mechanical in origin, and are caused by the large amounts of excess
weight that have to be carried. Though often perceived as less serious,
these conditions are nonetheless debilitating and sometimes painful;
they may also be costly in terms of the health resources consumed
in their treatment and the absences from work that they cause.
Sleep apnoea can have fatal consequences associated with cardiac
arrhythmias. Unfortunately, few data are available on the economic
costs of these conditions attributable to obesity.
4.9.1 Osteoarthritis and gout
Obesity is associated with the development of osteoarthritis and gout

and, in obese middle-aged women at or after menopause, pain at the
medial aspect of the knee (adiposa dolorosa juxta-articularis).
Possible factors underlying the relationship between obesity and osteoarthritis include mechanical stresses related to the increased load
54
carried by the obese, metabolic changes associated with increased

fatness, and dietary elements (e.g. high fat content) related to the
development of obesity. The data indicate that mechanical damage is
usually the cause. The increased risk of gout associated with obesity
may be related to the accompanying hyperuricaemia, although
central fat distribution may also be involved, particularly in women
(89-91).
4.9.2 Pulmonary diseases
Obesity impairs respiratory function and structure, leading to physiological and pathophysiological impairments. The work of breathing
is increased in obesity, mainly as a result of the extreme stiffness of
the thoracic cage consequent on the accumulation of adipose tissue in
and around the ribs, abdomen and diaphragm (92). Hypoxaemia is
common, partly because the low relaxation volume causes ventilation
to occur at volumes below the closing volume (93, 94), and is exacerbated when lying down because of the reduced functional residual
capacity (95).
Sleep apnoea occurs in more than 10% of men and women with a
BMI of 30 or above, and 65-75% of individuals with obstructive sleep
apnoea are obese. In one study, sleep apnoea occurred in 77% of
those with a BMI above 40. In addition to BMI, however, obstructive
sleep apnoea is related to central obesity and to neck size, probably as
a result of the narrowing of the upper airway when lying down. The
nocturnal disruption of sleep is associated with daytime somnolence,
hypercapnia, morning headaches, pulmonary hypertension and, eventually, right ventricular failure (96, 97).
4.10 Psychological problems associated with obesity
The SOS study found that the proportion of individuals receiving

pensions for medical reasons was more than twice as high in obese
patients as in population controls. Psychological problems in the
obese (with women more affected than men) were found to be worst
in those who were also chronically ill or injured, e.g. suffering from
rheumatoid arthritis, cancer or spinal injury (98). The true social and
economic costs of the non-fatal health consequences of obesity may
therefore be seriously underestimated.
Other data on the psychosocial aspects of obesity relate mainly to the
USA, and reflect cultural differences that may be irrelevant to other
countries, especially as there appear to be ethnic differences in attitudes towards obesity. Black women in the USA, for instance, are 23 times more likely than white women to be obese, yet black women
55
have been shown to experience less social pressure to reduce their

weight, start dieting later in life, and be significantly less likely to diet
at each developmental milestone (99). Nevertheless, as the prevalence of obesity rises in developing countries, and populations are
increasingly affected by the cultural values prevailing in industrialized
countries, psychosocial problems are likely to become an increasingly
common feature of the overall health profile of the obese.
It is important to note that the mechanisms leading to impaired psychological health are different from those underlying physical illness.
The psychosocial problems associated with obesity are not the inevitable consequences of obesity but rather of the culture-bound values
by which people view body fat as "unhealthy" and "ugly". Stunkard &
Sobal (100) noted that " ... obesity does not create a psychological
burden. Obesity is a physical state. People create the psychological
burden."
4.10.1 Social bias, prejudice and discrimination
Obesity is highly stigmatized in many industrialized countries, in

terms both of the perceived undesirable bodily appearance and of the
character defects that it is supposed to indicate. Even children as
young as 6 years of age describe the silhouette of an obese child as
"lazy", "dirty", "stupid", "ugly", "liar" and "cheat" more often than
drawings of other body shapes (101).
Obese people have to contend with discrimination. Analyses of large
surveys have shown that, compared with their non-obese peers, those
who are obese are likely to complete fewer years at school, and less
likely to be accepted by prestigious schools or to enter desirable
professions. Furthermore, overweight young women in the United
Kingdom and the USA earn significantly less than healthy women
who are not overweight or than women with other chronic health
problems (102).
The negative stereotypes and attitudes of health professionals (including doctors, medical students, nutritionists and nurses) towards
obesity are of particular importance. Awareness of these negative
attitudes may make the obese reluctant to seek medical assistance for
their condition (103). Doctors may be less interested in managing
overweight patients, believing that they are weak-willed and less
likely to benefit from counselling. British general practitioners were
less likely to prescribe lipid-lowering agents to overweight people (or
to smokers), and doctors explicitly stated that this was their policy
(104). Although little has been done so far to improve the stereotypes
and attitudes of health professionals, Wiese et al. (105) found that
56
educational intervention was associated with a more positive attitude

to the obese among first-year medical students.
4.1 0.2 Psychological effects
Research in this area has produced inconclusive results. Scores on

standard psychological tests have been shown to differ little, if at all,
between obese and non-obese people, and the evaluation of selfesteem in obese children and adolescents has not given consistent
results (106). However, the implication that obesity has no psychological consequences is in conflict with the experience of overweight
individuals and with the literature, in which strong cultural bias and
negative attitudes towards obese people are consistently reported.
Friedman & Brownell (1 07) suggest that this "paradox" can be
explained by the manner in which these first-generation studies
have been conducted and that new studies should be carried out to
examine risk factors within the obese population.
4.1 0.3 Body shape dissatisfaction
Many obese people have an altered body image, i.e. they see their
bodies as ugly and believe that others wish to exclude them from
social interaction. This occurs most often in young women of middle
and upper socioeconomic status, among whom obesity is less prevalent, and in those who have been obese since childhood.
4.1 0.4 Eating disorders
Binge-eating disorder is a recognized psychological condition (108)

that occurs with increased frequency among obese persons, approximately 30% of whom seek medical help in dealing with it. In particular, the disorder is associated with severe obesity, a high frequency of
weight cycling, and pronounced psychiatric comorbidity. It is characterized mainly by uncontrolled binge-eating episodes, usually in the
early evening or at night.
Obese binge-eaters have worse moods and more severe psychological
problems than obese people who do not binge-eat, and are more
likely to drop out of weight-control programmes based on behaviour
modification. Although binge-eaters may regain weight faster than
non-binge-eaters, both short- and long-term weight loss among bingeeaters and non-binge-eaters appears to be similar (109).
The night-eating syndrome is characterized by the consumption of at
least 25%- although more recent opinion suggests up to 50%- of
total energy intake after the evening meal. This syndrome seems to
be more common in morbidly obese patients and is related to sleep
57
disturbances such as sleep apnoea. It is thought to be due to alterations in the circadian rhythm, affecting both food intake and mood.
Nocturnal sleep-related disorder is a newly delineated night-eating
pattern characterized by eating on arousal from sleep. It may be a
variant of binge-eating disorder but its relationship with night-eating
syndrome is unclear.
There is no clear evidence that these eating disorders are the primary
cause of weight gain. It has been suggested that the increasing incidence of eating disorders is associated with the psychological pressure
to slim (110, 111). The fact that these disorders do not exist in societies where obesity is accepted as normal strongly supports the view
that they have a cultural basis. Once established in patients, however,
they are serious medical conditions and are difficult to cure.
4.11 Health consequences of overweight and obesity in childhood
and adolescence
4.11.1 Prevalence
Obesity-related symptoms in children and adolescents include psychosocial problems, increased CVD risk factors, abnormal glucose
metabolism, hepatic-gastrointestinal disturbances, sleep apnoea and
orthopaedic complications (Table 4.4).
The most important long-term consequence of childhood obesity is its
persistence into adulthood, with all the associated health risks. Obesity is more likely to persist when its onset is in late childhood or
adolescence and when the obesity is severe (112, 113). Overweight in
adolescence has also been shown to be significantly associated with
long-term mortality and morbidity (114).
Table 4.4
Health consequences of childhood obesity
High prevalence
Intermediate prevalence
Low prevalence
Faster growth
Psychosocial problems
Persistence into
adulthood (for lateonset and severe
obesity)
Dyslipidaemia
Hepatic steatosis
Abnormal glucose metabolism
Persistence into adulthood
(depending on age of
onset and severity)
Orthopaedic complications
Sleep apnoea
Polycystic ovary syndrome
Pseudotumour cerebri
Cholelithiasis
Hypertension
58
4.11.2 Psychosocial effects
The most common consequence of obesity in children in industrialized countries is poor psychosocial functioning. Preadolescent children associate the shape (or silhouette) of an overweight body with
poor social functioning, impaired academic success and reduced fitness and health (115), as well as with character defects (see p. 56).
However, there is little evidence to suggest that self-esteem is significantly affected in obese young children (106, 116).
Among teenagers, however, cross-sectional studies consistently show
an inverse relationship between body weight and both overall selfesteem and body image (106). A marked self-awareness of body
shape and physical appearance develops during adolescence so that it
is perhaps not surprising that the pervasive, negative social messages
associated with obesity in many communities have a major impact at
this stage. Overweight in adolescence may also be associated with
later social and economic problems. A large prospective study conducted in the USA has shown that women who were overweight
during adolescence and young adulthood were more likely to have
lower family incomes, higher rates of poverty and lower rates of
marriage than women with various other forms of chronic physical
disability during adolescence (102).
4.11.3 Cardiovascular risk factors
Dyslipidaemia, hypertension and insulin resistance are frequently

seen in obese children (117, 118) and dyslipidaemia appears to be
related to increased abdominal fat accumulation (119). Caprio and
coworkers (120) suggest that insulin resistance in children may also be
associated with abdominal obesity.
Although NIDDM is very rare, it accounts for one-third of all new
cases of diabetes seen in some institutions in the USA (121).
Elevated serum lipid and lipoprotein levels, blood pressure and
plasma insulin in childhood are all carried over into young adulthood,
obesity status in childhood at baseline being a significant predictor of
adult values (122, 123).
4.11.4 Hepatic and gastric complications
Hepatic complications in obese children have been reported, particularly hepatic steatosis characterized by raised serum transaminase
levels (124). Abnormal liver enzymes may be associated with cholelithiasis, but this condition is rare in children and adolescents.
Gastro-oesophageal reflux and gastric emptying disturbances, which
affect a minority of obese children, may be a consequence of raised
intra-abdominal pressure due to increased abdominal fat.
59
4.11.5 Orthopaedic complications
It is well documented that obese children can suffer from orthopaedic

complications. The more serious of these include slipped capital
femoral epiphysis (125) and Blount disease (a bone deformity resulting from overgrowth of the tibia) (126, 127), while more minor
abnormalities include knock knee (genu valgum) and increased
susceptibility to ankle sprains.
4.11.6 Other complications of childhood obesity
Other serious complications to have been reported in obese children

include obstructive sleep apnoea and pseudomotor cerebri. Obstructive sleep apnoea can cause hypoventilation and even sudden death in
severe cases (128, 129). Pseudomotor cerebri is a rare condition
linked to raised intracranial pressure; it requires immediate medical
attention.
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68
5.
Health benefits and risks of weight loss
5.1
Introduction
While the effects of obesity on the functioning, health, and quality of

life of obese subjects have been studied in great detail, the impact of
weight loss is less well documented. Short-term studies have demonstrated clear benefits from modest weight loss on most of the associated consequences of obesity but there are very few well designed
studies on the benefits of long-term weight loss.
The health benefits and risks of weight loss and of maintaining the
new lower weight in the long term are considered here with particular
reference to mortality, general health, and obesity-related comorbidities including chronic diseases, endocrine and metabolic disturbances, and poor psychosocial functioning. Two distinct hazards of
weight loss, namely gallstones and reduced bone density, are also
considered, as is weight cycling. Finally, a brief account is given of the
effects of weight loss in obese children and adolescents.
The following should be noted:
Well designed studies of the effects of long-term (>2 years) weight
loss are few in number. Difficulties associated with such studies
include that of maintaining long-term weight loss, and the need to
distinguish intentional from unintentional weight loss.
Intentional weight loss results in marked improvements in
NIDDM, dyslipidaemia, hypertension, cardiovascular risk and
ovarian function. There are also improvements in breathlessness,
sleep quality, sleep apnoea, back and joint pain, and osteoarthritis.
The only distinct hazards of weight loss are an increased incidence
of gallstones (when weight loss is rapid) and possibly a reduction in
bone density.
5.2
Problems in evaluating the effects of long-term weight loss

Problems in evaluating the benefits of long-term weight loss include:
the difficulty of maintaining weight loss in adults over a long

period;
whether weight cycling is taken into account, and how it is defined
when the outcome of a study is assessed;
distinguishing "unintentional" weight loss, which may reflect underlying disease, from "intentional" weight loss;
distinguishing the beneficial effects of weight loss per se from
those of the changes in diet and physical activity necessary to
achieve it.
69
The distinction between intentional and unintentional weight loss is

of major importance in studies of the relationships between weight
loss and morbidity or mortality. If weight loss occurs unintentionally
as a result of underlying disease or serious illness, the association
between weight loss and morbidity or mortality will be artificially
increased. A bias resulting from misclassification may also occur if
only two weight measurements are made, especially if weight loss is
temporary and due to a minor acute illness. For this reason it is
recommended that a minimum of three - and preferably more weight measurements should be made throughout the study period.
5.3
Weight loss and general health
5.3.1 Modest weight loss
Data from a number of studies have shown that modest weight loss
(defined as a weight loss of up to 10%) improves glycaemic control,
and reduces both blood pressure and cholesterol levels (1). Modest
weight loss also improves lung function and breathlessness, reduces
the frequency of sleep apnoea, improves sleep quality, and reduces
daytime somnolence. However, the degree of improvement often
depends on the length of time that the condition has been present.
Modest weight loss will also alleviate osteoarthritis, depending on the
degree of structural damage, as well as back and joint pain.
5.3.2 Extensive weight loss
Following vertical-banded gastroplasty, severely obese patients who

lose 20-30kg in weight, at a rate of 4.5kg per month for the first
6 months, gain substantial health benefits. They show a marked fall
in blood lipids within the first 2 years of follow-up, and the condition
of 43% of hypertensive patients and 69% of NIDDM patients is
improved. Furthermore, at the population level, the incidences of
hypertension, hyperlipidaemia and NIDDM are reduced to about
one-sixth of those seen in obese patients who maintain their excess
weight (2, 3).
5.4
Weight loss and mortality
Unfortunately, most studies on weight loss and mortality have not

controlled for unintentional weight loss or for cigarette smoking. In
one large study of overweight white women in the USA in which
these variables were evaluated, intentional weight loss consistently
reduced mortality in women with obesity-related comorbidities such
as NIDDM or CVD. However, the effects in women without
comorbidities were not consistent with an association between intentional weight loss and reduction in mortality. Thus the benefit of
70
intentional weight loss was best seen in those of poorer health status
(4).
In a randomized controlled dietary intervention trial of post-infarct
patients in India, the effect of dietary intervention on cardiac mortality was greatest among patients who had also lost around 10% of their
body weight (5). Further longer-term, well controlled studies are thus
clearly needed to define accurately the beneficial effects of weight loss
on mortality.
5.5
Impact of weight loss on chronic disease, and on endocrine

and metabolic disturbances
A number of cardiovascular risk factors related to blood clotting

(haemostatic, rheological and fibrinolytic) have been associated with
overweight (6-8). In particular, coagulation factors VII and X, which
are directly associated with BMI, are involved in thrombosis (9) and
increased risk of myocardial infarction (10). Weight loss in overweight subjects has been shown to reduce red blood cell aggregation
and to improve fibrinolytic capacity.
Weight loss induces a fall in blood pressure. Short trials lasting a few
weeks show that each 1% reduction in body weight leads, on average,
to a fall of 1mmHg (0.133kPa) systolic and 2mmHg (0.267kPa) diastolic pressure (11-14). Marked falls in blood pressure can occur with
very-low-energy diets, although modest dietary restrictions are also
beneficial. Antihypertensive drug therapy, reducing a high alcohol
intake, and lowering both dietary salt intake (15, 16), and saturated
fat intake (17, 18) all contribute to further blood-pressure reduction
independently of weight loss. It is estimated that a 10-kg weight loss
can produce a fall of 10mmHg (1.33kPa) in systolic blood pressure
and of 20mmHg (2.67kPa) in diastolic pressure (19).
Longer trials, with a 10-year follow-up of patients identified originally
as mildly hypertensive, show that positive dietary change, together
with smoking cessation and an increase in isotonic exercise (e.g. running), reduces both body weight and blood pressure. These levels can
be sustained for 10 years and the need for drug therapy is significantly
reduced (12).
5.5.2 Diabetes me/litus and insulin resistance
Studies of weight loss in NIDDM patients have consistently shown

that a weight reduction of 10-20% in obese individuals with NIDDM
results in marked improvements in glycaemic control and insulin
sensitivity. These improvements can last from 1 to 3 years even if the
71
weight is subsequently regained. In the 75% of newly diagnosed

NIDDM patients who are overweight, a 15-20% weight loss in the
first year after diagnosis seems to reverse the elevated mortality risk
of NIDDM (20). However, not all NIDDM patients respond to
weight loss with metabolic improvements: the loss of abdominal adipose tissue may be more important in improvements in diabetic control than loss of weight per se.
Hyperglycaemia frequently decreases as soon as a low-energy diet is
initiated, suggesting that dietary energy restriction has a beneficial
effect independently of weight loss. Exercise training also improves
glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity independently of weight loss.
The American Diabetes Association (21) recommends that aerobic
exercise should be performed at moderate intensity for 20-45
minutes, 3 days per week. However, although epidemiological studies
have emphasized the value of vigorous activity, mainly because it is
easy to assess, total energy expenditure may be the important factor
in limiting NIDDM rather than periods of intense physical activity
(22).
5.5.3 Dyslipidaemia
The levels of blood lipids associated with obesity, namely high

triacylglycerides, high cholesterol and low HDL cholesterol, can also
be expected to return to normal after modest weight loss. For every
1 kg lost, LDL cholesterol has been estimated to decrease by 1% (23).
A 10-kg weight loss can produce a fall of 10% in total cholesterol
levels, a 15% decrease in LDL levels, a 30% decrease in triacylglycerides and an 8% increase in HDL cholesterol (19). In addition,
it has been found that serum triglyceride and HDL cholesterol levels
show the most favourable changes after weight loss in those with
a high waist:hip ratio (24).
5.5.4 Ovarian function
A weight loss of 5% or more during dietary treatment can improve

insulin sensitivity and ovarian function in overweight and obese
women with hirsutism and polycystic ovaries (25). In some obese
women with amenorrhoea, normal menstrual function may be restored after weight loss (26).
5.6
Weight loss and psychosocial functioning
Most studies on the quality of life of obese patients before and after
weight loss have been conducted on patients following surgery for
obesity, and all show dramatic improvements in the overall quality of
72
life. The SOS study in Sweden (27), for example, showed significant
improvements in social interaction, anxiety, depression and mental
well-being that were sustained for 2 years after surgery for obesity.
Although it is unclear whether these improvements will be seen with
modest weight loss following non-surgical intervention, Klem et al.
(28) recently reported that formerly obese subjects who had lost
weight through diet and/or exercise modification found their quality
of life to be substantially improved. While this is based on selfreporting by individuals who were maintaining weight losses of at
least 13.6kg for periods of over 1 year, it provides additional evidence
of the benefits of weight loss.
Dieting is often perceived to have untoward psychological effects,
including depression, nervousness and irritability. However, studies
have shown that weight loss is associated with a decrease in depression score, particularly when it is achieved by behaviour modification
(29, 30).
A dramatic example of how extremely overweight individuals perceive their disorder has been provided by studies of a group of severely obese patients before and after losing weight as a result of
gastric surgery (31, 32). Before surgery, all the patients felt unattractive and the great majority felt that people talked about them behind
their backs at work. They also felt that they had been discriminated
against when applying for jobs and treated disrespectfully by the
medical profession. After having achieved a weight loss of 50kg, all
the patients said that they would prefer to be deaf, dyslexic or diabetic
or to suffer from severe heart disease or acne than to return to their
previous weight. Given a hypothetical choice, they all preferred to be
of normal weight than have "a couple of million dollars" - a choice
that they made in less than a second.
5.7
Hazards of weight loss
Weight loss from "crash" dieting may result in acute attacks of gout.
However, for intentional and controlled weight loss resulting from
medical intervention, only two distinct hazards have emerged from a
variety of prospective studies:
Gallbladder disease. Women who lose 4-lOkg have a 44% increased risk of clinically relevant gallstone disease, and greater
weight loss increases this risk. Mobilization of cholesterol from
adipose tissue stores is increased during weight loss, so that the risk
of supersaturation of bile with cholesterol is greater than when
weight is stable. Premenopausal women are at particular risk
because of an estrogen-induced enhanced biliary secretion of
cholesterol.
73
Reduced bone density. Bone density is typically increased in obese

patients and reduced after weight loss. In white women, weight
loss beginning at age 50 was found to increase the risk of hip
fracture (33). Whether there is restitution of bone mass with weight
regain following slimming, however, is uncertain; Compston et al.
(34) found this to be the case whereas A venell et al. (35) did not.
There is little information on the impact of weight cycling on bone
density.
It should also be noted that, in societies in which overweight and
obesity are seen as a sign of affluence, weight loss may be interpreted
as an indication of financial disaster.
5.8
Weight cycling
Weight cycling refers to the repeated loss and regain of weight that
can occur as a result of recurrent dieting. However, there is no standard definition of weight cycling so that comparison between different studies is difficult (36).
It has been suggested that weight cycling is associated with negative
health outcomes, makes future weight loss more difficult and results
in a decrease in lean-to-fat tissue ratio (37). However, the evidence is
conflicting; weight variability was associated with increased risk of
CVD and all-cause mortality in men, particularly in those who continued to smoke, but the association between weight change and death
was not seen in the heaviest men (38). Recently in the USA, the
National Task Force on the Prevention and Treatment of Obesity
(39) concluded that the evidence available at the time was that the
increased risk was not sufficient to outweigh the potential benefits of
moderate weight loss in obese patients.
5.9
Effects of weight loss in obese children and adolescents
Weight loss of only 3% significantly decreased blood pressure in

obese adolescents, and blood pressure was further improved if exercise was added to the weight-loss programme (40). A weight loss of
nearly 16% in obese children resulted in a parallel decrease in serum
triacylglycerides and plasma insulin in the first year, with an increase
in HDL cholesterol. These changes remained stable in the second
year of the study; after 5 years, body weight was still 13% below the
initial value, peripheral hyperinsulinaemia was reduced and HDL
cholesterol remained higher (41).
The symptoms of hepatic steatosis in obese children eventually disappear when excess weight is lost (42).
74
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29. Smoller JW, Wadden TA, Stunkard AJ. Dieting and depression: a critical
review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 1987, 31:429-440.
30. Kunesova M et al. Predictors of the weight loss in morbidly obese women:
one year follow up. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic
Disorders, 1996, 20(Suppl. 4):59.
31. Rand CSW, MacGregor AMC. Morbidly obese patients' perceptions of
social discrimination before and after surgery for obesity. Southern Medical
Journal, 1990, 83:1390-1395.
76
32. Rand CSW, MacGregor AMC. Successful weight loss following obesity
surgery and the perceived liability of morbid obesity. International Journal of
Obesity, 1991, 15:577-579.
33. Langlois JA et al. Weight change between age 50 years and old age is
associated with risk of hip fracture in white women aged 67 years and
older. Archives of Internal Medicine, 1996, 156:989-994.
34. Compston JE et al. Effect of diet-induced weight loss on total body bone
mass. Clinical Science, 1992, 82:429-432.
35. Avenell A et al. Bone loss associated with a high fibre weight reduction diet
in postmenopausal women. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1994,
48:561-566.
36. Jeffery RW. Does weight cycling present a health risk? American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition, 1996, 63(3 Suppi.):452S-455S.
37. Lissner L et al. Body weight variability in men: metabolic rate, health and
longevity. International Journal of Obesity, 1990, 14:373-383.
38. Blair SN et al. Body weight change, all-cause mortality and cause-specific
mortality in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Annals of Internal
Medicine, 1993, 119:749-757.
39. Weight cycling. National Task Force on the Prevention and Treatment of
Obesity. Journal of the American Medical Association, 1994, 272:11961202.
40. Rocchini AP et al. Blood pressure in obese adolescents: effect of weight
loss. Pediatrics, 1988, 82:16-23.
41. Knip M, Nuutinen 0. Long-term effects of weight reduction on serum lipids
and plasma insulin in obese children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,
1993, 57:490-493.
42. Vajro P et al. Persistent hyperaminotransferasemia resolving after weight
loss in obese children. Journal of Pediatrics, 1994, 125:239-241.
77
6.
Economic costs of overweight and obesity
6.1
Introduction
The economic costs of overweight and obesity are important issues

for health care providers and policy-makers alike. To date, there have
been only a few attempts to quantify the economic burden of obesityrelated morbidity and mortality. This is in marked contrast to smoking and alcohol consumption, where a large number of international
studies have been undertaken to determine the magnitude of the
economic burden that they impose on the community. In addition,
few studies have assessed the relative cost-effectiveness of alternative
interventions aimed at either preventing or treating obesity.
The limited information available on the economics of overweight
and obesity is reviewed in this section. The use and limitations of costof-illness studies on obesity-related disease are summarized and the
basic steps required in undertaking such a study are then outlined. A
brief overview of the few studies in different countries that have
provided estimates of the economic costs of obesity follows; key
findings as well as the limitations of the methods used are highlighted,
after which the cost-effectiveness of alternative interventions aimed
at either preventing or treating obesity is reviewed. Finally, the implications of current understanding of the economics of obesity for
public policy decision-making are considered and priorities for future
research in this area discussed.
The following important points should be noted:
The economic cost is made up of three main components:
- "direct costs", i.e. the costs, to the individual and the service
provider, associated with treating obesity itself;
- the "opportunity cost" to the individual, i.e. the social and
personal loss associated with obesity, generally arising from
premature death or attributable morbidity;
-
"indirect costs", usually measured as lost production due to
absenteeism from work and to premature death.

The economic impact of obesity-related disease is usually estimated
from cost-of-illness studies. These are useful in the development of
public health policy but their limitations should be recognized:
intangible costs and many of the direct costs of disease management and prevention, especially those incurred outside the formal
health care system, tend to be ignored. A number of studies have
therefore focused on the impact of obesity on broader social
and economic issues, including the frequency of long-term sick
leave.
78
The economic costs of obesity have been assessed in several developed countries and are in the range 2-7% of total health care costs.
These are conservative estimates based on variable criteria but
clearly indicate that obesity represents one of the largest items of
expenditure in national health care budgets.
Although there have been no studies of the economic impact of
obesity in developing countries, the escalating economic burden of
adult NCDs in such countries has already been recognized by a
number of international agencies including WHO and the World
Bank. The real costs of therapy in developing countries exceed
those in developed countries because of the extra burden associated with the use of scarce foreign exchange to pay for imports of
expensive equipment and drugs, as well as the need for the specialized training of staff. In view of the existing burdens of endemic
deficiency disorders and infectious diseases, obesity prevention is
not only crucial but also the only sensible approach to planning
public health policies in developing countries.
Preliminary data suggest that a large proportion of the economic
costs of obesity can be avoided by efficient prevention or intervention strategies.
6.2
Cost-of-illness studies
"Cost-of-illness" or "disease-costing" is a technique used to estimate

the financial impact of disease on a community. The economic costs of
obesity include:
Direct costs: the cost to the community resulting from the diversion
of resources to the diagnosis and treatment of diseases directly
related to obesity, as well as from the cost of obesity treatment itself
(including the cost of providing health care services to patients and
their families, and the cost of service providers).
Intangible costs: the cost to the individual arising from the impact of
obesity on quality of life generally and on health specifically.
Indirect costs: the welfare and economic benefits lost to other members of society through a reduction in the goods and services produced i.e. the impact of the reduced quality of life of the obese
individual on the productive potential available to the rest of society. These costs are usually measured as the production lost
through work-related absenteeism and premature death.
Most cost-of-illness studies focus on measuring direct and indirect

costs, while less attention is given to the more difficult task of quantifying the intangible costs.
79
6.2.1 Uses of cost-of-illness studies
Cost-of-illness studies are useful in the development of public policy

because they can:
Identify and analyse how resources are currently being allocated to
different types of costs, services and diseases.
Help to identify potential improvements in health status, in the case
of a specific disease, that can be achieved by the application of
effective prevention programmes, or to identify a risk factor for a
disease. A knowledge of the incidence and prevalence of the disease, the consequent use of health services, and costs can allow a
calculation of the potential savings to a community that can be
achieved through effective prevention programmes, which may (or
may not) be greater than the costs of prevention.
Assist health planners to make comparisons between the relative
economic burden of different diseases that may assist in setting
priorities for prevention, if taken together with information on the
costs and effectiveness of prevention strategies.
Provide data on the cost side of the cost-effectiveness ratio for
subsequent economic appraisal.
Be used to demonstrate to policy-makers and politicians the magnitude of the health problem in financial terms.
6.2.2 Limitations of cost-of-illness studies
The major criticism of cost-of-illness studies is that they can be misused. A cost-of-illness study may indicate that a disease is costly to
treat. It may also suggest that a disease has a high social cost relative
to other diseases or social problems, implying that society would
be relatively better off without it. While this is obviously true, it does
not mean that a higher priority should be given to treating that
disease. Treatment (or prevention) may be relatively ineffective or
expensive, so that priority-setting should be based on the relative
cost-effectiveness of interventions and not on the cost of the disease
alone. This criticism is best explained by Davey & Leeder (1):
" ... Instead of answering the question, 'Where should I put the next health
care dollar to achieve the greatest health gain?' cost-of-illness studies
provide information only about the burden of illness. They concentrate on
cost and say nothing about the effectiveness of treatment and value for
money invested."
Some economists have argued that, while cost-of-illness studies do

not indicate where resources should be allocated in the short term,
they do indicate where the greatest potential health improvements
80
and savings in health care resources could be made if effective interventions were available.
A further criticism concerns the focus of cost-of-illness studies on
direct health care costs and the indirect costs of lost production, less
emphasis being placed on the burden of disease, premature death and
reduced quality of life. Because these latter intangible costs are less
easy to measure in monetary terms, they tend to be ignored. Diseases
associated with high health care costs but relatively low morbidity and
mortality (such as dental disease) may therefore be seen as imposing
a far greater burden than other diseases associated with high costs in
terms of premature death and reduction in quality of life but low
health care costs (such as youth suicide).
The definition of health care incorporated in cost-of-illness studies
tends to be narrow and ignores many of the direct costs of disease
management and prevention, especially those arising outside the formal health care system. This is particularly true of obesity, as the
highest direct cost category is most likely to be the personal expenditure on weight-loss programmes incurred by overweight and obese
individuals. The impact of the narrow range of direct costs included in
studies is likely to vary across disease types and risk factors.
6.2.3 Steps in undertaking a cost-of-illness study
The following basic steps need to be taken in carrying out a cost-ofillness study on obesity-related disease where, in accordance with the
WHO criteria, overweight is defined as BMI 25-29.9 and obesity as
BMI ~ 30:
-
identify those diseases related to overweight and obesity;

quantify the relationship between obesity and the associated
disease morbidity and mortality using standard criteria (i.e. the
population-attributable fractions (P AFs ); for more information
on PAFs, see below);
identify the relevant economic cost categories to be estimated;
quantify the total costs associated with diet-related disease;
use the P AFs to apportion that share of total costs directly attributable to overweight and obesity;
undertake a sensitivity analysis of key epidemiological and economic parameters (or assumptions) to provide a range of cost
estimates.
Population-attributable fraction
The epidemiological statistic needed to quantify the direct relationship between a risk factor of interest and a disease (and thus quantify
its associated economic costs) is the population-attributable fraction.
81
This has been defined as the proportion of total events (e.g. deaths or
morbidity) in a population that could be prevented if a particular risk
factor (e.g. obesity) could be eliminated.
The P AF reflects the overall impact of the morbidity and mortality
associated with a factor (e.g. obesity) in the specified population. It
can be interpreted from an etiological standpoint (causal outcomes
attributed to a particular risk factor) or from a prevention standpoint
(the maximum number of events that could be prevented). Many
epidemiologists use the concept of "preventable proportion" as a
useful generalization of the P AF concept.
Where only one category of exposure (e.g. obese or non-obese) is
concerned, P AF is given by:
PAP= p(RR-1)
1+ p(RR-1)
where p
RR
= prevalence of risk factor

= relative risk
(e.g. obesity) in a population
= incidence of disease in an obese person (le) divided by the
incidence of disease in a non-obese person (Io)
Ie/10
P AF can be expressed either as a fraction or as a percentage. Thus a

P AF of 0. 73 means that 73% of the incidence of the disease could be
eliminated by removal of the risk factor (or conversely, that the risk
factor is responsible for 73% of the incidence of the disease).
A number of epidemiological studies have assessed the relative risk
of specific diseases associated with excess body weight. Most have
used BMI as the risk factor; in only a few studies has the risk of
disease been quantified in terms of body fat distribution (e.g. by the
use of the waist circumference). Such studies have shown a positive
relationship between BMI and the development of CHD (2-4), hypertension (5), stroke (6), NIDDM (2), gallbladder disease (7), sleep
apnoea (8), and a number of cancers including breast cancer (9, 10)
and colon cancer (11). In addition, further studies have shown a
relationship between excess body weight and obstetric complications
in women (12), progression of osteoarthritis (13), and rheumatoid
arthritis (14).
There is a need for a comprehensive systematic review (e.g. a metaanalysis) to provide a clearer understanding of the relationships
found in such studies between excess weight and the diseases. Once
these data are available, relative risk estimates can be combined with
country-specific overweight and obesity prevalence data to determine
PAFs for use in cost-of-illness studies.
82
6.2.4 The disability-adjusted life year
An alternative to the cost-of-illness study for use in the economic

evaluation of the consequences of obesity and overweight is the
disability-adjusted life year (DALY) (15). This can provide estimates
of the burden imposed by death and disability due to any disorder and
makes it possible to compare populations in different geographical
and social settings. Both the proportion of chronic diseases attributable to overweight and obesity and the costs of their management
vary across populations and between social classes within populations. The use of a combined measure of the loss of life expectancy
and prolonged morbidity in national, regional and global estimates of
the economic effects of overweight and obesity is therefore desirable.
Obesity and overweight, in the same way as tobacco use, contribute
to several NCDs. Thus, the total DALY loss attributable to obesity
and overweight would represent the attributable fraction of the total
loss of DALYs due to NCDs associated with excess body weight. A
number of estimates of the attributable fraction associated with tobacco use have been made, thus facilitating national and regional
comparisons. Efforts should therefore be made to generate similar
estimates of the attributable fraction associated with obesity and
overweight.
6.3
International estimates of the cost of obesity
6.3.1 Studies in developed countries
At present, the economic burden of obesity-related diseases has been

estimated in only a few studies. Some of the data available for developed countries are reviewed below and summarized in Table 6.1.
The scope and methodology of the various studies vary considerably
in terms of the diseases costed, the definition of obesity, the cost
Table 6.1
Economic costs of obesity
Country
Year
Study
BMI
Estimated direct
costs
National
health
care costs
Australia
France
Netherlands
1989-1990
1992
1981-1989
>30
"?.27
>25
A$ 464 million
FF 12000 million
NLG 1 000 million
>2%
2%
4%
USA
1994
NHMRC (16)
Levy et al. ( 17)
Seidell &
Deerenberg ( 18)
Wolf & Colditz
>29
US$ 45 800 million
6.8%
( 19)
a
As defined by cut-off point of BMI.
83
categories used and the epidemiological assumptions as to the relationship between obesity and disease. This makes it difficult to compare costs across countries and to extrapolate the results from one
country to another. The limited data available suggest that, as previously mentioned, some 2-7% of total health care expenditure in a
country may be directly attributable to overweight and/or obesity.
Australia
The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC)

replicated the 1992 Colditz study (20), using the same obesityrelated diseases and the same estimates of relative risk but applying
Australian estimates of obesity prevalence (based on BMI >30). The
NHMRC estimated the direct cost of obesity to be A$ 464 million
(1989-1990), indirect costs amounting to an additional A$ 272 million. Hypertension and CHD combined accounted for approximately
60% of the total economic costs of obesity. For hypertension, the
largest costs were those for medical services and pharmaceuticals,
whereas for CHD, hospital costs and the indirect costs associated with
premature mortality were the most significant (16).
As part of the total cost-of-obesity estimate, the NHMRC also estimated the costs of obesity treatment within the formal health care
system in Australia. These accounted for approximately 10% of the
total economic cost of obesity.
The estimate provided by the NHMRC should be considered conservative for the same reasons as the Colditz study in the USA. Of
interest is the fact that, while the costs of obesity treatment within the
health care sector amounted to less than A$ 80 million, a 1992 survey
by the Consumer Advocacy and Financial Counselling Association of
Victoria (21) estimated that 300000 consumers purchased a weightloss programme in Australia each year from a variety of weight-loss
centres, and that the industry turnover was in excess of A$ 500 million
per annum. This shows that a substantial proportion of the economic
cost of obesity is incurred outside the formal health care sector.
Finland
The impact of obesity on several indicators of health care utilization

was assessed among 10000 adult Finns in the National Survey on
Health and Social Security in 1987 (22). The costs of medicines,
physician consultations and hospital inpatient stays increased with
increasing BMI. The excess health care utilization was due mainly to
an increased need for medication, the cost of which rose by about
12% when BMI increased from 25 to 40. On the basis of these data it
was estimated that, if all Finns were of normal weight, the annual
84
savings would be of the same order of magnitude as if all smokers in

Finland were to stop smoking permanently.
France
To estimate the direct cost of obesity-related diseases in France in

1992, Levy et al. (17) identified the direct costs of personal health
care, hospital care, physician services and drugs for diseases with a
well established relationship with obesity. These included NIDDM,
hypertension, hyperlipidaemia, CHD, stroke, venous thromboembolism, osteoarthritis of the knee, gallbladder disease and certain cancers. The proportion of these diseases attributable to obesity (defined
by the cut-off point of BMI ?.27) ranged from about 25% for hypertension and stroke to about 3% for breast cancer. The direct costs of
obesity were estimated to be almost 12000 million francs, or approximately 2% of total health care expenditure in 1992. The costs of
hypertension represented 53% of the total direct costs of obesity.
Netherlands
The cost of the excess use of medical care and associated costs due to
obesity in the Netherlands were estimated using the data on 58000
participants in the Health Interview Surveys carried out from 1981 to
1989 (18). The health care costs included those for consultations with
general practitioners and medical specialists, hospital admissions and
the use of prescribed drugs. Obese (BMI ?.30) and overweight (BMI
25-30) individuals were more likely to have consulted a general practitioner. The total general practitioner costs attributable to obesity/
overweight were equivalent to 3-4% of the country's total general
practitioner expenditure. For hospitalizations, the fraction attributable to obesity was 3% and for overweight 2%. The excess use of
medications by obese and overweight people, however, was very
striking: compared with the non-obese, obese individuals were 5 times
more likely to use diuretics and 2.5 times more likely to take drugs for
CVD. It was estimated from these data that the direct costs of overweight and obesity were about 4% of total health care costs in the
Netherlands. This is of the same order of magnitude as the health care
costs attributable to all forms of cancer.
While the study did not cover all potential cost categories relevant to
obesity, it was the first cost estimate to include the impact of overweight, and this category accounted for about 48% of the total costs
of excess weight gain.
United States of America
The first national study undertaken on the economic cost of obesity

was that by Colditz (20) in the USA. The diseases included in the cost
85
estimate were NIDDM, CVD, hypertension, gallbladder disease, and

colon and postmenopausal breast cancer. Obesity was defined as a
BMI greater than 29. Total costs attributable to obesity in 1986,
including both direct and indirect costs, were estimated to be US$
39300 million, representing 5.5% of the overall costs of illness for the
USA in that year. The P AFs used for particular diseases were
NIDDM 0.57, CVD 0.19, hypertension 0.26, breast cancer 0.06 and
colon cancer 0.02. However, the estimates of relative risks used by
Colditz are currently being revised by a number of groups to bring
P AF and economic cost estimates into line with agreed classification
criteria for overweight and obesity.
Colditz's original estimate should be considered conservative because
estimates for many obesity-related diseases and for several relevant
economic cost categories were excluded. Colditz points out that the
addition of musculoskeletal disorders to his estimate would have
raised the figure to US$ 56300 million, or 7.8% of the cost of illness
for the USA in 1986.
In 1994, Wolf & Colditz (19) published a revised estimate of the
economic costs of obesity in the USA, extending the range of obesityassociated diseases included in the analysis and updating their calculations. They estimated that the total cost of obesity in 1990 was US$
68 800 million, of which US$ 45 800 million was due to the direct cost
of obesity-associated disease. The remaining US$ 23300 million
was an estimate of the indirect costs of obesity due to lost productivity (about US$ 4000 million, or 25 591480 annual workdays)
and premature mortality from diseases associated with obesity (about
US$ 19000 million). These figures should still be considered to be
conservative.
6.3.2 Studies on the broader economic issues
Methods other than cost-of-illness studies have been used to determine the economic impact of obesity-related diseases, e.g. studies on
the influence of obesity either on attainment of social class (see
below) or on pension and disability payments.
It is important to note that indirect costs of disease relate to the loss
of worker productivity due to worker absenteeism, staff turnover and

reduced worker productivity as a result of obesity-related morbidity,
together with lost earnings due to premature death from an obesityrelated disease. A common misconception among health professionals is that sickness, unemployment and other social welfare benefits
should be included in the indirect costs of diseases. Economists do not
86
include such benefits in cost-of-illness studies as they are viewed as a

transfer payment from the tax-paying population to the recipients.
There is a continuing debate among health economists about whether
to include indirect costs in a study and how to measure these costs
reliably.
Attainment of social class
Cross-sectional studies in many affluent societies show an inverse

relationship between educational level and the prevalence of obesity.
However, in addition to indications that low socioeconomic status
leads to obesity, there are also indications that the reverse may also be
true. Obese subjects may also be subject to economic disadvantages
such as higher premiums for life insurance policies.
One study of Danish draftees showed that, after adjustment for parental social class, level of education and intelligence, fewer obese
men attained a relatively high social class compared with non-obese
men (23). Similarly, a prospective study of young women in the USA
showed that those who were obese were less likely to marry, and had
fewer years of schooling, as well as a lower income compared with
non-obese women (24). These results are supported by those of a
number of other prospective studies showing that obese young adults
do not attain the same social class as their non-obese peers. Although
such data should be interpreted with caution, it has been suggested
that societal discrimination may limit the socioeconomic potential of
the obese.
Frequency of long-term sick-leave
In the SOS study (25) in Sweden, the frequency of long-term sickleave (over 6 months) was reported to be 1.4 and 2.4 times higher in
obese men and women, respectively, compared with the general
Swedish population. Similarly, the rate of premature disability pensions was reported to be increased by a factor of 1.5-2.8 among
participants in the study. The total loss of productivity due to obesity
was estimated to be about 7% of the total cost of losses of productivity due to sick-leave and disability pensions in Sweden.
Premature work disability
In a large prospective Finnish study (26), obesity was associated with

a twofold increased risk of premature work disability in men and a
1.5-fold greater risk in women. Most of the premature pensions attributable to obesity were due to cardiovascular and musculoskeletal
diseases. A quarter of all disability pensions for these diseases in
women were solely attributable to overweight and obesity.
87
6.3.3 Studies in developing countries
Although there have not been any comparable studies of the economic impact of obesity in developing countries, both WHO and the
World Bank have recently highlighted the increasing burden associated with the rapidly emerging adult NCDs in these countries (15, 27),
where they have now replaced infectious diseases as the leading cause
of death. In developing countries, about 50% of deaths in 1990 were
caused by NCDs, but by 2020 that proportion is expected to rise to
almost 77%. In 1990, some 42% of deaths were attributed to infectious and reproductive conditions, while by 2020 that proportion is
expected to decline to about 12%. In contrast, in developed countries
87% of deaths in 1990 were from NCDs and the proportion is expected to rise only slightly-to 90%-by 2020.
The treatment needs of the rapidly expanding urban populations and
increasingly affluent middle classes in developing countries are already overwhelming many medical services. Furthermore, as previously mentioned, the real costs of therapy associated with NCDs in
developing countries exceed those in developed countries; the need to
use scarce foreign exchange to pay for imports of expensive equipment and drugs and for the training of specialized staff creates an
extra burden.
In recent World Bank studies, e.g. in Chile (28), the burden of disease
has been expressed in terms of numbers of DALYs lost. NCDs account for a 5- and 9-fold greater rate of premature death than communicable diseases in men and women, respectively, and 10- and 5-fold
greater rates of disability. The numbers of DALYs lost in men are 15fold, and in women 20-fold, greater for NCDs than for infections. So
far, the burden of disease attributable to excess weight gain and
obesity has not been calculated, but cancers impose a substantial
burden as do NIDDM and CVD. There is thus a need in developing
countries to apply the new economic methods of determining the
proportion of these diseases attributable to excess weight gain so that
the impact of one of the principal contributors to NCDs can be
assessed.
6.3.4 Conclusions
International studies on the economic costs of obesity have shown

that they account for between 2% and 7% of total health care costs,
the level depending on the range of diseases and cost categories
included in the analysis. The figures are based mainly on crosssectional data, and should be considered a conservative estimate of
the true cost of obesity-related diseases for a number of reasons:
88
In most studies, only a limited number of obesity-related diseases

have been costed.
Most studies have excluded some relevant direct-cost categories
from the analysis.
In the majority of cases only the economic costs associated with
obesity (BMI ~30) have been included in the analysis. The inclusion
of costs associated with overweight (i.e. BMI 25-29.9) would substantially increase the attributed cost because the number of overweight individuals in a community is generally greater by a factor of
3-4 than those who are obese; the economic cost of drug use, for
example, was increased by 65% if the overweight category was
included (18).
Although there have not been any comparable studies of the economic impact of obesity in developing countries, the real costs of
therapy associated with NCDs in such countries are likely to exceed
those in developed countries.
6.4
Economic costs and benefits of obesity treatment
6.4.1 Analyses of obesity-control trials
Unfortunately, very little information is available on the economic

benefits of treatment, but some extrapolations can be made from the
preliminary and early data from the large-scale SOS intervention
study of 1743 obese men and women in Sweden (25).
After 2 years of follow-up, Sjostrom and his colleagues found a number of benefits in the subjects who were surgically treated and who
individually lost between 30 kg and 40 kg. Thus quality of life was
markedly improved and several cardiovascular risk factors were substantially decreased. The prevalence of NIDDM- 13% in controls
and 16% in the intervention group before treatment- decreased by
68% in the intervention group and by only 16% in the controls. In
other words, two-thirds of NIDDM was "cured" by the obesity intervention. Furthermore, the incidence of NIDDM was only 0.5% in the
intervention group as compared with 7% in the controls. A 4-5-fold
risk reduction was observed in the development of hypertension,
hypertriglyceridaemia and the lowering of HDL cholesterol. During 2
years of follow-up, the incidence of NIDDM was very low in the
intervention group but 30-fold higher in controls. Data on other disease end-points are not yet available.
In order to try to estimate the economic consequences of this controlled study, the results of treatment and the associated costs may be
compared with the estimated costs of non-treated obese subjects. If
89
NIDDM is taken as an example, the 14-fold risk reduction in the

treatment group suggests that NIDDM was prevented to a large
extent. In addition, two-thirds of patients with established NIDDM
were "cured". Applying these results to the estimated cost of obesityrelated NIDDM in France would decrease the total costs of obesity in
that country by approximately 3%, while in the USA costs could be
reduced by almost 20%. Similar calculations with respect to change in
cardiovascular risk factors are not easy, but a large proportion of the
obese subjects who would usually be eligible for treatment for hypertension and hyperlipidaemia would not need such treatment. In
France this would result in a 25% reduction in costs.
Little published information is so far available on the potential impact
of obesity treatment in the SOS trial on sick-leave and pensions,
which constitute the other major component of the costs of obesity.
This is difficult to evaluate because treated patients have not been
followed up for a long enough period, but the initial data indicated
that the number of lost working days increased more quickly in the
controls than in the intervention groups (25). Furthermore, the
marked improvements in the quality of life of treated patients are not
only an important outcome in themselves but also suggest that other
major benefits that would reduce health costs can be expected after
longer follow-up.
However, it is important to include in the costs those of the intervention itself (i.e. surgery) and of the follow-up review. The actual cost of
the surgical procedure is not available, but follow-up figures suggest
that, in spite of the surgical intervention, the frequency of visits to a
doctor was the same in controls and intervention subjects by the
second year after surgery.
The SOS study is the only fully controlled, large-scale, long-term
study of the effects of the radical treatment of obesity and substantial
weight loss. The results of this study will provide valuable information
on the medical and economic consequences of effective intervention in obesity within a limited period. Preliminary results are very
promising.
6.4.2 Potential cost savings associated with a reduction in the
prevalence of obesity
A small number of studies have provided estimates of the potential

impact on health care costs of a reduction in the population prevalence of obesity.
In a study in the USA (29), obese patients with NIDDM were assigned to a 12-week weight-loss programme involving an 800-kcal1h
90
diet (1 kcal1h = 4.18 kJ). Subjects lost an average of 15.3 kg over the
12 weeks, but at 1-year follow-up had regained 9.0kg. The authors
estimated that the average saving in prescription costs per subject
over 1 year was US$ 442.80. While the study showed a significant
prescription cost saving, sample sizes were small and the energy intake associated with the weight-loss programme was very small. It
would thus be unwise to assume that these results would be reproduced under different conditions.
As an extension of a cost-of-obesity study discussed earlier in this
section (seep. 84), the NHMRC estimated the potential annual saving
to the Australian health care system that would result if the prevalence of obesity were reduced by 20% by the year 2000 (baseline
1989), as specified by the National Health Goals and Targets (30).
The method used in this study was to recalculate the P AF based on
the target prevalence of obesity (and on the assumption that relative
risk estimates remain constant) for each obesity-related disease. The
1989-1990 estimated cost for each obesity-related disease was then
multiplied by the change in P AF to estimate the potential annual
saving. The NHMRC estimated that an annual saving of A$ 59
million in health care expenditure and a potential 2300 life-years
could be gained if the obesity target was achieved.
While the NHMRC calculation shows the potential cost saving that
might be achieved if the target obesity prevalence were achieved, it
does not provide information on the public and private expenditure
that would be required to fund programmes to achieve this target.
The analysis therefore does not help decision-makers to decide
whether investing scarce community resources in preventing or treating overweight and obesity represents an efficient use of such resources. Such decisions should be based on an evaluation of the costs
and outcomes (effectiveness) of alternative interventions for the prevention and treatment of overweight and obesity.
6.4.3 Cost-effectiveness of obesity prevention and treatment
Few studies have addressed the economic evaluation of the prevention and treatment of overweight and obesity and, of these, most have
been concerned with treatment rather than primary prevention. A
limited number of studies on the cost-effectiveness of non-drug versus
drug treatment of hypertension have been conducted and have
included measurements of weight loss. In addition, a number of
studies have focused on the financial benefits of workplace fitness
programmes (including the benefit of weight loss) in reducing employee absenteeism, but the methods used in these studies have been
criticized (31, 32). Authors have sometimes overgeneralized and used
91
optimistic estimates of the health benefits of risk factor modification.

In other studies, the relevant programme cost categories have been
incorrectly specified, and rather dubious methods of valuing and
measuring these costs have been used. The results seem in some
instances to be biased in favour of finding workplace health promotion to be a good investment.
The results of two studies on the cost-effectiveness of alternative
interventions for weight control are discussed below.
Cost-effectiveness of obesity management in the prevention of N/DDM
In a recent study by Segal et al. (33), an attempt was made to model

the potential cost-effectiveness of a range of interventions for the
prevention and treatment of NIDDM in Australia. These interventions included a population approach using mass media programmes
focusing on lifestyle changes (including diet and exercise); a
behaviour modification programme for the seriously obese; a group
programme targeting overweight men (based on an established
programme called GutBusters ); gastric surgery for the morbidly
obese; and a behaviour modification programme for women who had
gestational NIDDM.
Both the costs and outcomes of the various interventions were
estimated. Net costs (or savings) were derived by adding together
programme costs and the potential savings in future health care costs
from the prevention of cases of NIDDM. Outcomes were expressed
as NIDDM years deferred and life-years saved. Costs were based
on reports in the literature, discussions with service providers and
published health service cost data. Epidemiological data reported in
the literature were used in assessing the effectiveness of various
programmes in preventing NIDDM. A range of estimates was calculated based on different assumptions as to programme success,
programme costs and other important variables.
The most cost-effective interventions were found to be the
GutBusters Programme (a commercial 6-week group session programme for men) and the mass media lifestyle modification programme. It was estimated that both would lead to future cost savings
resulting from the reduced incidence of NIDDM, and these savings
would be greater than the programme costs. Table 6.2 summarizes the
main results of the study.
Although the results presented in Table 6.2 depend very much on
the assumption of long-term success in the various weight-loss
programmes, the wide range of cost-effectiveness estimates indicate
that they are robust. Indeed, while the analysis incorporates the esti92
Table 6.2
Summary of the estimated cost-effectiveness of a range of interventions for the
prevention of NIDDMa
Intervention
Net cost per NIDDM

year avoided
(A$)
Net cost per

life-year gained
(A$)
Surgery for seriously obese:

aiiiGTb
10% IGT, 90% normalc
1200
3500
4600
12300
Diet/behaviour modification for

seriously obese:
aiiiGT
10% IGT, 90% normal
saving
1600
saving
2600
Group programme for overweight men:

aiiiGT
10% IGT, 90% normal
saving
saving
saving
saving
Diet/behavioural programme for women

with previous gestational NIDDM:
aiiiGT
30% IGT, 70% normal
800
2100
1200
2400
Media programme
saving
saving
a
b
Reproduced from reference 33 with the permission of the publisher.

"IGT" refers to programmes targeted at those with impaired glucose tolerance.
"normal" relates to normal glucose tolerance.
mated effect of weight loss on all-cause mortality, and not just that
associated with NIDDM, the probable impact of a successful prevention programme on other risk factors (such as cholesterol or blood
pressure) has not been taken into account. In addition, the expected
savings in future health care costs relate to NIDDM only, ignoring
possible savings in the management of other obesity-related diseases.
For these reasons the results may well be conservative.
The authors of the study concluded that the prevention of NIDDM,
through appropriate interventions, can represent a highly efficient use
of community resources. Such programmes can achieve a substantial
improvement in health status at little cost or indeed with the possibility of a net saving in the use of health care resources.
Cost-effectiveness of commercial weight-loss programmes
A study by Spielman et al. (34) analysed the cost of losing weight in

commercial weight-loss programmes in the Boston metropolitan area.
It reviewed 11 commercial diet programmes and estimated for each
programme the out-of-pocket cost to the participant (over a 12-week
93
period) of losing 1 kg. The diet programmes were divided into three
groups:
1. Medically supervised very-low-calorie diets (VLCDs) that provide
<800kcal1h/per day. 1
2. Nutrient-balance reduced-energy diet programmes (REDPs), the
client consuming 800-1200kcal1h/dayl (50% carbohydrate, 15-20%
protein, <30% fat).
3. Support groups that may or may not offer individual dietary advice
and act as a self-help programme with volunteer staff.
It was found that the cost of a 12-week commercial weight-loss
programme varied enormously, from US$ 2120 for the most expensive VLCD to US$ 108 for the least expensive REDP. The data are
summarized in Table 6.3.
This short-term analysis suggests that support groups and lower-cost

REDPs were the most cost-effective interventions. Dietitians were
only marginally better value for money than REDPs, particularly
when the expected reduction in usual supermarket expenditures is
subtracted. However, the study can be criticized on a number of
grounds:
Weight loss in a sample of programme participants was not measured. Instead, the "expected" weight loss based on the literature
was used and excellent compliance was assumed throughout the
duration of the programme. Weight loss may thus be substantially
overestimated and in practice there would be significant differences
in the weight loss achieved by the different programmes. Potential
drop-out rates are also ignored.
The study was based on a 12-week programme, did not take into
account the costs and impacts of weight-maintenance programmes,
and could not take account of the longer-term impact of the competing programmes.
The financial "costs" measured were restricted to programme
initiation fees, the cost of any food supplements purchased as a
result of the programme (e.g. liquid protein formulae for VLCDs,
or preprepared foods for REDPs) and of medical monitoring
and/or associated behaviour modification programmes. Additional
costs (or savings) associated with daily food purchases, reducedenergy beverages, etc., were not taken into account. Thus, for a
94
1 kcal,h = 4.18kJ.
Table 6.3
Cost in US$ per kilogram of active weight loss (12 weeks)"
Initial weight
Programme type
80kg
136kg
Nutrient-balanced REDP:
Jenny Craig
Nutri-System
Registered dietitian
Weight Watchers
23.00
1900
15.00
2.50
13.50
12.00
9.00
1.50
VLCD programmes:
Health Management Resources (HMR)
Medifast
17.50
14.00
10.00
8.00
0.07
0.04
Support groups:
Taking Off Pounds Sensibly (TOPS)
a
Reproduced from reference 34 with the permission of the publisher.
commercial programme, the cost of prepared food plus additional

staple items purchased from the supermarket have to be compared
with usual food bills.
The "time" costs of attending the programmes were also not taken
into account. These costs may be significant and would differ from
one programme to another.
If all the costs had been included and the effectiveness of the inter-
ventions measured, the costs of the programmes might well have been
different.
Economic costs and benefits of obesity treatment in developing countries
No analyses have been made of the economic costs of obesity treatment in developing countries. However, other analyses of the costs of
health interventions show that prevention is more cost-effective than
treatment once disease is diagnosed. In Table 6.4, the costs of a
variety of public health packages (including education, information,
surveillance and monitoring) are compared with those of some primary care clinical services in developing countries where the major
needs are the treatment of trauma and infection. Low-income developing countries do not have the resources to provide anything other
than public health and essential clinical services. In middle-income
developing countries, the high costs of discretionary clinical services
(see Table 6.4) mean that the cost of dealing with chronic diseases
exceeds that of all other forms of health care. Thus, it would appear to
be more cost-effective for money spent on obesity and other NCDs to
95
Table 6.4
Allocation of public expenditure on health in developing countries, 1990
Type of
service
Allocation in
developing countries
(US$ per person
per year)b
Actual
Contents of health-related
packages
Cost per
DALY
(US$)
Proposed
Public health
package
Immunizations; school health

programmes; tobacco and
alcohol control; health, nutrition
and family planning information;
vector control; STD prevention;
monitoring and surveillance.
25
Essential
clinical
services
10
Treatment of tuberculosis, STDs;

infection and minor trauma;
management of the sick child;
prenatal and delivery care;
family planning; assessment,
advice, and minor pain
alleviation.
25-75
13-15
All other health services,

including low-cost treatment
of cancer, CVD, other chronic
conditions, major trauma, and
neurological and psychiatric
disorders.
>1000
21
21
Discretionary
clinical
servicesd
Total
a
b
c
d
Source: references 35 and 36.

Estimates are for all developing countries, i.e. an average of costs in low-income countries
(annual income US$ 350 per capita) and middle-income countries (annual income US$ 2500
per capita). The figures shown should be regarded as approximate.
Based on estimates in World Bank health sector reports, current spending on essential clinical
services is estimated to be 20-30% of total public expenditure on health.
Estimated as total cost of overall health packages minus cost of public health and essential
clinical services packages.
be used for prevention rather than for expensive treatments during

the advanced stage of disease.
Public health action to prevent obesity has the added benefit of involving the establishment of new or improved physical and social
structures within a community, many of which can have long-term
positive effects for both current and future generations. Treatment
systems, however, are likely to demand recurrent expenditure as new
cases of obesity emerge, together with the need for either long-term
or repeated treatment. At present, most individuals with excess
96
weight gain in developing countries are not treated, and the demand
for medical and dietetic help is expected to rise rapidly. In addition,
limited resources will be diverted to pay for slimming diets and other
aids to weight loss.
In developing countries where NCD epidemics are emerging or accelerating, a large proportion of NCD deaths occur in the productive
middle years of life, at ages much younger than those seen in developed countries. The health burdens attributable to excess weight gain
in societies in transition are likely to be huge because of the absolute
numbers at risk, the large reduction in life expectancy and the fact
that the problem affects, in particular, individuals with a key role in
promoting economic development.
References
1. Davey PJ, Leeder SR. The cost of cost-of-illness studies. Medical Journal of
Australia, 1993, 158:583-584.
2. Perry IJ et al. Prospective study of risk factors for development of noninsulin-dependent diabetes in middle-aged British men. British Medical
Journal, 1995, 310:560-564.
3. Rimm EB et al. Body size and fat distribution as predictors of coronary

heart disease among middle-aged and older US men. American Journal of
Epidemiology, 1995, 141:1117-1127.
4. Walker M. Weight change and risk of heart attack in middle-aged British
men. International Journal of Epidemiology, 1995, 24:694-703.
5. MacMahon SO et al. Blood pressure, stroke, and coronary heart disease.
Part I, Prolonged differences in blood pressure: prospective observational
studies corrected for the regression dilution bias. Lancet, 1990, 335:765774.
6. Abbott RD et al. Body mass index and thromboembolic stroke in

nonsmoking men in older middle age The Honolulu Heart Program. Stroke,
1994, 25:2370-2376.
7. La Vecchia C et al. Risk factors for gallstone disease requiring surgery.

8. Carlson JT et al. High prevalence of hypertension in sleep apnea patients
independent of obesity. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care
Medicine, 1994, 150:72-77.
9. Zhang S et al. Better breast cancer survival for postmenopausal women
who are less overweight and eat less fat. The Iowa Women's Health Study.
Cancer, 1995, 76:275-283.
10. Yong LC et al. Prospective study of relative weight and risk of breast
cancer: the Breast Cancer Detection Demonstration Project follow-up study,
1979 to 1987-89. American Journal of Epidemiology, 1996, 143:985-995.
97
11. Giovannucci E et al. Physical activity, obesity and risk for colon cancer and
adenoma in men. Annals of Internal Medicine, 1995, 122:327-334.
12. Siega-Riz AM, Adair LS, Hobel CJ. Institute of Medicine maternal weight
gain recommendations and pregnancy outcome in a predominantly
Hispanic population. Obstetrics and Gynecology, I 994, 84:565-573.
13. Spector TD, Hart DJ, Doyle DV. Incidence and progression of osteoarthritis
in women with unilateral knee disease in the general population: the effect
of obesity. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, I 994, 53:565-568.
14. Voigt LF et al. Smoking, obesity, alcohol consumption, and the risk of
rheumatoid arthritis. Epidemiology, I 994, 5:525-532.
15. Murray CJL, Lopez AD, eds. The global burden of disease. Boston, MA,
Harvard University Press, 1996.
16. National Health and Medical Research Council. Economic issues in the
prevention and treatment of overweight and obesity. In: Acting on Australia's
weight: a strategic plan for the prevention of overweight and obesity.
Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service, 1997:85-95.
17. Levy E et al. The economic cost of obesity: the French situation.
19:788-792.
18. Seidell J, Deerenberg I. Obesity in Europe- prevalence and
consequences for the use of medical care. PharmacoEconomics, 1994,
5(Suppl. I ):38-44.
19. Wolf AM, Colditz GA. The costs of obesity: the U.S. perspective.
PharmacoEconomics, 1994, 5:34-37.
20. Colditz GA. Economic costs of obesity. American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, 1992, 55(2 Supp1.):503S-507S.
21. Tipping the scales. Melbourne, The Consumer Advocacy and Financial
Counselling Association of Australia, 1992.
22. Hakkinen U. The production of health and the demand for health care in
Finland. Social Science and Medicine, 1991, 33:225-237.
23. Sonne-Holm S, Sorensen Tl. Prospective study of attainment of social class
of severely obese subjects in relation to parental social class, intelligence
and education. British Medical Journal, 1986, 292:586-589.
24. Gortmaker SL et al. Social and economic consequences of overweight in
adolescence and young adulthood. New England Journal of Medicine,
1993, 329: I 008-1012.
25. Sj6str6m L, Narbro K, Sjbstrom D. Costs and benefits when treating obesity.
19(Suppl. 6):S9-SI2.
26. Rissanen A et al. Risk of disability and mortality due to overweight in a
Finnish population. British Medical Journal, 1990, 301:835-837.
27. The World Health Report, 1997. Conquering suffering, enriching humanity.
Geneva, World Health Organization, 1997.
98
28. Chile: the adult health policy challenge. Washington, DC, World Bank, 1995
(World Bank Country Study Series)
29. Collins RW, Anderson JW. Medication cost savings associated with weight
loss for obese non-insulin-dependent diabetic men and women. Preventive
Medicine, 1995, 24:369-37 4.
30. National health strategy: pathways to better health. Canberra, Department of
Health, Housing and Community Services, March 1993 (Issues Paper no. 7).
31. Shephard RJ. Current perspectives on the economics of fitness and sport
with particular reference to worksite programs. Sports Medicine, 1989,
7:286-309.
32. Shephard RJ. A critical analysis of work-site fitness programs and their
postulated economic benefits. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise, 1992, 24:354-370.
33. Segal L, Dalton A, Richardson J. The cost-effectiveness of primary
prevention for non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Melbourne, Health
Economics Unit, Faculty of Business and Economics, Monash University,
1997 (Centre for Health Program Evaluation, Research Report 8).
34. Spielman AB et al. The cost of losing: an analysis of commercial weight-loss
programs in a metropolitan area. Journal of the American College of
Nutrition, 1992, 11 :36-41.
35. World Bank. World Development Report 1993: Investing in health: world
development indicators. New York, Oxford University Press, 1993.
36. Food, nutrition and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective.
Washington, DC, World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for
Cancer Research, 1997.
99
PART Ill
Understanding how
overweight and
obesity develop
100
7.
Factors influencing the development of

7.1
Introduction
In simple terms, obesity is a consequence of an energy imbalance energy intake exceeds energy expenditure over a considerable period.
Many complex and diverse factors can give rise to a positive energy
balance, but it is the interaction between a number of these factors,
rather than the influence of any single factor, that is thought to be
responsible. In contrast to the widely held perception among the
public and parts of the scientific and medical communities, it is clear
that obesity is not simply a result of overindulgence in highly palatable foods, or of a lack of physical activity.
The various influences on energy intake and expenditure that are
considered to be important in weight gain and the development of
obesity are considered below. Section 7.2 gives an overview of the
fundamental principles of energy balance, the physiological regulation of body weight and the dynamics of weight gain. Section 7.3
examines the role of dietary factors and physical activity patterns in
weight gain. Section 7.4 discusses the multitude of environmental and
societal forces that adversely affect food intake and physical activity
patterns, and may thus overwhelm the normal regulatory processes
that control the long-term energy balance. Finally, section 7.5 reviews
the various genetic, physiological or medical factors that can determine an individual's susceptibility to those forces and that put that
person at higher risk of weight gain and obesity.
The following should be noted:
Obesity can result from a minor energy imbalance that leads to a
gradual but persistent weight gain over a considerable period. Once
the obese state is established, physiological processes tend to maintain the new weight.
Body weight is primarily regulated by a series of physiological
processes but is also influenced by external societal and cognitive
factors.
Recent epidemiological trends in obesity indicate that the primary
cause of the global obesity problem lies in environmental and
behavioural changes. The rapid increase in obesity rates has occurred in too short a time for there to have been significant genetic
changes within populations.
The increasing proportion of fat and the increased energy density
of the diet, together with reductions in the level of physical activity
101
and the rise in that of sedentary behaviour, are thought to be major

contributing factors to the rise in the average body weight of populations. Dealing with these issues would appear to be the most
effective means of combating rises in the level of overweight and
obesity in the community.
The global obesity problem can be viewed as a consequence of the
massive social, economic and cultural problems now facing developing and newly industrialized countries, as well as ethnic minorities and the disadvantaged in developed countries. Escalating rates
of obesity, NIDDM, hypertension, dyslipidaemia and CVD,
coupled with cigarette smoking and alcohol abuse, are frequent
outcomes of the modernization/acculturation process.
Epidemiological, genetic and molecular studies in many populations of the world suggest that there are people who are more
susceptible to weight gain and the development of obesity than
others. Genetic, biological and other personal factors such as smoking cessation, sex and age interact to determine an individual's
susceptibility to weight gain.
Certain ethnic groups appear to be especially liable to the develop
ment of obesity when exposed to an affluent lifestyle, although
susceptibilities to obesity comorbidities are not uniform across
these groups.
7.2
Energy balance and the physiological regulation of

body weight
The major influences on energy

Fig. 7.1.
baic~nce
and weight gain are shown in
7.2.1 Fundamental principles of energy valance
The fundamental principle o1 energy balance is:

changes in energy stores == energy intake - energy expenditure
A positive energy balance occurs when energy intake is greater thar.
energy expenditure; it prommc.:s an increase in energy stores and bod;
weight. Conversely, a negative energy balance occurs when intakt: i~
less than expenditure, promming a decrease in energy stores ano
body weight.
Under normal circumstances, the energy balance oscillates from meat
to meal, day to day and wee~. to week without any lasting change m.
body stores or weight. Multiple physiological mechanisms act wict;in
each individual to equate overall energy intake with overall enet!:'-:
expenditure and to keep boci: weight stable in the long term. Tr1u.~ 1
102
Figure 7.1
Influences on energy balance and weight gain (energy regulation)
. onmental & societa/ infl

Uences
'C."'"'{
lndividuaV
biological
susceptibility
.....................................................................
Dietary and physical

activity patterns
The diagram shows the fundamental principles of energy balance and regulation. A positive
energy balance occurs when energy intake is greater than energy expenditure, and promotes
weight gain. Conversely, a negative energy balance promotes a decrease in body fat stores and
weight loss. Body weight is regulated by a series of physiological processes that have the
capacity to maintain weight within a relatively narrow range (stable weight). lt is thought that the
body exerts a stronger defence against undernutrition and weight loss than it does against
overconsumption and weight gain. However, powerful societal and environmental forces
influence energy intake and expenditure, and may overwhelm the above-mentioned physiological processes. The susceptibility of individuals to these forces is affected by genetic and other
biological factors, such as sex, age and hormonal activities, over which they have little or no
control. Dietary factors and physical activity patterns are considered to be the modifiable
intermediate factors through which the forces that promote weight gain act.
TEF =thermic effect of food; BMR = basal metabolic rate; CHO = carbohydrate.
103
Table 7.1
Energy content of macronutrients
Macronutrient
Fat
Alcohol
Protein
Carbohydrate
Energy contribution
(kcal,h/g)
(kJ/g)
37
29
4
4
17
16
is only when there has been a positive energy balance for a considerable period that obesity is likely to develop.
Energy intake
Total energy intake refers to all energy consumed as food and drink
that can be metabolized inside the body. Table 7.1 shows the energy
content of the constituent macronutrients present in food and drink.
Fat provides the most energy per unit weight, and carbohydrate and
protein the least. Fibre undergoes bacterial degradation in the large
intestine to produce volatile fatty acids that are then absorbed and
used as energy. The size of the energy contribution from fibre is
thought to be 6.3 kJ/g (1.5 kcal1h/g) (1).
Energy expenditure
The second element of the energy balance equation, total energy

expenditure, has the following three main components:
-
the basal metabolic rate (BMR);

dietary thermogenesis (meal-induced heat production);
physical activity.
The proportion that each component contributes to the total energy

expenditure varies according to the regularity and intensity of physical activity. In sedentary adults, the BMR accounts for nearly 60% of
total energy output, the dietary thermogenic response for around
10%, and physical activity for the remaining 30%. In those engaged in
heavy manual work, total energy expenditure increases and the proportion of energy expenditure accounted for by physical activity may
rise to about 50%. Dietary thermogenesis appears to remain constant
at 10%, leaving the BMR to account for 40% of the total energy
expenditure. Although the BMR may vary intrinsically between individuals of similar weight by 25%, within each individual it is tightly
controlled (2). The key variable of energy output in an individual is
the degree of physical activity.
104
7.2.2 Physiological regulation of body weight
Societal and cognitive factors can influence the control of body weight
to a certain extent, but it is a series of physiological processes that are
primarily responsible for body weight regulation. In traditional societies, where people tend to be more physically active, and provided
that food supplies are not limited, few adults are either underweight
or overweight despite the interaction of seasonal cycles of work,
festivities, individual susceptibilities to obesity for physiological or
genetic reasons, and the wide range of varying physical demands
within a society. Such physiological mechanisms constitute a fundamentally important biological process that can be observed throughout the animal kingdom. It is thought that the body exerts a stronger
defence against undernutrition and weight loss than it does against
overconsumption and weight gain (3).
The physiological mechanisms responsible for body weight regulation
are incompletely understood. However, there is increasing evidence
of a range of signalling mechanisms within the intestine, the adipose
tissue and brain, and perhaps within other tissues, that sense the
inflow of dietary nutrients, their distribution and metabolism and/or
storage. These mechanisms are coordinated within the brain and lead
to changes in eating, in physical activity and in body metabolism so
that body energy stores are maintained. The recent discovery of the
hormone leptin, which is secreted by adipocytes in proportion to their
triglyceride stores and binds with receptors in the hypothalamus,
provides interesting insights into possible regulatory signal systems
that act to maintain the energy balance. However, much remains to
be elucidated about such systems, some of which are illustrated in
Fig. 7.2.
7.2.3 Dynamics of weight gain
Despite the extensive physiological regulation of body weight outlined above, a positive energy balance can lead to weight gain if it
persists in the long term. The initiation of a chronic positive energy
balance is due to an increase in energy intake relative to requirements, either as a result of an increase in total energy intake, a
decrease in total energy expenditure, or a combination of the two.
Currently there is little information about the fluctuations in energy
balance that lead to weight gain and obesity. It is possible that large
deviations from energy balance at regular intervals may contribute to
weight gain, but it is believed that a small consistent deviation over a
long period is also capable of producing large increases in body
weight.
105
Figure 7.2
Physiological processes involved in body weight regulation
Afferent signals
Controller
(brain)
Efferent
systems
Controlled system
(nutrient partitioning)
Neural and humoral signals

Food intake
Diet
composition
Autonomic
nervous system
Hormonal
systems
Protein
----J
Body fat
Physical activity
Genetic factors
WH098268
The diagram shows the interaction between the different mechanisms that affect energy and
body weight regulation within individuals. The brain integrates an array of afferent signals
(nutrient, metabolic, hormonal and neuronal) and responds by inducing changes in food intake,
autonomic nervous system activity, hormonal responses or spontaneous physical activity. The
different components then directly or indirectly determine the proportion of dietary energy
deposited as protein rather than fat
Fig. 7.3 shows that the process of gaining weight can be divided into
the following three phases:
The preobese static phase, when the individual is in long-term energy balance and weight remains constant.
The dynamic phase, during which the individual gains weight as a
result of energy intake exceeding energy expenditure over a prolonged period.
The obese static phase, when energy balance is regained but weight
is now higher than during the preobese static phase.
The dynamic phase can last for several years and often involves
considerable fluctuations in weight (weight cycling) as a result of
conscious efforts by the individual to return to a lower weight. However, in the absence of intervention, the difference between energy
intake and energy expenditure progressively diminishes. This is due
to an increase in BMR as a result of the larger fat-free mass (including
that in the expanded adipose tissue) as well as to an additional energy
106
Figure 7.3
Effect on energy expenditure, energy balance and body weight of an increase in
energy intake relative to requirements
Increased energy intake relative to requirements
Equilibrium
IN
OUT
New equilibrium
IN
OUT
IN
OUT
IN
OUT
Fat mass
Fat-free mass
Time
WH098284
A persistent increase in energy intake above requirements will lead to a gradual gain in body
weight. However, the size of the energy imbalance progressively diminishes as weight is
gained, because of an increase in metabolism associated with the larger fat-free mass and the
expanded adipose tissue. A new higher equilibrium weight is eventually established that is
again defended by physiological mechanisms. Thus, it is harder to lose the weight gained than
it is to experience a second cycle of increasing body weight should, for example, a fall in
physical activity occur at the same time as a further period of prolonged positive energy
balance.
a
Adapted, with permission, from: Schutz Y. Macronutrients and energy balance in obesity.
Metabolism, 1995, 4(9 Suppl. 3) 7-11 (reference 4).
cost of activity imposed by the extra weight (5). There may also be an
increase in resting metabolic rate (RMR) with overfeeding (6).
Once the obese static phase is established, the new weight appears to
be defended. This can best be shown by the response of obese individuals to underfeeding; they show a fall in metabolic rate as the body
recognizes the loss of energy (7) and an unconscious physiologically
driven increase in energy intake (8).
7.2.4 Implications for public health
Given the global epidemic of obesity, the aim should be:

to identify the environmental factors, including societal changes,
that have overwhelmed the physiological regulatory processes
outlined above;
107
7.3
to determine whether some individuals are more susceptible to

those influences for medical, behavioural or genetic reasons.
Dietary factors and physical activity patterns
Dietary factors and physical activity patterns strongly influence the

energy balance equation and can be considered to be the major modifiable factors through which many of the external forces promoting
weight gain act (Fig. 7.1). In particular, high-fat, energy-dense diets
and sedentary lifestyles are the two characteristics most strongly associated with the increased prevalence of obesity worldwide.
7.3.1 Dietary factors
Macronutrient composition
Laboratory experiments in animals and clinical studies in humans

have repeatedly shown that dietary factors, particularly the level of
fat and energy intake, are strongly and positively associated with
excess body weight. By contrast, population-based studies of diet and
obesity have reported inconsistent results. Such inconsistencies have
been attributed to a number of factors, including weaknesses in study
design, methodological flaws, confounders, and random and/or systematic measurement error in the data, especially the dietary data (9).
Thus, in population studies that pay careful attention to the determinants of obesity, a positive association is observed between dietary
factors and obesity identical with those found in animal models and
human clinical studies (10).
Energy intake. Dietary fat has a higher energy density than other
macronutrients (see Table 7.1, p. 104 and Table 7.2, p. 111). This is
thought to be largely responsible for the overeating effect, or passive
overconsumption as it is often called, experienced by many subjects
exposed to high-fat foods (3). The stimulatory effect of fatty foods on
energy intake may also be due to the pleasant mouth-feel of fat when
eaten (11).
The body does compensate for the overconsumption of energy from
high-fat foods to some extent, but the fat-induced appetite control
signals are thought to be too weak, or too delayed, to prevent the
rapid intake of the energy from a fatty meal. Episodic intakes of highfat foods are therefore particularly likely to overwhelm these signals,
and the control of food intake thus depends on long-term regulatory
processes that seem much less able to respond to overfeeding than to
underfeeding with weight loss. Fibre, by contrast, limits energy intake
by lowering a food's density and allowing time for appetite-control
signals to occur before large amounts of energy have been consumed
(3).
108
There is no clear evidence to suggest that high intakes of sugar overwhelm the appetite-control signals in the same manner as fat. However, there is some indication from short-term feeding trials that ad
libitum low-fat high-complex-carbohydrate diets of low energy density induce weight loss. This does not occur on energy-dense diets,
regardless of whether the energy density has been increased by modifying the fat content or the sugar content of the diet (12). Further
studies are required before any conclusions can be drawn from this
work.
Energy storage and macronutrient balance. The macronutrient composition of the diet also influences the extent to which excess energy is
stored, depending on the storage capacity within the body of the
macronutrients concerned, those macronutrients with a low storage
capacity within the body being preferentially oxidized when intakes
exceed requirements:
Alcohol: no storage capacity within the body and so all ingested

alcohol is oxidized immediately. This response dominates oxidative
pathways and reduces the rates at which other fuels are oxidized.
Protein: limited storage capacity as body protein, which is accessible only through loss of lean body mass. Amino-acid metabolism
is tightly regulated to ensure the oxidation of any excess.
Carbohydrate: small capacity for storage as glycogen. The intake
and oxidation of carbohydrate are very tightly "autoregulated",
rapid and substantial changes in carbohydrate oxidation taking
place in response to alterations in carbohydrate intake. Excess
carbohydrate can also be converted into fat, but this metabolic
pathway is not used by humans to any appreciable extent unless a
large excess of a low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet is consumed.
When carbohydrate is oxidized, however, less fatty-acid oxidation
is required so that dietary fat is stored and endogenous fat retained.
About 60-80% of the excess energy may be stored on carbohydrate
overfeeding (13).
Fat: the capacity for fat storage in the body is virtually unlimited
and excess dietary fat does not markedly increase fat oxidation.
Excess dietary fat is readily stored in adipose tissue depots with a
very high efficiency (about 96% ).
Thus, the bulk of the evidence suggests that carbohydrate and protein
balances, but not fat balance, are well regulated. It is becoming clear
that weight changes following challenges to body weight are due
primarily to disruptions in fat balance, as these account for most of
the imbalance produced in total energy (1 3-19).
109
In the long term, however, fat balance has to be regulated in order to

achieve energy and macronutrient balance. Achieving fat balance
again following a perturbation in energy balance is thought to require
a change in the body fat mass. This may be because fat oxidation
varies directly with body fat mass (20), but the way in which fat mass
and total fat oxidation are linked is not clear. As an example, an
increase in dietary fat without a rapid change in fat oxidation will
produce a positive fat balance and hence lead to increases in body fat
mass. As body fat mass increases, fat oxidation also increases. Fat
mass will increase to the point at which fat oxidation matches fat
intake, and the body fat mass will then stabilize at the new, higher,
level.
Food palatability and pleasure. The palatability of food has an important influence on behaviour (3). Food palatability tends to promote
consumption and is one of the most powerful influences in inducing a
positive rather than a negative energy balance. It increases both the
rate of eating and the sense of hunger during and between meals. The
presence of fat in food is particularly enjoyable, and is associated with
a pleasurable mouth-feel. The food industry has capitalized on this
phenomenon by developing foods of increasing palatability. Moreover, the pleasurable sensations provided by foods can be viewed as a
reward by those consuming them and can condition behaviour that
favours overconsumption.
Sweetness is one of the most powerful, easily recognized and pleasurable tastes, so that many foods are sweetened in order to increase
their palatability and consumption. The consumption of sugars does,
however, lead to a subsequent suppression of energy intake by an
amount roughly equivalent to the amount provided by the sugars
(21). Nevertheless, sweetened foods of high fat content are expected
to be conducive to excess energy consumption since palatability is
enhanced both by sweetness and mouth-feel, and fat has only a small
suppressive effect on appetite and intake. A preference for sweet-fat
mixtures has been observed in obese women and may be a factor in
promoting excess energy consumption (22).
Overview of macronutrient influence on body weight regulation. Table 7.2
summarizes the main characteristics of the macronutrients. Fat appears to be the key macronutrient that undermines the body's weight
regulatory systems since it is very poorly regulated at the level of both
consumption and oxidation. There is currently no consensus regarding the role of sugar intake on body weight regulation but there is
some concern that the overconsumption of sweet-fat foods may be a
110
Table 7.2
Characteristics of macronutrients
Characteristic
Protein
Carbohydrate
Fat
Ability to bring eating to an end

Ability to suppress hunger
Contribution to daily energy intake
Energy density
Storage capacity in body
Metabolic pathway to transfer excess
intake to another compartment
Autoregulation (ability to stimulate own
oxidation on intake)
High
High
Low
Low
Low
Yes
Intermediate
High
High
Low
Low
Yes
Low
Low
High
High
High
No
Excellent
Excellent
Poor
problem, at least in certain subgroups of the population. Finally,

although high protein intakes may appear to be advantageous in
controlling energy intake and contributing to good body weight regulation, such intakes (especially of animal protein) have been associated with a number of adverse health consequences.
Dietary patterns
Research on eating patterns and health has focused mainly on fluctuations in blood glucose and blood lipid concentrations throughout the day, particularly in the context of the control
of NIDDM. There does appear to be some advantage in nibbling
versus gorging under isocaloric conditions from the point of view of
glycaemic control and hypertriglyceridaemia (23). However, in at
least one controlled study, there was no effect of meal patterns on
energy metabolism and energy balance (24).
Daily eating pattern.
Under free-living conditions, meal patterns vary widely across populations and cultures. Regular (high-fat) snacking has been associated
with increased overall dietary intake in affluent societies, but this
conclusion remains controversial (25). Other evidence from affluent
societies suggests that dietary restraint and slimming leads to skipping
breakfast and that this may result in overconsumption later in the day
(26). Some people exhibit additional eating during the night, possibly
as part of a night-eating syndrome (27) that is associated with obesity,
although the mechanism underlying this association is not known.
Recently, in a study in obese people trying to lose weight, it was found
that the prognosis of weight loss was better in women who ate more
and smaller meals than in those who ate fewer but larger meals. 1
1
Astrup A. ed. Food and eating habits, 1996. Background paper prepared by the Food
and Eating Habits subgroup of the International Obesity Task Force.
111
Eating disorders. Eating disorders, particularly those that result

in excess energy intake relative to requirements, have been implicated in the development of obesity. However, it is uncertain whether
obesity is a direct result or an underlying cause of such disorders. For
a more detailed discussion of eating disorders, including binge-eating
disorder and night-eating disorder, see section 4.10.4.
7.3.2 Physical activity patterns
Cross-sectional data often reveal an inverse relationship between

BMI and physical activity (28-31), indicating that obese and
overweight subjects are less active than their lean counterparts. However, such correlations do not demonstrate cause and effect relationships, and it is difficult to be certain whether obese individuals are less
active because of their obesity or whether a low level of activity
caused the obesity. Results of other types of study, however, suggest
that low and decreasing levels of activity are primarily responsible; for
instance, obesity is absent among elite athletes while those athletes
who give up sports frequently experience an increase in body weight
and fatness (32-35). Furthermore, the secular trend in the increased
prevalence of obesity seems to parallel a reduction in physical activity
and a rise in sedentary behaviour. One of the best examples of this is
provided by Prentice & Jebb (36), who used crude proxies for inactivity, such as the amount of time spent viewing television or the number
of cars per household. These studies all suggest that decreased physical activity and/or increased sedentary behaviour plays an important
role in weight gain and the development of obesity. This conclusion is
further supported by prospective data. Dietz & Gortmaker (37), for
example, have shown that the amount of television watching by young
children is predictive of BMI some years later, while Rissanen et al.
(34) have shown that a low level of physical activity during periods of
leisure in adults is predictive of substantial weight gain (;::::5 kg) in 5
years' time. More prospective data will help to clarify this relationship, but it seems reasonable to link physical inactivity with future
weight gain.
Physical activity patterns have an important influence on the physiological regulation of body weight. In particular, they affect total energy expenditure, fat balance and food intakes. Box 7.1 outlines the
different components of "physical activity" and defines "physical inactivity". Box 7.2 introduces the concept of physical activity levels
(PALs).
Contribution of physical activity to total energy expenditure
Increased energy expenditure is an intrinsic feature of physical activity and exercise. Energy requirements increase from basal levels
112
Box 7.1
Physical activity
Physical activity is a global term referring to "any bodily movement

produced by skeletal muscle that results in a substantial increase over
the resting energy expenditure". lt has three main components (38):
Occupational work activities undertaken during the course of work.

Household and other chores: activities undertaken as part of day-today living.
Leisure-time physical activity activities undertaken in the individual's
discretionary free time. Activity is selected on the basis of personal
needs and interests. lt includes exercise and sport:
-
Exercise: a planned and structured subset of leisure-time physical

activity that is usually undertaken for the purpose of improving or
maintaining physical fitness.
Sport defined differently around the world but usually implies a form
of physical activity that involves competition. lt may also embrace
general exercise and a specific occupation.
The time allocated to each of the three components varies considerably

between individuals and populations.
Physical inactivity (sedentary behaviour)
Physical inactivity, or sedentary behaviour, can be defined as "a state

when body movement is minimal and energy expenditure approximates
RMR" (39). However:
Physical inactivity represents more than an absence of activity; it also
includes participation in physically passive behaviours such as television viewing, reading, working at a computer, talking with friends on the
telephone, driving a car, meditating or eating (40).
Physical inactivity may contribute to weight gain through means other
than a reduction in energy expenditure. For example, recent studies in
adolescents (41) and adults (42) have demonstrated significant relationships between inactivity and other adverse health practices, such
as the consumption of less healthy foods and an increased fat intake.
immediately after the initiation of physical activity, and the increase

persists for the duration of the activity. The total amount of energy
expended depends on the characteristics of the physical activity
(mode, intensity, duration and frequency) and of the individual performing the exercise (body size, level of habituation and fitness).
These relationships have been extensively reviewed in the literature
( 43), and tables providing approximate values of the energy costs of
various physical activities are widely available.
113
Box 7.2
Physical activity levels
Physical activity level (PAL) values express daily energy expenditure as

a multiple of BMR, thereby allowing approximate adjustment for individuals of different sizes. PALs are a universally accepted way of expressing
energy expenditure and help to convey an easily understandable
concept.
Individuals whose occupation involves regular physical exercise are likely
to have PAL values of 1.75 or more. Those whose lifestyle involves only
light occupational and leisure-time activity will probably have PAL values
of 1.55-1.60. People who engage in no activity whatsoever will have PAL
values around 1.4.
In order to avoid obesity, populations should remain physically active
throughout life, at a PAL value of 1.75 or more. Thus:
Lifestyle
Sedentary
Limited activity
Physically active
PAL
1.4
1.55-1.60
;:::1.75
Some ways in which PAL can be increased from 1.55-1.60 to 1.75 or

more by an extra hour of moderate activity each day are shown below.
More strenuous activities require less than 1 hour each day to bring the
overall average PAL up to 1.75.
Duration
1 hour
Activity ratio"
4-5
45 minutes
6-7
30 minutes
10-12
Activity
Brisk walk (6 km/h), canoeing
(5km/h); cycling (12km/h),
gardening; baseball; volleyball
Cross-country hiking; cycling
(15km/h); skating (14km/h); water
skiing; dancing; snow-shoeing
Any vigorous activity, e.g. football;
hockey; running (13 km/h); rugby;
handball; basketball (competition)
Activity ratio = multiple of BMR.
If exercise is vigorous, oxygen consumption remains elevated above
resting levels for some time after exercise ceases. This metabolic
response is called the "excess post-exercise oxygen consumption"
(EPOC) and is due to the need to restore energy reserves, especially
glycogen levels in liver and muscles. Compared with the energy cost
of exercise itself, however, the contribution of EPOC is likely to be
modest. In a recent study, it was estimated that, after 2 hours' exercising at a moderate intensity, it accounted for an extra 200kJ/day
114
(48kcal1h/day) when averaged over 24 hours (44). Although this is

quite small in terms of total daily energy expenditure, it has the
potential to help maintain energy balance if exercise is undertaken
regularly.
In addition to the immediate energy costs of increased physical activity and of the recovery period (i.e. EPOC), habitual exercise may
influence several other components of energy expenditure including
RMR. Although this area of research is still the subject of controversy, several recent studies have provided evidence for a positive
association between activity levels and RMR (45). As the increase in
the RMR is lost after several days of inactivity, this highlights the
benefit of regular and sustained exercise patterns (46). Moreover,
resistance exercise such as weight training may contribute to the
maintenance of, or to an increase in, muscle mass, thereby favouring
an elevation of the RMR or preventing a decrease in metabolic rate in
the presence of weight loss (47).
Energy expenditure across the world
There is a widespread belief that daily life in less developed countries

demands a much greater physical effort; for instance, a woman in a
developing country spends 30-150 minutes every day of her life
simply fetching water (48), and walks while attending to her daily
chores for up to 1.5 hours. However, it is difficult to get accurate
assessments of energy expenditure in free-living conditions; where
developed and developing countries have been compared, few differences have been found (49). One explanation offered for this apparent discrepancy is that adults in less developed countries compensate
by being inactive whenever possible; in Ethiopia, for example, energy
expended on physical activity decreases in the post-harvest season
(50). Secondly, the curtailment of physical activity in order to save
energy represents the first line of defence against energy stress caused
by insufficient dietary energy. Such a behavioural response can be
illustrated by poorly nourished Rwandan women, who spend more
time in low-cost activities than their better nourished counterparts
(51). Overall, however, it is reasonable to conclude that people in less
developed countries who spend a considerable portion of their time in
finding food for their next meal and on personal chores are expending
more energy in work and physical activity for a given body size than
those in more developed countries.
Effect of physical activity on fat and substrate balance
One of the most important adaptations to regular exercise is the increased capacity to use fat
Regular physical activity and substrate balance.
115
rather than carbohydrate during moderate physical activity. These

differences become considerable when the exercise is maintained
over a longer period; physically trained individuals metabolize more
fat at given levels of energy expenditure than the untrained. It has
been shown, for example, that the rate of fat oxidation in a group of
unfit individuals increased by approximately 20% after a 12-week
fitness training programme (52).
Of particular relevance is the observation that regular moderate
physical exertion allows free-living volunteers to consume ad libitum
a 40% fat diet without storing excess fat, whereas the same individuals, when sedentary, are in positive fat and energy balance and thus
have a greater risk of becoming overweight and obese with time. If,
however, they are offered a 20% fat diet, they remain in balance even
when sedentary (53). Although these physiological studies should be
interpreted with caution, they are of profound significance because
they suggest a fundamental interaction between the level of physical
activity and the proportion of dietary fat in determining whether
energy balance can be sustained. The precise level of dietary fat that
overwhelms the body's capacity to increase fat oxidation in response
to increases in exercise and the extent to which this dietary fat level
varies between individuals are unknown. However, it is thought that
people who sustain moderate or high levels of physical activity
throughout life can tolerate diets with a high fat content (e.g. 35-40%
of energy) whereas lower fat intakes (20-25% of energy) may be
needed to minimize energy imbalance and weight gain in sedentary
individuals and societies. Thus, since most people in developed countries are sedentary, it is reasonable to assume that fat balance is
achieved at a level of fat intake of 30% or less. In developing countries, the level of dietary fat compatible with fat balance may be
higher as a result of the amount of energy expended on work and
personal chores.
Exercise intensity and substrate balance. The metabolic responses to
low- and high-intensity physical activity are very different. The extent
to which fat and carbohydrate contribute to energy metabolism depends on the intensity level of the activity; fat is preferentially oxidized during low-intensity activity whereas carbohydrate is the
dominant fuel at high intensity. In theory, the highest relative level of
fat oxidation occurs when adults are moderately active at around 5060% of maximum. In addition, theoretical calculations suggest that
multiple bouts of intense exertion are better stimuli for fat oxidation
than the equivalent energy use through more prolonged low-activity
levels (54). The important point to remember is that the number of
grams of fat oxidi?ed during activity increases with the intensity and
116
the duration of the activity, despite the fact that the proportion of fat
in the mixture of fuel oxidized for muscular contraction may decrease
at higher intensities. It should also be kept in mind that fat is oxidized
not only during the activity but also in the recovery period.
Impact of physical activity on food intake and preference
There is a common perception that exercise stimulates

appetite, leading to an increased food intake that even exceeds the
energy cost of the preceding activities. In fact, there is little supporting evidence for this from human studies; if a compensatory rise in
intake does occur, this tends to be accurately matched to expenditure
in lean subjects so that energy balance is re-established in the long
term (54, 55). However, Woo et al. (56) showed that obese women did
not compensate for the higher energy expenditure induced by exercise by increased intake, and thereby obtained a significant negative
energy balance on exercise. This suggests that those who have stored
an excess amount of energy may particularly benefit from exercise.
Food intake.
In the short term, hunger can be suppressed by intense exercise, and

possibly by low-intensity exercise of long duration (54). The effect is
short-lived, however, so that the temporal aspects of exercise-induced
anorexia may best be measured by the delay in eating rather than the
amount of food consumed (57).
Food preference. Whether exercise influences the type of food and the
mix of macronutrients chosen by free-living subjects remains uncertain. In a small number of longitudinal studies, a higher intake of
carbohydrate-rich foods has been observed with an increase in PAL
(58), and a significant positive relation was recently found between
the level of PAL and carbohydrate intake in a diet intervention study
(59). However, it is not known whether dietary advice on optimum
sport nutrition or physiological needs helps to initiate such dietary
changes (54).
More information is needed in order to assess the value of a higher

intake of carbohydrate-rich foods in the general population in whom
changes in the level of physical activity are relatively small.
Physical activity levels for prevention of excessive weight gain
Analyses of over 40 national physical activity studies worldwide show

that there is a significant relationship between the average BMI of
adult men and their PAL, the likelihood of becoming overweight being
substantially reduced at PALs of 1.8 or above (see Box 7 .2, p. 114, for
information on PALs). The relationship for women, though not statistically significant, is similar, but their physical activity tends to be lower
117
(mean PAL 1.6) (49). It has been suggested, therefore, that people
should remain physically active throughout life and sustain a PAL of
1.75 or more in order to avoid excessive weight gain. Sedentary people
living or working in cities typically have a PAL of only 1.55-1.60, and
PALs in industrialized societies are drifting downwards.
People who make extensive and increasing use of motorized transport, automated work and sedentary leisure pursuits, may find it
difficult to attain PAL levels at or above 1.75 simply by increasing
activity during "leisure time". This is illustrated by the calculations of
Ferro-Luzzi & Martino (49), who showed that, for an average 70-kg
adult male, increasing a PAL of 1.58 to one of about 1.70 involves an
average of 20 minutes a day of vigorous exercise, such as running or
circuit training at an activity ratio of 11 (a level of activity achievable
only by a physically fit person), or else 1 hour of extra walking every
day. Increasing a PAL of 1.58 to one of 1.76 requires approximately 1
hour and 40 minutes of extra walking (at 4km/h) per day (Fig. 7.4). As
these activity requirements are additional to a 24-minute period of
"active leisure" (12 minutes of sports and 12 minutes of walking)
already required for a PAL of 1.58, it follows that urban sedentary
populations are likely to attain a PAL of 1.75 or more only if supported by vigorous national policies that encourage physical activity.
For example, these should encourage children to be active at play and
school, and should create environments in which walking and cycling
become the most common means of travel to work and for short
JOUrneys.
7.4
Environmental and societal influences
As previously mentioned, the rapid increase in obesity rates in recent

years has occurred in too short a time for there to have been any
significant genetic changes within populations. This suggests that the
primary cause of this increase must be sought in the environmental
and societal changes now affecting a large proportion of the world's
population.
This section discusses the environmental and societal factors that,
through their effects on food intake and physical activity patterns,
have overwhelmed the physiological regulatory processes that operate to keep weight stable in the long term. The societal changes
that influence food intake and physical activity are also briefly
considered.
7.4.1 Changing societal structures
The trend towards industrialization and an economy based on trade

within a global market in most of the developing countries has
118
Figure 7.4
Active leisure required to achieve an overall mean PAL of 1.76
1400
1300
.----- Travel time

(BMR X 2.56)
.----- Travel time

(BMR X 2.56)
Domestic work
(BRM X 2.82)
Domestic work
(BRM X 2.82)
Gainful work
(BMRx 1.60)
Gainful work
(BMRx 1.60)
Active leisure*
(BMR x4.20)
Passive leisure
(BMR X 2.29)
1200
1100
1000
900
>ro
800
700
"':2
600
500
400
Personal needs
(BMR X 1.06)
300
200
100
0
PAL
1.58
12 minutes
*Active leisure (walking time)
1.76
111 minutes
This model of the nature, duration and timing of active leisure required to achieve an overall
mean PAL of 1. 76 is based on the activity profile of the average Italian adult male, aged 30-60
years (60). He is assumed to weigh 70 kg and to have a predicted BMR of 1690 kcal,h/day. He
is sedentary, being employed in a light-activity job (BMR factor= 1.60 (61)), and he spends
only 24 minutes per day in active leisure (made up of 12 minutes' sports and 12 minutes'
walking) at an overall BMR factor of 5.0. The other 252 minutes are spent in passive leisure
(BMR factor 1.94). Increasing his daily walking time (speed 4 km/h, BMR factor 4.0) to 111
minutes raises his daily PAL to 1.76. The extra 99 minutes of walking time have been taken
from the 252 minutes of passive leisure time; more specifically, it has been assumed that he
would replace all the time spent watching television (90 minutes) and 9 minutes spent reading
by walking.
a
Adapted from reference 49 with the permission of the publisher. Copyright John Wiley & Sons
Ltd.
brought about a number of improvements in the standard of living

and in the services available to the population. However, it has also
had various negative consequences; these have led, directly and indirectly, to deleterious nutritional and physical activity patterns that
contribute to the development of obesity. Changing societal structures resulting from this economic transition have given rise to new
problems associated with unemployment, overcrowding, and family
and community breakdown. Social dislocation has often followed the
loss by indigenous populations of traditional lands that are then used
for production for the export market (62).
119
The food system that has emerged today is based on an industrial

approach to agriculture and food production, makes most foods available regardless of season, and supplies highly processed outputs.
While this may have contributed to improved food availability, it has
not necessarily solved the problem of undernutrition in many of the
poorer countries, nor has it improved the nutritional quality of the
diets of the affluent (63). Indeed, some aspects ofthe industrialization
of food production have contributed to the consumption of a diet
higher in protein and fat (particularly saturated fat) and lower in
complex carbohydrate.
The decline in energy expenditure seen with modernization and other
societal changes is associated with a more sedentary lifestyle in which
motorized transport, mechanized equipment, and labour-saving devices both in the home and at work have freed people from physically
arduous tasks (Table 7.3). Work-related activity has declined over
recent decades in industrialized countries, while leisure time dominated by television viewing and other physically inactive pastimes has
increased (49). In the United Kingdom, for instance, the average
distance walked by English children aged 14 years and younger fell by
20% between 1985 and 1992, and the average distance cycled fell by
26%, while the average distance travelled by car increased by 40%
(64). The dangers of traffic and fears for personal safety have also
influenced the decline of play in public areas.
Some of the key changes in societal structures that are thought to
underlie the observed adverse changes in dietary and physical activity
patterns implicated in the rapid global rise in obesity are considered
below.
Modernization
Most adults who still have a "traditional" lifestyle appear to gain little
or no weight with age. Anthropometric studies have reported an
absence of obesity in the few remaining hunter-gatherer populations
of the world, since energy expenditure is generally high and food
supplies are scarce in certain periods of the year (70). For the majority
of the world's population, however, the process of "modernization"
has had a profound effect on the environment and on lifestyles over
the last 50-60 years.
Food is now more abundant and the overall energy demand of modern life has dropped appreciably. These changes have subsequently
been associated with dramatic increases in obesity rates. Indeed,
Trowell & Burkitt, who carried out 15 case-studies of epidemiological
120
Table 7.3
Examples of energy-saving activity patterns in modern societies
Transport
Dramatic increases in car ownership mean that many people

now travel short distances by car rather than walking or cycling
to their destination.
In the home
Easily available fuel supplies obviate the need to collect and

prepare fuels for lighting and heating; central heating has
reduced the need to expend energy on thermoregulation.
Energy expenditure is also reduced through the use of cooking
equipment and ready-prepared foods/ingredients in meal
preparation. Use of washing machines and vacuum cleaners
makes for easier and quicker cleaning.
In the workplace
Mechanization, robotics, computerization and control systems

have markedly reduced the need for even moderate activity,
and only a very small proportion of the population now engages
in physically demanding manual work.
Public places
Lifts, escalators and automatic doors are all designed to save

substantial amounts of time and energy.
Sedentary pursuits
Television viewing is a major cause of inactivity, especially in

the obese (65). Data from the USA show that it was strongly
related to the incidence of new cases of obesity and to the
failure of obese children to lose weight (37). These results are
consistent with those of recent research showing that there
were notable reductions in obesity when reductions in television
viewing time were included in a dietary and activity intervention
(66). The average person now watches over 26 hours of
television a week in the United Kingdom, compared with 13
hours in the 1960s ( 67); children in the USA can spend more
time watching television than attending school (68). Data are
needed from other countries and for other sedentary pursuits
such as computer use.
Urban residence
In urban areas of more affluent countries, children, women and

older people are reluctant to go out alone or at night because
of fears for their personal safety. Children also have difficulty in
playing on streets in residential areas because of traffic trying
to bypass congested main roads (69). For active leisure
pursuits, children and adults therefore usually travel by car to
sports facilities or to the open country as "special" outings
rather than taking exercise routinely as a part of their daily
lives. Further research is needed in this area to determine the
relative importance of such factors, and whether or not they
have an impact on obesity.
change in modernizing societies, report that obesity is the first of the

so-called "diseases of civilization" to emerge (71). While early studies
concluded that obesity usually emerged first in middle-aged women
and then in middle-aged men, particularly among the more affluent
121
groups, in the last decade it has become clear that obesity is increasingly being seen in much younger age groups, e.g. in children and
adolescents. Trend or longitudinal data generally indicate that steady
increases in the rates of obesity are greater in urban areas (72).
However, a recent report from Samoa noted a dramatic increase in
obesity prevalence of 297% in men and 115% in women in a rural
community (73). This was clearly apparent even in the 25-34-year age
group in both sexes.
New World syndrome. Obesity can be seen as the first wave of a defined
cluster of NCDs now observed in both developed and developing
countries. This has been called the "New World syndrome" (74) and
is already creating an enormous socioeconomic and public health
burden in poorer countries. High rates of obesity, NIDDM, hypertension, dyslipidaemia and CVD, coupled with cigarette smoking and
alcohol abuse, are closely associated with the modernization/acculturation process and increasing affluence. The New World
syndrome is responsible for disproportionately high levels of morbidity and mortality in newly industrialized countries, including eastern Europe, as well as among the ethnic minorities and the
disadvantaged in developed countries (74). Thus, while obesity is
viewed by health professionals from a medical perspective, it also
needs to be recognized as a symptom of a much larger global social
problem.
Economic restructuring and transition to market economies
The world is going through a period of rapid economic transition.

Economies based on a few primary commodities are no longer
viable, and a great deal of investment is often required to modernize
existing industries and infrastructures in order to compete in a global
market.
For many countries, the economic transition has meant huge loans
from international banks as well as investments by large multinational
companies on terms more favourable to them than to the host country. Interest payments on these loans coupled with rising interest rates
have crippled health, education and social services, and local economies have been restructured to rely on industries based on cheap
labour (63). Thus, many developing countries are becoming increasingly reliant on imported non-traditional foods, have very high rates
of unemployment, and are also faced with the large-scale migration of
people from rural to urban areas in search of work that is becoming
increasingly sedentary in nature (75, 76).
122
Increasing urbanization
In less developed countries, urban residents are generally taller,

heavier, and have a higher BMI than those who live in rural areas (72).
This association between urban residence and obesity is of particular
concern given the increasing numbers of people living in urban areas.
Europe and North America are no longer the only major urban regions
of the globe. Since the Second World War, the proportion of people
living in the urban areas of less developed countries has increased from
16.7% in 1950 to 37% in 1994, and is predicted to grow to 57% in 2025
(77). Furthermore, there has been a shift towards the concentration of
population growth in a few large cities of population greater than 5
million, often called urban agglomerations, and a shift in poverty to the
urban areas, particularly into squatter and slum zones.
Urban residence is associated with a wide range of factors that in turn
affect diet, physical activity and body composition. These include
changes in transportation, access to and use of modern educational
and health facilities, communications, marketing and availability of
food, and large differences in occupational profiles, among others. In
most countries, urban residents consume smaller proportions of carbohydrates and greater proportions of protein and fat, particularly
saturated fat (78).
Changes in the role of women
In industrialized societies, an increasing number of women are entering the job market or are returning to full- or part-time paid employment within a few years of childbirth. They still tend to take
responsibility for the health and well-being of the family but less and
less for the more time- and energy-consuming domestic chores concerned with cleaning and the preparation and serving of food.
Going out to work has given women greater economic influence,
especially over domestic purchases, and has contributed to the demand for convenience foods and labour-saving devices such as the
microwave oven. People in paid employment tend to spend less time
on shopping, cooking and other household tasks, so that the demand
for "convenience" food products has increased. People may no longer
have the time, energy, motivation or skills to prepare food from the
basic ingredients. In the USA, the percentage of food dollars spent on
eating outside the home increased by about 40% between 1980 and
1990 (79).
Changes in social structures
Changes in social structures have also led to an increasing proportion

of the population working in service, clerical and other professional
123
occupations that demand considerably less energy expenditure than

the physically demanding manual work of more traditional societies.
Globalization of world markets
Food and food products are now commodities that are produced,
traded and sold for profit in a market that is no longer largely local but
increasingly global. Foods are less often seen as a matter of life and
death, or of religious or cultural significance. Manufacturers and retailers seek to minimize uncertainties and costs, and to maximize
returns. Competition is intense, both within and outside areas where
these manufacturers and retailers are operating (80).
Large companies have expanded to control ever-increasing shares of
trade in agriculture, manufacturing and retailing, and smaller farms
and shops are being squeezed out of business (81). The effects of the
debt crisis in the developing countries, the collapse of communism in
eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, and the dominance of
free-market ideologies are promoting globalization and the development of market economies throughout the world, drawing even the
most isolated self-supporting peasants into a global market (63). The
concentration of food supply in the hands of a small number of
multinational companies reduces their responsiveness to consumer or
government pressure, and increases their influence on government
policy (82).
7.4.2 Variation within societies
Socioeconomic status and obesity
Socioeconomic status is usually measured in terms of a composite

index combining income, education, occupation and, in some developing countries, place of residence (urban/rural). However, its individual components may have independent and even opposite effects
on dietary intake and physical activity patterns, so that it is often very
difficult to make generalizations about the relationship between
socioeconomic status and obesity.
Despite these problems, studies have repeatedly shown that high
socioeconomic status is negatively correlated with obesity in developed countries, particularly among women, but positively correlated
with it in populations of developing countries (83, 84). Further evidence suggests that, as the less developed countries attain higher
levels of affluence, the positive relationship between socioeconomic
status and obesity is slowly replaced by the negative correlation seen
in developed countries (78).
Developing countries. In developing countries, the lower obesity rates
observed in the populations of lower socioeconomic status are
124
associated with a situation where people are limited in their ability to

obtain enough food, yet still engage in moderate to heavy manual
work and have little access to public transport. Hence, thin adults are
considered poor, and overweight and obesity are a sign of affluence.
However, as per capita income increases, the nature of the diet in
traditional societies tends to change in a pervasive and well documented manner (85). In particular, intakes of animal fat and protein
increase, those of vegetable fat and protein decrease, those of total,
and particularly complex, carbohydrates also decrease, and those of
sugar increase.
The increase in income may be associated with increased away-fromhome consumption of high-fat food items, as in the Philippines, or
with increased consumption of meat, as in China. However, the overall effect tends to be a greater intake of total fat and an increased
prevalence of obesity (78).
Developed countries. As previously mentioned, developed countries
tend to show an inverse relationship between obesity and socioeconomic status, and between obesity and income, especially among
women. A state of food deprivation is now very unusual in any major
population groups in the industrialized countries, and the proportion
of adults engaged in physical activity at home has fallen markedly
with modernization. Thus, the groups of lower socioeconomic status
need to be no more physically active or short of food (in energy
terms) than those of higher status. In fact, studies suggest that families
belonging to the lower-status groups engage in much less physical
activity than those in higher ones; for instance, their obesity levels
have risen in parallel with rising car ownership and they watch television for many more hours per day (36).
Studies indicate that change in income has little effect on dietary
structure in countries where income levels are already quite high in
relation to basic food needs; instead, increases in income are spent on
more elaborately packaged and processed or higher-quality foods
rather than on a greater quantity of food. In the poorest income
groups, however, food demand is much more price- and incomesensitive, and many people struggle to obtain enough high-quality
food for what is considered to be a healthy diet (86). The diet of
households of lower socioeconomic status tends to be energy-dense,
and high fat intakes are a prominent feature; the more expensive
vegetables, fruit and whole-grain cereals are eaten more sparingly.
Education and health-related knowledge
Level of education appears to be inversely associated with body

weight in industrialized countries. Surveys in France, the United
125
Kingdom and the USA all showed that the proportion of obese men
and women was higher among those of a lower educational level (87,
88). The observed inverse relationship between education and body
weight may be partly attributed to the fact that individuals of higher
educational level are more likely to follow dietary recommendations
and adopt other risk-avoidance behaviours than those of low educational attainment (89). In the USA, a trend has been emerging among
the better educated sections of the population to adopt and adhere to
dietary guidelines and other "healthy lifestyles" (78). Unfortunately,
little is known about the relationship between education level and
obesity in developing countries except that urban adults are more
highly educated than those from rural areas.
The benefit of nutritional knowledge per se appears to be limited.
Surveys indicate that, although some people know what constitutes a
healthy diet, they prefer in practice to consume a relatively unhealthy
one (90). Obesity rates continue to climb, despite the increased frequency of dieting among obese people, suggesting that knowledge
and frequent attempts to slim are insufficient for successful weight
control. 1 However, without these widespread attempts to control
body weight, the prevalence of obesity in industrialized countries
might be much higher.
7.4.3 Cultural influences
It is also essential in any international review of obesity to recognize

that at least two-thirds of the world's population consists of people of
African, Chinese or Indian origin, living in developing countries. For
such people, the risk factors and perceived causes of obesity often
differ from those of people of European origin.
Culture affects both food intake and physical activity patterns, although the "cultural attributes" responsible are not well characterized and accurately measured at present. Cultural behaviours and
beliefs are learned in childhood, are often deeply held, and are seldom questioned by adults, who pass them on to their offspring. Attitudes and beliefs may change over time, however, as shown by the
expectations in industrialized countries of body weight and shape that
appear to be of particular importance in determining people's
behaviour. Substantial differences in obesity prevalence between
relatively affluent populations indicate that cultural values and traditions may mediate or moderate the effects of affluence on obesity
rates.
1
126
Westenhoefer J. In: Social and cultural issues of obesity, 1996. Background paper
prepared by Social and Cultural subgroup of the International Obesity Task Force.
Cultural influences on food intake, selection and preparation
Cultural factors are among the strongest determinants of food choice.

They include peer group pressures, social conventions, religious practices, the status assigned to different foods, the influence of other
members of the household and individual lifestyles. The effect of
cultural factors can be seen, for example, in children who give way to
peer pressure by selecting high-fat foods, and in executives dining at
expensive restaurants with business colleagues.
Cultural explanations of obesity are based on what are traditionally
thought of as "learned" behaviours. For example, it is not uncommon
for white American parents to encourage their children to eat particular foods by rewarding them with other food items. Recent research
has shown that this culturally sanctioned pattern of rewards actually
contributes to a dislike of the "good" foods and a preference for the
"bad" ones (91). In some cultures, high-fat meals are provided for
family entertainment and celebration.
Few foods are unique to particular cuisines, although some may be
considered suitable for consumption by one culture but not by another. Human beings value food for much more than its nutrient
content, and it is used to express relationships between people as well
as in celebrating religious festivities, weddings and other important
social occasions.
Attitudes towards health, fitness and activity. The idea of engaging
in physical activity during leisure time is not understood in many
cultures and communities in which energy conservation has historically been a prime concern especially during periods of food shortage.
The improvement in food availability has done little to change such
attitudes to physical activity, which often persist across generations
even though the original rationale for their adoption has long been
forgotten.
In contrast, the people of the Nordic countries, among others, prize

fitness and vitality, and thus have a positive attitude towards physical
activity; in such countries, considerable amounts of leisure time are
devoted to vigorous activity rather than to more sedentary pursuits.
Throughout most of human history, increased weight and
girth have been viewed as signs of health and prosperity. This is still
the case in many cultures, especially where conditions make it easy to
remain lean or where thinness in babies is associated with increased
risk of infectious disease. Fat women are often viewed as attractive
in Africa, for example, where some traditional communities have
"fattening huts" for elite pubescent girls to ensure that they start their
Body image.
127
reproductive lives with a peripheral fat energy surplus (84). In Puerto

Rican communities, weight gain after marriage is seen as showing that
the husband is a good provider and that the woman is a good wife,
cook and mother. Weight loss is socially discouraged, and there is a
widespread fatalistic acceptance of the view that successful weight
loss by the obese is not possible (92).
In many industrialized countries, the past three decades have witnessed a marked change in attitudes towards body shape and weight.
Thinness in women has come to symbolize competence, success, control and sexual attractiveness, while obesity represents laziness, selfindulgence and a lack of will power. 1 Such ideals of thinness exist in a
setting where it is easy to become fat, and tend to lead to inappropriate dieting, a failure to achieve unrealistic weight goals, and weight
cycling. Recent research suggests that, as many traditional cultures
embrace the values and ideals of the politically or economically dominant culture of the industrialized countries, they too are likely to see
an increase in eating disorders and unhealthy weight-control practices
(93, 94). In the USA, concern about overweight is seen in a variety of
ethnic groups (95), although the preferred "unhealthy" method of
weight control tends to vary; as compared with white adolescent
females, Hispanics reported greater use of diuretics, Asians reported
more binge eating, and African Americans reported higher rates of
vomiting (96).
Cross-cultural research reveals that the male body ideal is most often
related to "bigness" (large structure and muscularity), but not necessarily to fatness (70, 97). In contrast to women, men generally do not
see increased size and adiposity as a problem, although they are at
greater risk of developing abdominal obesity; they therefore tend not
to seek the treatment they need. 2
Television and popular magazines have been criticized for reinforcing
the association between thinness and attractiveness (98, 99), especially when they present conflicting messages in the form of advertisements for energy-dense and high-fat foods. Media exposure and the
presentation of thin female fashion models as the ideal increase many
women's dissatisfaction with their body shape and promote eating
disorders (100, 101). Efforts should be made to ensure that the media
do not create a situation in which obesity is stigmatized and eating
128
Hill AJ. In: Social and cultural issues of obesity, 1996. Background paper prepared by
Social and Cultural subgroup of the International Obesity Task Force.
Astrup A, ed. Food and eating habits, 1996. Background paper prepared by Food and
Eating Habits subgroup of the International Obesity Task Force.
disorders promoted in the many societies where such a situation does

not exist.
7.4.4 Impact of societal changes on food intake and activity patterns
Governments, the food industry, the media and consumers, among

others, have the potential to influence, positively and negatively, the
impact of societal and environmental factors, particularly modernization, on the food supply and on PALs. None of them in isolation has
been responsible for creating an obesity-promoting environment any
more than, acting alone, any one of them can effect meaningful
change. Thus a partnership is clearly required if such an environment
is to be avoided.
Governments and regional authorities
Governments and regional authorities are responsible for protecting

and promoting the health of the community by ensuring access to a
safe, nutritious and affordable food supply as well as to facilities for
regular physical activity. Modernization and the competing demands
of economic development and health have sometimes created a situation where actions by governments have contributed to a decrease in
physical activity and an increase in the intake of energy-dense food,
contrary to their own health guidelines.
Development and adaptation of national dietary guidelines. Dietary recommendations and guidelines have often not kept pace with societal
changes and advances in nutrition science or with the specific nutritional problems of communities as countries go through the nutrition
transition.
Government feeding programmes

established in developing countries to deal with undernutrition often
remain in place even when there is evidence to suggest that undernutrition no longer exists. Such programmes may sometimes contribute to a worsening of the problem of overconsumption of energy that
follows modernization.
Government nutrition programmes.
Governments and regional

authorities are responsible for the food served in schools, hospitals,
day-care centres and government organizations. Even when they do
not provide such food, they have the power to lay down firm guidelines as to its quality and composition. Unfortunately, many have
failed to draw up guidelines for the provision of meals in such establishments and to monitor their implementation.
Meals provided in government institutions.
129
Physical activity at school. Governments and regional authorities are in

a position to ensure that regular physical activity is undertaken in all
schools. However, many have allowed the time devoted to such activity in schools to be reduced and land on which children previously
played in safety to be used for other purposes.
Many governments
have failed to respond to the changing food supply by laying down or
amending food regulations governing food quality and safety, and the
labelling and advertising of foods. This has led to a situation in which
consumers are at risk of being badly informed or confused by poor
labelling or the unregulated marketing of foods. A recent report by
Consumers International (102) has shown that, even when regulations governing marketing and advertising exist, they are often not
enforced so that compliance with them is poor.
Regulation of food quality, advertising and labelling.
Food production policies. Economic development and increasing involvement in free markets often result in the abandonment by governments of a food production policy based on small regional food
producers and the adoption instead of one that involves large-scale or
centralized farming. Such policies often increase the movement of
people from rural areas to towns and cities and can result in a loss of
food diversity and of the production of traditional foodstuffs in favour
of the wide-scale production of cash crops for export markets.
The aim in many developing countries is still that of increasing the

total food energy available to the population so that the problems of
undernutrition are avoided. However, the increased emphasis in food
production on oil crops or meat products may add to the problems
associated with the rapidly increasing energy density of the national
diet, especially when these products make their way into the local
food supply and displace traditional foods that are no longer widely
available.
For many decades, the primary objective of governments and the food industry has been to maintain a supply of cheap
food so that even the poorest sections of society can purchase sufficient amounts. The use of tax concessions, direct subsidies and rebates from the producer to the retailer, however, have often led to an
oversupply of commodities, so that economic strategies now tend to
be directed at increasing consumer demand to meet supply. As a
result, surplus cheaper foodstuffs are exported from developed countries to markets created in developing ones (103). This is illustrated
by the export of cheap vegetable fats from Australia, the USA and
Food surpluses.
130
Europe to neighbouring countries in the Pacific, South America, Asia

and eastern Europe (76, 104).
The food industry
Technological
advances in cultivating, preserving, producing, transporting and storing foods have increased the year-round availability of a wider variety
of foods to a larger number of people. The continuing globalization of
these processes means that such trends in food availability are spreading from industrialized countries to developing ones.
Advances in food technology and product development.
Advances in food technology have also contributed to the consumption of diets increasingly dependent on processed foods. It is now
possible to produce food products having almost any variety of taste,
textural quality and nutrient content. In fact, food characteristics are
often manipulated to such an extent that it is difficult for individuals
to associate visual, textural or taste cues with the energy content of
meals. This is especially important given the increasing trend towards
prepackaged foods and the concomitant decline in the use of natural
and basic ingredients in food preparation in the home. 1 Consumers
are losing control over the preparation of the foods that they eat,
and food composition is increasingly being placed in the hands of
manufacturers.
In order to survive in the modern competitive market economies,
businesses cannot stand still but need to grow and maintain or increase profits for shareholders. If this cannot be done by increasing
sales of basic foodstuffs to those who can afford to buy them, it can be
done by turning basic foodstuffs into other, more expensive products
(i.e. processed, prepackaged foods) (63).
Fast foods. Although it can be argued that "fast foods" have been
available for centuries, such foods tended to be those of traditional
diet and culture. Today, fast foods and snacks tend to be universal in
nature, are often provided by large multinational corporations, and
are high in fat, low in complex carbohydrates, and energy-dense
(105). They may not be entirely satisfying and are often used as
regular additions to the diet instead of being consumed as an occasional meal or treat. 2 Furthermore, beverages containing substantial
amounts of sugar or alcohol are often consumed as part of a fast-food
meal.
1
Buisson OH. Consumer food choices for the 2000s- the impact of social and
marketing trends. Paper presented at the CSIRO Food Industry Conference, Adelaide,
Australia, 1992.
131
Modern fast foods have proliferated rapidly, and are widely available
and intensively advertised. In 1991, it was reported that fast foods
accounted for 19% of the global consumer catering market, then
worth US$ 730000 million, and that their market share was expected
to grow to 25% by 2000. In the USA, the market for fast foods was
worth US$ 78000 million in 1992 (106), and more than 200 people are
served a hamburger every second of the day. Greater availability has
been achieved by increasing the number of outlets and the opportunities to eat outside the home; the number of fast-food outlets in the
United Kingdom doubled in the 10 years between 1984 and 1993,
while the number of restaurants and cafes remained the same (107).
Direct evidence that increased consumption of fast foods leads to
overweight and obesity is lacking. However, it is widely perceived that
this is the case and that obesity has increased in industrialized societies as families turn away from home-prepared meals and consume
more fast or take-away foods. The roles of the media and of the
consumer in this process are considered below.
Marketing and advertising. The commercialization of food manufacturing and retail outlets has encouraged enthusiastic marketing.
Larger portion sizes give the consumer an impression of "better
value" for money, and marketing strategies such as "eat all you can
for X dollars" represent an encouragement to eat beyond natural
biological limits. Furthermore, these foods and outlets are backed
by substantial advertising campaigns that, in stark contrast to public health or nutrition campaigns, are extremely persuasive and
successful. 1
The media
The media, including television, radio and print, play a major role in
disseminating information in modern consumer societies. They are
part of informal education, and both reflect and influence public
attitudes. However, far more money has been spent on promoting
high-fat/energy-dense foods than on promoting healthier foods. For
example, 86.2 million was spent on promoting chocolate confectionery in the United Kingdom in 1992 compared with only 4 million
spent on advertising fresh fruit, vegetables and nuts (108).
The media provide information on new and existing foods to consumers and have a pervasive influence on food choice; they have
clearly been influential in changing dietary patterns in recent decades.
1
132
Television, in particular, plays a major role in informing and

influencing children. This development may not be helpful, e.g. 91%
of foods advertised during peak children's viewing time in the USA,
and a similar proportion in the United Kingdom, were high in fat,
sugar and/or salt (109, 110). Although the food and advertising industries consistently argue that food advertising has little influence or
detrimental effect on children's eating habits, a considerable amount
of evidence now suggests that it does influence food selection by
children and adolescents, especially among susceptible groups (63,
111). Television viewing appears closely linked to the consumption by
children of the foods that they see advertised on television (112, 113).
Consumers
Consumers play a role in fuelling a demand for a wide variety of

products and services conducive to weight gain; they often demand
processed and convenience meals that tend to be high in fat and
energy-dense, as well as labour-saving devices both at home and in
the workplace that require little energy expenditure. Although it is
recognized that consumer demand is itself influenced by a number of
factors, including marketing, advertising, culture, fashion and convenience, the product or service is unlikely to survive in its existing form
if consumers do not want it. Better educated consumers can demand
better products, especially those of improved nutritional quality.
Most societies have a preference for sweet foods and prize fatty foods
the most (114). With increasing incomes and the greater availability
of such foods, there has been a marked increase in their consumption.
The ability to purchase labour-saving devices is widely welcomed by
consumers in all societies and ownership of a car is seen as an important status symbol. Consumers in emerging economies are likely to be
reluctant to return to diets of traditional foods, to physical labour or
to walking, all of which are associated with poverty, once a certain
level of income has been achieved.
7.5
Individual/biological susceptibility
Epidemiological, genetic and molecular studies of populations all

over the world suggest that some people are more susceptible than
others to becoming overweight and obese, and that such susceptible
individuals exist in countries differing widely in lifestyle and environmental conditions.
Obesity is commonly seen as a complex multifactorial disease; it is a
condition resulting from a lifestyle that promotes a positive energy
balance, but also one that becomes manifest more readily in people
who have an inherited susceptibility to be in positive energy balance.
133
Furthermore, no two obese individuals are the same; there are differences in both the degree and the regional distribution of excess body
fat as well as in the fat topography response of individuals to factors
that promote weight gain. Such differences are due not only to genetic
variation but also to the prior experiences and environments to which
the individuals have been exposed. The evidence for this conclusion
has been carefully reviewed (115). However, considerable uncertainty remains as to the genes and mutations involved, and how they
operate and interact to enhance the susceptibility of some individuals
to obesity.
The evidence for a role of genetic, biological and other factors in
determining the susceptibility of individuals to weight gain and obesity is briefly discussed here.
7.5.1 Genetic susceptibility
The role of genetic factors in weight gain is currently the subject of

much research, and the discovery of leptin (see pp. 136-137) has led
to a renewed interest in genetic and metabolic influences in the development of obesity. While it is possible that single or multiple gene
effects may cause overweight and obesity directly, and indeed do so in
some individuals, this does not appear to be the case in the majority
of people. Instead, it is currently considered that the genes involved in
weight gain increase the risk or susceptibility of an individual to the
development of obesity when exposed to an adverse environment.
Only in the case of certain genetic disorders are particular gene effects "necessary" for obesity expression.
Heritability
The level of heritability is the fraction of population variation in a

trait (e.g. BMI) that can be explained by genetic transmission, and a
large number of twin, adoption and family studies on the heritability
of different measures of obesity have been conducted. Adoption studies tend to generate the lowest estimates and twin studies the highest.
Recently, however, the application of complex analytical techniques
to databases encompassing all three types of studies has led to the
conclusion that the true heritability of BMI in large sample sizes was
likely to be in the range 25-40% (116, 117). On the other hand, similar
genetic epidemiological research has shown that the profile of fat
distribution was also characterized by a significant heritability level of
the order of about 50% of the total human variation. Finally, recent
studies have shown that the amount of abdominal fat was influenced
by a genetic component accounting for 50-60% of the individual
differences (118, 119).
134
Obesity tends to run in families, obese children frequently having

obese parents. However, there is a dearth of data concerning the level
of risk of developing obesity for a first-degree relative of an overweight, moderately obese or severely obese person in comparison
with the population prevalence of the condition (117). One of the first
papers on this topic by Allison et al. (120) concluded that the relative
risk was about 2 for overweight, increasing to about 3-4 for higher
levels of obesity.
Gene-environment interactions
While some individuals are prone to excessive accumulation of fat

and struggle to lose weight, others do not have these difficulties.
Studies in both animals and humans suggest that genetic factors are
partially responsible for such differences in the tendency of individuals to gain fat when chronically exposed to a positive energy balance.
For example, by feeding a high-fat diet to different inbred strains of
mice, scientists have found that both sensitive and resistant strains
exist (121). More recently, a prospective study showed that high fat
intake in humans was correlated with subsequent weight gain only in
those subjects who were overweight at baseline and had obese parents
(122). These studies and others suggest that the genetic predisposition
to obesity observed in animal models may also exist in humans, making some individuals particularly susceptible to a high fat intake.
It is also quite clear that certain inbred strains of rodents are particularly prone to becoming obese when exposed to overfeeding or to a
highly palatable diet. Similarly, in a study on pairs of identical twins,
the body weight and the proportion of fat gained in response to
controlled overfeeding was significantly more alike within pairs of
twins than between them (123). This and other studies based on the
same design strongly suggest that there are individuals who are more
likely than others to gain body mass and body fat when challenged by
an energy overload. Thus, the responsiveness to energy intake and
dietary composition is partly dependent on specific genetic factors
that have yet to be clearly identified.
Types of genetic effects
If the heritability estimates are correct- and the evidence for this is
quite strong - the genes are exerting their influence on body mass
and body fat as a result of DNA sequence variation either in the
coding sequence of the genes or in the segments that affect gene
expression. It is obvious that most of the genes contributing to obesity
do not qualify as necessary genes, i.e. genes that cause obesity whenever one or two copies of the defective allele are present. Indeed, the
135
genetic susceptibility seems to be rather one caused by genes associated with an increase in the proneness to gain weight over time or,
alternatively, by the absence of genetic influences that protect against
the development of a positive energy balance. In general, such genes
exert smaller effects on the phenotype than necessary genes-a situation that makes the identification of these genes and of the responsible mutations much more difficult. Nonetheless, even though the
genetic effect associated with the risk of obesity appears to be of the
multigenic type, there is some indirect evidence to support the notion
that one or a few genes may play a more important role. In other
words, obesity is a truly complex multifactorial phenotype with a
genetic component that includes both polygenic and major gene
effects.
A series of studies reported over the past several years strongly
supports the view that many genes are involved in causing susceptibility to obesity. Several types of research have been used to identify
these genes and the specific DNA sequence variation responsible for
the increase in risk of becoming obese. The evidence accumulated so
far has recently been reviewed (124) and provides statistical or experimental support for a role for about 70 genes, loci or markers. Many
more years of research will be needed before the important genes and
critical mutations are finally identified for both excess body fat content and upper body and abdominal fat accumulation.
Possible mechanisms whereby genetic susceptibility may operate
include:
Low RMR: e.g. studies in the Pima Indians have shown RMR
clusters in families and that those with lower RMR have a greater
risk of gaining lOkg in the following 5 years (125, 126).
Low rate of lipid oxidation: e.g. a low ratio of fat to carbohydrate
oxidation under standardized conditions is a risk factor for subsequent weight gain (18, 127).
Low fat-free mass: a low fat-free mass for a given body mass is a risk
factor for subsequent weight gain as it tends to depress the level of
RMR, thus favouring a positive energy balance.
Poor appetite control: e.g. if satiety is reached at a high level of
energy intake, the net result is likely to be a positive energy balance
and weight gain. Here, many genes and molecules are currently
under investigation. For instance, leptin, the hormone product of
the ob or leptin gene, is an important satiety factor secreted by the
adipose tissue in humans. An anomaly in the leptin receptor gene
may be associated with leptin resistance in humans. However, the
136
Table 7.4
Some factors involved in the development of obesity thought to be genetically
modulated
Macron utrient-related:
adipose tissue lipolysis
adipose tissue and muscle lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity
muscle composition and oxidative potential
free fatty acids and ~-receptor activities in adipose tissue
capacities for fat and carbohydrate oxidation (respiratory quotient)
dietary fat preferences
appetite regulation
Energy expenditure:
metabolic rate
thermogenic response to food
pattern of energy usage (nutrient partitioning)
propensity for spontaneous physical activity
Hormonal:
insulin sensitivity
growth hormone status
leptin action
genetic mutations that result in leptin insufficiency and lead to

obesity in mice are not thought to exist in humans.
Many other factors, some of which are listed in Table 7.4, are currently under intensive investigation.
The place of genetic research on obesity
While research aimed at identifying genes for use in screening, and

ultimately in therapy, is important, it will be many years before the
results can be applied in practice. At present, the greatest value of
genetic research on obesity is in the increased understanding of the
pathophysiology of the disease that it provides.
7.5.2 Non-genetic biological susceptibility
In addition to the genetic influences discussed in section 7.5.1, a

number of other biological factors have been shown to influence
an individual's susceptibility to weight gain and the development of
obesity. These are discussed below.
Sex
A number of physiological processes are believed to contribute to an

increased storage of fat in females. Such fat deposits are believed to
be essential in ensuring female reproductive capacity. Studies in humans and animals indicate that females exhibit a stronger preference
137
for carbohydrate before puberty while males prefer protein. However, after puberty, both males and females display a marked increase
in appetite for fat in response to changes in the gonadal steroid levels.
This rise in fat appetite occurs much earlier and to a greater extent in
females (128).
Females have a tendency to channel extra energy into fat storage
while males use more of this energy for protein synthesis. This pattern
of energy usage, or "nutrient partitioning", in females contributes to
further positive energy balance and fat deposition for two reasons.
First, the storage of fat is far more energy-efficient than that of protein, and second, it will lead to a lowering of the lean-to-fat tissue ratio
with the result that RMR does not increase at the same rate as body
mass.
Ethnicity
Ethnic groups in many industrialized countries appear to be especially susceptible to the development of obesity and its complications.
Evidence suggests that this may be due to a genetic predisposition to
obesity that only becomes apparent when such groups are exposed
to a more affluent lifestyle. This is demonstrated graphically by the
following:
Pima Indians of Arizona: members of this tribe, which has a very

high prevalence of obesity (129), gained weight after abandoning
their traditional lifestyle.
Australian Aboriginals: this ethnic group tends to have a high incidence of central adiposity, hypertension and NIDDM, but this can
be reduced or eliminated within a very short period simply by
reverting to a more traditional lifestyle (130, 131). Similar reductions in obesity and cardiovascular risk have been observed when
natives in Hawaii have returned to a traditional diet after abandoning the usual modern diet (132).
South Asians overseas: the prevalence of NIDDM and mortality
from CHD are higher in people of south Asian (Bangladeshi, Indian and Pakistani) descent living in urban societies than in other
ethnic groups. This is related to a greater tendency to accumulate
intra-abdominal fat for a given BMI compared with other populations (133).
It appears from the foregoing that a number of ethnic groups are
more prone to the risks of obesity when exposed to the lifestyle
common in industrialized countries. For the majority, this problem
seems to result from a combination of genetic predisposition and a
change from the traditional to a more affluent and sedentary lifestyle
138
and its accompanying diet. However, susceptibilities to obesity

comorbidities are not uniform across groups. In Mexico, for example,
NIDDM is more common than hypertension among the obese population, whereas in other areas of the world CVD may be more common.
Other environmental factors may also be important in promoting
obesity in ethnic minority groups in industrialized countries, e.g. in
African Americans in the USA, where the highest rates of obesity are
found in the poorest communities. In these populations, fat-rich,
energy-dense diets are likely to be the cheapest, and reduced levels of
activity stem from unemployment. Other factors associated with poverty may also be involved.
The problem of obesity in ethnic minorities demonstrates the need for
targeted prevention and intervention strategies.
Critical periods for weight gain
Although a general rise in body weight and a modest increase in

percentage body fat over the lifespan can be expected in developed
countries, at least until 60-65 years of age (134), recent studies have
shown the importance of nutrition during certain critical periods
when an individual may be more vulnerable to the development of
obesity in the future. However, until longitudinal studies have been
completed, the contribution of each of the periods shown in Table 7.5
to the prevalence of obesity and its comorbidities remains unclear
(135).
7.5.3 Other factors promoting weight gain
An individual's tendency to gain weight may be increased by certain

factors such as smoking cessation, the development of a disease, or
treatment with drugs that promote weight gain as a side-effect. These
are considered briefly below.
Smoking cessation
Smoking causes a marked increase in metabolic rate and tends to

reduce food intake compared with that of non-smokers (2). It may
also cause a longer-term increase in RMR, although the evidence for
this is conflicting (148, 149).
Smoking and body weight are inversely related (150), and smokers
frequently gain weight when they give up the habit. Williamson (151)
studied a nationally representative cohort of smokers and nonsmokers in the USA (1971-1984) and found that the mean weight
gain attributable to smoking cessation was 2.8kg in men and 3.8kg in
139
Table 7.5
Critical periods for the development of obesity
Critical period
Reason for increased risk
Prenatal
Nutrition during fetal life may contribute directly to the

development of the size, shape and composition of the body,
and to the metabolic competence to handle macronutrients.
Close relationships exist between patterns of intrauterine growth
and the risk of abdominal fatness, obesity and their
comorbidities in later life ( 136-138).
Adiposity rebound
(5-7 years)
BMI begins to increase rapidly after a period of reduced

adiposity during the preschool years. This period coincides with
increased autonomy and socialization and so may represent a
stage when the child is particularly vulnerable to the adoption of
behaviours that both influence and predispose to the
development of obesity. lt is uncertain whether early adiposity
rebound is associated with an increased risk of persistent
obesity in later life ( 139-141).
Adolescence
A period of increased autonomy often associated with irregular

meals, changed food habits and periods of inactivity during
leisure combined with physiological changes that promote
increased fat deposition, particularly in females ( 142, 143).
Early adulthood
Early adulthood is usually a period of marked reduction in

physical activity. In women, this usually occurs between the
ages of 15 and 19 years but in men it may be as late as the
early 30s ( 144).
Pregnancy
lt has been claimed that a mother's BMI increases with

successive pregnancies. However, recent evidence suggests
that this increase is likely to be on average less than 1 kg per
pregnancy, although the range may be wide and is associated
with total weight gained during pregnancy ( 145). Many study
designs confound changes in weight with ageing and changes
in weight with parity ( 146). In many developing countries,
consecutive pregnancies at short intervals are often associated
with weight loss rather than with weight gain.
Menopause
In industrialized societies, weight generally increases with age

but it is not clear why menopausal women are particularly prone
to rapid weight gain. The loss of the menstrual cycle does affect
food intake and reduces metabolic rate slightly, although most
of the weight gain has been attributed to reduced activity ( 147).
women. However, heavy smokers (more than 15 cigarettes per day)

and younger people were at higher risk of major weight gain (> 13 kg)
after giving up smoking.
Notwithstanding the risk of gaining weight, it is important to understand that smoking cessation should be a higher priority than weight
140
Table 7.6
Drugs that may promote weight gain
Drug
Main condition treated or other use
Tricyclic antidepressants, lithium

Sulfonylureas
P-Adrenergic blockers
Some steroid contraceptives
Corticosteroids
Insulin
Cyproheptadine
Valproic acid, neuroleptics
Phenothiazine
Pizotifen
Depression
NIDDM
Hypertension
Contraception
Various diseases
NIDDM
Allergy, hay fever
Epilepsy
Psychosis
Migraine headache
loss in obese patients who smoke; a large number of prospective

studies have shown that smoking has a larger impact on morbidity and
mortality than any small rise in BMI (152-156). The beneficial effects
of giving up smoking are unlikely to be negated by the weight gain
that may follow.
Excess alcohol intake
As previously mentioned, the body is unable to store alcohol, and

oxidation of ingested alcohol is given priority over that of other
macronutrients. Alcohol consumption therefore meets some of the
body's energy needs, allows a greater proportion of energy from other
foods eaten to be stored/ and is thus associated with an increased risk
of abdominal fat (155). However, in epidemiological studies, those
with the greatest alcohol intakes tend to be thinner (1 56, 157), perhaps because such people eat less and have a large part of their energy
requirements met by alcohol (158).
Drug treatment
The use of the drugs listed in Table 7.6 can promote weight gain.
Adults on long-term corticosteroid therapy for rheumatoid arthritis
may be at particular risk of weight gain, since the side-effects of the
drug exacerbate the effects of limited physical activity.
Disease states
Certain genetic disorders, as well as some endocrinological conditions

such as hypothyroidism, Cushing disease and hypothalamic tumours,
1
141
can cause weight gain. However, these are extremely rare causes of
obesity, accounting for only a very small proportion of obesity in the
population.
Major reduction in activity
In some individuals, a major reduction in activity without a compensatory decrease in habitual energy intake may be the major cause of
increased adiposity. Examples include the weight gain often observed
in elite athletes when they retire, in young people who sustain sports
injuries, in young people in wheelchairs after accidents or in others
who develop arthritis.
Changes in social and environmental circumstances
Marriage (159), the birth of a child, a new job and climate change can
all lead to undesirable changes in eating patterns and consequent
weight gain.
7.6
Weight loss
Although many people are successful in losing weight, between a half

and one-third of this weight loss is commonly regained over the
following year (160). This weight regain is independent of the extent
of the initial weight loss or the techniques used to assist weight loss.
The first year after losing weight is considered to be a particularly
difficult period for weight regain prevention, because biological and
behavioural processes act to drive body weight back to baseline levels
(144). Despite the difficulty of achieving and maintaining weight loss
over long periods, some people succeed in doing so (161). Study of
these individuals may provide some clues that will help to explain
their success.
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152
PART IV
Addressing the problem of

153
8.
Principles of prevention and management of

8.1
Introduction
Although there is still much to be learned about the complex and

diverse factors involved in the etiology of weight gain and obesity, it
is now clear that powerful societal and environmental forces influence
energy intake and expenditure, and may overwhelm the physiological
regulatory mechanisms that operate to keep weight stable. The susceptibility of individuals to these forces is affected by genetic and
other biological factors, such as sex, age and hormonal activity, over
which they have little or no control. Dietary factors and physical
activity patterns are considered to be the major modifiable factors
underlying excessive weight gain that, if corrected, can serve to prevent obesity.
The effective prevention and management of obesity should therefore focus on:
-
elements of the social, cultural, political, physical and structural

environment that affect the weight status of the community or
population at large;
processes and programmes to deal with those individuals and
groups who are at particularly high risk of obesity and its
comorbidities;
management protocols for those individuals with existing obesity.
It is also important to recognize that, in many societies, an undue
emphasis on thinness has been accompanied by an increased prevalence of eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia.
Interventions aimed at obesity prevention or management should
therefore be carefully designed to avoid precipitating the development of eating disorders associated with undue fear of fatness,
especially in young adolescent girls. Such interventions should also
discourage other unhealthy behaviours, e.g. cigarette smoking, that
may be adopted in the belief that they will prevent weight gain.
This section is concerned with the principles underlying prevention
and management strategies for overweight and obesity, the different
levels of preventive action, and the need to deal with individuals with
existing obesity. It highlights the need for coordinated action in a
variety of settings and shared responsibility on the part of key stakeholders. It is emphasized that:
Coherent and comprehensive strategies for the effective prevention and management of obesity should focus on:
154
elements of the environment that affect the weight status of the

community or population at large;
individuals and groups who are at particularly high risk of obesity
and its comorbidities;
management protocols for those individuals with existing obesity.
Obesity management encompasses the following four key

strategies:
-
prevention of weight gain;

promotion of weight maintenance;
management of obesity comorbidities;
promotion of weight loss.
Indirect evidence from a variety of sources indicates that obesity is

preventable and that the prevention of weight gain is easier, less
expensive and more effective than treating obesity after it has fully
developed. However, only limited research has been done in this
area.
Obesity prevention is not simply a matter of preventing individuals
of normal weight from becoming obese. It also involves the prevention of overweight in such individuals, obesity in those who are
already overweight, and weight regain in those who have been
overweight or obese in the past but who have since lost weight.
The traditional classification of disease prevention can be confusing
when applied to a complex, multifactorial condition such as obesity,
and can usefully be replaced by the following three levels (see also
section 8.3.3):
-
universal/public health prevention (directed at everyone in a

community);
selective prevention (directed at high-risk individuals and
groups);
targeted prevention (directed at those with existing weight
problems and those at high risk of diseases associated with
overweight).
A preliminary analysis of obesity management approaches adopted

by existing national health care services in a range of countries has
revealed wide variation between countries, and indicated that very
few have a coherent and comprehensive range of services capable
of providing the level of care required to manage obese patients
effectively.
The attitudes of health professionals towards obesity and its management are often negative, and knowledge and skills in managing
155
obesity are seldom adequate. Training opportumtles for family

doctors and other health professionals are extremely limited in
most countries.
National commitment to obesity control should be a shared responsibility - consumers, governments, food industry/trade, and the
media all have important roles to play in promoting effective
changes in diet and everyday levels of physical activity. In national
food and nutrition policies and public health policies obesity management and prevention should form part of NCD control
programmes.
8.2
Strategies for addressing the problem of overweight

and obesity
Until recently, obesity prevention and obesity management were perceived as two distinct processes, the former being aimed at preventing
weight gain and the latter concerned with weight loss. Management
was seen as the role of the clinician, whereas prevention was considered to be the domain of health promotion or public health departments. However, it is now realized that obesity management covers a
whole range of long-term strategies ranging from prevention, through
weight maintenance and the management of obesity comorbidities, to
weight loss (1; see Fig. 8.1). The individual strategies are interdependent, so that truly effective obesity management must address all of
them in a coordinated manner and in a variety of settings.
Strategies to deal with the immediate and existing health problems of
those who are already obese often take precedence in discussions on
obesity management. However, as Fig. 8.1 shows, considerably more
attention needs to be given to prevention activities than is the case at
present, as these are likely to have a much greater impact on the
effective long-term control of obesity.
8.3
Prevention strategies
There are a number of reasons why strategies aimed at the prevention

of weight gain and obesity should be easier, less expensive and potentially more effective than those aimed at treating obesity after it has
fully developed:
Obesity develops over time and, once it has developed, is difficult
to treat. Indeed, a number of studies have shown that many obesity
treatments fail to achieve long-term success (2-10).
The health consequences of obesity are the result of the cumulative
metabolic and physical stress of excess weight over a long period
and may not be fully reversible by weight loss (11, 12).
156
Figure 8.1
Obesity management
Prevention of weight gain
Promotion of weight
maintenance
__
Management of obesity
comorbidities
Promotion of weight loss

._______
WH098269
The diagram shows the broad range of overlapping activities that are an integral part of
obesity management. The size of each element indicates its relative contribution to the
effective control of obesity.
a
Adapted from reference 1 with the permission of the publisher Churchill Livingstone.
The proportion of the population that is either overweight or obese

in many developed countries is now so large that there are no
longer sufficient health care resources to offer treatment to all (13).
In developing countries, limited resources will quickly be exhausted by the need for expensive and technologically advanced
treatment for obesity and other NCDs.
8.3.1
Effectiveness
Despite the strong justification for prevention strategies outlined

above, there has been little comprehensive research on the effectiveness of such strategies. Indeed, only two studies have so far been
specifically concerned with preventing weight gain in adults, and the
short-term results achieved are not such as to inspire confidence in the
ability to prevent obesity (14, 15). Furthermore, the fact that obesity
rates are rising rapidly and unchecked in almost all parts of the world
casts doubt on whether it is even possible to prevent excessive gains in
body weight in the long term.
Indirect evidence that obesity-prevention strategies can play a positive role in combating the escalating problem of obesity is therefore of
particular importance, and comes from a variety of sources.
Obesity rates are still low in a number of populations around the
world, and many people are able to control their weight successfully
over long periods. Furthermore, although there has been a consistent
secular increase in obesity rates in most countries, such increases in
body weight often vary in magnitude between sexes and social classes.
This suggests that there are environmental conditions as well as
157
genetic factors that can protect populations, and individuals within

populations, from excessive weight gain. For instance, analysis of the
NHANES 11 data from the USA showed that men and people in
higher social classes exhibited much smaller increases in body weight
between 1976 and 1980 than women and people in lower social classes
(16). A similar analysis in Finland also found lower rates of increase
in mean BMI over the period 1972-1992 in the most highly educated
groups (17). In fact, in some areas of Finland, the mean BMI actually
fell after 1987 in men in the groups of highest and lowest education,
and the rates of increase in mean BMI in women in the high and
medium education groups appear to be levelling off. In women of the
lowest education group, however, mean BMI continues to rise steeply
(see Fig. 8.2). These data suggest that it may be possible to prevent
further increases in the average weight of the Finnish population if
the success achieved with the better educated groups can be extended
to the rest of the population.
It is also of interest that the dramatic increase in obesity rates has
followed the pattern of similar epidemics of NCDs such as CHD,
which are now abating in countries where preventive strategies have
been adopted to deal with these conditions. Comprehensive obesityprevention programmes have been introduced very recently in
Singapore and a few other countries, but insufficient time has elapsed
for it to be possible to evaluate their long-term success.
Finally, a number of researchers (18-21) have shown that the effective management and support of overweight and obese children can
significantly reduce the number who continue to have a weight problem in adulthood. The long-term prevention of weight gain in these
studies was achieved during the difficult transition periods of childhood and adolescence when weight gain can be a major problem.
Furthermore, in a study in which children were treated together with
their parents, the children were successful in reducing and maintaining their weight loss while over time the adults returned to their
previous body weight (21).
8.3.2 Aims
It is important to recognize that the concept of obesity prevention

does not simply mean preventing normal-weight individuals from
becoming obese, but also encompasses a range of strategies that aim
to prevent:
158
the development of overweight in normal-weight individuals;

the progression of overweight to obesity in those who are already
overweight;
Figure 8.2
Mean BMI by educational level in men and women from 1972 to 1992 in the
North Karelia and Kuopio areas of Finland
28
28
MEN
WOMEN
Medium
Low
27
27
"'
-- '
26
'
''
'
'
''
'
' ''
''
' '
'
"'
High
'
26
Medium
' ' .....

............
''
''
''
''
''
25
25
1972
1977
1982
1987
1992
Year
1972
1977
'
''
''
''
''
''
,-- __ .- High
"'
1982
Year
1987
1992
WHO 98283
The data show that the mean BMI of Finnish men from low- and high-education groups has
actually declined from a peak in 1987. In Finnish women, the mean BMI declined until 1982
but increased afterwards. Although it appears to be levelling off in women from high- and
medium-education groups, it continues to increase rapidly in low-education groups. These
data suggest that it may be possible to prevent further increases in the average weight of the
Finnish population if the success achieved with the better-educated groups can be extended
to the rest of the population.
a
Adapted from reference 17 with the permission of the publisher and authors.
weight regain in those who have been overweight or obese in the

past but who have since lost weight.
8.3.3 Levels of preventive action
The use of the traditional subdivision of prevention into primary,

secondary and tertiary interventions often results in a great deal of
ambiguity and confusion, especially among clinicians. In this scheme,
the objective of primary prevention is to decrease the number of new
cases (incidence), that of secondary prevention is to lower the rate of
established cases in the community (prevalence), and that of tertiary
prevention is to stabilize or reduce the amount of disability associated
with the disorder. It was originally developed for application to acute
159
conditions with a single identifiable cause but is more difficult to apply

to the prevention of a complex, multifactorial condition such as CHD.
As a result, attention has usually been focused on individual risk
factors, e.g. the primary prevention of CHD has involved national
programmes to control blood cholesterol levels, secondary prevention has aimed at reducing further risks in those with existing CHD
and elevated blood cholesterol levels, and tertiary prevention has
been associated with preventing reinfarction in those who have already had a heart attack.
Similar problems arise when attempting to apply the traditional
scheme to obesity prevention. For example, it is not clear whether
primary obesity prevention refers to preventing overweight people
from becoming obese or whether this is secondary prevention, nor is
it clear whether tertiary prevention is concerned with preventing
established obesity from becoming more severe or with the control of
comorbid conditions such as hypertension.
More recently, an alternative way of classifying preventive interventions has emerged which is more appropriate to chronic multifactorial
conditions such as obesity (1, 22) and is based on the level of intervention rather than on the target outcome. In the modified version of this
concept previously mentioned on p. 155, three levels of prevention
(Fig. 8.3) are defined, as follows:
Universal/public health prevention (directed at all members of a

community).
Selective prevention (directed at high-risk individuals and groups).
Targeted prevention (directed at those with existing weight problems and those at high risk of diseases associated with overweight).
In this new scheme, only those actions that are carried out before the
condition has fully developed are defined as prevention. Many actions
aimed at reducing the disability associated with obesity, previously
classified as tertiary prevention, are redefined as maintenance
interventions.
Universal/public health prevention
Universal/public health prevention programmes are directed at the

population or community as a whole, regardless of their current level
of risk. The aim is to stabilize the level of obesity in the population, to
reduce the incidence of new cases and, eventually, to reduce the
prevalence of obesity. However, the most important objective in dealing with a problem of extremes in weight is to reduce the mean weight
of the population. The association between the mean level of BMI
160
Figure 8.3
Levels of prevention measures
WHO 98270
The diagram shows the three different, but complementary, levels of preventive action for
dealing with weight gain and obesity. The very specific targeted-prevention approach is
represented by the central circle, the selective preventive approach directed at high-risk
individuals and groups is represented by the middle ring, and the broader universal or
populationwide prevention approach is represented by the outer ring.
a
and the prevalence of obesity is discussed in section 9. Other objectives of universal prevention include a reduction in weight-related illhealth, improvements in general diet and PALs, and a reduction in
the level of the population risk of obesity.
Such a mass approach to the control and prevention of lifestyle diseases is not always appropriate, and has been criticized for requiring
everyone, whether at high or low risk, to make the same changes (23).
In the prevention of overweight and obesity, however, where the
prevalence of the condition is already extremely high and a large
proportion of the population is at high risk, universal approaches
have the potential to be the most cost-effective form of prevention
(24).
Selective prevention
Selective prevention measures are aimed at subgroups of the population who are at high risk of developing obesity. High-risk subgroups
(identified in section 7) are characterized by genetic, biological or
161
other factors associated with an increased risk of obesity. This risk

may be limited in time, as in certain vulnerable life stages, or it may be
a lifelong concern, e.g. a genetic predisposition to weight gain.
Selective prevention strategies may be initiated through schools, colleges, workplaces, community centres, shopping outlets and primary
care, or through any appropriate setting that allows access to high-risk
groups. The aim is to improve the knowledge and skills of groups of
people so as to allow them to deal more effectively with the factors
that place them at high risk of developing obesity.
Targeted prevention
Targeted prevention is aimed at individuals who are already overweight and those who are not yet obese but in whom biological
markers associated with excessive fat stores have been identified.
These are high-risk individuals, and failure to intervene at this stage
will result in many of them becoming obese and suffering the resulting
ill-health in the future.
The primary objectives of the targeted prevention of obesity are
limited to the prevention of further weight gain and to the reduction
of the number of people who develop obesity-related comorbidities.
Patients recruited to targeted prevention programmes will already
have some weight-related problems and require intensive individual
or small-group preventive intervention. Individuals at high risk of
developing obesity comorbidities such as CVD, NIDDM and arthritis
are a key target for this prevention strategy. Preventing overweight
children from becoming obese adults is a form of targeted prevention.
8.3.4 Integrating obesity prevention into efforts to prevent other
noncommunicable diseases
There is much to be gained from incorporating the objectives of

obesity prevention into the strategies and programmes for controlling
other NCDs. Thus overweight and obesity are important contributors
to the risk of several NCDs, the risk increasing with the increase in
excess body weight. When obesity and overweight coexist with other
NCD risks, the effect is multiplicative (section 4). In addition, dietary
modification and PALs are key factors in preventive programmes
for both obesity and NCDs, while a number of countries already
have NCD prevention programmes that deal with matters relevant to
obesity prevention.
WHO has repeatedly emphasized the global importance of obesity
and other NCDs during periods of economic transition. Over the past
decade, WHO programmes such as the INTERHEALTH project
162
(Integrated Programme for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases), the CINDI programme (Community Interventions in Noncommunicable Diseases) and the MONICA project for
CVD risk-factor monitoring have been important examples of an
integrated (horizontal) approach to the NCD epidemic. They are all
based on the recognition that all NCDs have a number of common
risk factors, necessitating an integrated approach to their prevention,
particularly in view of the problem of funding priorities resulting
from the emergence of devastating communicable diseases, such
as AIDS and Ebola virus disease, and the re-emergence of
tuberculosis.
In developed countries, overweight and obesity are seen predominantly in the socioeconomically disadvantaged segments of the population. Public health measures to control NCDs are still inadequate
and equity considerations make the introduction of such measures a
high priority. The prevention of obesity, in parallel with existing
efforts to control other risk factors for NCDs, should provide better
control of these diseases. However, such strategies should focus more
on obesity per se rather than treating it as just another risk factor for
NCDs.
In developing countries, where nutritional deficiency disorders and
the emerging epidemic of NCDs require attention at the same time,
integrated activities designed to meet multiple demands are likely to
be of greatest benefit. The prevention of NCDs, including overweight
and obesity, should be a public health priority since limited resources
will quickly be exhausted by the demand for expensive and technologically advanced curative care, especially in countries in transition.
Furthermore, the expected reversal of the social gradient associated
with the NCD epidemic will pose insurmountable problems of equity
and access to health in these countries.
8.4
Dealing with individuals with existing overweight and obesity

Although prevention potentially offers the most effective long-term
approach to the management of obesity, more intensive interventions
are also required to deal with the immediate weight and health problems of individuals who are currently obese (see also section 10). As
indicated in Chapter 3, such people are alarmingly numerous in most
developed and many developing countries. Effective management
strategies to deal with them require coordinated and programmed
care offered throughout the community and health care services, with
the emphasis on weight maintenance, the management of obesity
comorbidities and weight loss.
163
8.4.1 The current situation
Given the high prevalence rates of obesity and the well developed
national health care systems in many countries, it would seem reasonable to assume that well coordinated and systematic management
services exist to deal with obesity. However, the current situation is
far removed from this ideal.
In a preliminary survey, Deslypere examined obesity-management
approaches in existing national health care services in Australia and
in a number of countries in South America, South-East Asia and
Europe. 1 A wide variation in obesity care services was found; very few
countries had a coherent and comprehensive range of services capable of providing the level of care required to manage obese patients
effectively. This is in stark contrast to the situation with regard to
other chronic diseases such as NIDDM and CHD, where integrated
care is frequently provided through primary health care services.
The Czech Republic, where a five-year plan for the prevention and
management of obesity has been established, provides a welcome
exception to the rule (V. Hainer, personal communication). A wide
range of therapies including diet, exercise, behaviour modification,
drug therapy and surgery are currently employed for the treatment of
obese patients. Mild-to-moderate obesity is dealt with through
weight-reduction clubs, while moderate obesity with comorbidities
is treated in obesity outpatient clinics. Severely obese patients are
referred to specialist university obesity clinics. Internists receive
postregistration training in the care of obese patients, and an obesitymanagement handbook has been prepared for nurses and another is
being prepared for family doctors. Obesity specialists are also involved in the training of counsellors for weight-loss clubs.
8.4.2 Knowledge and attitudes of health professionals
Several studies have shown that family doctors and other primary
health care professionals have incomplete, confused and occasionally incorrect knowledge of obesity and nutrition (25-27). Often
the basic facts about weight control are understood, but confusion abounds in relation to how best to manage and advise patients
or the public (28). Certain genetic and metabolic disorders that
lead to the development of obesity are often given undue prominence in discussions in medical textbooks about weight gain and
164
Deslypere JP, ed. The primary health care-specialist interface, 1996. Background paper
prepared by Primary Health Care-Specialist Interface subgroup of the International
Obesity Task Force.
obesity. However, in practice these conditions are very rare and

only a tiny proportion of overweight and obesity in patients can
be attributed to such causes. This is a major problem, as family
doctors are considered by the general public to be the most reliable
and credible source of health information (29) and are consulted
about weight loss more often than any other health professional
(30). Obesity is not a common subject in the prequalification training of health care workers (31-33) and opportunities for postregistration training are usually limited. National obesity societies
have generally not taken an active role in the training of health
professionals.
Although there has been only a limited assessment in the medical
literature of the current attitudes of health professionals, a number of
studies in industrialized countries indicate that the current situation is
far from satisfactory. The majority of health professionals are pessimistic about their ability to help patients to lose weight by persuading
them to change their lifestyles, and many consider obesity management to be frustrating, time-consuming and pointless (34, 35). Although health professionals appear to be well informed about the
causes of obesity, many have negative and even derogatory stereotypes of the obese, and especially of the morbidly obese (36-39).
Obesity is not generally regarded as a serious medical condition, so
that many doctors fail to advise and treat the majority of their obese
patients. Obesity tends to be treated only when a comorbidity is
present, rather than before it develops or is exacerbated by the obese
state (34). Recently, a study was carried out in Germany of the frequency with which the diagnosis "overweight" or "obesity" was entered in outpatient medical records; despite the high prevalence of
overweight and obesity in Germany, they were mentioned in the
records of only a very small percentage of patients and usually only
when accompanied by another chronic condition (40). Even when
doctors are aware of the importance of obesity management and
monitoring, they often have limited time and resources to devote to
such activities (29).
Other health professionals actively involved in the management of
obesity include nurses and, in some countries, dietitians. However,
although they provide more comprehensive weight management advice than medical doctors (41), the advice does not appear to be any
better or more effective than the advice provided by doctors.
Confidence in their ability to assist people to lose weight and to
maintain weight loss is low among nurses (42), and even dietitians
doubt that their current efforts to deal with obesity (43) are effective.
Negative attitudes towards obesity and the obese also appear to exist
165
among both nurses (44) and dietitians (39). Furthermore, in many

countries (particularly in eastern Europe) the profession of dietitian
is not well established and there are no opportunities for tertiary
education in dietetics. Dietary advice is often provided by "dietary
assistants" or "diet nurses" who have received no formal training at
all. In Sweden, however, nurses can receive further training to become "dietetically competent" and their efficacy in weight management has been demonstrated (45).
8.4.3 Improving the situation
There is an urgent need to improve the training of all health care

workers involved in the management of obese patients. This is important not only to raise the level of knowledge and skills in obesitymanagement strategies but also to help to overcome the negative
attitude that many health professionals have towards obesity and the
obese.
It is clear that the rational development of coordinated health care
services for the management of overweight and obese patients is
needed in all areas of the world. Primary health care services should
play the dominant role, but hospital and specialist services are also
required for dealing with the more severe cases and the major associated life-threatening complications. Good communications between
the different types of health care service are essential.
The concept of "shared care", which involves the formal integration

of general medical and specialist services to provide comprehensive
services for patients, is finding favour for the management of many
other chronic conditions, particularly NIDDM (46, 47). Richman et
al. evaluated a shared-care obesity management programme involving both general practitioners and a hospital-based specialist obesity
service, and found that obese patients managed in such a setting
achieved better weight loss in the short term and had lower drop-out
rates than similar patients attending a specialist service based at a
hospital (48).
It is recognized that improvements in obesity-management services
will make large demands on resources from all areas of health care,
not least because of the widespread nature of the obesity problem.
However, if sufficient resources are allocated to the prevention and
effective management of weight gain, it should be possible to make
significant savings in other areas where obesity is an important underlying cause of morbidity. It has also been shown that an increase in
BMI is associated with a concomitant rise in the length of patient
hospital stays, medical consultations and demand for medication (40,
166
49, 50). Thus, preventing weight gain and obesity is likely to be more
effective in the long term than treating its consequences once it has
developed.
8.5
Partnerships for action on obesity
Whether strategies for controlling overweight and obesity are based

on the promotion of healthy diets, on increasing levels of physical
activity, or on both, they cannot be seen as the sole responsibility of
any one sector. To be effective, strategies must be multisectoral and
involve the active participation of governments, the food industry/
trade, the media and consumers. Furthermore, they provide an excellent opportunity for the synergistic interaction between government
policies on nutrition and NCD control.
8.5.1 Shared responsibility
The concept of shared responsibility for the prevention and management of obesity is illustrated in Fig. 8.4, which shows how strategies to
promote an appropriate diet and physical activity involve coordinated
action by all the sectors concerned.
Promoting healthy diets
The promotion of healthy diets that are low in fat, high in complex
carbohydrates and contain large amounts of fresh fruit and vegetables
should be a priority in obesity prevention. Although it is consumers
who ultimately choose which foods to consume, their choices are
influenced by a number of factors such as experience, custom, availability and cost. These factors, in turn, are affected by the actions of
government, the food industry and the media. Food availability, for
example, depends on the capacity of industry to produce and deliver
products to the consumer at affordable prices, and to promote them
appropriately, as well as on government policy on food standards, and
on subsidies and taxes on food products.
Consumption of a high-fat diet may reflect government policies on the
control of food quality, the advertising of high-fat products by the
food industry and the media, ready access to processed high-fat fast
foods, lifestyles that favour the convenience of preprepared meals,
and excessive consumption driven by the pleasant mouth-feel of fat
when eaten.
The shared responsibilities of governments, the food industry, the
media and consumers, outlined above, offer multiple sites for intervention. Appropriate targets for nutrition strategies identified by
FAO and WHO (51-53) include consumer education and protection,
167
Figure 8.4
Healthy weight for all -
a shared responsibility
Healthy weight
for all
A shared responsibility
Government
Consumer
Industry/trade
Media
Food and activity

legislation
incentives and
enforcement
Educated and
knowledgeable
public
Trained markete~
and manage~
Responsible
advertising
Advice for
industry/trade
Discriminating
and selective
consume~
Appropriate
availability and
promotion
Health
communication
and education
Consumer
education and
protection
Healthy practices
in the home
Quality
assurance
Advocacy
Information
gathering and
research
Community
participation
(attitudes and
practice)
Informative
labelling and
consumer
education
Publicizing
successes
Provision of
health-related
services
Active consumer
groups
Exposing
fraudulent
health claims
Food-based dietary guidelines

National commitment to obesity control
WHO Consultation on obesity
WHO 98271
Adapted from Figure 1 in reference 52
168
the development and implementation of dietary guidelines, food

labelling, nutrition education in schools and efforts to ensure truth
in advertising. The food industry plays an important role in the development and promotion of affordable healthy products, while the
media are crucial in advocating change, publicizing successes and
exposing fraudulent health claims. Governments are responsible for
supporting research and collecting information on dietary intake and
the nutritional status of the population through epidemiological investigations and surveillance. Programmes aimed at improving the
nutritional well-being of people, in particular that of the groups at
greatest risk, should be supported through the allocation of adequate
resources by both the public and private sectors so as to ensure their
sustainability.
Promoting increased physical activity
Greater emphasis on improved opportunities for physical activity is

clearly needed, especially in view of the conditions associated with
increased urbanization and the parallel increase in time devoted to
sedentary pursuits. The provision of convenient and safe exercise
facilities, the allocation of time for exercise, a media focus on the role
of physical activity in health promotion, workplace interventions
aimed at increasing such activity, and consumer education are all
methods of increasing energy expenditure.
As with diet quality, PALs depend on the interaction of the influences
of many factors that can either promote or restrict activity. However,
current environmental conditions in modern societies invariably
favour sedentary lifestyles. Opportunities for children to walk/cycle
to school or to play outside the home are profoundly affected by
factors such as traffic policy and public safety, but schools also need to
actively promote physical activity by incorporating a variety of recreational activities into their curricula. Community facilities and town
planning policies should facilitate everyday walking and exercise
by adults and children, and traffic policies and workplace practices
should help to promote sustained physical activity throughout life.
8.5.2 Coordination of government policies
Strategies to improve the prevention and management of overweight

and obesity, as well as their comorbidities, provide an opportunity,
as previously mentioned, for the synergistic interaction between
national policies on nutrition and NCD control. Goals and strategies
recommended for obesity control, such as the monitoring of weight
status and the promotion of healthy diets and active lifestyles, should
169
be an integral and important part of policies on nutrition and NCD

control. The development and effective implementation of such policies require the active participation of the government agencies responsible for education and agriculture.
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173
9.
Prevention and management of overweight and

obesity in populations: a public health approach
9.1
Introduction
Obesity is a public health problem and must therefore be seen from a

population or community perspective. Health problems that affect
the well-being of a major proportion of the population are unlikely
to be effectively controlled by strategies in which the emphasis is on
individuals. Public health action is based on the principle that promoting and protecting the health of the population requires an integrated
approach encompassing environmental, educational, economic, technical and legislative measures, together with a health care system
oriented towards the early detection and management of disease.
A public health approach to obesity concentrates on the weight status
of the population as a whole, in contrast to interventions that deal
exclusively with factors influencing the body fatness of individuals. In
many developed and developing countries, underprivileged minority
groups have to bear a disproportionally heavy burden of higher than
average levels of obesity. Thus, in efforts to remove inequalities in
health status as one of the main aims of public health, it is necessary
to consider the causes that make particular groups more vulnerable to
weight gain.
This section deals with the need to develop population-based strategies that tackle the environmental and societal factors identified in
section 7 as being implicated in the development of obesity. This is a
major area for action in the effective prevention of the global epidemic of obesity. The key issues include the following:
Obesity is a major global public health problem, and must therefore
be approached from a public health standpoint.
As already mentioned, a public health approach to obesity concentrates on the weight status of the population as a whole in contrast
to other interventions that deal exclusively with factors influencing
body fatness.
As the average BMI of a population increases above 23, the prevalence of obesity in that population increases at an even faster rate
(seep. 178). A population median BMI range of 21-23 is thought to
be the optimum from the point of view of minimizing the level of
obesity; adult populations in developing countries are likely to gain
greater benefit from a median BMI of 23, whereas those in affluent
societies with more sedentary lifestyles are likely to gain greater
benefit from a median BMI of 21.
174
Appropriate public health strategies to deal with obesity should be

aimed both at improving the population's knowledge about obesity
and its management and at reducing the exposure of the community to an obesity-promoting environment.
The two priorities in public health interventions aimed at preventing the development of obesity should be: (1) increasing levels of
physical activity; and (2) improving the quality of the diet available
within the community. The approaches adopted will depend on the
population, and especially its economic circumstances.
In the past, public health intervention programmes have had limited success in dealing with rising obesity rates, although the results
of some countrywide "lifestyle programmes" are encouraging.
However, few programmes have concentrated on obesity as a
major outcome or have attempted to address environmental
influences.
Current obesity-prevention initiatives need to be evaluated, their
limitations recognized, and their designs improved. Lessons
learned from public health campaigns on other issues can be used
to improve public health campaigns on obesity.
The prevention and management of obesity are not solely the responsibility of individuals, their families, health professionals or
health service organizations; a commitment by all sectors of society
is required.
Public health strategies intended to improve the prevention and
management of obesity should aim to produce an environment that
supports improved and appropriate eating habits and greater physical activity throughout the entire community. Appropriate action
needs to be taken to change urban design, transportation policies,
laws and regulations, and school curricula accordingly, provide the
necessary economic incentives, introduce catering standards, provide health promotion and education, and promote family food
production. Priority should be given to public health action in
developing and newly industrialized countries to improve the living
conditions of all sectors of society, especially within often neglected
aboriginal or native populations.
9.2
Intervening at the population level
The important role of public health action in the control of infectious

disease is widely accepted but there is still some scepticism concerning
the applicability of this approach to the management of NCDs such
as CHD and obesity. The merit of population-level interventions has
175
Figure 9.1
Relationship between mean BMI and prevalence of obesity in a population
The relation between population mean and the prevalence of deviant (high) BMI values
across 52 population samples from 32 countries (men and women aged 20-59 years)
60
r=0.94
b = 4.66% per unit BMI
50
.~ 40
"'<11
.0
.....00
~
e...
30
-,.
<11
u
<11
"iii
20
>
'~
c...
.il'
....:,
10
0
15
20
25
30
MeanBMI
35
WH098282
Population mean body weight data from 52 communities in the International Cooperative Study
on the Relation of Blood Pressure to Electrolyte Excretion in Populations (INTERSALT) are
plotted against the prevalence (%) of obesity; the curve shows the clear relationship between
them.
a
Adapted from reference 3. This figure was first published in: lntersalt: an international study of
electrolyte excretion and blood pressure. Results for 24 hour urinary sodium and potassium
excretion. British Medical Journal, 1988, 297:319-328. Reproduced with the permission of the
British Medical Journal.
been questioned by some observers because all the members of the

community may be urged or obliged to make changes to deal with a
problem that currently affects only some of them (1, 2). However, if
the link between the average and extreme levels of body fatness
within a population (Fig. 9.1) is understood, the importance of
population-level interventions in obesity can be appreciated, especially as the majority of the adult population in industrialized societies
are affected by excess weight gain.
9.2.1 Relationship between average population BM/ and the level
of obesity
The classification of obesity as a BMI ~30 (section 2) is purely arbitrary. It indicates that health risks are greatly increased above this
level of body fatness but not that BMis below this level are free from
such risks. In reality, the population does not consist of two distinct
176
Figure 9.2
Skewed BMI distribution with increasing population mean BMia

The shifting distributions of BMI of five population groups of men and
women aged 20-59 years derived from 52 surveys in 32 countries
Probability density
0.14
BMI
WH098281
The data from the INTERSALT study show that, as the mean population BMI increases, the
level of obesity increases at an even faster rate because of the skewing of the distribution to
higher BM Is. Public health interventions seek to prevent this upward shift in mean population
BM I.
a
Adapted from reference 3. This figure was first published in: lntersalt: an international study of
electrolyte excretion and blood pressure. Result for 24 hour urinary sodium and potassium
excretion. British Medical Journal, 1988, 297:319-328. Reproduced with the permission of the
British Medical Journal.
groups, the obese and the non-obese. The distribution of body fatness
within a population ranges from underweight through normal to very
obese, and the risks of associated morbidity and mortality begin at
relatively low levels of BMI.
The analysis by Rose (3) of the multicountry International Cooperative Study on the Relation of Blood Pressure to Electrolyte Excretion
in Populations (INTERSALT) provides a useful evaluation of body
weight data from 52 communities. In this study, variations in the
distribution of BMI in different adult populations were found that
could be predicted from the population mean BMI. When the mean
BMI of a population is 23 or below there are few, if any, individuals
with a BMI >30. As the BMI distribution of the community shifts to
the right (i.e. as mean BMI increases), there is an increased skewing of
the data and a flattening of the curve (Fig. 9.2). The result is a greater
number of individuals in the population whose BMI exceeds 30.
177
Perhaps of greatest significance, however, is the accompanying increase in the proportion of adults classified as obese, which takes
place at an even faster rate than the increase in average BMI. Rose
found a 4.66% increase in the prevalence of obesity for every single
unit increase in the population's average BMI above 23, resulting in a
strong correlation between the average adult BMI of a population
and the proportion of adults with obesity (Fig. 9.1). In the United
Kingdom between 1980 and 1993, the mean BMI increased from 24.3
to 25.9 for men and from 23.9 to 25.7 for women. Over this same
period, the rates of overweight increased by one-third, whereas those
of obesity doubled. This implies that further increases in mean BMI
are likely to result in even more dramatic rises in the rates of obesity.
It is believed that, for the effective prevention of obesity, the empha-
sis should be on preventing a rise in the mean community BMI.

Concentrating efforts to prevent and manage obesity on people with
existing weight problems (individuals in the right-hand tail of the
distribution in Fig. 9.2) will do little to prevent the occurrence of new
cases of obesity.
9.2.2 Optimum population BM/s
The optimum mean BMI for a population is likely to vary with environmental conditions, e.g. the state of the labour market and the
possibility of famine, which differ between developing and developed
countries, as well as between urban and rural areas. For example,
there are substantial differences in the nutritional status and mean
BMI of urban and rural Chinese and Indian communities that reflect
vastly different economic and environmental circumstances.
Hazards are associated with both underweight (i.e. BMI <18.5) and
overweight (i.e. BMI 2':25). Underweight is a major concern in developing countries and rural areas because work capacity is reduced at
BMis below 18.5 (4). Thus, epidemiological studies of national data
sets suggest that developing an optimum population BMI will require
a trade-off between the two extremes. If the aim is to minimize both
the number of adults in a community with a BMI 2':30 (Fig. 9.2) and
that of underweight adults with a BMI <18.5, the optimum BMI is
about 23. Indeed, the probability of an increasing prevalence of obesity rises markedly above a mean BMI of 23. However, if the aim is to
limit the extent of overweight by minimizing the proportion of the
population with a BMI 2':25, and there is less concern about limiting
the number of adults with a BMI <18.5, a median BMI of 21 is the
optimum (5).
In industrialized countries there is evidence that a BMI in the lower
part of the normal range is associated with the best health outcomes
178
(6). However, in developing countries, a BMI < 18.5 is not conducive

to sustaining prolonged and intensive agricultural work (4).
A median BMI range of 21-23 seems reasonable; adults in developing
countries gain greater benefit from a median BMI of 23, and those in
affluent societies with more sedentary lifestyles may be better off with
a median BMI of 21. National strategies may need to aim at improving the weight status of underweight children and adults in rural
communities (target mean BMI 23) and simultaneously at limiting the
onset of excessive weight gain in urban communities (whose true
optimum target mean BMI may be only 21).
9.2.3 Will population-based approaches to preventing weight gain lead
to increased levels of underweight and eating disorders?
There has been some concern that strategies aimed at maintaining or

reducing the mean BMI of the entire population may result in an
increase in the levels of underweight and eating disorders in the
community (7, 8). The Rose analysis (3) tends to suggest that those
populations with the lowest mean BMI have higher rates of underweight, and that shifting the population distribution of BMI downwards may result in an increase in the numbers of underweight
individuals. However, it should be remembered that the data from the
INTERSALTstudy used in Rose's analysis included some from countries where undernutrition remains a significant problem. This is
especially relevant for the lowest quintile in Fig. 9.2. Reducing the
population mean BMI will not necessarily result in an increase in the
proportion of the population classified as underweight or in an increased incidence of eating disorders. Countries that currently exhibit
the highest incidence of eating disorders also have the highest population mean BMis. There is some indication that dieting is associated
with an increased risk of eating disorders (9), so that community-level
strategies aimed at preventing weight gain in the entire population
should be careful to avoid causing the development of eating disorders associated with weight-loss programmes for individuals (10).
9.3
Public health intervention strategies
Two types of public health intervention strategies can generally be

used to tackle obesity, namely those that aim to improve the knowledge and skills of individuals in a community, and those that aim to
reduce the exposure of populations to the underlying environmental
causes of obesity.
9.3.1 Improving the knowledge and skills of the community
To date, virtually all public health interventions aimed at the control

of obesity in a population have been based on an individual approach.
179
They have generally relied on the mass media, workplace interventions, school-based programmes and curricula, skills training in a
network of clubs and community centres, and community projects to
reach a wide audience so as to provide information and promote
behaviour change.
While strategies aimed at improving the knowledge and skills of the
community have produced impressive results in dealing with many
public health problems, this is not true, however, of obesity. This may
be because manipulating the diet to prevent public health problems
does not induce the same fundamental adaptive responses in eating
that are seen when children and adults are underfed in terms of
energy. Communities are already generally well aware of the problems associated with obesity, and many individuals are actively attempting to control their weight. Participation rates in this type of
obesity control programme are usually high, and many succeed in
reducing their weight in the short term. Nevertheless, there is generally little impact on the overall average BMI of the community and a
negligible effect on obesity prevalence, so that preventive strategies
are obviously of great importance.
9.3.2 Reducing population exposure to an obesity-promoting
environment
A more effective strategy for dealing with the public health problem
of obesity would appear to be one that goes beyond education and
deals with those environmental and societal factors that induce the
obesity-promoting behaviour of individuals within a population in the
first place (see Fig. 7.1). In this way, it may be possible to reduce
the exposure of the whole population to social factors that promote
obesity, such as the persistent temptation to consume high-fat foods
and the convenience of a sedentary lifestyle. Unfortunately, however,
such strategies remain relatively unexplored.
9.4
Priority interventions
Regardless of the type of intervention strategy employed to tackle

obesity at the population level, two priority interventions important
in preventing the development of obesity have been identified in this
report, namely increasing levels of physical activity and improving the
quality of the diet. The approaches adopted to achieve these aims will
depend on the circumstances of the population, and in particular the
economic situation. Thus, in developing countries, the main aim of
intervention to promote physical activity should be to prevent the
reduction in such activity that usually accompanies economic development. In affluent countries, however, the main aim will be to dis180
courage already existing patterns of sedentary behaviour. Likewise,

where dietary improvement is concerned, the introduction of new
energy-dense foods as a replacement for nutritionally adequate traditional diets should be discouraged in developing countries, whereas
the already high consumption of high-fat/energy-dense diets should
be reduced in developed ones. Evaluation of interventions is crucial.
9.4.1 Increasing physical activity
Interventions aimed at increasing community-wide levels of physical

activity (see pp 187-188) are an important means of preventing further increases in the average BMI of a population. Such interventions
need to take the following into account:
Increasing community-wide levels of physical activity has numerous potential benefits for population health in addition to preventing further increases in average BMI, e.g. a reduced risk of
NIDDM, CHD and certain cancers.
Long-term increases in physical activity are more likely to be
achieved through environmental changes that increase or maintain
incidental daily activity and low-intensity leisure pursuits rather
than by encouraging occasional vigorous exercise. The emphasis
should be on promoting relatively low-intensity, long-duration
physical activity that can be conveniently incorporated into daily
life (see also Box 7.2 and pp 117-118). Popular examples of physical
activity of this type include walking a dog, gardening, dancing,
cycling, home improvement and swimming. Walking in pedestrian
precincts rather than depending on car travel and ensuring that
some work is done when standing rather than sitting will help to
increase daily activity.
Exercise should also be encouraged, but it should not be presented
as requiring excessive physical effort involving boring routines and/
or requiring expensive equipment.
Activity should be enjoyable in order to encourage regular participation and to discourage sedentary behaviour.
There is some evidence that physically active children remain active in adult life, so that encouraging young children to take part in
a variety of general activities may be especially important.
9.4.2 Improving the quality of the diet
Interventions aimed at improving the quality of the diet need to take

into account the following important issues relating to dietary energy
density and nutrient/energy ratios:
181
A major concern associated with the feeding of infants and young

children is ensuring that they consume adequate energy. The energy density of traditional diets is often increased by the addition of
vegetable oil (taking care not to distort the protein/energy ratio),
and children under the age of 2 years should be excluded from any
interventions designed to reduce national fat intakes in industrialized countries.
It is also important to ensure that the nutrient/energy ratio of the
diet is adequate, especially in children who may be at risk of micronutrient deficiency. Low nutrient/energy ratios can become a particular problem when the energy content of diets is increased by the
addition of fat and refined carbohydrate.
It is unusual for energy deficiency to arise in adults simply because
the bulkiness of their food is such that they are unable to eat
enough of it. A more serious problem is the overconsumption of
energy-dense diets rich in fat and highly refined products and low
in fibre that promote overconsumption and weight gain, especially
when eaten by relatively inactive individuals.
Care is therefore needed when both the energy density and the nutrient/energy ratio of diets are examined. The age group targeted in
health promotion strategies as well as the normal dietary constituents
available to them should be taken into account. When diets are based
essentially on unrefined indigenous local foods, and contain a suitable
proportion of cereals, pulses, vegetables and affordable animal proteins, there is less likelihood that either their energy density or their
nutrient/energy ratios will be inappropriate. Identifying the optimum
ranges of both nutrient/energy ratios and energy densities for young
children and the corresponding ratios and densities for older children
and adults is still difficult.
For information on the national nutrition programmes of Finland and
Norway, see pp 188-189.
9.4.3 Measures for use in evaluating obesity-prevention programmes
The aim of obesity prevention is to stop the increase in obesity or

reduce the number of new cases of this disease in a population. This
can be achieved only if rises in the average BMI of the population are
prevented.
From a purely scientific viewpoint, the most accurate measures for
use in evaluating obesity-prevention programmes are changes in the
mean population BMI or in obesity incidence. However, in practical
terms, incidence is rarely assessed, and public health authorities are
182
unlikely to accept very small percentage shifts in mean BMI as a

significant indicator of public health improvement.
At present, prevalence rates of obesity and its comorbidities are the
most commonly used measures of the success or failure of interventions aimed at controlling obesity. However, these have a number of
serious limitations when used in isolation. First, the prevalence of
obesity within a population is unlikely to decline in the short term;
losing weight is not easy and it is unrealistic to expect a large number
of obese people to lose sufficient weight to cease to be classified as
obese. Second, a long time often elapses before appropriate environmental, societal and behavioural changes are reflected in the
population's weight status. Third, estimates of the prevalence of, and
trends in, obesity are often unreliable because small sample sizes
reduce their accuracy. Finally, the multifactorial etiology of obesity
comorbidities limits the use of their prevalence rates as outcome
measures for evaluating obesity-prevention programmes because
changes in the prevalence of these conditions can occur independently of the population's weight status, e.g. reductions in CHD rates
have been achieved as a result of reductions in hypertension and
smoking.
A more practical and useful outcome indicator for evaluating obesity
prevention would be to combine the assessment of changes in the
prevalence of overweight (BMI ~25) with short-term indicators such
as standardized measures of dietary change and of PALs. In fact,
prevalence estimates of overweight reflect weight distribution in the
population better than estimates of obesity prevalence and are easier
to estimate accurately, especially in developing countries with very
low rates of obesity. They also account for a significant proportion
of the health risks associated with excess weight and body fat. The
assessment of mean population BMI and changes in obesity prevalence is also desirable.
9.5
Results of public health programmes for the control

of obesity
To date, there have not been any well evaluated and properly organized public health programmes aimed at the population-level management or prevention of obesity. A number of countries have
recently developed lifestyle strategies in which the emphasis is on
weight control but, except in Singapore, these have not taken the
form of controlled trials and so are unlikely to provide any definitive evidence of their impact. The best examples of such trials are
community-wide CHD prevention programmes that have included a
reduction in BMI as one of the measurable outcomes.
183
Alternatively, some programmes have targeted those factors identified as important in the development of obesity, namely physical
activity and the quality ofthe diet. However, it is debatable how much
can be deduced from the results of such programmes as far as the
potential of public health strategies to manage weight is concerned.
9.5.1 Countrywide public health programmes
At present, very few countries have a comprehensive populationwide

national policy or strategy to deal specifically with the problem of
overweight and obesity, in spite of the reports produced in a number
of countries, such as Australia (11), Canada (12) and the United
Kingdom (13), which have all indicated that this is precisely what is
required to tackle obesity effectively. Singapore is one country that
has been able to achieve a degree of success in tackling obesity
through a system of coordinated healthy lifestyle programmes
aimed at specific target groups in the population. The Government of
Singapore has an overall strategy that is translated into programmes
covering all the stages of life, and including preschool children,
schoolchildren, young people and adults. Such programmes rely
heavily on community input in their establishment and management
(14). Recent results of the Trim and Fit programmes (see below) are
promising, obesity rates dropping among primary, secondary and
junior college students (15).
The Trim and Fit programme was launched in 1992 and is aimed
at all schoolchildren in Singapore. It combines progressive nutrition
changes in school catering, and nutrition education together with
regular physical activity in schools. The programme is supported by
specialized training for school principals, teachers and canteen workers, as well as by the provision of equipment for improved catering
and physical activity. A national monitoring programme to assess
fitness and weight status also forms part of this initiative (16). Recent
results indicate that the number of children successfully completing
the fitness tests is increasing annually, and that obesity rates fell from
14.3% in 1992 to 10.9% in 1995 for primary students, from 14.1% to
10.9% for secondary students, and from 10.8% to 6.1% for junior
college students (15). However, it should be noted that this decline in
obesity rates may have been somewhat exaggerated because of the
new weight-for-height norms introduced by the Ministry of Health in
1993.
9.5.2 Communitywide CHD prevention programmes
Over the last 20 years a handful of well funded, large-scale, communitywide intervention programmes intended to prevent CHD have
184
been conducted, aimed at reducing the level of a number of risk

factors, including smoking, high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol and obesity. In-depth evaluation of these programmes and their
results has consistently shown that obesity is harder to control than
any other risk factor, as indicated for the following five programmes:
The Stanford Three Community Project (17) and the Stanford Five
City Study (18). In both of these studies, the mass media and
communitywide health education were used to increase awareness
and knowledge of CHD and to teach the skills required for appropriate behaviour change to reduce CHD risk (19). In both projects,
weight reduction and increased physical activity were viewed as
methods of facilitating risk factor reduction rather than as outcomes in their own right. The original Three Community Project
was successful in preventing weight gain in the treatment groups. In
the Five City Study, weight gain in the intervention communities
was significantly less than in the control communities (0.57kg
compared with 1.25 kg) over the 6 years. However, the results of
repeated surveys of the intervention and control cohort groups
showed no differences in the rate of weight gain. Nevertheless, both
studies showed significant improvements in blood pressure, cholesterol and smoking rates.
The Minnesota Heart Health Program. This was a relatively unsuccessful CHD intervention programme conducted over 7 years in
six matched communities (rural, urban and suburban). The strategies used were similar to those employed in the Stanford studies
but the Program was unable to reproduce the improvements in
CHD risk factors. However, this intervention was conducted at a
time when there were marked secular downward trends in CHD
risks in these communities. The 7-year intervention had little impact
on obesity. Indeed, BMI showed a strong secular increase despite
such innovative weight-control programmes as adult education
classes, a workplace weight-control programme, weight loss by correspondence course and a weight-gain-prevention programme (20).
The North Karelia Project. Initiated in 1972 in North Karelia, a
province in eastern Finland (21), this intervention was delivered
through the usual mass-media educational, workplace and schoolbased programmes but included wider community participation in
the development and implementation of projects. It set out to
integrate the programme into existing, or newly created, services
and community infrastructure. In addition, various public health,
environmental and structural and legislative measures made
healthy behaviours easier to adopt. Despite remarkable reductions
185
in CHD risk factors, which were still declining in 1992 (22), the
average BMI and the level of obesity remained similar throughout
the project, and similar trends have been observed since its conclusion (23).
Mauritius. In 1987, an NCD intervention project was started by

the Government of the developing island country of Mauritius
after a population survey revealed high levels of NIDDM and
hypertension, and moderately high levels of CHD. An intensive
communitywide prevention programme was initiated that made
extensive use of the mass media, community, school and workplace
health education activities, as well as fiscal and legislative measures
designed to encourage a healthy diet, increased exercise, smoking
cessation and reduced alcohol intake. After 5 years there had been
significant decreases in the prevalence of hypertension, cigarette
smoking and heavy alcohol consumption, an appreciable reduction
in mean population cholesterol levels, and an improvement in moderate leisure physical activity. However, the levels of overweight
(BMI 25-30) and obesity (BMI ~30) increased by 33% and 56%,
respectively, in men and by 19% and 46%, respectively, in women
(24).
The following possible reasons for communitywide CHD intervention programmes being disappointing in terms of obesity and weight
control have been suggested by Jeffery (20):
The main emphasis of the programmes was on CHD risk and not
obesity. Weight reduction was generally viewed as a method of
facilitating risk factor reduction rather than as an outcome in its
own right.
Rapidly rising secular trends in weight may have overwhelmed any
effects of interventions aimed at curbing the rise.
Powerful societal and environmental obesity-promoting factors
have developed rapidly in many societies over the last few decades,
and the intervention programmes may not have been strong
enough or sufficiently well coordinated to overcome them.
The interventions may not have reached a sufficiently large proportion of the community to have an impact on the weight status of the
population as a whole. In many communities, a large percentage
are already concerned about weight and are trying to control it, so
that even intensive interventions may not increase the number of
people actively participating in weight-control programmes.
The interventions may have been aimed at making too many
changes at once (e.g. reducing cholesterol levels, controlling blood
186
pressure, increasing physical activity, stopping smoking, etc.).

Health promotion research has shown that campaigns with a more
limited objective are often more effective in encouraging behaviour
change than those that seek to bring about simultaneous change in
several behaviours (25, 26).
9.5.3 Programmes targeting factors important in the development
of obesity
Countrywide programmes aimed at increasing physical activity
Physical inactivity and sedentary behaviour have been identified as

two important contributory factors in the development of overweight
and obesity (section 7). Increasing communitywide levels of physical
activity would therefore appear to be important in preventing further
increases in the average BMI of the whole population, in addition to
having numerous other potential beneficial effects on its health.
A review by King (27) was able to identify only a few well evaluated
and truly comprehensive communitywide programmes aimed at increasing levels of physical activity. Such programmes have usually
involved a series of interventions targeted at different segments of the
population (e.g. health care providers, the elderly, adults in general),
have used a variety of channels (print and broadcast media, face-toface instruction), and have been based in a number of different settings (neighbourhoods, workplaces, schools). However, the degree of
integration of these different interventions in reaching the whole
population has varied greatly between programmes. Evaluating the
success of any such interventions has been hampered by problems
associated with the objective assessment of physical activity, by the
failure to define the components of physical activity clearly, and by
the lack of precise goals in terms of the expected increase in activity.
Evidence from a number of communitywide CHD prevention programmes suggests that intensive intervention can increase participation in physical activity, at least in the short term. This conclusion
is supported by the results of a recent nationwide campaign to increase physical activity in Australia. The campaign, called "Exercise
- make it a part of your day" was able to demonstrate a significant
increase in the level of walking among a sample of the community and
increased readiness to undertake further exercise (28). These improvements occurred across all social classes and were most marked
in the elderly. However, a second campaign, "Exercise - take another step", introduced 1 year later in an attempt to build on the
success of the first, was not able to demonstrate any further improvements in levels of activity or willingness to participate (29).
187
Although the improvements achieved by communitywide programmes for increasing physical activity tended to be only short-lived, they
do suggest that participation in physical activity can be increased by
such programmes. Some of the limitations of communitywide CHD
prevention programmes discussed earlier are equally applicable to
programmes intended to increase physical activity. With very few
exceptions, most of the intervention strategies were aimed at improving the awareness of, and motivation to, exercise without tackling the
environmental obstacles to increased participation. The Minnesota
Heart Program did attempt to improve exercise facilities in the community and to involve community groups in establishing their own
committees to review other methods of increasing activity, but most
other programmes relied on interventions based on personal education and behaviour change. In all the programmes, the interventions
were aimed at improving the levels of leisure-time exercise, and did
not attempt to influence factors such as transportation and urban
design that have an impact on occupational and leisure-time daily
activity patterns.
The feasibility of long-term maintenance of increased physical activity and its benefits for obesity prevention remain to be demonstrated
(27, 29).
National nutrition programmes
The energy density and fat content of the food supply have been
identified as the major dietary factors implicated in the development of
obesity (section 7). In many countries, national nutrition programmes
have succeeded in dramatically altering the fatty-acid composition of
diets, and some have also been successful in achieving a small reduction in the intake of total fats. However, very few countries have been
able to reduce total fat intake to the level that would appear to be
necessary to influence the average BMI of the whole population. This
is not surprising, as very few countries have a comprehensive and
integrated national nutrition policy that can direct the actions at all
levels necessary to achieve such a dramatic dietary change.
Two countries that have instituted far-reaching national nutrition
programmes are Finland and Norway. These countries have been able
to reduce national fat intake from 42% to around 34% of total dietary
energy over the last 20 years. It is therefore encouraging to see that
the increase in obesity prevalence is slowing in Finland and that the
mean BMI is stabilizing or even falling in some areas despite simultaneous decreases in levels of physical activity (23) {Fig. 9.3). In Norway, data for all 40-42-year-old men and women recruited to a
countrywide CHD prevention programme (except Oslo) were
188
Figure 9.3
Changes in mean BMI in men and women in four areas of Finland between 1972
and 1992"
WOMEN
MEN
28
28
27
27
........... .......;......
~~:::.:-".:..
26
26
,,
25
25
24
24
1972
1977
1982
1987
1992
1972
N. KARELIA
1977
1982
1987
1992
Year
Year
KUOPIO PROVINCE
S.W. FINLAND
HELSINKI AREA
WH098280
The curves show that mean BMI for men in North Karelia and Kuopio has stabilized or even
fallen since 1987 after rapid rises in the preceding 15 years. The rise in mean BMI for women
in the same provinces observed after 1982 also appears to be levelling out. This suggests that
the communitywide changes in diet that have occurred in these provinces over the past 25
years may be contributing to a stabilization of population mean BMI.
Adapted from reference 23 with the permission of the publisher and authors.
analysed in a recent study and it was found that obesity rates had
decreased slightly in women since the 1960s (30). In Norwegian men,
obesity rates remain lower than in other European countries but, in
contrast to the Norwegian women, have increased substantially since
the 1960s.
9.5.4 Implications for future public health programmes to control obesity
What has been demonstrated by these and other lifestyle intervention

programmes is that approaches firmly based on the principle of personal education and behaviour change are unlikely to succeed in an
environment in which there are plentiful inducements to engage in
behaviours that lead to a chronic positive energy imbalance (31).
189
It would therefore seem appropriate to devote resources to pro-
grammes designed to reduce the exposure of the population to

obesity-promoting agents by concentrating on environmental factors
such as transportation, urban design, advertising and food pricing that
promote the availability of high-fat, energy-dense diets and physical
inactivity.
9.6
Lessons to be learned from successful public health

campaigns
Campaigns that have been relatively successful in dealing with public

health problems in the past include those on smoking, wearing
seatbelts, drink-driving and immunization. Analyses of these campaigns have helped to identify features that may provide valuable
guidance for public health interventions to control obesity. For example, it appears that programmes that involve government, the food
industry, the media and the community, and that are of long duration,
lead to positive and sustainable change.
Public health programmes on obesity are unlikely to achieve the same
spectacular rates of success as those associated with the control of
infectious disease; unlike pathogens, it is not feasible to eliminate all
the causes of obesity, nor is it a simple matter to isolate and manage
the exposure to major disease-promoting factors in the way that the
control of smoking and hypertension have contributed to the successful reduction in rates of CHD. Obesity, the consequence of energy
imbalance, is more tightly controlled physiologically than other risk
factors.
The main features of successful public health campaigns aimed at
behaviour change that should be considered in developing public
health interventions to control obesity are outlined in Table 9.1 (32).
9.7
Public health strategies to improve the prevention and

management of obesity
As highlighted in section 7, many features of the modern environment

are conducive to a positive energy balance. Traditional foodstuffs are
being replaced by high-fat, energy-dense food that is appetizing,
packaged attractively, preprocessed for convenience, widely advertised and relatively inexpensive. There is good evidence to suggest
that exposure to television food advertising influences food selection
among children and adolescents (37-39), and in particularly susceptible subgroups (40), and convenience foods now account for a substantial proportion of food expenditure in most developed countries.
Consumption of convenience foods is also increasing rapidly in devel190
Table 9.1
Main features of successful public health campaigns
Feature of campaign
Example
Adequate duration
and persistency
In Finland, even if changes were not spectacular in the first

10 years of the campaign (22), recent years have seen
marked improvements in CHD risk factors.
A slow and staged

approach
Campaigns to change single behaviours, e.g. cigarette

smoking, have required a series of strategies over time in
order to support the transition from awareness, through
motivation to change; experimenting and adopting a
change; and maintaining that changed behaviour. This
suggests that it is unrealistic to expect rapid changes in
complex behaviours such as eating and exercise (33).
Legislative action
In some instances, e.g. seat-belt use and drink-driving,

legislative action has been necessary to support education
campaigns aimed at changing behaviour and attitudes
(34).
Education
Improved immunization rates for many childhood diseases

have required a systematic coordinated approach
including both education and regulation. Education can
encourage and support a change in behaviour while
avoiding the feeling that change is being imposed without
reason (35).
Advocacy
Strong advocacy from respected elements within all

sectors of society has been a key feature of the decrease
in smoking rates and in passive smoking (21).
Shared
responsibility by
consumers,
communities, food
industry and
governments
In Portugal, concern for the high prevalences of

hypertension and stomach cancer led to a national
campaign to reduce the salt content of the diet. This
involved an education campaign to reduce salt use in
cooking, consumption of salted codfish and salted
sausage and, with local bakers, the salt content of bread.
Strong local support was obtained from village leaders,
doctors and nurses. After 1 year, salt consumption had
fallen markedly (by 50%) with a 5-mmHg (0.667-kPa)
reduction in average blood pressure (36).
oping countries. The Massachusetts Medical Society Committee on

Nutrition suggested that fast-food dining has become so well accepted
that recommendations that it should be reduced or eliminated are
likely to have little or no success (41). An effective approach would
therefore be to improve both the nutritional quality of the convenience foods available and the eating habits of consumers.
191
Although recent surveys indicate that involvement in leisure-time

physical activity may be increasing, the intensity and duration of such
activity is decreasing (42) and participation is often limited by the
availability and cost of using facilities. Instead, television viewing has
become the major leisure pursuit of children and adults. Furthermore,
while road networks expand, there has been little investment in cycle
paths or public parks and playing fields. Buildings are designed on the
assumption that lifts are preferable to stairs, and there is a common
perception that it is unsafe to walk or play in the streets because of
the risk of traffic accidents or crime (43). The level of occupational
activity has also been declining in recent years because an increasing proportion of the labour force is employed in more sedentary
occupations.
9.7.1 Developed countries
Since developed countries are characterized by the easy availability of

high-fat, energy-dense diets and physical inactivity, it is not surprising
that interventions based on education for behaviour change have had
limited success in controlling obesity. There is a desperate need for
interventions aimed at producing an environment that supports improved eating and physical activity habits throughout the community.
This will require a comprehensive and integrated range of strategies
in line with the examples shown in Table 9.2. The adoption of such an
approach will require general acceptance of the principle that the
prevention and management of obesity are not only the responsibility
of individuals, their families or health professionals but also require
a commitment from all sectors of society. Until this is achieved,
strategies for the prevention and management of obesity will remain
ineffective.
9.7.2 Developing and newly industrialized countries
A number of the possible environmental strategies for obesity control

suggested in Table 9.2 are highly sophisticated and assume a certain
level of infrastructure that may not exist in developing countries.
However, the underlying targets, namely to improve dietary quality
and ensure appropriate levels of physical activity, are obviously still
relevant and should be incorporated into strategies to prevent the
situation from worsening.
As in developed countries, obesity in the developing and newly industrialized countries will not be prevented simply by telling individuals
and communities to change their diet and exercise behaviours. What
is needed is a radical improvement in the social, cultural and economic environment through the combined efforts of government, the
192
Table 9.2
Possible environmental strategies for obesity control"
Area for action
Example of possible strategies
Urban design and

transportation
policies
Create pedestrian zones in city centres

Construct safe walkways and cycle paths
Introduce incentive schemes to encourage use of car
parks on the outskirts of cities in conjunction with city
public transport (e.g. park and ride)
Provide affordable facilities for securing bicycles in cities
and public areas
Improve public transport (e.g. frequency and reliability of
services)
Increase safety by improving street lighting
Install traffic-calming measures to increase safety of
children walking and playing in streets
Allocate resources to build and manage community
recreation centres
Modify building design to encourage use of stairs
Improve labelling of food products
Limit and regulate advertising to children
Introduce subsidies for producers of low-energy-dense
foods (especially fruits and vegetables)
Reduce car tax for those who take public transport to work
during the week
Provide tax breaks for companies that provide exercise
and changing facilities for employees
Provide adequate sport and activity areas and facilities,
including changing and showering areas
Ensure allocation of sufficient curriculum time to physical
activity
Ensure training in practical food skills for all children
Develop nutrition standards and guidelines for institutional
food services and catering (e.g. school meals and
workplace catering)
Promote from an early age a knowledge of food and
nutrition, food preparation, and healthy diets and lifestyles
through curricula for schoolchildren, teachers, health
professionals, and agricultural extension personnel
Limit television viewing by children
Use the media to promote positive behaviour change (e.g.
through television series)
Educate the public, especially in areas where food is
purchased, on appropriate behaviour change to reduce
risk of weight gain
Educate the public on the need for collective action to
change the environment into one that promotes rather than
inhibits exercise and healthy dietary habits
Educate the public about important factors in the
development of obesity so that victimization of the obese is
reduced
Laws and regulations

Economic incentives
School curricula
Food and catering
Promotion and
education
193
Table 9.2
(Continued)
Area for action
Example of possible strategies
Family food production
Encourage use of land in towns and cities for "family"

growing of vegetables, legumes and other nutrient-rich
crops
food industry, the media, communities and individuals. Wider issues,

such as the development of national dietary guidelines and the importation, pricing and availability of food, also call for public health
action. Improving the standard of living of all sectors of society, and
especially of often neglected native or minority populations, should
be a priority. The support of international agencies and bodies, such
as FAO, UNDP, UNICEF, WHO and the World Bank, as well as
nongovernmental organizations is essential.
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aged 40-42 years.] Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforening, 1996,
116:2152-2156.
31. Jeffery RW. Public health approaches to the management of obesity. In:
Brownell KO, Fairburn CG, eds. Eating disorders and obesity: a
comprehensive handbook. London, Guilford Press, 1995:558-563.
32. Gill TP. Key issues in the prevention of obesity. British Medical Bulletin,
1997, 53:359-388.
33. Borland R, Owen N. Regulatory innovations, behaviour and health:
implications of research on workplace smoking bans. International Reviews
of Health Psychology, 1994, 3:167-185.
34. Reynolds C. Legislation and the new public health: introduction. Community
Health Studies, 1989, 13:397-402.
35. LeFebvre CR, Flora JA. Social marketing and public health intervention.
Health Education Quarterly, 1988, 15:219-315.
36. Forte JG. Salt and blood pressure: a community trial. Journal of Human
Hypertension, 1989, 3:179-184.
37. Clancey-Hepbum K, Hickey A, Neville G. Children's behaviour responses to
TV food advertisements. Journal of Nutrition Education, 1974, 6:93-96.
38. Taras HL et al. Television's influence on children's diet and physical activity.
Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 1989, 10:176-180.
39. Woodward OR et al. Does television affect teenagers' diet? Proceedings of
the Nutrition Society of Australia, 1992, 17:48.
40. Robinson TN, Killen JD. Ethnic and gender differences in the relationships
between television viewing and obesity, physical activity and dietary fat
intake. Journal of Health Education, 1995, 26(Supp1.):91-98.
41. Massachusetts Medical Society Committee on Nutrition. Fast food fare:
consumer guidelines. New England Journal of Medicine, 1990, 321:752755.
42. Allied Dunbar, Health Education Authority, Sports Council. Allied Ounbar
National Fitness Survey: a summary of the major findings and message from
the Allied Dunbar National Fitness Survey. London, Health Education
Authority and Sports Council, 1992.
43. Moor BJ et al. Neighbourhood safety, child care and high cost of fruits and
vegetables identified as barriers to increased activity and healthy eating
and linked to overweight and income. FASEB Journal, 1996, 10(3):A562.
196
10.
Prevention and management of overweight

and obesity in at-risk individuals: an
integrated health-care services approach in
community settings
10.1 Introduction
This section deals with programmes intended for individuals and

groups already overweight or obese, or at particularly high risk of
obesity and its comorbidities. Particular emphasis is placed on an
integrated health care services approach in community settings. It
should be noted that:
Effective weight management for individuals and groups at risk of
developing obesity involves the whole range of long-term strategies
mentioned in section 8.2, namely prevention, weight maintenance,
management of comorbidities and weight loss.
No long-term trials have been conducted on the effectiveness of
obesity prevention per se through health-care services or in community settings. Preliminary evidence suggests that low-intensity
educational and incentive programmes aimed directly at preventing
weight gain in adults can have a positive impact on body weight.
An effective weight-management protocol consists of the following
five main stages: recruitment and referral; comprehensive health
assessment; goal-setting; selection and implementation of an appropriate management scheme; and monitoring and evaluation.
A personal support scheme for the overweight and obese patient,
including family involvement and trained personnel, can considerably improve the outcome in terms of weight loss and weight maintenance. Well run self-help groups also offer a useful and inexpensive form of continuing support. Commercial weight-loss organizations can be of use in weight management provided that they follow
a code of practice covering fees, the training of counsellors and the
promotion of services.
A number of well established and properly evaluated treatments
are available for obesity, including dietary management, physical
activity, behaviour modification, drug therapy and gastric surgery.
Modest energy-deficit diets appear to be more effective and acceptable than severe energy deficits in achieving and maintaining
weight loss. The effectiveness of dietary therapy is greatly improved if exercise and behaviour modification are included in an
individually tailored plan. Further evaluation of current lifestyle
197
strategies and the combined therapies is required to determine

their usefulness in achieving long-term weight loss.
Drug treatment may be appropriate for high-risk obese patients for
whom changes in lifestyle alone have been unsuccessful in reducing
weight. Weight-management drugs should be used only under
medical supervision so that the risks associated with drug treatment
can be balanced against those of persisting obesity. Long-term
administration, as part of a management strategy tailored to the
individual, would appear to be the most logical and effective way
of using weight-management drugs. However, data on the riskbenefit ratio of the long-term use of these drugs are still lacking.
Gastric surgery is considered to be the most effective way of reducing weight and maintaining weight loss in severely obese patients.
The objectives of weight-management strategies for children differ
from those for adults because consideration needs to be given to
the physical and intellectual development of the child. In contrast
to adult treatment, which may be aimed at weight loss, child treatment is aimed at preventing weight gain.
Three strategies for the treatment of obese children are available:
reduction of energy intake, increased physical activity and reduction of inactivity. Primary health-care services, families and schools
are all useful and appropriate settings for the prevention and treatment of obesity in children.
10.2 Management strategies for at-risk individuals and groups
The effective management of individuals and groups who are obese,

or who are at particular risk of becoming so, demands health professionals with expertise in obesity management. Such professionals
require knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to obesity management, and need to use the whole range of approaches shown in
Fig. 8.1, p. 157, namely: prevention of weight gain, promotion of
weight maintenance, management of obesity comorbidities and promotion of weight loss.
10.2.1 Prevention of weight gain
Prevention is probably the most effective, but currently underutilized,

approach to weight management. It was suggested in section 8 that
prevention can be divided into three levels, two of which are concerned with those who are at high risk of weight gain and its consequences, namely:
Selective prevention groups.

198
directed at high-risk individuals and
Targeted prevention -directed at those with existing weight problems and those at high risk of diseases associated with overweight.
Weight-management programmes can therefore be initiated to target
those high-risk individuals and subgroups of the population identified
in section 7.
As pointed out in section 8, there is an urgent need for intervention
studies specifically aimed at preventing weight gain in adults. So far,
the results of only two such studies have been reported. The first was
a small-scale trial in a relatively select group 1 of normal-weight individuals to determine whether a low-impact intervention involving
an educational programme (four nutrition education sessions and
a monthly weight-control information newsletter) and a financial
incentive could reduce weight gain. After 1 year, those in the treated
group had lost about 1 kg in weight, while the weights of those in the
control group remained unchanged (1). Analysis of the results
showed that the greatest impact was among men, individuals over the
age of 50, non-smokers and those with little prior experience of formal weight-loss services. The second report describes the first-year
results of the Pound of Prevention (POP) study, an ongoing continuation of the first study that adopts a similar approach but applies it to
a larger population (more than 1000 participants) over a longer period (2). Among men and high-income women, early trends in combating weight gain were encouraging and, if sustained over 3 years,
should produce a positive outcome. However, trends in the lowincome group were negative at 1 year. Further follow-up will reveal
whether the low-intensity educational strategy being tested is effective in reducing the rate of weight gain in the groups being studied,
and the study may help to identify behavioural correlates of weight
gain that could provide guidance for further research on this important topic.
Prevention at the workplace
In recent years, health education interventions at workplaces have

been a popular method of targeting high-risk individuals and groups,
but most studies have been of short duration. Longer-term interventions aimed at high-risk individuals, such as the 6-year WHO European Collaborative Trial of Multifactorial Prevention of Coronary
Heart Disease (3), in which some workers in factories underwent riskfactor screening (serum cholesterol, blood pressure, smoking) and
medical follow-up, proved to be ineffective in lowering BMI. In the
Recruited among individuals who had participated in a risk-factor screening programme.
199
USA, a 2-year study of cigarette smoking and obesity found no differences in the mean BMI or any change in BMI at workplaces that
offered weight-loss classes (on four occasions) compared with those
that did not (4).
Prevention through health care services
To date, there have been no long-term trials on the effectiveness of

obesity prevention per se through health-care services (see section 8).
However, in one practice in the United Kingdom, the provision of
healthy eating advice to pregnant women and their children restricted
the prevalence of obesity to only 2% compared with levels closer to
8% in subjects who were not offered advice (5). On a larger scale, two
controlled screening and intervention programmes aimed at reducing
CHD risk factors through instruction and support from nurses in
general practice have been evaluated recently. Both the OXCHECK
Study (6) and the Family Heart Study (7) were able to demonstrate
small but significant differences in weight of 0.5-1.5% between intervention and control groups after only 1 year. The intervention was
aimed at altering diet quality rather than serving as a specific obesitymanagement scheme.
10.2.2 Weight maintenance
Long-term weight maintenance is not only relevant to those who have

recently lost weight, but is also an important element of all weightmanagement programmes. Rossner (8) has highlighted this issue by
recognizing that the natural trend of BMI in most developed countries is to increase with age. A body weight kept constant over a
decade as a result of a weight-management programme therefore
represents a successful outcome, and is a particularly valuable
achievement in those patients who have family histories of obesity
and/or its medical complications, and who are particularly prone to
weight gain and obesity. Weight maintenance is shown in Fig. 10.1 as
one of a range of indicators of success in obesity-management
programmes. Weight maintenance and minor or modest weight loss
are more likely to be achieved than weight normalization.
10.2.3Management of obesity comorbidities
The management of obesity comorbidities can improve health outcomes regardless of whether or not substantial weight loss is achieved
(9, 10). As highlighted in section 4, such comorbidities range from
chronic debilitating, though not life-threatening, conditions to severe
health risks associated with hyperlipidaemia and hypertension. Appropriate targets relating to the management of obesity comorbidities
are suggested in Table 10.1.
200
Figure 10.1
Possible indicators of success in obesity-management programmes"
Body weight
. ~tgain
................................
r\lllel9
...........
seo~W~~,:.......................
)c.oU
~atufa
...................
Obese
Successes
Overweight
Normal
1. Sustained weight, no increase

2. Minor weight loss with dietary
change to reduce risk of
complications
3. Modest weight loss with clear
risk factor reduction, e.g.
blood pressure
4. Weight normalization (rare)
'------------ .....
Treatment strategies
Years of management or intermittent monitoring
WHO 98279
Weight maintenance or minor weight loss are successful outcomes of programmes aimed at
controlling obesity when otherwise (without intervention) weight gain would occur.
a
Adapted from reference 8 with the permission of the publisher and author.
10.2.4 Weight loss
The benefits of modest, intentional weight loss have been described in

section 5. Doctors and their patients need to recognize that moderate
but sustained weight loss in the range 5-15% of initial weight is
medically highly advantageous if long-lasting (9, 11). Substantial improvements in obesity comorbidities result, particularly in hypertension and in blood glucose and plasma lipid levels.
However, a return to the so-called "ideal body weight" has for too
long been considered by the medical profession to be both a possible
and a mandatory target for obese people. This misconception has
been transmitted to the public, and has been reinforced by the promotion by the mass media of slenderness as the ideal body image. As a
result, there is now considerable pressure on the overweight individual to return to his/her ideal, often at the lower end of the normal
(18.5-25) BMI range.
Returning to an ideal body weight is not an appropriate goal for the
following reasons:
Weight gain is a health risk, and this risk is independent of the
actual level of BMI (12).
201
Table 10.1
Appropriate targets for the management of obesity and comorbidities
Condition
Appropriate targeta
Fatness
Reduce body weight by 5-15% (smaller weight loss is also

acceptable if abdominal fat loss is sufficient to provide
metabolic benefit)
Abdominal fat
Reduce waist circumference
NIDDM and glucose

intolerance
Improvement in glycaemic control, i.e. fall in fasting blood

glucose and glycosylated haemoglobin levels, and
reduced use of oral hypoglycaemic agents and/or insulin
Hypertension
Fall in blood pressure and reduction in the need for

hypotensive agents
Dyslipidaemia
Defined improvements in LDL, fasting triglycerides, HDL

cholesterol
Sleep apnoea
Reduced sleep apnoea, improved lung function
Arthritis and back pain
Pain relief, increased mobility; reduced need for drug

therapy
Reproductive
dysfunction
Improved reproductive function with regular menstruation
Poor psychosocial
functioning
Improved quality of life; reduced anxiety; reduced

depression; improved social interaction
Tiredness, sweating,
breathlessness etc.
Resolution or reduction of severity
Exercise intolerance
Improved exercise tolerance; reduced breathlessness
Quantitative estimates of magnitude of change in target value may vary for specific
populations.
Substantial benefit, e.g. a 25% decline in mortality, can accrue from

weight losses of 5-lOkg in 1 year (10).
Physiological responses limit weight loss, so that it is unusual to
return to normal weight unless patients are very persistent and
effective in monitoring and controlling their drive to eat. Severe
dietary restrictions are unhealthy and may precipitate eating disorders in some circumstances (13).
Repeated failures to achieve and sustain substantial weight loss
may increase a patient's depression and lack of self-esteem and may
result in further weight gain.
Long-term health depends on limiting weight gain over time.
202
Clinical trials show that most patients are unable to continue losing
weight for longer than 12-16 weeks (4-Skg loss) and that weight
loss does not continue after 6 months (14). Patients are seldom
applauded or rewarded for achieving this modest loss, even though
it requires prolonged hard work and brings major health benefits.
10.3
A health-care services approach to the new concept of

weight management
In response to the failure of current obesity-management practices to

deal effectively with the problem of obesity, several expert working
groups have recently examined how the management of obesity in
health-care services could be improved.
A coordinated approach to obesity management in line with the
strategies outlined in section 9 is required. A primary goal of longterm weight maintenance should be combined with appropriate treatment for modest weight loss and the management of comorbidities in
overweight patients. Prevention of weight gain in those individuals
who are at risk of becoming obese in the future is also crucial (15-17).
It is anticipated that each country will need to modify and develop the
guidelines according to its own particular needs and health care
structures. However, the basic principles of an effective weightmanagement protocol remain the same and involve the following five
main stages:
recruitment and referral;

comprehensive health assessment;
goal-setting;
selection and implementation of an appropriate management
scheme;
monitoring and evaluation.
10.3.1 Recruitment and referral
Recruiting at-risk groups and individuals is the first step in an effective weight-management protocol. The three main methods of recruitment and referral are as follows:
Public awareness campaigns highlighting the dangers of excess

weight associated with high BMI and/or waist circumference, e.g.
through school health services, insurance agencies and employers.
Opportunistic screening of patients who present for other conditions, e.g. infections, trauma or other intercurrent illness.
Public health screening incorporated into other health service
activities and programmes, e.g. immunization, mother and infant
203
welfare clinics, and screening programmes for tuberculosis, infestations and cancer of breast and cervix.
10.3.2Comprehensive health assessment
The development of an effective weight-management strategy depends on a comprehensive analysis of the individual's degree of
obesity, his or her associated risks, coexisting illnesses, social and
personal situation, and a history of those problems and precipitating
factors that led to weight gain. The components of such an analysis
might include those outlined below.
Personal weight history
Patients can be categorized according to a simple scheme by means of

a series of standardized questions based on, e.g. current BMI; current
state of energy balance (as indicated by actual weight kinetics, i.e.
weight gain, loss or stability); weight at specific ages; age of onset of
weight gain; peak weight; lowest weight maintained for one or more
years; and number of weight-loss attempts.
The environmental circumstances and the life events that have had a
temporal relationship to weight gain or regain can be useful in developing behavioural strategies for altering lifestyles.
Physical activity
Simple questionnaires are now available that allow an assessment to

be made of levels of occupational and recreational activity (18).
Dietary patterns
Information on habitual food intake, meal patterns and reasons for

eating can be obtained from a dietary record or brief interview. Patients with eating disorders should be identified by means of questionnaires or interviews, and appropriate strategies should be included in
the management plan to deal with them.
Recommended methods of dietary assessment tend to be appropriate
only for epidemiological research and not for use in a clinical setting
(19). Recording bias, particularly under-reporting by obese subjects,
is a problem. Generally, food diaries have been adapted to include
behavioural questions and quantitative scales for describing patients'
feelings, but no single accepted format is widely used (20).
Assessment of health indicators and risk factors
The following health indicators and risk factors should be assessed:

Fat distribution. Individuals at high risk due to abdominal fat distribution can be identified by measuring waist circumference or waist:
hip ratio (section 2).
204
Smoking. Smoking is particularly important because some patients

use tobacco as a means of limiting weight gain despite the major
risks associated with the tobacco use (21).
Drug use. Several drugs used to treat medical conditions promote
weight gain (Table 7.6).
Family history. A family history of certain diseases (CVD,
NIDDM, hyperlipidaemia or hypertension) increases the risk that
obese individuals or those gaining weight are likely to develop
these complications.
Psychosocial and behavioural assessment
It is important to assess and understand the psychological and social

characteristics of the individual (22, 23) as these can be important in
determining the best weight-management strategy.

A psychosocial assessment might include the determination of occupational circumstances, the structure of the nuclear family and the
degree of family support, the reasons why the patient wishes to lose
weight, and the presence of mood disturbances. There is a need for
validated questionnaires, e.g. on depression, anxiety, eating behaviour, etc., that are appropriate to the culture concerned.
Medical examination
A routine medical examination should include physical examination,

measurement of blood pressure, and anthropometry, which usually
includes, in addition to BMI, waist circumference, hip circumference
and measurement of several skinfold thicknesses as an approximate
measure of fat stores. Waist circumference is a good indicator of risk
associated with the complications of obesity (e.g. hypertension) and is
easy to measure.
Laboratory tests
Where resources are available, the health assessment might include the analysis of blood and urine for metabolites indicative of
disease risk, e.g. plasma glucose and blood lipids. Some tests carried
out routinely in overweight and obese patients (e.g. hormone levels
for rare abnormalities) are considered to be an unwise use of
resources.
10.3.3Setting appropriate targets
The information gained from the comprehensive health assessment

should enable doctor and patient to agree on a realistic and appropriate goal. This is essential in developing a suitable management plan
for patients and groups, and for assessing progress and success.
205
The management goal should not be chosen solely on the basis of

BMI, but should also take into account the presence of other risk
factors and social and personal circumstances. This is illustrated in
Fig. 10.2, which presents an algorithm for a systematic approach to
obesity management through health care services. Experience has
shown that clearly defined practical guidelines for the general public
and for health professionals are needed to minimize resistance to, and
confusion about, setting appropriate weight goals (24).
The American Obesity Association (17), a Scottish group (16), and a
recent report of a subgroup of the International Obesity Task Force 1
all support a strategy for setting appropriate management goals based
on the following values of BMI (special values of cut-offs (see Table
2.1) for ethnic subgroups may need to be selected):
BM! 25-29.9. Where there are no risk factors such as increased
waist circumference, the emphasis should be on weight stability.

Where comorbidities are present, risk management through
changes in diet, exercise and lifestyle is necessary. Weight-loss
goals should be introduced if the health risks are not substantially
reduced within a few months.
BM! ?30. This is associated with a much higher risk of morbidity, so
that long-term weight management with some preliminary weight

loss is advisable. When health risks are extremely high (e.g. BMI
>40), and conventional treatment has failed to reduce them appropriately, patients should be referred to a specialized service so that
the need for surgery can be properly evaluated.
10.3.4Selection and implementation of appropriate management
strategies
Different strategies will be required to meet the objectives of the

different elements of weight management.
For weight maintenance, and for prevention of weight gain in at-risk
individuals, healthier eating and a more active lifestyle are necessary.
For weight loss, or to decrease body fat, a temporary negative energy
(or fat) balance must be created so that fat stores can be used to meet
energy demands. This means either reducing intake or increasing
energy expenditure or both. Management of comorbid conditions may
require special attention to be paid to specific dietary features, e.g.
salt intake in hypertensive patients.
1
206
Deslypere JP, ed. The management of obesity through health care services, 1996.
Background paper prepared by Primary Health Care-Specialist Interface subgroup of
the International Obesity Task Force.
Figure 10.2
A systematic approach to obesity management based on BMI and other
risk factors
Assess overall health risk from BMI and other risk factors, e.g. waist circumference
Overall health risk

BMI
Additional risk factors?
INo I
BMI
18.5-24.9
Management strategies
IYes I
Average:----------+
Healthy diet and advice on

preventing weight gain.
Elevated waist circumference:

institute weight management
Family history of obesity:
prevent weight gain >3kg
Increased
Smoking: stop, provide

dietary advice.
Lipids high: dietary advice
Hypertensive: diet, exercise,
weight maintenance.
Glucose intolerance: exercise,
diet, weight maintenance.
BMI
25-29.9
Increased:----------+ Weight maintenance,

healthy diet, exercise
Goal for diet, exercise, behaviour:
Moderate - - - - - primarily geared to risk management
Weight loss needed if risk not reduced
substantially within 3 months, then aim
for 5--1 0 kg over 24 weeks by mild
energy deficit.
BMI
30-34.9
Moderate----------+ Goal of 5--10% weight loss

without risk appropriate.
Severe
BMI
35-39.9
Consider very-low-calorie diet if diet,

exercise and lifestyle
programme unsuccessful after 12 weeks
in reducing all risk factors.
Use full therapy (diet, exercise,
behaviour therapy) to achieve
> 10% weight loss.
Severe
Very severe~
BMI
~40
Very severe
Refer to specialist for separate

management and consideration
of surgery if conventional treatment falls.
Aim for 20-30% weight reduction.
WHO 98272
207
The development of successful weight-management schemes requires

patient cooperation and motivation and involves five linked components:
-
a personal support scheme that includes specially trained personnel and, if possible and appropriate, family involvement;
dietary assessment followed by individually tailored advice;
analysis and modification of physical activity patterns;
behavioural advice that links environmental and psychosocial factors to the changes needed in diet and physical activity;
additional treatments may also be indicated depending on the
degree of overweight and the presence of comorbidities.
The various methods of treatment available for obesity are outlined in

section 10.5. The suitability of any particular treatment will depend on
BMI, on the targets that have been set, and on the clinical characteristics of the patients as determined in the assessment stage. A combination of several treatments is usually advisable.
10.3.5Monitoring, rewards and evaluation
Regular monitoring of patients' progress is probably one of the most

important aspects of the weight-management process; it should not
cease when patients have reached agreed goals but should form part of
continuing care. Regular review allows weight-management progress
to be supported, medical conditions to be monitored, and problems to
be dealt with at the earliest possible opportunity. It is important that
achievements in weight maintenance or weight loss (no matter how
small) are recognized, and a programme of rewards for achieving set
goals is often useful. Such rewards should be non-food-based and
agreed with a patient at an early stage of management.
An equally important aspect of any obesity-management approach
within health care systems is the constant evaluation of the efficacy of
different weight-management strategies. Systems for auditing the efficacy of current practices should be integrated into the health care
delivery structures. Such an approach requires long-term follow-up
of patients and groups recruited into different weight-management
schemes. For example, an indication of whether a weight-maintenance
strategy is successful or not could be gained by considering whether
one or more of the criteria presented in Table 10.2 have been met.
10.4
Patient support in obesity treatment
There is considerable evidence to suggest that patient support by

health professionals, peers and family members can notably increase
successful weight loss and weight maintenance (25-27).
208
Table 10.2
Potential criteria for evaluating weight-maintenance strategy
Maintenance of a stable weight over time (even if BMI is not reduced to within the
normal range)
Reduction in the number of obese people who develop obesity-related
comorbidities
Increase in the number of obese people who are successful in attaining and
maintaining modest weight losses
Reduction in the number of individuals who gain even a small amount of weight
over a specified period
Low withdrawal rates
Low relapse rates
Improvement in risk factors and comorbidities
10.4.1 Support within the health-care service
Evaluation of weight-management programmes within health-care

settings suggests that (28):
Specially trained health personnel (e.g. nurses, dietitians, trained
lay persons) produce better results than untrained staff involved in
routine medical management.
Visits at short intervals, rather than monthly or at longer intervals,
are of greater value.
With most patients, better responses are achieved in a group
setting.
Thus trained personnel who have frequent contact with patients,
preferably as part of a support group, are recommended. In addition,
efforts should be made to prevent guilt feelings associated with the
obese state.
10.4.2/nvotvement of family
A number of studies have shown that the body weight and attitudes of
a patient's spouse can have a major impact on the amount of weight
lost and on success in weight maintenance. Black & Threlfall (29)
found that overweight patients with normal-weight partners lost significantly more weight than those with overweight partners. They also
noted that success was greater in those patients whose partners had
also lost weight (even though they were not included in the
programme), suggesting that recommended changes were being actively supported by the spouse. Similarly, Pratt found that drop-out
rates were reduced when the patient's spouse was included in a
weight-control programme (30).
209
Additional evidence for the important role of family support in successful weight management is provided by the work of Epstein and
colleagues (31) on the treatment of childhood obesity.
10.4.3Self-hetp and support groups
In recent years there has been a large increase in the number of selfhelp and support groups. These range from national organizations
such as Overeaters Anonymous (OA) in the USA and Anonymous
Fighters Against Obesity (ALCO) in Argentina, Chile, Paraguay,
Spain and Uruguay, to smaller workplace, neighbourhood and
community-organized self-help groups. These groups generally consist of people with weight or eating problems, and operate at little or
no cost and without professional intervention. They all offer considerable social support but vary in their philosophy. Unfortunately, although such groups are immensely popular, there has been no
objective assessment of their value in weight management. However,
well run self-help groups are a useful and inexpensive form of continuing group support; they encourage long-term participation and
can be a useful adjunct to professional care.
Advocacy groups for overweight and obese persons, such as the Size
Acceptance Network in the USA, serve a different function from selfhelp groups, aiming to reduce the stigma and social difficulties that
obese patients suffer. Recently, a patient support and advocacy group
called EUROBESITAS has been established to lobby for the rights of
obese patients in Europe.
10.4.4 Commercial weight-toss organizations
Numerous commercial organizations offer a mixture of instruction,

guidance and support in weight loss. They are usually not run by
health professionals, although they may be based on material produced by them and on advice from professional consultants. All such
organizations rely on counsellors (who vary in their level of training)
to provide services to individual clients for a fee. Regular sessions
cover a wide variety of subjects ranging from specific information on
dieting, nutrition and physical activity, to techniques for changing
behaviour. The cost of such programmes varies enormously, from a
nominal fee paid at each session to very large sums paid on joining to
purchase special dietary supplements and prepackaged foods that
form part of the programme.
There is some concern about the regulation of commercial weightloss organizations. There is a risk of financial exploitation, and counsellors may be completely untrained. Attempts to evaluate the
210
effectiveness of commercial programmes have resulted in few objective assessments because of problems of confidentiality, drop-out
rates and lack of interest among the organizations themselves (32).
The US Food and Nutrition Board Committee has suggested that
there is a need for guidelines on voluntary accreditation within the
commercial weight-loss industry (15). The misleading marketing of
weight-loss programmes has often been a cause of complaints to
consumer organizations.
Nevertheless, many well run programmes provide the support and
interest needed for long-term involvement in weight management
that cannot be provided by health professionals. Commercial weightloss organizations should therefore be required to comply with a code
of practice in relation to fees, training of counsellors and promotion of
their services. They should also report the outcomes of their
programmes. Health professionals may consider the judicious use of
such organizations in obesity management after assessing their merit,
using the criteria suggested by the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines
Network (Annex 1).
1o.s
Treatment of obesity
A wide variety of treatments for obesity are available, including

dietary management, physical activity, behaviour modification,
pharmacological treatment and surgery. However, there is a need to
control the promotion of dangerous and deliberately deceptive approaches to weight loss or control, such as special weight-loss aids,
equipment, "miracle cures", and certain drugs and treatments often
offered through unlicensed weight-loss centres.
10.5.1 Dietary management
The education of overweight patients about foods and eating habits

that facilitate weight control is an essential component of all weightmanagement strategies. Dietary intake and patterns should be assessed to identify areas requiring special attention such as nutritional
adequacy, meal size, meal frequency and meal timing.
Dietary restriction represents the most conventional "treatment" for
overweight and obesity. It usually induces weight loss in the short
term, but its poor long-term effectiveness, especially when used in
isolation, is widely recognized (33). Diets based on healthy eating
principles, including the individualized modest energy-deficit diet and
the ad libitum low-fat diet, appear to have a better long-term outcome. Further randomized, controlled, long-term dietary intervention
studies are needed to identify the optimal diet for the treatment of
211
obesity (i.e. weight loss, weight maintenance and management of

comorbidities ).
Individualized modest energy-deficit diets
This dietary scheme is based on inducing an energy deficit that patients can sustain over the long term. A deficit of 500-600kcal1h/day
(2092-2510kJ/day) is usually well tolerated. When used correctly, this
approach has resulted in larger weight losses over time than attempting more severe energy restriction (34).
The specific energy intake prescribed to patients is based on an estimate of their initial maintenance requirement minus the agreed deficit. Maintenance estimates should be calculated from the equations of
Lean & James (35), based on body weight and age, rather than from
self-reported dietary intakes since these are notoriously unreliable
when obtained from obese subjects (36). After subtracting the deficit,
the energy prescription can be translated into a dietary plan using a
food exchange table based on healthy eating principles, i.e. approximately 20-30% or less energy as fat, 15% as protein, and 55-60% or
more as carbohydrate (primarily complex carbohydrates). The assessment of current dietary patterns should be used to construct and
educate the patient to follow a dietary plan appropriate to his or her
circumstances. The prescribed energy level of such plans should generally not be lower than 1200kcal1h/day (5021kJ/day).
Low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets
The main argument in favour of low-fat diets is their beneficial effect

on CVD risk factors (37). However, such diets have also been shown
to cause weight loss proportional to pretreatment weight, and to the
long-term reduction in dietary fat content. Astrup et al. (38), for
example, found that a reduction of 10% in fat energy could produce
an average 5-kg weight loss in obese subjects, although a number of
other studies have failed to give the same result.
After major weight loss, an ad libitum low-fat high-carbohydrate diet
programme has been shown to be superior to calorie-counting in
maintaining weight loss 2 years later (39). Replacing a proportion of
the fat by protein instead of carbohydrate may further increase the
weight loss.
Severe/moderate energy-deficit diets
The standard practice in many lay and commercial systems for slimming is for the patient to be prescribed a standard energy intake,
normally 1000-1200kcal1h/day (4184-5021kJ/day). These intakes are
usually selected by dietitians or doctors in accordance with nutritional
212
guidelines for healthy people and are prescribed, unchanged, to large

numbers of adults. However, not all patients have the same energy
requirements, and the magnitude of the energy deficit imposed by the
diet will be greater with higher energy requirements. Furthermore,
energy intake at this level is usually associated with a deficient intake
of several nutrients.
Based on published studies, diets providing fewer than 1200 kcal1h
(4184kJ) induce up to 15% weight loss over 10-20 weeks (40) but,
without a maintenance programme, most of the weight lost is regained (41). Patients are rarely assessed for longer than a year, and
most of the trials that induce this rate of weight loss have, in fact,
combined behaviour modification with the dietary regimen. Drop-out
rates tend to be high, although major improvements in compliance
and continuing involvement in weight management can be made if
associated support systems are established to cope with patients'
needs.
Very-low-calorie diets
Very-low-calorie diets (VLCDs) can induce rapid weight loss over a

3-month period but do not seem particularly conducive to long-term
weight maintenance (42, 43). They should usually be reserved for
achieving rapid short-term weight loss on medical grounds (e.g. before surgery) in patients with a BMI >30. The use of VLCDs by
individuals without medical supervision is unwise and should not be
recommended.
Concerns over loss of body protein/lean tissues with traditional
VLCDs highlighted the need for a minimum energy level and the
proper formulation of such diets. Nowadays, VLCDs usually provide
a ketogenic (high-protein, high-fat, low-carbohydrate) diet with an
acceptable minimum energy level of 800kcal1h/day (3347kJ/day) in
the form of protein-, mineral- and vitamin-enriched meals or drinks.
Research has shown that VLCDs with energy levels of less than
800kcal1h/day (3347kJ/day) do not produce greater weight loss, and
are less well accepted, than diets providing this energy level (44).
10.5.2Physical activity and exercise
The combination of exercise and diet is more effective than either

method alone in promoting fat loss (45). Exercise also limits the
proportion of lean tissue lost in slimming regimens (46) and limits
weight regain (45, 47), while physical activity may favourably affect
body fat distribution (48).
Physical activity has numerous beneficial effects regardless of BMI
and age. Individuals who engage in moderate or vigorous exercise at
213
Table 10.3
Suggested mechanisms linking exercise with the success of weight
maintenance
Increased energy expenditure
Better aerobic fitness
Improved body composition:
fat loss
preservation of lean body mass
reduction of visceral fat depot
Increased capacity for fat mobilization and oxidation
Control of food intake:
short-term reduction of appetite
reduction of fat intake
Stimulation of thermogenic response:
resting metabolic rate
diet-induced thermogenesis
Change in muscle morphology and biochemical capacity
Increased insulin sensitivity
Improved plasma lipid and lipoprotein profile
Reduced blood pressure
Positive psychological effects
a
Reproduced from reference 50 with the permission of the publisher. Copyright John Wiley &
Sons Ltd.
least once a week are less likely to have NIDDM or CVD, hip fractures and mental illness, and have lower mortality rates than those
who are least active. Integrated exercise schemes consistently show
the beneficial effects of physical activity and exercise on both physiological and psychological well-being (48, 49).
Table 10.3 summarizes the possible mechanisms whereby exercise can
improve the success of weight maintenance.
Achieving appropriate levels of physical activity
Evidence now suggests that the activity required to maintain and lose
weight, and to gain physiological and psychological health benefits,
may not have to be as vigorous as was previously believed (48, 51).
Indeed, the US Surgeon General's report (48) stressed that lowintensity, prolonged physical activity, such as purposeful walking for
30-60 minutes almost every day, can substantially increase energy
expenditure, thus reducing body weight and fat.
Physical activity strategies should aim at encouraging higher levels of
low-intensity activity and reducing the amount of leisure time spent in
sedentary pursuits. The main goal is to convert inactive children and
adults to a pattern of "active living". Two general schemes can be
envisaged for promoting physical activity:
214
Measures to increase modest daily exercise, as in walking or cycling,

where the energy expended amounts to about an extra 60200kcal1h/h (125.5-251 kJ/h) depending on the intensity of the exercise. In sedentary overweight and obese patients, an extra 3 hours
daily of any activity involving standing rather than sitting increases
the 24-hour energy expenditure from 40% to more than 75% above
the BMR (52).
Physiological fitness training with moderate/vigorous exercise, usually involving group-supervised exercise sessions of 45-60 minutes
each three times a week. Extensive studies show that these regimens have very substantial benefits but are difficult to sustain in
obese patients.
More intensive degrees of exercise need to be considered on an
individual basis in overweight and obese patients. Breathlessness and
musculoskeletal problems are common in the obese, and will prevent
them from sustaining exercise that uses a substantial amount of
energy.
Improving compliance
Analysis of randomized trials of public involvement in physical activity programmes (53) has indicated that compliance is improved by:
-
home-based activities rather than structured programmes in a

special facility or centre;
encouragement by frequent professional contact either by telephone or home visit;
social support, particularly from family members (16);
informal and unsupervised exercise;
low/moderate-intensity exercise;
promoting walking as a form of exercise;
taking exercise from time to time during the day rather than in a
single burst of continuous activity (48).
On this basis, additional walking or other modest exercise may prove

most conducive to maintaining compliance in overweight and obese
patients. The first three items in the list are also relevant to improved
dietary compliance.
10.5.3Behaviour modification
The primary goal of behavioural treatment is the improvement of

eating habits (i.e. what to eat, where to eat, when to eat, how to eat)
and levels of physical activity. Behavioural treatment is considered
to be an essential component of any adequate obesity-treatment
programme (54).
215
Method of treatment
Behavioural treatment has a number of core features:

Self-monitoring: the detailed, daily recording of food intake and the
circumstances in which it occurs provides the essential information
needed for selecting and implementing intervention strategies. It
also forms part of the behaviour modification process, through
evaluation of progress, and identification of personal and environmental influences that regulate eating and physical activity.
Stimulus control: limiting exposure to cues that prompt overeating.
For example, patients are instructed to separate eating from other
activities so that they remain fully aware of their actions.
Emphasis on improved nutrition: rigid dieting is discouraged in
favour of balanced and flexible food choices.
Cognitive restructuring: a method of identifying and modifying dysfunctional thoughts and attitudes about weight regulation.
Study of interpersonal relationships: assists in coping with specific
triggers for overeating and in increasing social support for weight
control.
Relapse prevention: a continuing process designed to promote the
maintenance of treatment-induced weight loss.
Evaluation of treatment outcome
Behavioural treatment has been more intensively researched, and its

effects more thoroughly documented, than any other obesity intervention. It is effective in changing behaviour in the short term and
consistently produces significant weight loss in patients with mild to
moderate obesity. In the long term, however, results are not encouraging, virtually all adult patients returning to their pretreatment
baseline within 5 years (44). Long-term outcomes in children, by
contrast, are more promising (55); they indicate that behavioural
changes resulting from family-based therapy last 10 years or more.
Further research is needed on ways of increasing the effectiveness of
behavioural techniques.
Limitations of behavioural treatment
It is thought that behavioural treatment is ineffective in the long term

because patients fail to follow the self-regulatory strategies that they
learn in treatment. Some investigators have therefore stressed the
need for lifelong treatment; obesity is a chronic condition and treatments, whether behavioural, dietary or pharmacological, do not work
when they are not used (54).
216
/
Other benefits of behavioural treatment
Despite its limitations in producing long-term weight loss,

behavioural treatment is of value in modifying behaviours linked to
adverse health effects and psychological distress, without necessarily
causing weight loss in obese individuals. It can also promote
behaviours that directly affect health, such as reducing fat intake and
increasing physical activity, although there are also problems in sustaining them in the long term. Finally, behavioural treatment can be
used to help obese patients to become more assertive in coping with
the adverse social consequences of being overweight, to enhance their
self-esteem, and to reduce their dissatisfaction with their body image
regardless of their lack of success in losing weight (56).
10.5.4Drug treatment
The information presented here was up to date at the time of writing,

but drug treatment of obesity is constantly changing.
Drug treatment of obesity has often been seen as controversial,
largely because of failure to understand how it should be used. However, it has been re-evaluated in recent years and the concept of longterm drug treatment has emerged as an adjunct to other weight-loss
therapies and as a way of helping to maintain body weight over time
(57).
Due to the paucity of data, no particular strategy or drug can yet be
recommended for routine use. However, the availability of new evidence of the long-term efficacy and safety of several drugs currently
awaiting approval is likely to change the situation. When the pharmacological treatment of obese patients is prescribed in the future, it will
be important to consider the effect of the drug on both weight loss (or
weight maintenance) and comorbidity, as well as any detrimental
side-effects (I 4, 58).
Principles of drug treatment
In any discussion of the rational use of drugs for the treatment of

obesity, it is important to understand the following:
Currently approved drugs are best used in conjunction with diet
and lifestyle management. Drugs used for weight management assist patient compliance with dietary, exercise and behaviour-change
regimens.
Weight-management drugs do not cure obesity; when they are
discontinued, weight regain occurs.
Drugs for weight management should be used under medical
superv1s1on.
217
Drugs for weight management do not work if they are not taken
(59). Weight regain can be expected when drugs are discontinued.
Drug treatment should be considered part of a long-term management strategy for obesity tailored to the individual. Risks associated with drug treatment should be balanced against those of
persistent obesity.
Drug treatment should be continued only if it is considered to be
safe and effective for a given patient. Current criteria in the United
Kingdom suggest that the use of weight-management drugs for
longer than 3 months should be considered only if a total weight
loss of at least 10% has been achieved from the start of the episode
of managed care (i.e. including weight loss achieved as a result of
the obligatory 3-6 months of lifestyle intervention before drug
treatment is initiated (60). However, this principle has been criticized as being unrealistic in most cases.
Drug treatment for obesity can be considered when patients:
-
have a BMI >30 and treatment with diet, exercise and behaviour
regimens has proved unsuccessful;
have substantial comorbidities associated with a BMI >25 that
have persisted in spite of an improved diet, exercise and
behavioural treatment.
Weight-management drugs are not recommended for use in children

as there are insufficient data on their effects on eating behaviour
during the peripubertal period or in the longer term.
Types of drugs for weight management
Weight-management drugs can be broadly divided into two typesthose that act on the central nervous system to influence feeding
behaviour, appetite and other mechanisms, and peripherally acting
drugs such as those that target the gastrointestinal system and inhibit
absorption or enhance a feeling of fullness. As there is no published
evidence to suggest that bulk-forming agents taken in a medicated
form (e.g. methylcellulose) have any beneficial long-term effect in
reducing weight, they are not discussed further here. However, increasing dietary fibre as part of dietary modification may have a role
in energy restriction.
Weight-management drugs currently available in certain countries
are summarized in Table 10.4. A number of them are considered in
greater detail below. Many additional agents are currently under
investigation.
In 1997 concerns were raised about the safety of two widely used
weight-management drugs, fenfluramine and dexfenfluramine, be218
Table 10.4
Anti-obesity drugs currently available for use
Principal mode of action
Centrally acting:
noradrenergic
combined serotonergic and noradrenergic
Peripherally acting:
lipase inhibitor
Peripherally and centrally acting
thermogenic and anorectic
Drug
Phentermine
Sibutramine
Tetrahyd rol ipostatin
Ephedrine; caffeine
cause of their association with heart valve problems when used alone
or in combination with phentermine. As a result of these concerns the
manufacturer agreed to withdraw both treatments from the market.
These drugs are therefore not considered in this report.
Efficacy of currently available drugs
A clinically useful drug for obesity treatment should have the following characteristics (61):
demonstrated effectiveness in reducing body weight and weightdependent disease; 1

tolerable and/or transient side-effects;
no addictive properties;
remains effective when used long-term;
no major problems after many years of administration;
known mechanisms of action(s);
reasonable cost.
Data from a study by Astrup et al.

(62) demonstrate the sustained effects of ephedrine in combination
with caffeine on body weight when administered with a restrictive
diet over a 1-year period. Although ephedrine and caffeine have
thermogenic effects, around 75% of weight loss was attributed to the
anorectic properties of this combination.
Ephedrine and caffeine combination.
Tetrahydrolipostatin is a pancreatic lipase inhibitor developed specifically for weight management. It blocks the cleavage of triglycerides in the gastrointestinal tract and thereby prevents
Tetrahydrolipstatin.
Details of safe and efficacious dosages are beyond the scope of this report; appropriate
medical references should be consulted. Drug approval agencies such as the Food and
Drug Administration in the USA require drugs to produce at least 5% greater weight loss
than a placebo, or to result in significantly more subjects achieving a 5-10% weight loss
than can achieve a s'1milar loss with a placebo.
219
the absorption of up to 30% of ingested dietary fat (63). Undigested

fat is excreted unchanged in the faeces, causing an increase in intestinal side-effects (such as fatty/oily stools, abdominal pain and
flatulence) especially if the ingested diet has a high fat content.
Tetrahydrolipostatin has been shown to produce dose-dependent
weight loss with improvements in total and LDL cholesterol and
glucose tolerance in short-term trials (64, 65). It does not have the
CNS side-effects of centrally acting drugs, but concern has been
raised about the possibility of carotenoid malabsorption with extended use.
Phentermine. Phentermine acts as an anorexiant agent and original
reports indicated good short-term weight loss when the drug was used
in continuous or intermittent therapy for periods of up to 36 weeks
(66, 67). However, side-effects such as insomnia, irritability, agitation,
tension and anxiety occur in some patients and limit its use. There
have been few recent trials of phentermine as a single anti-obesity
agent and its widest use was in combination with fenfiuramine before
this agent was withdrawn from the market. 1
Sibutramine. Sibutramine is a new drug developed for the treatment
of obesity that combines the beneficial effects of serotonergic and
adrenergic drugs. Controlled trials in obese patients have shown
consistent results, and dose-related weight loss (at the optimum
drug dose of 10-15 mg daily) was maintained for up to 12 months (68,
69). Weight loss is accompanied by a reduction in waist: hip ratio and
by improvements in blood lipids and glycaemic control (70). Sideeffects of sibutramine are moderate, and include nausea, dry mouth,
constipation, dizziness and insomnia. Small increases in blood pressure and heart rate have also been reported in patients taking
sibutramine, suggesting that these parameters need to be closely
monitored. However, in longer trials, blood pressure has been shown
to decrease with loss of weight in sibutramine-treated groups (71).
Drugs not appropriate for treatment of obesity per se
A number of drugs have a history of inappropriate and unsafe use

for the promotion of weight loss (58). Diuretics, human chorionic
gonadotropin (HCG), amfetamine, dexamfetamine and thyroxine
are not treatments for obesity and should not be used to achieve
weight loss. Thyroxine should never be prescribed for obesity, only
220
Concerns about the possible side-effects (heart valve problems) associated with the use
of fenfluramine and dexfenfluramine, either alone or in combination with phentermine,
led to the withdrawal of these drugs from the market.
for biochemically proven hypothyroidism. Metformin and acarbose

may be useful in the management of obese NIDDM patients but have
no proven efficacy for obesity alone.
Fluoxetine, serraline and other selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have a legitimate use in the treatment of a depressive condition
associated with obesity but not for obesity itself. They may help some
patients lose weight and are preferred to tricyclic agents for overweight depressed patients. Fluoxetine is licensed in certain countries
for the management of bulimia nervosa.
Appropriateness of long-term drug treatment
While the clinical tolerance of most drugs appears to be acceptable,

their long-term use raises some safety concerns. The importance of
this issue has been highlighted by the recent reports of heart valve
problems in a small number of patients taking fenfluramine and
dexfenfluramine (72).
As with drugs prescribed for long-term treatment in other chronic
diseases (e.g. hypertension, NIDDM), the risk associated with longterm drug use for weight management must be weighed against
the potential benefits for each individual. In addition, weightmanagement drugs should be withdrawn in poor responders after 1-3
months of evaluation. Preliminary research suggests that it is possible
to identify patients at an early stage of treatment who are most likely
to respond (71). However, more research is needed before criteria can
be recommended. Long-term outcomes also need to be assessed.
Comparative trials are necessary as new drugs are introduced for
therapy, particularly with regard to reduction in comorbidities.
10.5.5 Gastric surgery
Surgery is now considered to be the most effective way of reducing

weight, and maintaining weight loss, in severely obese (BMI >35) and
very severely obese (BMI >40) subjects. On the basis of cost/kg of
weight lost, surgical treatment has been estimated, after 4 years, to be
less expensive than any other treatment (estimates cited in reference
73).
Surgical procedures
A variety of different surgical methods are available for the treatment

of obesity, generally based on restriction of energy intake, on malabsorption or maldigestion of food, or on a combination of both. It is
now agreed that vertical-banded gastroplasty and Roux-en-Y gastric
bypass are effective and safe, with follow-up of 15 years or more
in some series. The full evaluation of long-term safety and efficacy
of biliopancreatic bypass and laparoscopic adaptations of restrictive
221
(e.g. adjustable banding) and combined procedures is still awaited.

Intestinal bypass surgery is no longer recommended as a primary
surgical method of treating obesity (16, 74).
Patient selection
Patients should be selected for surgery in accordance with the following principles:
Non-surgical treatment including dietary measures and weightreducing drugs should be tried first.
Gastrointestinal surgery for obesity should be used only on well
informed and motivated patients with acceptable operative risks.
Patients should have a BMI >40, or >35 together with high-risk, lifethreatening comorbid conditions.
Surgery should be undertaken only by an experienced surgeon
in an appropriate clinical setting under expert medical surveillance, and with access to ventilator facilities and the support of a
multidisciplinary team.
Improvements after surgery
Weight loss of more than 20kg generally occurs within 12 months of

operations, although some weight is regained within 5-15 years.
Analysis of the results of the SOS study in Sweden showed weight
losses of 30-40 kg over 2 years depending on the surgical procedure
used (75).
Gastric bypass surgery ameliorates obesity-related morbidity in the
majority of obese patients. In the SOS study, surgical treatment produced remission of NIDDM in 68% of obese patients and of hypertension in 43%. For those who did not have risk factors at baseline,
a 30-kg weight loss was associated with a 14-fold risk reduction for
NIDDM, and 3-4-fold risk reductions with respect to the development of hypertension and other cardiovascular risk factors (75). In
addition, surgical treatment has been shown to prevent progression of
impaired glucose tolerance to NIDDM (76) and to reduce mortality
from diabetes 4-5-fold.
Quality of life measures, including employability, median wage, number of sick days, social interaction, mobility, self-image, assertiveness
and depression, are also improved in the majority of patients after
antiobesity surgery. Recently, patients in the surgical intervention
group of the SOS study reported marked improvements in social
interaction, perceived health, mood, anxiety, depression and obesityspecific problems compared with controls (75).
222
Risks associated with surgery
Risks associated with gastric surgery include micronutrient deficiencies, neuropathy, postoperative complications, "dumping syndrome"
and late postoperative depression (74). It has been suggested,
however, that most of the complications associated with this type of
surgery, unlike most other surgery, are treatable with behavioural
therapy. Kral (77), for example, notes that the vomiting seen in
approximately 10% of patients after surgery is due more to eating
behaviour than to stenosis or stricture of the gastroplasty stoma.
Operative mortality in experienced centres is a fraction of the mortality observed in unoperated patients and in those remaining on waiting
lists for operations. 1
Liposuction of unwanted subcutaneous fat depots is being used extensively for cosmetic reasons but offers no medical benefit in terms of
comorbidities linked to obesity.
10.5.6 Traditional medicine
Many countries have traditional medical systems that provide treatment in addition to, or in place of, conventional medical services.
Traditional treatments for a range of illnesses, including obesity, are
often available and are commonly used by people in developing countries. Although there are limited data on the efficacy of the medicines
used, there is anecdotal evidence of their potential value. For example, some preparations of plant products containing capsaicin have
been shown to increase energy expenditure by increasing thermogenesis (78). More research is required to evaluate the potential use of
such traditional remedies.
Caution is necessary, however. A variety of herbal preparations
widely promoted by commercial organizations as traditional remedies
have been shown to be of little medical value and, in some cases, to
contain dangerous substances.
10.5. 7 Other treatments
A number of other treatments have been promoted as effective in the

management of weight but very little objective research has been
done on them. In uncontrolled trials, acupuncture and yoga have been
shown to assist weight loss, and an assessment by Rand & Stunkard
indicates that support from psychoanalysts can produce weight loss
Kral JG. Surgery. In: Guy-Grand B, ed. Management of obesity and overweight, 1996.
Background paper prepared by Obesity Management subgroup of International Obesity
Task Force.
223
and maintenance in their patients (79). There is no evidence that

hypnotherapy for obesity is any more effective in the long term than
the usual diet and behavioural treatment programmes (80). However,
hypnosis may improve self-image and possibly help patients to adhere
to a prescribed diet (81).
10.6
Management of obesity in childhood and adolescence
The objectives of weight-management strategies for children differ

from those for adults because consideration needs to be given to the
physical and intellectual development of the child. Whereas adult
treatment may target weight loss, child treatment targets the prevention of weight gain. Lean body mass increases as children age, so that
reducing fat mass or keeping it constant will result in a normalization
of body weight.
The treatment of obese children to prevent them from becoming
obese adults can be classified as targeted prevention (see section 8),
because childhood obesity substantially increases the risk of adult
obesity (see section 7). Treatment of childhood obesity should therefore be considered together with selective preventive strategies aimed
at high-risk groups of children as well as part of a universal approach
to the community-wide prevention of childhood obesity.
10.6.1 Evidence that treatment of childhood obesity prevents later
adult obesity
Evidence that the treatment of obesity in children can be successfully

managed over the period from childhood through adolescence to
adulthood is provided by the work of Epstein and colleagues. In a
series of four studies, data from 158 families with children at high risk
for significant adult obesity were followed up 10 years after their
initial treatment. At the time of the initial treatment, the children
were between 6 and 12 years of age, averaged 40-50% overweight
and, with the exception of one study group, had at least one obese
parent. Different treatment conditions were investigated but all involved a diet plan together with intensive group behaviour modification over an 8-12 week period, followed by monthly maintenance
sessions for 6-12 months (55).
After 10 years of follow-up, six out of nine actively treated groups
showed a net reduction in percentage overweight of between 10%
and 20% (Fig. 10.3). Inclusion of a parent with the child in treatment
and introduction of exercise into the basic diet and behaviour change
programme enhanced the long-term effects.
It may be premature to make broad generalizations about the efficacy
of obesity treatment in children, especially as it may not always be

224
Figure 10.3
Changes in percentage overweight after 5 and 10 years of follow-up for obese
children randomly assigned to 10 interventions across four studies
A. 25~======~----------~
20
B. 25~==========~--------~
Non-specific
15
20
15
-, 10
-~
----
Non-obese parents
Obese parents
?f. 0
-~
-5
c:n
c
J!!-10
u
-15
-20
-25
-12
-25 L__L__L_j___l_L_.l__L_j___t_L__L_..J
-12 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132
Months
c.
D.
25
Diet
20
-, 10
'Qj
~ 5
~
0
-~
Q)
c:n
Diet+
Lifestyle
-----
15
Months
20
15
~ 5
-~
Q)
c:n
0
-5
c
J!!-10
c
6-10
-15
-15
-20
-20
-25
-12
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132
Months
'Qj
'#.
-5
Calisthenics only
-,10
25 r-;::========::::;---------~
-25 l_,...L__l__L__j_L_,...L__l__L__jL__L-...L--12 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120132
Months
WH098278
The 95% confidence interval for the total sample of children is represented by dotted lines.
The interventions all contained a diet and behavioural change component plus the specific
approaches under investigation. In the four separate studies in which Epstein et al. examined
the impact of different interventions for obesity management in overweight children, all had the
same basic diet and behavioural change intervention for 8-12 weeks and monthly review for
6-12 months. Study A compared results for children alone, children with one parent, and
nonspecific directions. Study B compared relative weight changes in children of obese and
non-obese parents. Study C examined the benefit of adding lifestyle (unstructured exercise) to
a diet programme. Study D compared the effectiveness of different forms of exercise in aiding
weight control. Both children and parents were followed up 5 and 10 years after the initial
programme. The results show excellent long-term benefits and demonstrate the value of family
support and a positive family environment and the value of unstructured exercise in weight
control in children.
a
Adapted from reference 55 with the permission of the publisher and authors. Copyright 1994
by the American Psychological Association.
225
feasible to provide the high level of support given in the studies

mentioned above, and the children in these studies were recruited
from largely white, middle-class, two-parent families. However,
they provide grounds for optimism in that comprehensive behavioural treatments appear to offer enduring benefits to obese children.
A longitudinal trial to determine whether results like those achieved
by Epstein and colleagues can be replicated at other sites and in other
populations, and whether tangible health benefits, in both the health
and social domains, can be demonstrated, would be highly desirable.
10.6.2Treatment of overweight and obese children
Overweight and obesity during childhood are among the major risk
factors for the development of obesity in adulthood, since approximately 30% of obese children become obese adults (82). Childhood
obesity affects health, resulting in reduced fitness, increased blood
pressure and adverse blood lipid levels (see section 4). In addition to
the immediate health effects, obesity in adolescence increases the risk
of adult morbidity and mortality 50 years later, independently of the
effects of adult obesity (83, 84). These are powerful reasons for developing effective obesity therapies for children.
Reducing energy intake and improving dietary quality
It is generally recommended that only small reductions in energy
intake should be made in the diet of the overweight child, as an

adequate intake of both energy and nutrients is required by children
to ensure that normal growth and development are not compromised.
Treatment is recommended only for children over 6 years of age.
Limiting portion sizes of energy-dense foods is a useful method of
reducing energy intake in obese children. This can be achieved by
preparing and serving smaller quantities of such foods or by encouraging free consumption of fruits and vegetables so that energy density
is reduced without imposing dietary restrictions. However, only limited data support the suggestion that an increased variety of food
intake results in a decreased intake of energy-dense foods (85).
Limiting take-away and ready-prepared foods, which tend to be particularly high in fat and energy-dense, may also help to control
energy intake. These foods are making increasingly large contributions to the energy intake of children and adolescents around the
world (86-88). Children should also be encouraged to eat fewer highfat snacks, and to avoid obtaining a large proportion of total energy
from sweetened beverages or even to choose unsweetened drinks or
water. One study on prepubertal children in which an attempt was
made to reduce fat intake over 12 months did not achieve weight loss
226
or reductions in weight gain in the target group despite achieving

some dietary change (89). However, the children concerned were not
obese.
Promoting the consumption of food high in complex carbohydrates,
low in fat and low in energy density is likely to be important in
preventing excessive energy consumption in children. It is important to encourage all children, whether overweight or not, to adopt
healthy eating habits from an early age and to continue them into
adulthood.
Increasing physical activity
Research on the value of exercise in treating childhood obesity is very

limited, and much remains to be elucidated, particularly in relation
to the long-term benefits of physical activity in the control of weight
through childhood and adolescence. Available evidence suggests that
exercise alone is not sufficient for the effective management of childhood obesity, and that a combination of diet and exercise is more
effective for long-term control (90).
All children should be encouraged to be as active as possible. However, it appears that energy expenditure can be increased more effectively through increased general activity and play rather than through
competitive sport and structured exercise (90). Obese children are
particularly sensitive to peer attitudes towards body shape and exercise performance, and have the same problems as adults in adhering
to long-term exercise programmes. Since this tends to limit their
willingness to be involved in team sports (91), it is likely to be counterproductive to pay too much attention to the reintroduction of
competitive sports at schools to improve the poor levels of physical
activity in schoolchildren.
Some of the methods that have been used to improve adherence to
exercise programmes in adults may be equally useful for children.
These include making the activity enjoyable by increasing the choice
of type and level of activities, as well as by providing positive
reinforcement of their achievements during exercise rather than only
after the successful completion of the exercise session (90).
Increasing physical activity in children is associated with benefits
other than raising energy expenditure. For example, being active may
compete with snacking and thereby make adherence to a diet easier.
In addition, resistance training may have effects on body composition
that complement, or are superior to, those of aerobic exercise alone;
resistance training will lead to an increase in lean body mass, thus
increasing metabolic rate and total daily energy expenditure, and may
227
have positive effects on body image (90). Thus, although improvement in aerobic fitness is likely to be beneficial, it should not be an
overriding concern.
Reducing time spent in sedentary behaviour
New research is beginning to indicate that the amount of time spent in

sedentary behaviour or inactivity may play an even more important
role than low levels of physical activity in the genesis of children's
weight problems. The rapid rise in overweight in childhood has been
accompanied by an explosion of non-active leisure pursuits for
children such as computer and video games. Television is the principal cause of inactivity for most children and adolescents in developed
countries and has been linked to the prevalence of obesity (92, 93).
Television viewing is also associated with increased intake of highenergy snacks (93, 94). It is of particular interest that the study by
Epstein et al. (95) clearly showed that short-term weight losses were
greater in a group of children who were instructed to reduce sedentary behaviour than in children who were encouraged to increase
exercise. Reducing physical inactivity also resulted in improved maintenance of weight loss and a more positive attitude towards vigorous
activity.
Role of drugs and surgery
Limited information is available on the use of aggressive forms of

treatment such as drugs and surgery for children and adolescents,
although such treatment may be indicated in children with potentially
fatal complications of obesity.
10.6.30besity-management programmes for children
Three main types of obesity-management programmes aimed at

children can be identified- family-based, school-based, and primarycare-based programmes. These are considered in detail in the following paragraphs.
Family-based programmes
As the family environment is one of the strongest influences on a

child's risk of obesity, a logical setting for childhood obesity prevention and management would appear to be the families of susceptible
children. Indeed, the provision of appropriate education on eating
and lifestyles to parents has been shown to significantly reduce the
prevalence of obesity in children of participating families for periods
of 3 months to 3 years when compared with families not receiving
advice and support (96). Parental attitudes, purchase and presentation of food, modelling of eating and exercise habits, and support
228
Figure 10.3
Changes in percentage overweight after 5 and 10 years of follow-up for obese
children randomly assigned to 10 interventions across four studiesa
A.
25~======~----------~
20
Non-specific
15
B. 25~==========~--------~
20
15
Non-obese parents
----
Obese parents
-20
-25
-12
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132
-25 L_.,L_,__j__J..__J,_L_..L..__J__L,__J,_L__l__J
-12 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132
Months
Months
c.
D. 25~========~--------~
25
Diet
20
15
...
-5, 10
~
Diet+
Lifestyle
20
Calisthenics only
-----
'#. 0
.:
Q}
-5
Ol
-10
-15
-20
-25
-12
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132
Months
-25 L_...l.__L_----'-___J.-J...._...l.__L_----'-___J.-J...._...L_--'
-12 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108120132
Months
WH098278
The 95% confidence interval for the total sample of children is represented by dotted lines.
The interventions all contained a diet and behavioural change component plus the specific
approaches under investigation. In the four separate studies in which Epstein et al. examined
the impact of different interventions for obesity management in overweight children, all had the
same basic diet and behavioural change intervention for 8-12 weeks and monthly review for
6-12 months. Study A compared results for children alone, children with one parent, and
nonspecific directions. Study B compared relative weight changes in children of obese and
non-obese parents. Study C examined the benefit of adding lifestyle (unstructured exercise) to
a diet programme. Study D compared the effectiveness of different forms of exercise in aiding
weight control. Both children and parents were followed up 5 and 10 years after the initial
programme. The results show excellent long-term benefits and demonstrate the value of family
support and a positive family environment and the value of unstructured exercise in weight
control in children.
a
Adapted from reference 55 with the permission of the publisher and authors. Copyright 1994
by the American Psychological Association.
225
feasible to provide the high level of support given in the studies

mentioned above, and the children in these studies were recruited
from largely white, middle-class, two-parent families. However,
they provide grounds for optimism in that comprehensive behavioural treatments appear to offer enduring benefits to obese children.
A longitudinal trial to determine whether results like those achieved
by Epstein and colleagues can be replicated at other sites and in other
populations, and whether tangible health benefits, in both the health
and social domains, can be demonstrated, would be highly desirable.
10.6.2 Treatment of overweight and obese children
Overweight and obesity during childhood are among the major risk
factors for the development of obesity in adulthood, since approximately 30% of obese children become obese adults (82). Childhood
obesity affects health, resulting in reduced fitness, increased blood
pressure and adverse blood lipid levels (see section 4). In addition to
the immediate health effects, obesity in adolescence increases the risk
of adult morbidity and mortality 50 years later, independently of the
effects of adult obesity (83, 84). These are powerful reasons for developing effective obesity therapies for children.
Reducing energy intake and improving dietary quality
It is generally recommended that only small reductions in energy
intake should be made in the diet of the overweight child, as an

adequate intake of both energy and nutrients is required by children
to ensure that normal growth and development are not compromised.
Treatment is recommended only for children over 6 years of age.
Limiting portion sizes of energy-dense foods is a useful method of
reducing energy intake in obese children. This can be achieved by
preparing and serving smaller quantities of such foods or by encouraging free consumption of fruits and vegetables so that energy density
is reduced without imposing dietary restrictions. However, only limited data support the suggestion that an increased variety of food
intake results in a decreased intake of energy-dense foods (85).
Limiting take-away and ready-prepared foods, which tend to be particularly high in fat and energy-dense, may also help to control
energy intake. These foods are making increasingly large contributions to the energy intake of children and adolescents around the
world (86-88). Children should also be encouraged to eat fewer highfat snacks, and to avoid obtaining a large proportion of total energy
from sweetened beverages or even to choose unsweetened drinks or
water. One study on prepubertal children in which an attempt was
made to reduce fat intake over 12 months did not achieve weight loss
226
for active leisure pursuits can all affect a child's eating and exercise
pattern.
Strong evidence for the important role of family support in childhood
obesity and weight-management programmes comes from a number
of successful interventions. Flodmark et al. found improved weight
loss or weight maintenance in children aged 10-11 years treated
with family therapy when compared with those treated alone (97),
and Wadden et al. obtained similar results in African-American teenage girls (98). A more detailed analysis by Epstein et al. (55) suggested that weight regulation is improved if at least one parent is
treated together with the child. When the effect of targeting an overweight child alone was compared with that of targeting a child and a
parent together, the latter showed significantly less weight gain at 5
years follow-up, and were still below the relative weight (weight
corrected for height) at which they started the study at 10 years
follow-up (Fig. 10.3B). Furthermore, children of non-obese parents
were better able to obtain and maintain reductions in relative weight
(Fig. 10.3C). Epstein's findings are especially important because relative weight was maintained throughout adolescence when weight gain
can be a major problem. Other investigators have also found improved effectiveness of family-based programmes in preventing the
progression of childhood obesity.
By targeting obesity-prevention measures on the family of susceptible
children there is the added advantage that all members of the family
are likely to benefit. This helps to increase social support and to
reduce the feelings of isolation that may develop when one child is
treated separately from the rest of the family. In addition, parents
are able to exert a higher degree of external control over the child's
eating and activity patterns under these circumstances (54).
School-based programmes
The introduction of obesity-prevention programmes in schools is justified for a number of reasons. A large proportion of children attend
school (although this percentage varies from country to country) and
much of a child's eating and exercise takes place in this setting.
Schools can also assist in identifying children who may be at risk of
obesity through educational programmes and visits to the school doctor at key developmental stages. Furthermore, the start of schooling
corresponds to a period of increased risk for excessive weight gain as
children begin to become independent and vary their diet and activity
patterns in line with their new circumstances.
The results of various school-based obesity-intervention programmes
targeting high-risk children and adolescents suggest that these can
229
be successfully implemented and can reach substantial numbers of

children in need of obesity prevention (99-101). Obese children in
treatment groups have consistently shown greater reductions in
percentage overweight than untreated obese controls. Results over
periods of 3-6 months are modestly encouraging and would seem to
justify additional research in this area.
Increasing physical activity through integrating regular exercise programmes into school curricula is a strategy that has often been suggested as an effective means of improving the weight and health status
of children (102, 103). The evaluation of a 2-year project in South
Australia, where a 50-minute session of daily physical activity was
introduced into a number of primary schools, demonstrated that children who took part in the programme were fitter, slimmer and
had lower diastolic blood pressure (boys only) than their nonparticipating counterparts (104). A subsequent study in which classroom lessons on nutrition and physical health were included was also
able to demonstrate improvements in indices of fitness and body fat
levels (105). Similar programmes have been introduced in schools in
the USA (90) and Singapore (106), where short-term results appear
promising. However, despite these beneficial results, the maintenance
of these programmes within the school curricula in the long term has
proved difficult due to competition for school time, the need for
teacher/adult supervision, and financial limitations.
Primary-care-based programmes
The delivery of childhood obesity-management programmes through

primary care has received little formal assessment so far, and its
potential role appears to be undervalued and underutilized (16). One
general practice in the United Kingdom has had some success in
reducing obesity by providing healthy eating advice to pregnant
women and their children. Obesity prevalence was only 2% within the
patient sample compared with 8% among patients who did not receive advice (5).
Frequent contact with health professionals from an early age has been
identified as one of the most important strategies for the effective management of overweight and obese children, which suggests
that similar strategies might be equally effective in prevention (107).
Regular assessment and contact through home visits provide an excellent opportunity for education about the potential lifestyle risk factors associated with obesity, as well as for advice, encouragement and
support to help parents to adopt healthy household eating and exercise patterns at an early stage in life. It has been suggested that obesity
prevention should start with appropriate advice about breast feeding,
230
weaning and diet for toddlers (108). In many countries, child health
nurses already play a crucial role in monitoring the development of
infants and young children.
Special considerations in the management of childhood obesity
The value of prudent attempts to prevent excessive weight gain in

normal-weight children, or to reduce weight gain in children who are
already obese, is evident. Consideration of the following issues is of
vital importance when developing interventions aimed at preventing
or treating obesity in young children.
Risk of malnutrition. As adequate nutrition is essential for promoting healthy growth, only small reductions in overall energy intake
are recommended where such an approach is advised.
Risk of eating disorders. It is important that interventions do not
encourage the type of dietary restraint that has been linked to the
development of eating disorders and other psychological problems
(54).
Risk of isolation. It is important that overweight children are not
ostracized and made to feel any more different from their peers
than is necessary, either at home or at school (84). The message that
everyone is potentially at risk of obesity may help, but there is also
a need to generate family awareness of the need for healthier
lifestyles without suggesting that the one and only goal is to lose
weight.
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100. Foster GD, Wadden TA, Brownell KD. Peer-led program for the treatment
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101. Resnicow K. School-based obesity prevention. Population versus high-risk
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699:154-166.
102. Sleap M, Warburton P. Physical activity patterns of primary schoolchildren:
an interim report. London, Health Education Authority, 1990.
103. James WPT. A public health approach to the problem of obesity.
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104. Dwyer T et al. An investigation of the effects of daily physical activity on
the health of primary school students in South Australia. International
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105. Worsley A, Coonan W, Worsley A. The first body owner's programme: an

integrated school-based physical and nutrition programme. Health
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106. Rajan U. Management of childhood obesity- Singapore perspective. In:
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Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Society for the Study of Obesity (MASSO), 1996,
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107. Davis K, Christoffel KK. Obesity in preschool and school-age children.
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87:123-130.
238
PART V
Challenges for the new

millennium
239
11.
Conclusions and recommendations
11.1 General conclusions
1. Obesity (BMI ~30) is a disease that is largely preventable through

lifestyle changes. Overweight (BMI ~25) is a major determinant of
many other NCDs including NIDDM, CHD and stroke, and increases the risk of several types of cancer, gallbladder disease,
musculoskeletal disorders and respiratory symptoms. In some
populations, the metabolic consequences of weight gain start at
modest levels of overweight. The costs attributable to obesity are
high not only in terms of premature death and health care but also
in terms of disability and a diminished quality of life.
2. The prevalence of overweight and obesity is rapidly increasing

worldwide. In many developing countries overweight and obesity
coexist with undernutrition. This constitutes a double burden for
these countries, and their efforts to combat both should be carefully balanced. There is an urgent need to prevent or reverse
unhealthy trends in diet and physical activity patterns in developing countries.
3. Some individuals may become overweight and obese because they
have a genetic or biological predisposition to gain weight readily in
an unfavourable environment. However, the fundamental causes
of the obesity epidemic are societal, resulting from an environment
that promotes sedentary lifestyles and the consumption of high-fat,
energy-dense diets. These two principal factors interact so that,
while it is possible for people who sustain moderately high levels of
physical activity throughout life to tolerate diets with a higher fat
content (e.g. 30-40% of energy), increasing evidence suggests that
lower fat intakes (e.g. 20-25% of energy) are needed to minimize
energy imbalance and weight gain in sedentary individuals and
societies.
4. Prevention of overweight and obesity should begin early in life,
and should involve the development and maintenance of lifelong
healthy eating and physical activity patterns. In adults, the prevention of overweight should include efforts to prevent further weight
gain even when BMI is still in the acceptable range. Healthy
lifestyles, combining balanced diets of lower energy density (increased amounts of vegetables, fruits, grains and cereals) with
increased levels of physical activity (such as walking) and reductions in sedentary behaviour, should be promoted. Prevention is
not just the responsibility of individuals but also requires structural
changes in societies.
240
5. The management of individuals who are already obese should

combine a primary goal of long-term weight maintenance with
appropriate treatment to achieve a modest weight loss (5-15% of
initial weight) and the management of comorbidities. Individuals
and groups at high risk of becoming obese in the future because
they are overweight (BMI 25-29.9) should also receive medical
attention but here the emphasis should be on prevention of weight
gain. Appropriate support and assistance for making sustainable
dietary, physical, activity and other healthy lifestyle changes
should be an intrinsic part of all management strategies. Drug
therapy and surgery can be considered as adjuvant therapy for
obese individuals who fail to respond to primary management
approaches, especially when there is concurrent risk from other
NCDs. However, many countries lack health care delivery systems
to implement such a management system. There is an urgent need
for adequate training of health professionals and selected lay
people, based on the principles outlined above and recognizing
that stigmatization of the obese is counterproductive.
6. Obesity cannot be prevented or managed solely at the individual
level. Communities, governments, the media and the food industry
need to work together to modify the environment so that it is less
conducive to weight gain. Such partnerships are required to ensure
that effective and sustainable changes in diet and everyday levels
of physical activity can be achieved throughout the community.
This approach will also allow obesity prevention and management
strategies to be harmonized with existing public health policies and
programmes for the control of all NCDs.
11 .2 Recommendations
The recommendations in sections 11.2.1-11.2.3 are mainly concerned

with identifying priority areas for further research, while those in
section 11.2.4 deal primarily with the strategies and actions required
for the effective management of the global epidemic of obesity.
11.2.1 Defining the problem of overweight and obesity
International classification of overweight and obesity
1. General recommendations
To ensure that meaningful comparisons between populations can be
made, the classification of overweight and obesity should be standardized on an international basis, as follows:
Adults. The existing WHO classification of adult body weight status

based on BMI should be used with minor modifications. The cat241
egory of "overweight" (BMI ~25) should be subdivided into

"preobese" (BMI 25-29.9) and "obese" (BMI ~30). The category
of obese should be further subdivided into the following three
classes:
-
Obese class I: BMI 30-34.9;

Obese class II: BMI 35-39.9;
Obese class Ill: BMI ~40.
Children. The existing WHO classification of overweight and obesity in children based on weight-for-height values of +2SD or more
of the median NCHS (National Center for Health Statistics) reference curves should be used until a new consensus is reached and a
more appropriate classification system can be recommended. Caution is needed when interpreting BMI data collected from populations with stunted children, especially in countries undergoing a
rapid nutrition transition, as the relationship of BMI to adiposity
may be altered.
2. Priority areas for further research
Priority should be given to research on:
The establishment of the most useful standard method of defining
childhood and adolescent obesity, which should then be used to
formulate new reference curves for growth and to evaluate existing
and future child and adolescent data from around the world.
The validity and tracking of simple measures of excess weight, e.g.
BMI-for-age and sex in children and adolescents from different
societies and ethnic groups.
The relationship between BMI and adiposity in stunted children.
BMI standards for the elderly (>60 years or >80 years).
International comparisons of obesity rates
Cross-sectional studies of nationally representative samples should be
regularly undertaken in all WHO regions to facilitate international
comparisons of adulthood obesity rates, to predict the magnitude of
the future obesity problem, and to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of intervention strategies. These studies should document BMI
and waist circumference and assess progressively the variety of intervention strategies under way. In particular:
Countries in the WHO African Region, Region of the Americas,
South-East Asia and Eastern Mediterranean Regions should give
priority to regular larger-scale surveys of body weight status.
242
Data should be recorded according to a standard protocol, i.e. using

the WHO classification system for body weight status (BMI ~25 for
overweight and BMI ~30 for obesity), and based on measured
rather than self-reported height and weight.
Data should be age-standardized and divided according to urban
and rural areas.
Where appropriate, data should be linked to morbidity and mortality outcomes classified, for example, in accordance with ICD-10. 1
Countries with the highest obesity rates and/or with rapidly rising
secular trends in obesity should be identified within each WHO
region and highlighted in regional reports.
Waist circumference measurements should be included as a useful
additional tool for more readily identifying NCD risk.
11.2.2 Establishing the true costs of the problem of overweight
and obesity
Health impact of overweight and obesity in adults
The health consequences of overweight and obesity should be fully
evaluated in all parts of the world and among different ethnic groups,
as follows:
While short-duration studies are useful for identifying the major
health impact of obesity, long-term monitoring of health indicators
should be carried out to determine the full range and impact of
obesity-related illnesses, and where the outcome (e.g. cancer) is the
result of a multistage process in which obesity has an effect on
some, but not necessarily all, stages.
Standard procedures for estimating the relative risks of chronic
health problems associated with weight gain and obesity should be
established.
The prevalence and relative risks in different societies of the
chronic health problems associated with obesity should be documented.
The psychosocial impact of weight gain should be re-evaluated
using modern psychosocial techniques.

1
International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. Tenth

Revision. Vol. 1. Tabular list. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1992.
243
The relationship between obesity and the development of certain

cancers.
The non-fatal health consequences associated with obesity, especially in developing countries.
The interactions between measures of fatness (specifically BMI and
waist circumference) and both dietary factors and physical activity
in determining obesity comorbidities.
The sex- and population-specific relationships between measures
of fatness (specifically BMI and waist circumference) and both
morbidity and mortality.
Health impact of overweight and obesity in childhood
The health consequences associated with overweight and obesity in
childhood and adolescence should be investigated further.

The long-term health consequences of childhood obesity and its
persistence into adulthood.
The implications of early excess weight gain in different populations and ethnic groups.
The nature of the association between rapid childhood growth,
early menarche and the later risk of breast cancer.
Health impact of weight loss
The health benefits and risks of weight loss should be further investigated through well controlled studies that distinguish between unintentional weight loss (which may result from underlying disease or
smoking) and intentional weight loss.

An accurate definition of the health benefits and risks for both
morbidity and mortality of sustained weight loss (i.e. for more than
2 and preferably 5 years).
The quantification of the health impact of varying degrees of weight
loss in individuals, with and without coexisting disease.
244
The impact of weight cycling on obesity-associated illness and the

likelihood of future weight gain.
The impact on intentional weight loss of alterations in the diet and
physical activity.
Economic impact of overweight and obesity
The economic burden of overweight and obesity should be systematically evaluated in all regions of the world using a standardized methodology. For this reason:
A variety of health care systems should be evaluated so that different countries and regions can apply the analyses to their own national and regional policies.
Wherever possible, assessments should include an analysis of the
broader social and quality of life issues relating to excess weight
gain.
8. Priority area for further research

The evaluation of the relative cost-effectiveness of different management strategies aimed at both the prevention and treatment of
excess weight gain.
11.2.3Understanding how the problem of overweight and obesity
develops
Providing a basis for intervention strategies
To enable the global problem of obesity to be tackled in a coherent
and progressive manner, it is essential that the range of factors implicated in its development, from both an individual and a population
perspective, should be fully characterized and investigated through a
coherent strategy of short- and long-term studies. In particular, the
relative importance of dietary factors and physical activity patterns
associated with a modern lifestyle should be investigated further.

Dietary factors, including:
the influence of the energy density and/or fat content of the diet
on the propensity to consume excess energy relative to require245
ment, and how this relationship is influenced by different levels

of physical activity;
the quantitative significance of sweetened foods or sweet-fat
combination foods in promoting a passive overconsumption of
energy;
how taste preferences and eating patterns (including those associated with the consumption of energy-dense diets) develop
during childhood and whether these are associated with any
specific developmental stages;
the optimum ranges of energy density and nutrient/energy ratios
for children's diets that will promote appropriate growth and
development but prevent the development of excess adiposity.
Physical activity patterns, including:

-
the relationship between levels of physical activity and future

weight gain;
factors that promote and reinforce physical inactivity;
the relationship between obesity and sedentary behaviours such
as television viewing, video games and computer work in a wide
variety of countries;
quantification of the amount of voluntary energy expenditure necessary to prevent weight gain in adults in sedentary occupations;
changes in food selection in the general population with relatively small changes in levels of physical activity.
Societal and cultural factors influencing energy intake and physical

activity patterns, including:
-
the effects on the development of overweight and obesity in

children of existing programmes to combat undernutrition in
developing countries;
the relative influence of different aspects of modernization on
the energy density of the food supply and levels of physical
activity;
the influence of socioeconomic status, including educational
level, on the risk of becoming obese;
the process of nutrition transition and its impact on average
body weight in a population.
Genetic/biological factors involved in weight gain and obesity,

including:
-
246
the identification of genes and mutations responsible for the

susceptibility of some individuals and groups of people to
weight gain in conjunction with an energy-dense diet and a
sedentary mode of life;
the relative importance of vulnerable periods of life for the

development of obesity.
11.2.4Addressing the problem of overweight and obesity
Focus on prevention strategies
Considerably more attention should be given to strategies aimed at
preventing weight gain and obesity, since these are likely to be more
cost-effective and have a greater positive impact on the long-term
control of body weight than those designed to deal with obesity once
it has fully developed. In particular:
Action should be taken at the following three levels to develop
effective strategies for the prevention of overweight and obesity:
universal/public health prevention (directed at everyone in the

population);
selective prevention (directed at subgroups of the population
with an above-average risk of developing obesity);
targeted prevention (directed at high-risk individuals with existing weight problems but who are not yet obese).
Small-scale pilot projects should be carried out to determine the

practicality and appropriateness of specific intervention strategies.
Practical evaluation of obesity-prevention programmes should be
based on the assessment of changes in the prevalence of overweight
(BMI >25) combined with short-term process indicators of dietary
change and physical activity levels. Assessment of changes in the
prevalence of obesity (BMI >30) and its comorbidities is less reliable but may be useful in the long term. Changes in the incidence of
obesity and mean population BMI are more accurate measures of
change in population weight status that can be used for a more
detailed and closely controlled analysis.
Current obesity-prevention initiatives should be evaluated, their
limitations identified and their designs improved.
Improving physical activity levels and healthy eating
Prevention of overweight and obesity should begin early in life, and
should be based on the development and maintenance of lifelong
healthy eating and physical activity patterns. In particular:
Schools should promote physical activity by incorporating a
variety of recreational activities into teaching curricula. They
247
should also encourage healthy eating through training in practical

food skills and by adopting healthy nutrition standards for school
meals.
Community facilities should be designed and traffic and town planning policies developed to facilitate everyday walking and exercise
in adults and children.
W orkplaces should promote physical activity and healthy eating by
providing exercise and changing facilities, adopting healthy nutrition catering standards, and initiating other appropriate schemes.
Interventions aimed at the prevention and management of obesity
should be carefully designed so that they do not cause undue fear of
fatness and precipitate eating disorders.
Consumers should be educated and encouraged to demand food
products of high nutritional quality.
The strategies adopted should be population-specific, especially
with respect to economic circumstances. Thus, for example, the
main aim of physical activity interventions in developing countries
should be to prevent the decline in such activity that usually accompanies economic development, whereas the main emphasis in affluent societies should be on discouraging existing patterns of sedentary behaviour.
Need for public health strategies
Population-based (universal) public health strategies should be

adopted that aim to reduce the obesity-promoting aspects of the
environment and to improve a population's knowledge of obesity and
its management. In particular:
Strategies should be multisectoral; governments, regional authorities, the food industry, the media, communities and the consumer
should all be engaged in collaborative programmes.
Strategies should aim to produce an environment that supports
improved eating and physical activity habits throughout the entire
community.
Novel and practical strategies that go beyond traditional health
promotion programmes should be investigated.
Strategies should aim to achieve the optimum population median
BMI range of 21-23. Adults in developing countries are likely to
gain greater benefit from a median BMI of 23, whereas adults in
affluent societies with a more sedentary lifestyle are likely to gain
greater benefit from a median BMI of 21.
248
Strategies should be adapted to the specific characteristics of each

community or country.
Improving the standard of living of all sectors of society, and especially of often neglected native or minority populations, should be
a priority for public health action in developing and newly industrialized countries.
Lessons learned from past campaigns on other public health problems (e.g. poor immunization rates and drink-driving) should be
carefully considered and incorporated when designing public
health strategies for controlling obesity.
Need for health care and community services
Obesity-management programmes should be established within

health care and community services to target individuals and subgroups of the population who have developed, or are at risk of developing, obesity and its comorbidities. In particular:
Primary health care services should play the dominant role, but
hospital and specialist services are also required to deal with very
high-risk individuals.
Steps should be taken to ensure the clear communication between
the different levels of health care service that is essential.
Weight-management services and protocols should be based on the
principles outlined in this report but should be adapted to the
circumstances of each country.
In addition to strategies aimed at modest weight loss, strategies for
weight maintenance and management of obesity comorbidities
should be an integral part of management programmes for individuals with existing overweight and obesity.
Simple anthropometric methods, e.g. waist circumference and
waist:hip ratio, should be used to identify overweight individuals at
increased risk of obesity-related illness due to abdominal fat accumulation.
The efficacy of management schemes should be evaluated over a
period of at least 1 year and preferably 2-5 years.
Priority should be given to:

Further investigation to determine whether documented successful
management programmes for overweight in children and adoles249
cents can be replicated m different situations and in different

populations.
Improved training in the management of obesity
The training of all health care workers involved in the management of

obese patients should urgently be improved. In particular:
Obesity should be viewed as a serious medical condition in its own
right; it is a disease that can be treated with lifestyle modification
and effective management. Obesity should be treated even when
comorbidities are not present.
Negative attitudes of health care professionals towards obesity and
obese patients should be overcome, since the stigmatization of
obese individuals adds to the existing burden of this disease.
Need for evaluation
Systematic assessment and evaluation should be a routine part of all
interventions aimed at preventing and managing overweight and
obesity. In particular:
The effectiveness of different weight-management therapies should
be evaluated in clearly defined groups of patients and in the social
context of each country.
The effectiveness of all public health programmes aimed at preventing weight gain in the population should be evaluated.
Sound experimental design and statistical principles should be used
to critically evaluate the impact of each proposed intervention.
Priority should be given to:

Further long-term studies to evaluate the risk-benefit ratio of prolonged and integrated management schemes (with and without the
use of drugs) for weight loss and maintenance in terms of mortality,
comorbidities, quality of life and cost-effectiveness.
Shared responsibility
Since obesity cannot be prevented or managed solely at the individual

level, governments, the food industry, international agencies, the
media, communities and individuals should all work together to
modify the environment so that it is less conducive to weight gain. In
particular:
250
Steps should be taken to ensure the synergistic interaction of

national policies on nutrition and the control of NCDs in the prevention and management of overweight, obesity and associated
comorbidities.
The activities of the health, educational and agricultural sectors
should be coordinated to ensure effective government action for
the prevention and management of overweight.
Strategies for integrated approaches to the prevention and management of overweight should include consumer education, the development and implementation of dietary guidelines, food labelling,
nutrition and physical education in schools, altered feeding
programmes, and efforts to ensure truth in advertising.
The food industry should be responsible for developing and promoting affordable healthy food products.
Governments should enforce adherence to regulations governing
the marketing, advertising and labelling of food.
The media should not induce or exacerbate eating disorders in
societies where they do not exist or encourage the stigmatization of
the obese in societies where this is unknown.
The support of international agencies and nongovernmental organizations dealing with NCDs other than obesity should be sought,
since this is essential for developing successful public health efforts
to control obesity in developing and newly industrialized countries.
Acknowledgements
The Consultation expressed deep appreciation to the International Obesity Task
Force (IOTF) chaired by Professor W.P.T. James of the Rowett Research Institute
(Aberdeen, Scotland) who was instrumental in the preparation and convening of
the Consultation. The Consultation also thanked the authors of the background
documents for the Consultation: Professor P. Bjorntorp, University of Gothenburg,
Gothenburg, Sweden; Professor G.A. Bray, Louisiana State University, Baton
Rouge, LA, USA; Or K.K. Carroll, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario,
Canada; Or A. Chuchalin, Pulmonology Research Institute, Moscow, Russian
Federation; Or W.H. Dietz, New England Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA; Or G.E.
Ehrlich, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Or J.O. Hill, University
of Colorado, Denver, CO, USA; Dr F.X. Pi-Sunyer, St. Luke's Roosevelt Hospital
Center and Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Dr W.H.M. Saris, University
of Maastricht, Maastricht, Netherlands; Or J.C. Seidell, National Institute of Public
Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, Netherlands; Professor P. Zimmet and
colleagues, International Diabetes Institute, Caulfield, Victoria, Australia.
251
The Consultation also recognized the valuable contributions made by the following
individuals who provided comments on the background documents: Professor R.L.
Atkinson, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wl, USA; Professor H.W. Blackburn,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Or K. Ge, Institute of Nutrition and
Food Hygiene, Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine, Beijing, China;
Professor A. Kissebah, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wl, USA; Or A.
Kurpad, St Johns Medical College, Bangalore, India; Professor J. Mann, University
of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; Professor K. Norum, University of Oslo, Oslo,
Norway; Or A. Prentice, Dunn Clinical Nutrition Centre, Cambridge, England;
Professor S. Rossner, Karolinska Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden; Professor P.S.
Shetty, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, England; Or L.
Sj6strom, Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden; Professor T.I.A. Sorensen,
Copenhagen Municipality Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark; Or K. Steyn, Chronic
Diseases of Lifestyle, Tygerber, South Africa; Professor M. Wahlqvist, Monash
Medical Centre, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; Or R. Weinsier, University of Alabama,
Birmingham, AL, USA; Or D.F. Williamson, Centers for Disease Control and
Alabama, Birmingham, AL, USA; Or D.F. Williamson, Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA; Or R. Wing, Western Psychiatric Institute and
Clinics, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. In addition, the Consultation expressed its gratitude
to the following nongovernmental organizations, which also reviewed the
background documents and provided valuable comments: International
Association for Adolescent Health; International Diabetes Federation; International
Life Sciences Institute. Comments were also kindly provided by the South African
Society for Obesity and the World Sugar Research Organization.
Special acknowledgement was made by the Consultation to the IOTF secretariat
members Or T. Gill and Ms V. Lakin for the time they spent in preparing for the
Consultation and finalizing the report.
The Consultation expressed special appreciation to Or S. Dehler, Ms R. Imperial
and Mrs P. Robertson of the Programme of Nutrition, World Health Organization,
Geneva, Switzerland, for their efforts in preparing for the Consultation and in
revising and formatting the report, and to Mr J. Akre, also of WHO, and Mr J. Bland
for their editorial assistance.
252
Annex
Criteria for evaluating commercial institutions
involved in weight loss 1
Appropriate criteria for evaluating commercial institutions involved
in weight loss should include:
1. Identification and recording of an individual's BMI or an equivalent weight-for-height before advice is given.
2. Methods of record-keeping and analysis open to scrutiny by a
health centre if patients are to be referred from the centre. Data
on the health centre's patients should be available on request.
3. Use of an admission protocol that excludes those within the desirable weight range from a weight-reduction programme.
4. Identification of an individual or family-based approach to weight
reduction.
5. Provision of clear written as well as oral guidance on the dietary
regimen, used together with details of the expert(s) used in drawing up such guidance.
6. Specification of the methods used, if any, for encouraging physical
activity.
7. Definition of the nature of behavioural modification programmes, the frequency of visits, the use of group or individual support
and the origin of the behavioural scheme.
8. Whether food additives, drugs or other medicaments (e.g. ephedrine, caffeine homoeopathic remedies, and nutrient supplements) are used in association with therapy.
9. Methods for verifying therapeutic claims made in advertisements
or in weight-management programmes.
10. The methods chosen to alert the members' doctors to untoward
effects.
11. Any plans for coordinated activity with a health centre on weight
management.
12. The experience, training and qualifications of staff.
13. The success criteria offered to clients.
Adapted, with the permission of the publisher, from Obesity in Scotland. A rational
clinical guideline recommended for use in Scotland. Edinburgh, Scottish Intercollegiate
Guidelines Network, 1996.
253

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This report contains the collective views of an international group of experts and

WHO Technical Report Series

OBESITY: PREVENTING AND MANAGING

World Health Organization

WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

(NLM Classification : WD 710)

World Health Organization 2000

Structure of the report

Part I The problem of overweight and obesity

Defining the problem

Global prevalence and secular trends in obesity

Establishing the true costs of the problem of overweight

Health consequences of overweight and obesity in adults

5.8 Weight cycling

Economic costs of overweight and obesity

Factors influencing the development of overweight and obesity

Understanding how overweight and obesity develop

Addressing the problem of overweight and obesity

Principles of prevention and management of overweight and obesity

Strategies for addressing the problem of overweight

Prevention and management of overweight and obesity in

Prevention and management of overweight and obesity in at-risk

Challenges for the new millennium

Conclusions and recommendations

WHO Consultation on Obesity

Professor D-S. Akram, Department of Paediatrics, Dow Medical College, Civil

Or J. Seidell, Department of Chronic Diseases and Environmental Epidemiology,

Or S. Rabeneck, Technical Secretary, ACC/SCN, Geneva, Switzerland

Or G.A. Clugston, Director, Programme of Nutrition, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland

Or A. Robertson, Acting Regional Adviser, Nutrition Policy, Infant Feeding and

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare

physical activity level

to review global prevalence and trends of obesity among children

In order to achieve these objectives, six peer-reviewed background

infectious disease, as one of the most significant contributors to ill

Structure of the report

Themes of the report

The problem of overweight

Defining the problem

Why classify overweight and obesity?

The graded classification of overweight and obesity is valuable for a

meaningful comparisons of weight status within and between

Body mass index

BMI is a simple index of weight-for-height that is commonly used to

The classification of overweight and obesity, according to BMI, is

A BMI of 30 or more is now widely accepted as denoting obesity. In

Although it can generally be assumed that individuals with a BMI of

Low (but risk of other clinical

height that allow BMI to be corrected to take account of unusual

BMI can be considered to provide the most useful, albeit crude,

Waist circumference and waist:hip ratio

Abdominal fat mass can vary dramatically within a narrow range of

men have on average twice the amount of abdominal fat than is

Waist circumference (cm)

Additional tools for the assessment of obesity

In addition to the anthropometric assessment methods previously

Classifying obesity in childhood

2.6.1 Use of growth charts

Many countries have produced reference charts for growth based on

Examples of measurement tools

Waist circumference; WHR; computer tomography;

"Total" by prospective dietary record or recall;

"Total" by double-labelled water; "resting" by indirect

C] palmitic acid; extended overfeeding challenge