Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
S-
May B_ 1964
"ac
7HARD COPY
MICROFICHE
-_.,v
$.
DEFENSE METALS
Battelle
INFORMATION
Memorial
CENTER
Institute
3.
4.
activities in providing
To supolement established Servize
melters, and
pruducers.
to
technical advisory services
designers and
to
and
fabricators of the above materials,
these materials.
containing
fabricators of military equipment
and their contractors in
To assist the Government agencies
for preparation of
developing technical data required
materials.
above
the
for
specifications
research
On assignment, to conduct surveys, or laboratory as required,
nature,
short-range
a
investigations, mainly of
by fabricators,
to ascertain causes of troubles encountered
programs.
research
minor gaps in established
or to fill
Contract No. AF 33(615)-1121
Project No. 8975
Roger J.
Directcr
~forsationl
Runck
have
nay tobeen
.heiin-rnUage
credit the omaynal
theor)and tth
seextensively
aut
rightedused
urth.er publication-
'
belinvolve
mine
permisson
d'
Q.otBtionScl-
the material,
be obtained
3EOSt
AVAlk
0or
its
by
D. E. Stzohecker, R. J. Carlson,
S. W. Porembka, Jr., and F. W. Boulger
to
TABLE OF CCNTENTS
Page
SUMMARY ........
INTRODUCTION .......
.............
...........
i
I
_26
26
28
28
I
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
11
EXPLOSIVE-FORMING FACILITIES
....
11
Location of a Facility ...
........
.11
Safety. .
.".....
........
...
11
Local Regulations ....
.........
12
Economics ......
...........
13
Layout of Operations ....
.........
13
Flow of Material ....
.........
14
Safety Control ....
..........
14
Building Construction ...
.......
14
Explosive-Forming Facility Designs
15
Equipment Requirements .........
15
SWater Tank ......
...........
16
Crane ........
.............
17
Vacuum Pump ....
..........
18
Detonating Circuit ..
......
.
..
18
Auxiliary Equipment. ............
19
Safety Considerations ...
........
20
DIE SYSTEMS AND MATERIALS
.....
Die Considerations .......
......
Hold-Down Ring Design ...
........
Materials for Solid Dies ..
.......
Materials for Composite Dies ........
Lubricants ........
............
Transmission Mediums.
21
21
23
24
25
26
CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF
EXPLOSIVE FORMING ...
.........
Sheet Forming ......
...........
Tooling Considerations .........
Size Limitations .....
.........
Tolerances ......
...........
Placement of Explosive Charges.
..
.
Formability Limits of Sheet Materials.
Economic of Explosive Sheet Forming
Examples of Explosively Formed
Sheet Materials ....
.........
Plate Forming ......
...........
Tooling Considerations .........
Formability of Plate Materials . ...
Explosive-Charge Placement .....
..
Economics of Explosive Plate Forming
Examples of Explosively Formed
Plate Materials ....
.........
Tube Forming ......
...........
Tooling Considerations .........
Formability of Tube Materials
. ...
Explosive-Charge Placement . .......
Economics of Explosive Tube Forming.
Examples of Explosively Formed Tubes
Forming Welded Sheet-Metal Preforms
Tooling Considerations .........
Formability of Welded Assemblies .
Explosive-Charge Placement.....
.
Economics of Forming Welded
Sheet Assemblies ...
........
Examples of Explosively Formed
Welded Blanks ...
.......
....
RESPONSE OF MATERIALS TO HIGHVELOCITY FORMING....
. ....
....
Critical Impact Velocity
.....
....
Effects on Microstructures.....
. ..
Formability ...........
........
Mechanical Properties During Forming
Static Mechanical Properties of Materials
After Explosive Forming .........
Stress-Corrosion Properties of
Explosively Formed Materials .
...
29
29
29
30
30
31
3i
32
33
35
35
35
36
36
36
39
39
40
40
40
40
41
42
42
42
43
43
45
45
46
46
47
47
50
50
REFERENCES ......
51
............
APPENDIX A
A-I
A-1
A-I
A-3
A-5
SUMMARY
residual stresses. For titanium and refractory
metals, forming at elevated temperatures is
desirable.
Explosive-metalworking operations can generally be classified as either confined or unconfined systems. The confined system has distinct
advantages for the forming of thin materials to
close tolerances; however, the nature of the operation imposes a size limitation. Unconfined
systems are less efficient because only a small
portion of the total energy from the explosive is
utilized in the forming operation. This method is
particularly attractive, especially for very large
pieces, since tooling requirements are greatly
simplified,
Materials are generally forme di in the annealed condition with explosives at ar-bient temperatures. Intermediate anneals may also be
employed between successive forming operations
and are determined by prior experience with the
particular material. In some cases such as those
involving extensive work hardening, stressrelieving treatments are required immediately
after forming to prevent delayed cracking due to
INTRODUCTION
Interest in this forming method was initiated around the turn of the nineteenth century
when it was noted that the energy released from
an explosive charge could be used for deforming
metals into a useful shape. Some of the earliest
English patents on this subject concerned the
explosive expanding of tubing in attachment fittings to fabricate bicycle frames. (I)* Gunemplacement shields were explosively formed by
the French prior to World War IL In the United
States, explosive forming of sheet metal was described in a patent issued in 1909. (2) After the
initial interest as evidenced by the patent literature little advance was made in explosive forming
until more recent years. A more recent United
States patent describes the ranges of operating
conditions in more detail in terms of process
parameter and is presently considered one of the
more important patents in this area. (3) In particular, the high-alloy materials and aerospace
metals prompted a reevaluation of nonconventional
forming method,. As a result the Air Force initiated a comprehenaive study of explosive-forming
prc.iples in i957. (4) Further st.adiep in this area
have bn-e.a spoisored by the Air Force, Army,
.tvy, and NASA.
Thera are many types of explosives available which might be cr-,eidtred for explFwiveforming operations. Both commercial and
military types have been used. Military tpes
have been limited to companies which have
Government contracts and to companies which
have managed to obtain limited amounts on
,, , , ,
I I
,I
O I
TI I
IAND
CT
IIIA
TI IS
I l l
2
7 8
TABLE Z. COMPSITIONS, AND CH ARCRISTICS OF
otf Dynate,
Strentt
30
Nitroglycerin
20.2
Sodium Nitrate
Carbonaceous Fuel
59.3
15.4
2.9
1.3
0.9
1.0
12.0
57.3
11.8
10.2
12. 6
46.2
25. 1
8.8
16.5
37.5
31.4
9.2
16.7
25.x
43.1
I .0
6.7
5.4
3.6
3.4
0.8
8,900
81%i
0.8
20.Z
60.3
25.4
56.4
Antacid
Moisture
rcent(&)
z0
40
50
60
Z9.0
39.0
19.0
56.8
53.3
13.7
2.0
1.0
45.5
34.4
22.6
13.8
14.6
18.2
100
0.8
1.2
1.1
1.2
0.9
0.9
14,_00 17,000 19,400
94. 5%102.5% 114%
Pendulum Test)
Ammonia Dynamites
Nitroglycerin
Sodium Nitrate
Ammonium Nitrate
Carbonaceous Fuel
Sufur
Antacid
i. Z
Moisture
Rate of Detonation, ft/sac
TNT Equivalent (Ballistic
Pendulum Test)
1.1
1 .1
0.9
22.5
22.5
50.3
8.6
1.1
1 .1
0.7
0.9
0.7
10,800 12, 800 15, 200
91%
99% 109%
Gelatin Dynamites
Nitroglycerin
So4ium Nitrate
Nitrocellulnee
Carbonaceous Fuel
0.4
S.5
0.5
9.4
8.2
Sulfur
1.5
Antacid
0.9
Moisture
13, 100 15,
Riate of Detonation, ftlsee
74%
17T Equivaleni (Ballistic
Pendulum Test)
0.8
10.0
49.6 91.0
38.9
1.2 7.9
0.3
1.3
6. 1
1.2
1.2
1.1 0.9
1.2
1.0
0.9 0. 2
1.0
0.9
100 17,000 18,400 20,200
99%
79% 84.5% 90.5%
29.0
32.0
3S. 3
49.6
4.2
8.0
13.0
20.1
Nitrocellulose
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.7
Carbonaceous Fuel
8.3
8.0
7.9
Sulfur
7.2
6.0
S.6
Antacid
Moisture
0.7
1.5
0. 4
1.4
0.7
1.6
Ammonium Nitrate
40.1
45.6
26.2
Sodium Nitrate
high explosives will find comprehensive discussions on these subjects in References 7 and 8.
0.7
11.2
2. 2
22.9
54.9
Nitroglycerin
32.0
S1.8
33.5
3.4
0.8
1.7
Pendulum Test)
It now
type.
helbd of
Detotnation
Block Test
(% TNT)
char~e
Frepar.tci.
V%-locity,
It/se"
~1:.zL
Dxplosive
100
Cz.'t
PrevseA(d )
Pressed(b)
22,600
27,200
27,400
klediurn
170
170
129
ir-sskb1
25,750
-3
Loose mix
11, 0.0
Comp B
130
Comp C-3
Camp C-4
4
J'etpiaheet AM )
Detasheet G(d)
MFX
MTXP
115
1I:0(W,
Cast
Wnad ahhped
25, 600
15,000
Lii,4d measare
Aand shaped
ll
l..,m
PA
Detonator
Safety Risk
Source Fr-.m
AP{-a),
in.
Wbich Explosive
i.%Available
14
6
8
U. 3. Government
U.S. Covernment
U.S. Government
U.S. Government
Spectal
Lxcellent No. 6
Very good No. 6
Fumes toxic
InterLal toxic
Nontoxic
Excellint
Special
Toxic to skin
Good
-3pecial
Toxic fumes
--
Do Pont
Good
Spec=a
Toxic fumes
Slightly toxic
13
U.S. Governr-ent
14
19
r. Zz(e)
U.S. Goveranrent
U.S. Government
No. 6
Fair
No. 6
,uod
26,400
Special
23, 60(4- Good
Z3,0GO Very 7-tod Special
No. 6
22, (J00
_'Z:. 8
21 780
Han,1 shaped
Cut to shape
Cut to shAe
Preased'b)
Hand shed
Storge
Life
T14T
PFTIZ
RDX
Tetryl
An -Fuel 0i
AEREX liqwd
AEREX so~td
S~ns;*.t-it
to :-"nact
(Z-Kg Weight),
Ne. 8
No. 8
21,000
Nontoxic
Internal tox.,c
Internal tox%-
:54+(e)
Du Pont
Hetcules
Hercules
Aerojet
Aeroje-
(c) Estimat-d, no da!: available.
included in Table I are relative power and serssitivity. Actually there are a number oa more orj
less standard test methods which are used for the
determination of each of these properties. For
the most part, data generated by the various test
methods are in general agreement in terms of
the relative power or relative sensitivity of the
various explosives. The values reported in
Table I for these properties were selected because it was felt that the test methods utilized in
obtaining them best reflected the conditions of
interest in explosive forming. The details of the
various test methods and the values for the test
methods not reported in Table I can be found in
the References 7 and 8.
TNT (Trinitrotoluene)(7)
1.0
4
it unpredictabie; this is the primary reason for
its limited use as an explosive. The dry explo-
NG, Nitroglycerin()
Nitroglycerin is the primary explosive in a
number of dynamites. In its pure state it is a
colorless liquid and extremely sensitive to impact. It has no application in its pule state in an
explosive-forming operation due to the extreme
care required in handling it. This explosive has
a detonation rate of 25,200 ft/sec when properly
initiated. It has an explosive power of 185 per
cent of TNT. The explosive is stable at room
temperatures and has a low solubility in water,
It will not cause corrosion of metals with which it
may come in contact. Any contamination in the
explosive may cause rapid decomposition.
"Nitroglycerin is readily absorbed through
the skin into the circulatory system of the human
body and vapors inhaled are absorbed by the
blood. The effect is a severe and persistent
headache, from which some relief can be obtained
with strong black coffee or caffein citrate.
Workers in constant contact with nitroglycerin
usually develop an immunity that can be maintained only by almost daily contact. ,,(7) The
toxicity of nitroglycerin does not cause organic
deterioration even with long-time exposures. All
explosive compositions which contain nitroglycerin
will cause the headaches mentioned above.
Composition B( 7 )
This is strictly a military explosive and is
not available commercially. It is composed of
5. 2 per cent RDX, 40 per cent TNT, 1. Z per cent
ptilyisoluctylesne, and 0.6 per cent wax. It is
normally used in the cast state as a eutectic mixture which freezes at 79 C The solid Composition B is slightly more sensitive than TNT but less
than RDX in impact. The power of this explosive
is 130 per cent as great as TNT. The detonation
velocity of the cast explosive is 25,600 ft/sec.
Several variations of this explosive are used in
the military which have slightly different impact
sensitivity and equivalent power. The explosive
is practically nonhygro.copic and it is very stable
in long-time storage at moderate temperatures.
The main advantage in using Composition B is the
ability to cast charges to shape and size providing
the equipment is available for melting and handling
it. Some of. this explosive has been used in
explosive-forming operations although its use has
5
Characteristics of the various dynamites have
been given in Table Z. Use of this table requires
knowledge of the compositions of the dynamites
available commercially from the manufacturers.
ne.
ty
to
packing to the size and shape required, this practice can not be justified as a general practice.
MFX Explosive(il)
.ct
8
so
6
for some time may become damp near the ends.
In starting a new operation it is best to cut at
Detonators
Mild detonating fuse (MDF) is a line explosive available in charge loadings between 20 and
Intiation
D.ameter,
Coating
ft/sec
in.
Cottan
20,800
0.175
20,500
8a
. ISS
20,800
20, 800
20, 800
20, 800
22,600
20,800
20, $00
20, 800
20,800
20,600
20, 900
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
0.180
0. 198
0. 202
0.200
0.200
0. 236
0.24Z
0.28S
0. 305
0.325
0.426
20,800
8
8
0.197
0.234
Loading.
grains/ft
Detacord
40
PETN No. 30
30
PETN
P.TN
PXTN
PETN
PZTN
PiTN
PETN
PETN
PETN
PXTN
P.5TN
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
40
50
50
50
60 HV
60
100
IS0
175
200
400
40
50
50
50
60
60
100
150
175
200
400
RDX No. 70
No. l00
Polyethylene
Reinforced
Plastic
Polyethylene
Plastic wire
Polyethylene
Polyethylene
Polyethylene
Polyethylene
Polyethylene
70
"RDX
100
Deto~nton
Velocity,
Explosive
trade Name(a)
Vinyl
Vinyl
20, 800
PETN, I
Detonator
Exlosive
ing.
taiii
No Fire
Current
No. 6
No. 8
PETN
PZTN
4.9
6.9
0.28
0.28
E-83 eangineers(o)
5-75(a)
PETN
PETN
13.5
13.5
0.21
0.21
- 4 (&)
E-i4 E.(a)
RDX
PETN
7.0
13.5
0.30
0. JO
Sbaet explosive
EBW-XSC-I(b)
PXTN
4.23
Ici
Metal
21,000
0. 40
grain/ft
MDT Type A-2
PETM,
ritftf2
Metal
23,000
0.040
PETN, 5
Metal
22,000
0.073
MDTFToeA-10
PE, 10
Metal
24.000
0.1 5
(a)
grain/f
..r-/. .
ZS
Similar exp'osive-
manufacturers.
Normally the
.e.
LI
ilh sfrated in Figure I consists of a die cornpletely enclosing the energy source. This system
has been used with propellant charges and for
some small-diameter tube forming and piercing
operations with high explosives. (16) The closed
system has distinct advantages for the forming of
thin materials to close tolerances because the
sustained pressure tends to set the material to
the die. The confined system with explosive
charges has been used for some close-tolerance
sizing operations on thin-wall tubing. However,
limits on the maximum part size which an be
produced, die erosion, and possible hazards of
operation have been prime factors limiting its
use. As part size is increased with a closed-die
system, the thickness ,f the die wall must be
increased proportionately and a point of uneconomical die construction is reached very
quickly, usually at around 2 inches for a tubular
section. When forming a part with a shape other
than tubular, the critical size will be reached at
an even smaller size. Deterioration of the die
cavity is common with closed-die systems as a
result of continued gas erosion. In addition, die
failure in a closed-die system is much more
likely to result in a shrapnel hazard from the
fragmented die than in an unconfined system.
Since the confined system has had limited use
up to now, its future does not look promising.
This report deals largely with the unconfined
system, which is in widespread use.
Preor
der
vTop Die Half/
L//,
FIGURE 1.
EXPLOSIVE-FORMING TECHNIQUES
Systems
Explosive-metalworking operations r.an generally be classified as either coifined or uncoufined systems. The confined or closed system as
A-479f7
avity
CONFINED SYSTEM OF
EXPLOSIVE FORMING(5)
Courtesy of Olin
Mathieson Chemical
Corporation.
8
The unconfined system, illustrated by Figure 2, consists of a single female die with a blank
held over it and an explosive charge suspended at
a predetermined position over the blank. The
complete assembly may be immersed in a water
tank, or a plastic bag filled with water may be
placed over the blank,
Firing Leads
-Detostir
Forming
Wows
____
""Hold
Do
Ring
Blank
.. Sling
. Seaing
Ring
Female
Die
FIGURE 2.
When a
A-47968
UNCONFINED SYSTEM OF
EXPLOSIVE FORMING(5)
bubble can be noted. Each time a bubble expands, an additional pressure pulse is transmitted to the part being formed, but these pulses
are not severe enough to require consideration in
The unconfined system is inherently inefficient because only a small portion of the tot
energy released from the explosive is used in the
forming operation. With explosive forming the
explosive force acts equally in all directions,
sending out shock waves radially from the charge.
Although the unconfined system may be inefficient
in the utilization of energy, it has other advantages which make it economically attractive,
Tooling for explosive forming can be made
is
generally obtained through the use of the unconfined system. Simplicity of operation also contributes to the economy of the system.
9
ing
obtained.
11til;7.,l
.L.
-- inch standoff
I-inch standoff
1l-inch standoff
Atypes
A-47961C-4
v
:he
h
Fmilitary
FIGURE 3.
er
Y
ng
ith
The use of
varieties of loading densities available commercially. Sheet explosives have been used to give
plane waves over larger areas, although they
have limited applications in sheet-metal forming.
The flexibility of the sheet explosive also simplifies charge preparation. Some of the other
of explosives, such as Composition C-3 or
plastic explosives, can be readily molded by
hand into a ball or other type of shape. Compacting of charges from powdered explosives on
the site has normally been avoided. The castable
explosives such as Composition B or
TNT have not been used to any great extent mainly
due to the requirement for special facilities for
melting and casting of charges from these explosives. So-ne of the commercial explosives such
as dynamite have been recompacted, or the sticks
of dynamite cut to give the size of charge desired.
Handling of dynamite for recompacting is generally avoided due to the possibility of assimilation of nitroglycerine by processing personnel.
Also, commercial dynamite, in storage, tends to
segregate and when the individual sticks are
broken up, it is very difficult to obtain reproducible charges.
Reflectors
Connection of Blasting Caps
in
5.
10
during or after forming.
rhe type of protection
necessary will vary according to the material
Titanium alloys and
under consideration.
alurnintm alloys normally require a protective
covering in order to prevent damage from fragments from a blasting cap. Other metals, such
as stainless steels, do not appear to be adversely
affected by such flying fragments.
In addition, a
few materials, such as most of the magnesium
alloys, require protection from corrosion in an
un'jerwater forming operation. This can be
accomplished by waxing or by covering the blanks
with thin polyethelene sheets,
Normally the same type of defects which
adversely affect the formability of materials "n
conventional forming are also deleterious in
explosive forming. Material with a ;round surface frequently has less ductility than the same
material with an as-rolled surface.
Material
with directional properties should also be avoided,
The purchase of cross-rolled material for
explosive-forming operations is desirable.
Edge Preparation
Edge preparation to smooth out rough edges
is more critical in some types of explosiveforming operation than in others. Edge preparation is normally not required for blanks which are
to be formed by deep drawing with a hold-down
ring. When forming parts without a hold-down
ring, as in driving a blank into a tapered die,
edge preparation may be essential. Similarly,
polishing of edges is sometimes necessary for
parts to be formed on a conventional hydropress,
but not for parts which are formed by deep drawing on presses. The edges produced by sawing,
blanking, and shearing operations are normally
satisfactory for explosive forming, although some
materials such as titanium are more sensitive to
edge conditions. In general, special polishing on
the edges of blanks to be explosively formed is
not warranted, but excessively rough edges are
undesirable. Burrs left on the surface of the
material can cause erratic effects especially when
the hold-down rings are being utilized. Such
burrs should be removed, possibly by filing, prior
to explosive forming of the pieces.
Thermal Treatments
Most materials are explosively formed in
the annealed condition. In some sizing operations,
the materials may be formed in the hardened condition. The forming of materials in the hardened
condition is generally limited to very small
amounts of stretching, in the neighborhood of 1 or
2 per cent.
Some materials must be formed, at elevated
temperatures in order to obtain the desired
ry
)st
ys,
same type of processing would be useful for conventional forming of the same materials, or not.
poor ductility at or near the joint it is often desirable to anneal, or otherwise heat treat, preforms
)e r,
gth
se
"mon
out
Forming of We~ds
se of a
id
safety, local regulations, economics, and community relations. Decisions based on these fac-
Safety
for the welds have been worked sufficientlv to eliminate the cast structure,
If weld beads are not planished, the surface
OX
-.
or
'0,
'0
I_____
1000
100
C'
FIGURE 4.
000
Local Reglta~tons
Each -..rea of the cr-untry i. zs differenmt local
re-txLktiza6 wi-ich must be .xannlned belore tlt'
s'd1ection of a site for an.explosive-fcrm;.aa
facility. The reg-dations may be in the ?orzrn of
-mouing _codes,., laws by :.ocal and eiate governmentp-, or even natioual iaiism, althotigh tht; latter
dal mainly witr. interstate tranzportation c,1
explosives. The *sttitude of tme comintity wi~-4in
which the facilit1y --s t', b-- nperated m1&rt cani~e
difficulties el~h;r pr--r to establishing the ;Acility
or in the fature wben t! e nced for exwpr'eion
OfL
After
alling
'rgy in
-Hstrictly
---4could
futue my bgod.examle
Drhibicd.A
f tis
irdgt oteprduc
arequremnt
lage q.-rs
whic
hndld
cold inthepreent
ot baciity
due o szecarg.
o th neessay
rh ex"sion needed t) zeet production requirement;
very well be prohibited. The selection of a
site which does not allow for ex-mnsion should be
a roided.
17C00
971
slrhe
'Cal
ter
bin
e
ility
training of personnel.
Th~e mxnagemnent of facilities which are
presently undey operation varies. Some cowpanies ha-oe established separate departments to
carry out tb,. explosive-forming function, while
othcrsr haye attempted to integrate the operation
into the ragular manufacturing sequence. It is
4Interesting to zote- that the leading companies in
this field ha"e maintained the operation under
engineering contral, and have stafftd et with highcaLiber peritomrscl. The ratio of eagineers to
*echsuicians is sometimes am high as i to 1. The
high perc~rntage of technically traink~d personnel
being utaized in the operaations of explosiveLorrming facilities i%.probably due to the trial-anderror state of the proc.itss. Probal-ly this percentage will decrease its more iviforwation on the
pr~ceia. and better training -A personnel is made
yossit'le thrnugh -ontimnv.n operations.
14
'or maximum elficiency, and the second it
bccon.,a lrge
Flow of Material
In general, the factors affecting the flow of
material in a conventional manufacturing plant
should also be considered in an explosiveforming facility. The quantity of items to be
manufactured and the variety of parts to be made
will det_rnine to a great extent the layout ard
area required. According to the nature of the
operations, the following areas mighr be considered -in an integrated facility: inconingmaterial storage, material-preparation rooms,
die-preparation room, charge-preparation area,
explosive charges.
forming.
The flow of explosive materials from the
magazine to a charge-prepavation area and sub-
trolled.
turbing the walls of the bui)ding. Most in-dustrialtype buildings will withstand an overpressur, on
the building of 10 psi. A 1-pound charge of TNT
area.
on its thickness.
Safety Control
railroad ties.
If only
A 30-foot-
15
type of bui. di.
.
.. i'.
r-........z...
"zz...
. ,...
prep,iation or die work. Connecting a covor
over an explotaive-forming firing area to the diepreparation building should not be too difficult,
providing proper precautions are taken to assure
the -3afety of the operation through the construction of barricades. I'he fazility layout shown in
Figure 5 is given as a suggestion and should not
be considered as recommendation. The ideal
arrangement depends on the paxpose and requirements of eacii individial facility.
Lt
/Office
Material Storage
0O
I
0
Die ";"a:ding Firing Rooms
with
Room
WoV~terTwo
Tanks
''
j"Die
Pi'eparation and
Finishing Room
FIGURE 6.
Explosive
Loading
-[I
Corporation.
ETi|lv$
Storage
I-'
Explosive
Storove
A-47972
FIGURE 5.
LAYOUT OF A HIGH-PRODUCTION
EXP-OSIVE-FORMING FACILITY
Sure
FIGURE 7.
Equient Requirements
E
mu
e
The equipment requirements depend to a
great extent on the volume of production to be
carried out in !he facility. The primary equipment consisting of a water tank, crane, vacuum
16
pianp, and detonator will be considered first,
uxiliary equipment which is desirable but no-,
Water Tank
II
I0
a
0
A-47974
FIGURE 9.
IIAIR-TUBE
CO
S..L.LStress
I00'4
FIGURE 8.
6
8
10 12
Tnk Rdius in Feet
iM6
83 per cent.
IS 20
797inch-thick
17
drng
,^aiw.frvrvina
rr~,,nsw~ijna
Trh.
i
use
_7
~
Of_
.
aepae_
ste
'~
he
frb-r-vtI
.41
TNT explosive has been fired in an 8-footdiameter tank of this design with no visible signs
of difficulty when the bubble curtain is operating.
frequen* damage to the tubing due to overpressurization. The stresses which the base will
experience can be reduced by about 80 per cent.
0tank
0
00
0010
o
o
o
o0
o
ooo
Smnll
ot
bubbles
0
0
0
Ii
0O
0
l0
_
FIGURE 10.
airfoine
air
line
..,
A-47975
CROSS SECTION OF BUBBLE
CURTAIN TANK( 4 )
Str'ess level in tank wall
reduced 83 per cent with 2. 18
cubic foot of air per minute
per foot of air line. Stress
reduction is dependent on
rate of air flow. Air line was
2-inch diameter with 0. 07inch-diameter holes placed
0. 50 inch on centers.
takwl
utas
eoecm.'edn
evenly distribute the stresses striking the concrete to prevent localized high tensile stresses.
Another useful method consists of placing a shockabsorbing material between the concrete and the
18
S-operations
FIGURE 11.
,-
Vacuum Pump
A vacuum pump will probably be required
for most explosive-forming operations when parts
are formed under water. It is possible to construct dies in a manner which will eliminate the
requirement for a vacuum between the part and the
die. These are special cases and not commonly
encountered in a production explosive-forming
operation. Several types of vacuum pumps may
be suitable for this application. If the firing area
is to be maintained with a minimum of electric
lines, a venturi pump which will operate on water
pressure will work satisfactorily. A mechanical
electrical pump may be used, and the vacuum
lines brought into the area from a pumping site
remote from the firing area. The electric pump
is preferred, since it has a considerably greater
capacity than the venturi pump and is probably
more economical to jperate. In a high-production
facility where the application of a vacuum may be
time consuming, a storage tank in the vacuum line
will greatly assist the operation. If it is found
necessary to operate an electrically driven vacuum
pump in the firing area, it should have shielded
wiring and a sealed motor unit. When using a
mechanical pump, it is important to eliminate any
possibility of water entering the pump. This can
occur if the vacuum line becomes disconnected
from the dle during firing operations. To prevent
this, a storage tank between the pump and the line
should be used to trap any water which may eater
the line. The tank can then be dr-ined periodically to eliminate the water,
(2)
(3)
19
resister and a microammeter w"i" scrve thf- purpose. The resistor will reduce the current flow
below the safe limits for firing a blasting cap.
110 V
Ioperation.
15 6Line
to Cap
4
H
7ff2
(
1.5 V 10 K
tanks
A-47976
110-V Horn
M Microammeter
FIGURE 12.
any
fl~itank.
weve..r,
20
which might be used in an explosive-formirIg
facility, strictly for the support of the explosiveforming operation. Additions to this list might
include special equipment for die preparation or
material preparation.
Safety Considerations
Since explosives are being used within the
facility, additional safety requirements for the
elimination of auy fire-producing or sparkproducing equipment are necessary. In addition,
to prevent accidental detonations, precautions
should include the collection of all matches or
lighters from all personnel entering any building
where explosives are present. An area safe for
smoking should be designated away from any
explosive-containing buildings. Electric lighters
should be provided at such areas if smoking is to
be permitted.
During operations only persons absolutely
necessary to carry out the operation should be
present when any explosives are within the area.
Segregation of areas with blastproof partitions is
an asset in maintaining good production output
with a minimum number of employees actually
handling or exposed to the explosive charges.
This separation of areas and use of only an
essential number of employees is required to
minimize the effect of an accident.
21
r-
.wou i
.
a,.
d.....
production water tank for detonation,
Tassociated
The
exudation from dynamite presents a
problem in its use. When the explosive becomes soft, it should be destroyed, since the
nitroglycerin which is coming out of solution and
causing the softening is as sensitive to shock as
the raw nitroglycerin. When dynamite is used in
an explosive-forming operation, a maximum storage time of 6 months should not be exceeded. If
some of the dynamite does become soft, it should
be destroyed by burning in an approved area. The
sticks should be opened and spread over a flammable material such as excelsior in a long line.
Additional flammable material is then spread
from the line to act as a fuse, so that sufficient
time is available for the personnel to leave the
area before the flame reaches the explosive. Any
such area used for the burning of explosives
should be considered a contaminated area and
should be secured from unauthorized admittance.
of loading wPivih t
m aicria,
,h" ,.32
A-4797
FIGURE 13.
A-478
FIGURE 14.
Die Considerations
Basic differences in tooling concepts for
explosive-forming operations arise from the type
the conditions of static loading and dynamic loadings. Failures of this kind are more likely when
the safety factor is lowered to conserve the
weight of dies.
Some typical
l...
FIGURE 15.
F
R
.
_
TOOLING FOR EXPERIMENTAL
LING FORMING
Upper left corner: ring die
Lower lefthand corner: loose
hold-down ring for blank
positioning
Center right: wood and paper
tube Primnacord charge holder
Upper and lower right, respectively: parted and complete
formed flange test parts
Courtesy North American
Aviation, Inc., Columbus,
Division.
23
and located in an area of the die where it can be
removed from the part in subsequent trimming
operations. if this is not possible, then the vent
hole should be located in an area of the part in
which it would not be detrimental to form a
dimple.
Hold-Down Ring Design
A hold-down ring of some type is generally
required to prevent wrinkling of the part as the
blank is drawn into the die. The size of the holddown ring and the t-lamping pressure required
depend on the material being formed. With a
soft material, such as annealed aluminum, very
little hold-down pressure is required, while
materials like stainless steel require high pressures to prevent wrinkling. The hold-down ring
should be made of a material strong enough to
withstand repeated impacts withoat deforming.
The die shown in Figure 16 was used to explosively form 0. 040-inch-thick Type 350 stainless
steel tank ends. The 1-inch-thick hold-down
ring on the die warped upwar-i in the ce.ater after
approximately 50 impacts and this prevented
adequate control of the hold-down pressure on
the blank. A new hold-down ring that was Z
inches thick received over 100 impacts without
showing any signs of warping. (17)
FIGURE 16.
Z4
A
the blank was driven into the die, all of the edges
remained under a compressive stress so that the
greater amounts cf forming could be obtained.
The holes at the bottom of the die served as
vents, so that a vacutm was not required. The
same technique has been used for forming
coeaes,(24) where the blank is situatee', on a taper
leading into tMe die. This technique can provide
savings when aboveground operations are utilized.
If it is necessary to fire in a water tank then seaiing and a vacutun would be required, along with
".S
SMinimum
-
A-47979
FICZURIE 19.
CAlumbus
25
the
temay
Le
er
ie
ted.
ealh
Vper-ji.:ons or it
1Li14*1kiB.9
be used 't. composite ioo~lng. Kirksite tooling is generally used wheii the loadirng levels on
the die are too luw to f~au,-e plastic deforinaticu.
and dirnen*si-onJ changes, bting usually reserved
for PTC~iction quaat:tlcs mn't exceeding 100 P,*rts.
One. uf the largest skngle-piece diks kuown to
have been made of '&his rn;terja~i is shown in
Figure 11. The main reaso~n for the popular it
of Kirksite as a Wue mate.'ial *,,n expl-siveforming operations -s Chat mott aircraft companies have facilities for capting it.. Kirksite has
been a stan-lard material lar drop-hammer dies
in the ;;,rcraft industry and it may be re~adily
recl~aimed by melting whea a joh is comploeted,
o rc'uur.~ ihC UG~ Up
-lmarhine.
el45,
ur
e
!sdue
of
-tes
e
aluminum~ -r in sri-in' -t
explosive-shock pressurest.
nz"
2*7
to even out the pulse dixtribution and to -naintain
:bt~
p e~'ried of time~ xnasured
in the millisecond range. The graph shown -.n
Figure 21 depicts the differenc; in the pressuretime profile and tJ~e resultant integrated increase
in total energy deliverce between water and air
Shoc.k Wave
Gas Cloud
Fire Bo' I
mediums.
Initiating Cap
_-_2s Cloud
t--
/v
Gas Cloud ~
Shock Wave
~Shock Wave
Disk Shaped Charge Denoated
in Water
rmor0
kLine
Charge Denoted
in Water
24
stnefetA4N
Litne etA4~
A-479W0
FIGURE 21.
FIGURE 20.
.1
a minimum.
Water
Air
Kerosene
Glycerine
A-4,'992
FIGURE 22.
Medumsthrough
29
shoulci be made oi steel and be rividly _unnnrtetl
to
Shc-t For---'-
-3~*
%,
ra-4
1I1
I
-
nonconcentric shapes.
1.3
al
'..
.
Ireflectors,
a.C1
--
0.9systems
ao
.use
0.Tooling Considerations
0.6
.506)
0.
0.1
i
0.2
-configurations
i
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
FIGURE 23.
_geometries
0.7
0.8
A-47982
EFFECT OF INTERMEDIATE
Ml,
EDIA
Test was conducted on a 4-inchdiameter cup die without holddown pressure on 0. 064-inchthick PH- 15- 7Mo SS in the
annealed condition. Standoff
distance was 3 inches. Sixty
inches of 100-grain Primacord
was wrapped around a 2-inchdiameter tube to make a
cylindrical charge. Rubber
hardness was Shore A 60.
CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF
EXPLOSIVE FORMING
The potential of explosive forming in
fabricating shapes to close tolerances has been
the basis of current applications work in this
area. In this respect forming operations invo3v-ing sheet, plate, and tube have received major
emphasis. In many instances large parts which
would otherwise require extreme conventionalpress capacities or pa-rts which have complex
geometries are the obj-cts of interest.
30
"
Loading
Metal Form
6-in-DiamDDie---
the pressure for a longer period of time, the increase in total impulse tends to improve confor-
Pklg Cushion
In
general there are very few instances where explosive forming cannot equal or better tolerances
S&
Schematic
of
t fchoracteristic!
Ssequence
flnal shape
These values
FIGURE 24.
Size Limitations
The maximum size of parts which can be
formed explosively is limited only by the size of
tooling which can be constructed. Probably a
more significant limitation on part size will be
the method of shipping large parts after they are
formed. It is quite possible in the future that the
very large parts will be formed on the site where
they will be used so that shipping is held to a
minimum. The process would be ideal for this
type of operation because of the comparatively
low capital cost involved in setting up a facility
for producing large parts. The only drawback is
The type of tooling used in the explosiveforming process also influences the tolerances
obtainable. Probably steel tooling is the most
satisfactory for holding close tolerances for long
production runs. Tooling materials such as
Kirksite or plastics will flow under repeated impacts at high loads and cause a gradual increase
in part dimensions during the production run.
A new area for explosive forming is in the
forming of plastics. Most plastics have a very
excellent memory for their original shape and
tend to return to this shape after being formed by
conventional equipment. A plastic seal made of
Kel-F plastic by propellant forming in boiling
water has demonstrated the usefulness of explosive forming methods. (38) This part was formed
.JA
a-
32
The metals molybdenum, titanium, zirc-nium and their alloiys are dffc,.t
to form at
ambient temperatures. (40) Preheating to
temperatures on the order of 800 to 1200 F has
been found to minimize the cracking and splitting
behavior normally experienced. Very little data
has been reported on explosive forming the
remaining refractory metals; however, it is expected that their rolative behavior will parallel
that in conventional forming.
Economics oi Explosive Sheet
Forming
Only limited information has been published
on cost comparison of conventional forming and
explosive forming. It has been generally found
that simple shapes readily formed by conventional methods should not be considered for explosive forming since an economic advantage will
not be realized. More complex shapes and
materials with special properties such as the
work-hardening characteristics of stainless
steels and the new classes of high-temperature
alloys lend themselves to explosive fabrication,
Size considerations must also be taken into account since extremely large sizes may be formed
explosively that would be impractical by conventional techniques.
TABLE 5.
Increase (+)
or
Decrease (-)
Over
Conventional
Form, %
CONVENTIONAL
Increase (+)
or
Decrease {-)
Over
Conventional
Form, %
80,64
89.9J
81.29(a)
+11.5
+0.8
35.44
55.03
4 9 . 2 3 (a)
+55.3
+38.9
Collar-Outlet
Housing
6.77
12.99
1 0 . 7 9 (a)
+91.9
+.59.4
2.18
6.12
4 . 6 0 (a)
+180.7
+111.0
Tailpipe Ring
80.63
53.22
50. 7 2 (a)
-34.0
-37.1
38.40
21.68
20. 0 0 (a)
-43.5
-47.9
Pan-Fire Shield
66.91
40.08
36. 19(a)
-40.1
-45.9
22.80
19.19
16.5 8 (a)
-15.8
-27.3
Bellmouth-Engine
Tailpipe
161,47
133.54
1 ZS. 4 8 (a)
-17.3
-20.4
57.82
52.75
4 9 . 3 4 (a)
-8.8
-14.7
(a)
22
al.(4)
s
h
.
stretch
FIGURE 26.
34
FIGURE 27.
Molten Aluminun
FIGURE 29.
Aluminum
,Explosive
Chorge
Workpiece",
Die-,.
FIGURE 28.
/using
Courtesy of Aerojet-General
Couporate
ofn
e
Co rporation.
__
35
Flate Forming
Concentric shapes similar to those des-.ribed for sheet-metal parts can be explosively
formed from plate. The limiting bend radii, of
course, are larger since they depend on both the
thickness and the mechanical properties of the
workpiece. Explosive forming of plate materialo
has been employed because presses large enough
to form heavy plates are generally not available.
Economic advantages are realized when a forming operation, prior to machining of thick parts,
can reduce the subsequent machining time and
the weight of raw material required. Explosives
have also been used to blank or pierce holes in
heavy shapes. This operation requires a wave
guide .viih the appropriately positioned and sized
holes for placing over the workpiece. It has been
generally noted that placement of the wave guide
is critical and extreme care is needed to prevent
irregular blanking.
Tooling Conside rations
In order to support the higher loads
characteristic of explosive forming plate
materials, the tooling must be of heavier construction than that used for sheet forming.
FIGURE 30.
Blank
,Final
Form
7Die
Free Air Vera
A-4?9U
FIGURE 3Z.
FIGURE 31.
TAPERED-ENTRANCE DIE
FINISHED DOUBLE-CONTOURED
PART AFTER FORMING
36
tolerated.
Plate Forming
1he economics of plate-forming operations
using explosives !'-?. not been estabiished through
zpecific cott comrparisons with more conventional
fabrication methods. It is generally considered
that the greatest savi-,,gs would be expected in
preferming heavy parts prior to finish machining.
This operation compitred io machining thae barne
component from seli-J stock woald provide a
ti,:vings ii. zUoth thl i-equired xnechining timne end
the total stock remnoved as waste. Particular
advant.-ges woAd be reziized with rnat~rials Zh~at
aile
re expensive and inhe: ently difficult co matchine.
Such saving~s, of course, would be -reqtL-re0 to
offset the costs of the exp4-e'ive-preforming
oper-ation.
Economic advantages may gLeo lk.e gained in
explosive foizninc plaCe materia~s in shozt production rurs where ccniventinxlal equi~meif ;s not
avzailable. in ssu-h cases the cost of procuring a
heal? prest, for thr. lin.ilted foxri~ing reeqdired
vr..uld be prohib 'itive ani3 the capital c~osts -auirea
for t~stz.'.isti-'g an exploaiv.-fortning facility and
the related tooling wovli appear par-ilc4l4 1'v2y
attractive.
E~xamples o:nxlsvl
Plate Materials
Formed
37
are
re,;
re ~
ugh
)nal
ing
Ld
FIGURE 34.
at
mie.
-.
7KR
3>..Formed
in
fuc-Courtesy
FIGURE 33.
reo
ad
~thickness
-ic
Courtesy of Martin Company,
Denver Divi sion.
The production of a hyperbolic reflector by
multiple explosive-forming operations has been
with a 6061-0 aluminum alloy.
todemonstrated
steps were required to form this shape from
yTen
annealed plate measuring 3/8-inch thick and 135
inches in diazreter. (47) Explosive charges for
operation consisted of loops of Priznacord
iseach
arranged in a decreasing diameter. This procedure resulted in progressive stretching to form
the shape, starting from the periphery of thep
k
and finishing at the central portion. The
.11.part
final shape which is shown in Figure j5 was
formed in a Kirksite die in a water transfer medium and represented a total stretch of approxiis
miately 15 per cent and toleran;,es of *0. 032 inch.
d
This approach to forming plate materials has the
advantages that the small charges are less likely
damage the die and forming of large shapes
-to
imied fcilty.employed.
can ne a cnduced
canbe
i aondctd
imi~e failiy.6
by free-forming techniques
using the "plug cushiono' concept;
final thickniess at apex 3.097 im.;
variation 4. !L5;
of Martin Compaziy,
reaver Division.
Mxplosive p~late forming has bveen u6.-.d to a
coc,'siderabole extent for conimercialpjrne.iction of
heavy e-ished heacis for~ steel tanks(1 'Z). The tank
ends w~hich are shown in Figure 36 after forming
anu trizrxxiag wecre fabricated hior 77-inchdiamete r AJSI 4340 bLinks of variable thickne ss.
T' procedure u~sed involved two underwater
explosive-furiing steps in a 4340 steel die with
a liquid Aerex explosive~. The explosive charges
consisting of 3Z10 g were in a spherical shape
and. located at a 7-inch standoff. In the final
parts deflections of 20 inches were attained with
tolerances oi 0. 006 inch on the thickness and
0. 0Z5 inch on the contour. The high degree of
uniformity in wail thicknesses was in part due to
prcmachining the thick iilates to the appropriate
shape.
The general procedures for drawing large
parts in explosive operations differ from stretching in that a greater rumber of steps are
requiired. This procedure permits a greater control of metal flow to avoid excessive thickening or
thinning. Often rubber inserts are placed in the
die for deformation control in the early formi'.g
operationis. A 70-inch-diameter hemisphiere (8
formed in this manner is shown in Figure 37. (8
In this case a 1(iO-inch-diamneter blank of Type
4086 alumrninum alloy was formed in 10 explosive
operations using PETN Primacord charges varying from 50 to 150 g. A cast mild steel die was
Standoff distances were varied from
to 10 inchps
the blank was held hydraulically
38
FIGUR~E 37.
4__
74
FIGURE 35.
COMPLETEP 'HYPERBOLIC;
R.LFLECTORf
FIGURE 38.
FIGURE 36.
39
with a ,orce of 2UO ions. The iinal configuration
r-sulted in a 35 _er cent stretch at the center and
10 per ce.nt thrink at d,.e periphery with a toleiance of *0. 030 inch.
Prmsforming oi heavy plate prior tc machinisig, which haj been -noted as a potential economic
advantage, is demonstrated in Figure 38(49).
.:.his forming was accompl;shcd on an -alu.ninurn
7075 ahoy platz in the T-6 condition measuring
40 inches in diameter by 2 inches thick. Two
explosive operations using 38 and 24 ounces of
commercial dynamite and a Kirksite die in a
water system were required. The final component exhibited a stietch of approximately 18
per cent with a tolerance of *0. 06 iuch. This
preforming resulted in a saving of 760 pounds c-f
material per part. when compared to direct
machining from an I I-inch slab. In addition the
machining time required was greatly reduced
although no direct comparisons weire made.
The use of split dies makes evacuation more di;ficult in that rubber seals are required between
the die halves. The parting lines betwete, the
die segments will often leave undesirable marks
on tGv formed part. This marking effect can be
reduced by either reducing the explosive charge
and employing mulziple oe-at~ans or increasing
the strength of tMe die. Where heavy loads are
involved, modifying the strength of the die has
little effect.
--
40
diameter) have been produced with the use of
reflectors, intermediate anneals, and stepiorming operations. The reflectors can vary
considerably in design, ranging from a solid
filler with an angled cut (to concentrate the
energy on one side of the tube) to exponential
shapes for reentrant angles. To date, most of
the work wpith reflectors hls been performed with
propellants in closed systems rather than with
explosives,
Formability of Tube Materials
As with sheet and plate forming any limitations on the size of tubes that can be formed
explosively Are dependent on factors such as
facility capabilities, difficulties in die construc+-on, and handling. Forming operations have
been conducted on tubes ranging from 1/4-inch
diameter with a 0. 010-inch wall to 40-inch
diameter with a 5-inch v"lL As the size of the
workpiece is increased, greater quant'.1es of
explosives are required which may approach the
limits that cau be handled safely in an existing
facility.
From existing data it is diflicult to establish form.kbility limits and relative behavior for
the various tube materWals formed explosively.
Ip- most operations material is drawti into the
forming areaL in addition to the diamnetral expansion at that point; tlzs a ineasurement of the
diametral expansion Mlone does not give a true
evaluation of the formability of the -a-terial.
An
illustration of this effec-. is demonstra'.td in
formniag a tubular compound component where
a 350 ner cent increase in diameter waa ;-ecorded at a poin, where the wall tkiicknesi war
re:--r only 20 per cent.(4 1 ) Usually only infor.. i the Oiaeter increase as a result of
forming or the diameter at fracture has beta
recorded. It is generally regai-Jed, however,
that explosive-forming limbl %for simple bulging
are probably similar to conventional buige forming on the same material.
&losive-Charge Placemnent
of
Economics of Explosive
Tube Forming
Examples of Explosively
Formed Tube:5
Both conmnercially available seamnless and
welded tubing have been employed in explosiveforming operations with no appzrent difference in
forming bel-, vior. Applications to date have involved forning va,rious materials to configurations with both longitudinal and diiametrtl ribs.
The general procedures used have beon similar
with only minor modifications appropriate to the
part being formed. The following examplecs demonstrate the variations in forming that have
been achieved.
Some of the less complex tube-forming
operations have involved the for'ning of square,
fluted, and hexagonal tubes. (38,49) A typ, cal
item which-med from a 5-i.,h-dlamzter
41
ni
to
Figure 40.
This part was fabricated in a single
operation using 6 ounces of Primacord in a
water medium and an AISI-4340 die. The final
configuration represented a stretch of approximately 20 per cent with finished tolerances of
+0. 000 and -0. 010 inch.
to
ng
-.
e-
X&
ge.
FIGURE 4 1.
"-"Aviation,
ed
FIGURE 40.
42
z;tratcal=,n 1r expecied to reduce the possibility
of weld failures during the forming operation.
Tooling Considerations
The size of parts may in some cases limit
FIGURE 42.
COMPLETED SEGMENTED
PRESSURE VESSEL AND
CROSS SECTION
Courtesy of Chance Vought
Corporatiyon, han
Divisonghthese
Ling-CTemcon Vought.
137.06R
\1
-2 dkxn
L2.45 diam, I st S
2.88 d !am, 2nd shot'
3.00 diam,3rd shot
2diaim
17.8
A-47987
The formability of welded sheet-metal preforrus in explosive forming would be the same as
that for the individual sheet metal. This direct
comparison, of course, assumes that the welds
have been properly finished and annealed to insure adequate ductility. Otherwise, the weld
joints or heat-affected areas would impose limitations on the forming operation. Often it is necessary to test the welds in tension to provide a
comparison of their ductility with that of the
parent metal.
Explosive-Ck.arge Placement
FIGURE 43.
43
lit
ied
ved
g
ons,
rs.
!t
RELATIVE MANUFACTURING
COSTS OF A CONICAL
ALUMINUM SKIN
0.89
1.00
0.77
I'ooling
Facilities
3.60
2.30
1.00
4.00
2.40
1. 00
FIGURE 44.
es
A- w
ithis
A wide variety of tubular and conical shapes
has been fabricated by explosive-forming weldedsheet assemblies. In most cases relatively thin
sheet has 'en used, but the effectiveness of this
forming method on thicker assemblies has also
been demonstrated. Depending on the geometry
in question, line charges, point charges, and
split charges have been employed. Also variations in die de3igns have been used with particular emphasis on minimizing die costs. The following examples present some of the shapes and
explosive-forming practik'es that are characteristic of current applications.
tic
a~lcatins.in
f curen
three operazions.
44
15
ga .....ated at ...
the top and
tton
I...
assembly,
respectively,
in eachu"....
with nn _____,
,,
--- .
. were
. . used
A z,,rT1L
.. step
e
.................
.-.
A
with bolts to provide a hold-down force was used
in a water medium in this forming operation. A
total stretch of 19 per cent with a finished tolerance of *0. 010 inch was achieved. It was noted
that a considerable amount of drawing occurred
during the operation requiring the accommnodation of the change of length in the part.
FIGURE 46.
FIGURE 45.
FIGURE 47.
Final sizing of a closed end shape is demonstrated by the pylon door for a large missile
system shown in Figure 49. (38) Blanks for this
configuration were initially formed 1y drophammer forging 6061-aluminum alloy segments.
Subsequent welding and heat treating resulted in
45
considerable distortion of the preform for the
final sizing operation. This sizing was accomplished by three explosive-iorming steps
using 400 grain/ft PETN Prirracord centrally
located in a ductile-iron split die. The die
assembly i, this case was opened and closed
hydraulically. The final part which measured 4
feet by an 18-inch-diameter base with a 0. 063inch wall yielded final tolerances of *0. 010 inch
with a maximum of 20 per cent stretch. Over
100 parts were made in this manner with the
same die setup.
reter
3
for
wed
RESPONSE OF MATERIALS TO
HIGH-VELOCITY FORMING
FIGURE 48.
Courtesy of California
Division of Lockheed Aircraft
Corporation.
)
"k
FIGURE 49.
COMPLETED PYLON
Courtesy of
Rocketdyne, a
Div".vion of North
American Aviation,
Lkc.
46
ratey-la, -An ".h
oad
arii zu'uqucti bt.dgen ib
le ss than that which can be used in the initial
operation.
TAB LE 7. CRITICAL IMPACT VELOCITIES OF SOME
MATERIALS
Condition
Experimental
Theoreticalia-
200,
110
200-
176
36
174
200+
290
Magnesium ailoys
Dow F
As received
Dow J
As received
200+
200+
232
303
Copper
Annealed
200+
232
Copper
Cold rolled
50
42
Ingot iron
Annealed
100
(b)
Steele
SAE 1022
An-nealed
160
(b)
Cold rolled
100
235
95
(b)
Aluminum alloys
2002
2002
Annealed
1I2 H
2024
Annealed
2024
SAE i02o
ST
SAE 4130
~SAE
1022
SAE 1095
SAE 1095
Stainless 302
Hadfield steel
HT
Col
Normalized
Atinealed
A, r.ceived
A- r.iv-d
-.
009
200+
160
230+
200t
232
231
490
750
__
0
Iron
400A
Hg
3Wle
0
_
a.
100o
Effects on Microstructures
0.7
in materials which undergo a phase transformation due to changes in temperature, a
phase_ transformation may also occur when the
pressure applied to the materi'al reaches a high
level. Steel is an allcy which behaves in this
manner. A phase transformation is oelieved to
occur at a pressure lavel of about 130 kilobars,
which is equivalent to approximately 2, 000, 000
psi.(53) This opinion is supported by the deviation in the equation-of-s'ate curve for iron
shown in Figure 50. Even without an initial pressure impulse of this magnitude, interaction of
the stress waves within a material may cause
transformatioz, to occur. A material called
"white martensite". because of its metallographic
appearance, is often found in steel at areas where
maximum shear has occurred. The hardness of
the matcrial has been found to be greater than
the normal untempered martensite found in the
specimens, although it reacts to tempering in a
fashion similar to the normal martensite. The
FIGURE 50.
0.8
V/V 0
09
10
A-47988
53
47
t'ofju.ZLLL1vil
:o
W.t.
and p.~ast
*.st
Irrnbilt
.10--n
experienc(..
In addition it should be noted that
tooling design can influence the apparent formability of a material,
ks
-ite
it
A~iuinumn
1100-0
degree
~**-
1itn
Ttheir
p
0
carbexhibiting
ste.. l
Aluminum
606
6....
2
.a.A the
..
:-CB
Vascojet
1000
--
higher
321
347 SS
SS
347 SS
lrwconel X
"-'
Rene 41
d
n
~.**
t
HastaIk~
H
d5-7 Mo
stainless=
\'.::.
ion
6Ai 4V
-metal
4;l0 steel .
(normalize d)nso
e
j
j
ade for
0.032-ia-thick material
teSted at 15 -nch standoff
Metal annealed unless
301 SS
full hard
otherwise indicated
0
20
40
60
IDO
80
A-47959
he
FIGURE 51.
be
.-
Lng
strength
RELATIVE FORMABILITY OF
5
METAL WITH EXPLOSIVE(5 )
static yield strength. The speed effect is normally taken into account with a number of other
controlling factors so that one factor is obtained
for all of the variables. This simplifies the procedure of establishing pressure requirements
for any new material or configuiatiou.
Static Mechanical Properties of
Materials After Explosive
Forming
Increases in stregth similar to those erpected from the same amount of deformation by
conventional forming methods have been found in
48
1he
ha.......ve al
been some indications of abnormally high increases in asrength leveli 17)as given in Table 8,
UStirate 30(0
Twist!.
&rengt.h,
ts
Tea11.A
Yield
Sire
.
300ps
LoE0.-
Trans.
Long.
vei. deformd
aG aged
2Z5
225
202
199
17.5
18.0
2Z9
21
201
203
18.0
17.0
iroevo.y d.ovr,
reifrxj ratod, and
aged
2O05
204
162
161
23.0
29.5
prcr,,satean.d
4'sed
Treatment
posively deformed.
2ZIlnchate,
Inces~,. pa' iie
cent
Trans.
Lg.
AW Specifcatio
5546
185
mirr.m
ISO mimum
1e.0
cotion
prop.rt~s
50HT Cotdti
CRT Coedizion
this behavior.
C0
(a)
201
IS$
12,.0
Z2%
160
195
Mc.0
13.0
cTd reductio.'9
North Amermca
dated hM3 4,
1941.
(Data are for otautard tensile specimens ramoed from the rim area of a 0.040Inch-thick explosively formed dome end whech had buta impacted twice during
Ir'on
"!l
r,,.
Sa
slnaltar~l
ormbg
l,
prior tolot or
w
I
rasled
nne
conditlon A
1022 Steel
Si"I5
Annealed
SAE W322
---
Ill
Arnealed Copper"
Cold Rolled Cople
Magnesiumn Allay
T-6
Ccnitimcn
- 4'0..'4p
0 Condition
-- 3Ultimate
20-Yie.i
-
+
o0
-_
Dow Uso~W~al
F
Aneal0d 2S
Akvninu Alloy
2S Alum. Alloy(j H).
Annealed 24 S
imnur
k~t
+.+,.,,~7
.+
O t
+,+.,
7 r.
"--
____
Aluminum Alby
24 ST Alumirvnum_
Al loy__
o~
L-n1so
~~~~~
so
Static
Dynamic
FIGURE 52.
=to!
.--
0.2
FIGURE 53.
7--
L6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Center of Cup Deflection, inches A-4799.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
2014 ALUMINUM ALLOY AFTER
EXPLOSIVE FORMING ON A
56
.6-INCH-DIAMETER DIE( )
Aluminum alloys show very little strengthening from explosive forming. The ultimate
procedure can be considered similar to ausforming since the material is worked in the austenitic
49
retained austenite and then io reheaL :u tei-iper
the martensite and to precipitate additional
strengthening carbides. This procvdure has
been found to produce increases up to Z0 per cent
over
in ultimate auid yield strengths azd ductility
properties obtained by the typical heat treatment
1 7
)
of solution treating, deep freezing, and aging.(
17.0
100
880
C
Z
- 60
xposively
i0
40
FIGURE 54.
TABLE 9.
COMPARISON OF MECHANICAL-PROPERTIES
FOR
4
VJ- 1000
Formed
part
Formed
part
Sheet
Sheet
350SS
232
187
5.0
Trans.
45
Z33
18q
5. 1
Long.
Trans.
45
45
242
249
198
207
6.3
6.
-J
8.7
Lu
11S Rb
151
Trans.
10 Rb
158
134
7.5
Long.
110 k~b
147
140
14.5
Sheet
Formed
t.art
Trans.
Long.
105 Rb
41
146
195
137
165
14.5
12.0
Formed
part
Sheet
Sheet
Trans.
37
195
16S
12.0
Long.
Trans.
40
41
207
205
175
177
11.3
10.0
Sheet
so
39
Long.
Ti-6AI-4V Formed
part
Formed
part
rX
Long.
143
- Room
- Long.
-00
Spec.
Gra:n Hardness, Ftu, Fty,
Obtained
ksi ks. Elongation,
Rc
Material Frornia) Direction
- 0.1I
Test Temperature
Grain Direction
-process.
A-47992
S-N-CURVE-. 025 HT
VASCOJET 1000
Ratio
prcs.Range
106
105
Cycles to Failure
103
Control
n 60
EsIely formed
El)
40'
to 5
to4
t06
Cycles to Failure
i07
10-
FIGURE 55.
Range Ratio
Test Temperature
(a) Formed part means tensile specimens were obtained from parts
which had been explosively formed, heat treated, and explosively
sized before the specimens were removed. Sheet material
means that the speirens were prepared from sheet material
without any forming after the sheet had been heat treated.
A-47993
Grain Direction
--
_______
<xlieyom
ye-
20
103
FIGURE 56.
105
Cycles to Failure
107
1&
A-4794
- Long.
50
TABLE 10
Spec.
Obtained
From(a)
Grain
Direction
UJ- 1000
Formed part
Formed part
Sheet
Sheet
Long.
Trans.
Long.
Trans.
45
44
42
41
6A1-4V
Formed part
Formed part
Sheet
Sheet
Long.
Trans.
Long.
Trans.
105
110
115
94
350 SS
Formed oart
Formed part
Sheet
Sheet
Long.
Trans.
Long.
Trans.
40
37
38
34
Material
(a)
Hardness,
Rc
Rb
Rb
Rb
Rb
Fty (Avg)
(ksi) 1.75)
Deflection,
inch
Thickness.
inch
Hours to
Failure,
Range
139.8
141.5
148.3
155.3
0.273
0.279
0.293
0. 307
.0247
.0237
.0246
.0246
48-170
56-144
80-170
80-144
107.0
100.2
104.9
102.5
0.
0.
0.
0.
143
134
141
137
.0655
.0655
.0710
.0701
No
No
No
No
124.4
124.0
132.0
132.5
0.241
0. 240
0.254
0.257
.0275
.0274
.0245
.0245
8-32
No failure
No failure
No failure
failure
failure
failure
failire
Specimens obtained from formed parts which had been explosively formed, heat treated, and
explosively sized. Specimens obtained from sheet material which had been heat treated but not
deformed. Bend specimens were exposed to Salt Spray Test per Federal Standard Method 151,
Method 811 (170 hours' exposure t..ne).
Stress-Corrosion Properties of
Explosively Formed Materials
Information available on the effects of
explosive forming on the stress-corrosion resistance of materials is very limited. Table 10
compares the stress-corrosion characteristics
of several materials in salt-spray tests on bend
specimens. A decrease in stress-corrosion
resistance was found for explosively formed
material compared to material which had not been
deformed.(4) The stress-corrosion characteristics of explosively formed materials have also
been showa to be poorer in magnesium chloride
tests than those of materials formed by conventional equipmnent.(18) Therefore, the use of
explosively formed materials must involve
considerations of these effects and of techmiques
for their impro-ement. More detailed study is
required in this area of research.
THE FUTURE FOR EXPLOSIVE FORMING
Over the past fow years, explosive fabrication has gained the respect of materials
51
- ,iique which7
complements older and more conventio. l forming methods. There is little question now that
the:e are useful applications of the explosiveforming approach. At the same time, explosive
furming is no longer"selected because of its
novelty alone.
While there is no single set of circumstances that can be stated as being controlling
criteria in the decision to apply explosive or
more conventional techniques, there are certain
generalizations which, although somewhat controversial, can be made. Simply stated, these
are (1) as the size and or complexity of configuration increases, the attractiveness of explosive techniques increases and (2) as the required
production rate increases, the attractiveness of
explosive tecl'niques decreases.
Therefore, it
seems to be apparent that the application of
explosive forming will continue to grow as a
function of the increasing size and complexity of
aerospace hardware .*quirements and that explosive forming will gradually, as the technology
matures, move into fields and applications now
dominated by other techniques where hardware
weight is an important consideration.
If
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
War Department Technical Manual, TM 91900 and Ordnance Corps Manual ORD M7224 (1951).
REFERENCES
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
en
(6)
Department of theuArmy.
Technical Manual, TM 9-1910 (April, 1955).
52
(2
(23)
(34)
(35)
(36)
(24)
(25)
(37)
(26)
(38)
(27)
(39)
(28)
(40)
(29)
(41)
(42)
(43)
(44)
(32)
(33)
Fairlie, J., "Explosive Welding and Forming Open Another Door for Industry",
Welding Engineer, 44 (1), pp. 61-64
(April, 1959'.
Douglass, J. J., "Forming Practices with
High Explosives", Technical JInformation on
Du Pont Explosive Specialties, E. I. du
Pont de Nemours and Company, Incorporated, Wilmington, Delaware.
Rinehart, John S., "High Energy Rate
Forming via Explosives", ASTME Report
No. SP 60-138, presented at Creative
Manufacturing Seminars (1960-61).
53
(45)
C.
Lye
(46)
0.
Lct
(47)
if
(5b)
(48)
(49)
(51)
(52)
(53)
Ida, N.,
-'Metallurgical
APPENDIX A
A-I
APPENDIX A
whe re
P = peak pressure.
psi
pounds
A-,2
-M,*"f 1^10t
h 5~
4 )rr__i
too
*'*
44
OS
____r
SOXE PESuRE
M RIE
.-
'(4
.
Ilmm.
AJa
,.9...
,,
no.
Crao-
500C
p,.-
9-
A-2
N.
Tos
I[
= "
"-.."
"
' -:
Io"-
S.
[.
-.
s.
-1
PA
"
VA<,E ,
AS
:I
A FUCTO
AND W
Jetn
IN
VALUERSSUR
ap
FcI.
POINT
WATE
WA'rER
~
rqie
fo
th
OF
RAHSOIGPA
nocnieain
ilb
nocnieain
ilb
AS
nttknA FUNCTION
h
a
to
so
FIUEA-
not tain
TblN
!HARGGS
CK\RE OF
os
---a
'+OF
STANDOFF
egsofxpsisar
tex DISTANCESsalwelag
totav w hare
not as essgthant
ams .
SHOWING
byMA
vait-nPEAKnRAPH
Thia
~~~~~~~CHARGES
Teepralatpesnd
OF PThenogas
accurat~eXwti
pLroSiVaeIN WATperce.
~
~~
are acuaewthnapoiatey1percet
EPOSV
OF STANDOFF DISTANCEcts
and~
~~~~~~~~~h
~eoae
ANDi
WEiGHT
ctiaizednwtradd
O charge
TaT shae orosrslize
oabuouldbeic
irolesithan
5variatiosi
byNtWesigHcb
t LIereas
the
n h
ariOFa
STNoFF
POlsinT CHaRGEsho
DISTaNouES
Ie
in
ddthe
fexplosive-sagwih arfec
nthe
inb
rotwheno
grearsth
es.
A-3
standoff distance is essentially directl related
to the peak pressure. The accuracy obtained by
using the nomograms has been found to be
adequate for most explosive-forming operations.
More sophisticated calculations can be made but
normally they do not significantly reduce the
error. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect
that this information will provide an excellent
starting point for any particular explosiveforming operation.
The two nomographs ao not hold for forming operations on "sandwiches" or for mediums
other than water. It is unfortunate that very
little quantitative information is available on the
effects of various plastic or rubber mediums on
peak pressure delivered through them. It is
known, of course, that the larger explosive
charges are required to produce the same
amount of forming when rubber is used over a
part and that the amount of charge cr peak pressure must be increased as the rubber thickness
is increased. The use of plastic or rubber
mediums in forming operations will certainly
receive more research attention in the future and
is an area which promises to have significant
advancements in the state of the art in explosiveforming technology.
(A-4)
where
b = o
b = one side of the square in inches.
For circular plates with edges simply supported
P = 8StZI3R 2 (3 + m)
(A.-5)
where
R = radius of blank in inches
f so;atl
for steel.
P = 8stz/2R2 (I + m)
(A-6)
A-4
in a satisfactory part without some changes of
the setup during the initial trials.
-IdA
where
P = static pressure in pounds/square inch
t = wall thickness in inches
where
)/R 22
,
'
7-1
/_
(AI
P-A
T = shear stress
,I
-'--H
,--
10
1Z
20 25 30
55 40 45
50
d = D(Eu/ZSt)
where
d = depth of draw in inches
D = cup diameter in inches
(A-Il)
A-5
eA-21
whe re__
--
where
11)
"D1ee
Drawing With-
n-. R_.
Lg
.trnhcknr.
W. , Handbook of Engineering
2nd Edition, Johri Wiley and
New York; pp. 5-55 (1952).
Cook, M. A., The Science of High Explosives, Reinhold Publishing Company, New
York 1958).
?4trnr
,D
4 E
46F
4,G
,161
/61
Title
Dep-rtf'rnt of Defense Titani'!.r S-et-Ro,,
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LKI'artririt of Defeonsu Titan!',. Sfeet-Roli.ng Program - Thermal Stability of t-,e T'tan!.
S-.et-Roing-r
.;ra
Alloys, Nove,-rer 2t,, 9
li 1PB
2C,". $,
$L.21
Derart,ern of Def,.nse T.ta...,rn Sheet-Rolling Program - Status Report.No. 4. btarch 2C.
4t 7FE
F.25E
I
',
Defartrrient of Dk-tore Titann*e
Sheet-Roiling Program - Ti me-Temperature-T:as ft.o
r Io DOagrais of the 7t.'anlor
Sheet-RolI'n) Pro, ra- Alloys,. (.ctober 19, 19A (PE !,107t, 52.25)
Debertrw.rc of Defense Tltanbut
Sheet-RolliC'l
Pr,gra- - Status Report No. %, J..-.e 2, 2',tC (IB LtIC8 7 . 1..Z',
Statitic
aI Analysis. of Tensile
-ror.ertlet of Heat-Treated TI-4Al-3Mo-,V Seet, Septe-rter t,
9-,C (FE ;
S1 .2 )
4C
fJ
"106
107
Ip18
10C9
110
III
!12
1.13
114
115
116A
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
'124
.125
126
127
*128
29
30
*'131
132
J133
*!134
1135
;136A
1136B
,137
138
i139
*140
141
142
143
1144 ,
*145
4146
'
PFeryli'/lrr for
Ti-2.AA-V Sweet.
Tensille Properties of Titarie-r Alloy'. at Low ?e',Frature, Jaruary 15, 19,) (FB :4,,
1I..5'
Weldinq and Brazinij of Molytkfes.;7r,Ysr'
I. '
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Coatingjs for Prot,.ctirn) Mol.y-yhen , Fro, C-xidaticr, at Elevated TeMearature,
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j, (FBS I51c4,
.
The All-Peta Titanium Alloy (Ti-13V-,iCr-3A",,
April 17, 19!9 (P9 151C44-,
$3.0cc
The Physical Metalluir3y of Pre'Ir~tation-Hardenable Stainless Steels, Arril 2C.
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Physical and Mechanical Propertles of Nine Co-r-ercial Frecipitatlon-Hardemable Stainess Steels, Ma, L,.q5
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Properties of Certain Cold-Roeled Austeritic StaInless Sleet Steels, 14-1 : ,
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The Fabrication of Tungsten. August 14,
oci99 (FS 1151C71. $S1.75)
Design Information on NCr-Mo-V Al'oy Steels (R-,! and Cr-;o-V Aircraft Stee2' for Atrcraft and Missles Revised) September 3K, 1960 (PP
.
.1'I72-R,
SI.-,"
3", 141-4
by F!tbrs of D!Petsed ParttI1es, Auust
Use Streretf*d
Titanium Alloys for HIih-Tef',Pras1-u
(PB 11t,073, S2.00)
FE :!UC4, 112.2'
Welding of High-Strength Steels for A1rcr~ft arvi Missile A;hllcetlons,
to~t*er 12, '5It
Heat Treatment of High-Strength Steels for Aircraft ArpflIcations,
2.'ve.er
2'F
(PBe5"11C, 52.50)
A Review of Certain Ferrous Cativ'gs Ap.licat~ors In Aircraft and Mss!.Ies, e~ber :9. 95t- (FE 'i5C"?. S1.5;.
Methods for Conducting Short-Tiffe Tensile, Creep. ard Creel-Rur~ture Tests W,4er Cocditlons of Ra;11 'Seatlnj.
1959 (PB 151C78, $1.21)
TheDecember
Welding 20,
of Titanium
and Titmniu rAlloys, Dce',tber 31, 194t
(iS 159 ',
$1
.
19C '.IE
I.
Oxidation Behavior and Protective Coatinjs for Colrtive ad Col.wbi-=a-Rase A1'oyjs, Ja';ry
151080, 52.25)
Current Tests for Evaluating Fracture Toughess 0f S*eet Metals at Hito Stremgt'l Ltv*es, 1anvuary 29, "19C
(PB 151081, $2.00)
'15082. $1.75)
ba 4s Alloys, Fetrtoary 22, 119-*C (IS
Physical and Mech3nical Properlies of Co nbL and Co
Structural Damage in Thermally Cycied Ren# 41 ard Astroloy S,*Aet Materials, F*ruary 24. 1.9fC (FB 1510C3, 50C.75)
Physical and Mechanical Propertlet of Tungsten ayd Tunmsten-Baso Alloys, tac'h 1%, 1o5C CF5B 15IC04, 51.75'
A Surwary of Comparative Properties of Air-Selted an*d Vatuwm-Melted Stee.ls and ;teralloys, March 29, 19t0
(PB 151085, 52.7t)
Physical Properties of Some Nickel-Pase Al1oys, May 2C, 146C (P9 151CA6, $2.75'
Selected Short-Time Tensile and Cree;c Data Cttasrcd Under Conditions of Rapid H1ating, Joe U7, 1W96 (FB 15108.3,
$2.25)
New Developments In the Weldinf4 of Metals,
%.ne
24, 1 WC (F9 151CC9, 11.25)
Design Information on Nickel-Base Alloys for Alrcraft and Missiles, July 2C, 190,C JSB
1C91C. 113.0C)
'96C (F 151091, $5.cC)
Tantalum and Tantalum Alloys, July 2,
Strain Aging of Refractory Metals, August 22. l1WV (Ft 151m,
$1.75)
IPB 15I093, 51.25)
Design Information -,n FH 15-7 Mo Stain.ess St*ee for Aircraft and Missiles, Ao4ust 22, .'6
The Effects of Allolng Elements in Titanium, Vzi.
A.-Co*nstitutloft, Setember It, 190C (FB 151C94, 53.%)
The Fffects of Alloying Elements in Titanium, Vo8..w B.P*?ys!cal and Oem!co1 Propertles, Deformation, and
Transformation Characterlsti.s, May 29, 19,61
AD 26=6, $3.00)
(PD 15IC96, 54.00)
Design Information on 17-7 PH Stanless Steels f1ir Aircraft and Missiles, September 23, LC
Availability and Mechetical Properties of Hilt-Strtngth Steel Extrusions. Octoter 26, I1C6 (PS 151097, S1.75)
Melting and Casting of the Refractory Metals Mo.ytdentu-, Col-, iupv Tantalum, and TL.nqsten, Novomlor 18, 19go
(PB 151098, $1.C0)
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Cowporcial Molybdnum-11se Alloys, Nowemtr 30, Ig6 (F1 1510w9, 53.CC)
oecemter 19, 1960 (PS l51100, 52.2t)
Titanium-Alloy Forging%,
Environmental Factors Influencing Metals Applicattoois In Spac* Vehicles, December 27, 19,0 (F9 1511 S$1.2'
High-Strength-Steel Forgings, January 5, 1961 (PS 1.1102, $1.75)
Sarary 6, 19661 CPS 151103. C.7t5
Stress-Corrosion Cracking - A Nontechnical Introduction to the Proble,
Design Informat-ion on Titanium Alloys for Aircraft and Missil.s5, Jatnury 10, 1962 (Pe 151104, $2.25)
Manual for Beryllium Prospecters, January 1d, iWl (PS 151105, 51.00) Obsolete
Number
147
148
149
*150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
"*158
*159
160
161
162
163
164
165
16
"*167
168
169
170
.171
172
173
174
175
.176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
*
Title
The Factors Influencing the Fracture Characteristics of High-Strength Steel, February 6, 1961 (PB 151106, $l.?5)
Review of Current Data on the Tensile Properties of Metals at Very Low Temperatures, February 14, 1961 (PB 15 107,
52.00)
Brazing for High-Temperature Service, February 21, 1961 (PB 151108, $1.00)
A Review of Pending Methods for Stainless Steel Tubing, March 2, 1961 (PB 151109, $1.50)
Environmental and Metallurgical Factors of Stress-Corrosion Cracking in High-Strength Steels, April 14, 1961
(FE 151110, $0.75)
Binary and Ternary Phase Diagrams of Columbium, Molybdenum, Tantalum, and Tungsten, April 28, 1961 (AD 257739%
$3.50)
Physical Metallurgy of Nickel-Base Superalloys, May 5, 1961 (AD 258041, $1.25)
Evolution of Ultrahigh-Strength, Hardenable Steels for Solid-Propellant Rccket-Motor Cases, May 25, 1961 (AD
257976, $1.25)
Oxidation of Tungsten, July 17, 1961 (AD 263598, $3.00)
Design Information on AM-350 Stainless Steel for Aircraft and Missiles, July 28,.1961 (AD 262407, $1.50)
A Summary of the Theory of Fracture in Metals, August 7, 1961 (PB 181081, $1.75)
Stress-Corrosion Cracking of High-Strength Stainless Steels in Atmospheric Environments, September 15, 1961
(AD 266005, $1.25)
Gas-Pressure Bonding, September 25, 1961 (AD 265133, $1.25)
Introduction to Metals for Elevated-Temperature Use,
Octobor 27,
$2.50)
Status Report No. I on Department of Defense Refractory Metals Sheet-Rolling Program, November 2, 1961
(AD 267077, $i.0c)
Coatings for the Protection of Refractory Metals from Oxidation, November 24, 1961 (AD 271384, $3.50)
Control of Dimensions in High-Strength Heat-Treated Steel Parts, November 29, 1961 (AD 270045, $1.00)
Semlaustenitic Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless Steels, December 6, 1961 (AD 274805, $2.75)
Methods of Evaluating Welded Joints, December 28, 1961 (AD 272088, $2.25)
The Effect of Nuclear Radiation on Structural Metals, September 15, 1961 (AD 265839, $2.50)
Summary of the Fifth Meeting of the Refractory Composites Working Group, March 12, 1962 (AD 274804, $2.00)
Beryllium for Structural Applications, 1958-1960, May 18, 1962 (AD 278723, $3.50)
The Effect of Molten Alkali Metals on Containment Metals and Alloys at High Temperatures, May 18, 1962
(AD 278654, $1.50)
Chemical Vapor Deposition, June 4, 1962 (AD 281887, $2.25)
The Physical Metallurgy of Cobalt-Base Superalloys, July 6, 1962 (AD 283356, 52.25)
Background for the Development of Materials to be Used in High-Strength-Steel Structural Weldments, July 31,
1962 (AD 284265, $3.00)
New Developments in Welded Fabrication of Large Solid-Fuel Rocket-Motor Cases, August 6, 1962 (AD 284829, $I.X0)
Electron-Beam Processes, September 15, 1962 (AD 287433, $1.75)
Surmrary of the Sixth Meeting of the Refractory Composites Working Group, September 24, 1962 (AD 287029, $1.75)
Status Report No. 2 on Department of Defense Refractory Metals Sheet-Rolling Program, October 15, 1962
(AD 288127, $1.25)
Thermal Radiative Properties of Selected Materials, November 15, 1962, Volume I (AD 294345, $3.00), Volume II
(AD 294346, $4.00)
Steels for Large Solid-Propellant Rocket-Motor Cases, November 20, 1962 (AD 292258, $1.00)
A Guide to the Literature on High-Velocity Metalworking, December 3, 1962 (AD 403493, $3.50)
Design Considerations in Selecting Materials for Large Solid-Propellant Rocket-Motor Cases, December 10, 1962
(AD 294695, $ 100)
Joining of Nickel Base Alloys, December 20, 1962 (AD 296174, 52.00)
Structural Considerations in Developing Refractory Metal Alloys, January 31, 1963 (AD 419383, $1.00)
Binary and Ternary Phase Diagrams of Columblum, Molybdenum, Tantalum, and Tungsten (Supplement to DMIC Report
152), February 7, i963 (AD 407987, $2.75)
Summary of the Seventh Meeting of the Refractory Composites Working Group, May 30, 1963 (AD 413567, $1.75)
The Status and Properties of Titanium Alloys for Thick Plate, June 14, 1963 (AD 421029, $1.50)
The Effect of Fabrication History and Microstructure on the Mechanical Properties of Refractory Metals and
Alloys, July 10, 1963 (AD 423952, $1.75)
The Application of Ultrasonic Energy In the Deformation of Metals, August 16, 1963 (AD 423562, $2.25)
The Engineering Properties of Columblum and Columbium Alloys, September 6, 1963 (AD 426255, $3.50)
The Engineering Properties of Tantalum and Tantalum Alloys, September 13, 1963 (AD 426344, $2.50)
The Engineering Properties of Molybdenum and Molybdenum Alloys, September 20, 1963 (AD 426264, $4.00)
The Engineering Properties of Tungsten and Tungsten Alloys, September 27, 1963 (AD 425547, $2.75)
Hot-Cold Working of Steel to Improve Strength, October 11, 1963 (AD 425948, $2.00)
Tungsten Research and Development Review, October 23, 1963 (AD 425474, $1.50)
A Discussion of the Physical Metallurgy of the 18 Per Cent Nickel Maraging Steels, November 15, 1963 (AD 43008,
50.75)
Properties of Coated Refractory Metals, January 10, 1964 (AD 433782, $2.25)
Hydrogen-Induced, Delayed, Brittle Failures of High-Strength Steels, January 20, 1964 (AD 421124, $3.00)
Cracking In High-Strength Steel Weldments - A Critical Review, February 7, 1964 (AD 438432, $2.50)
The Mechanical Prcperties of the 18 Per Cent Nickel Maraging Steels, February 24, 1964 (AD 600427, $2.75)
The Application of High Pressure In Metal-Deformation Processing - Report of an Informal Symposium of the
Metalworking Process and Equipment Program, March 2, 1964 (AD 437328, $2.00)
Vacuum Degassing in the Production of Premium-Quality Steels, March 11, 1964 (AD
U S. Government Metalworking Processes and Equipment Program, March 18, 1964 (AD 600088, $2.25)
The Effects of High-Pressure, High-Temperature Hydrogen on Steel, March 26, 1964 (AD
I la!
s|
iA
Securiiy Ciausslifiu&iin
CDOCUMENT
Ii
(Security classification of title, body of abstract and indexing annotaeton must be entered when the overall report to classified)
1 ORIGINATING ACTIVI"rY (Corporate author)
2.
REPORT SECURITY
in1
C LASS|IFICATION
-,qj.__-_
2b GROU&
43201
3 REPORT TITLE
DMIC Report
Strohecker, D. C.,
name, initial)
Carlson,
6. REPORT DATE
May 83,
Be.
R. J., Poremnka,
170
62
59
9a
F. W.
1964
S. W.,
AF 33(615)-1121
b. PROJECT NO.
c-
8975
___=
9b. OTHER REPORT NO(S)
this report)
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
13,i3,STRAj/
45433
high explosives. The information presented has been obtained from the open
literature and from firms active in this work. Explosives and their characteristics
are described along with discussions of general explosive-forming techniques. More
detailed treatment is given to descriptions and requirements of facilities, die
designs and materials, and current applications and practice in the forming of shee
DD IJANO64 1473
Unclassified
Security Classification
Unclassified
Security c.liS.znuvatioi
LINK A_
KEY WORDS
Explosive forming
Explosives (high)
Detonators
Tube
Tooling
Formability
Edge preparation
Thermal treatment
Facilities
Microstructures
Mechanical properties
Stress corrosion
Equipment
Die designs
Sheet
Trancmission mediums
LINKS8LN
Plate
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