HYDRONICS for PLUMBING ENGINEERS

By Roy C.E. Ahlgren

Rules of Thumb
Designers frequently use rules of thumb for estimating
component size. These rules are based on engineering facts,
assumptions, and approximations about the way things work.
Its wise to know the basis of these shortcuts to judge the
amount of uncertainty in the rule of thumb analysis.
Many HVAC professionals use the following rule of thumb
for estimating the flow required to provide comfortable conditions in heating or cooling systems.
Q=m
cp t
where
Q = Heat transfer rate (British thermal units per hour)
m
= Mass flow rate (pounds of liquid per hour)
cp = Specific heat of the liquid (Btu/lb-F)
t = Temperature change of the liquid (F)
If flow is measured in gallons per minute (gpm), the rule of
thumb becomes:
Q = 500 gpm t
In this equation, the constant assumes specific gravity, and
the specific heat of the liquid equals one. In other words, the
liquid is water at standard conditions (60F), with no additives.
There isnt much uncertainty in applying it, at least not as
much uncertainty as exists in rules of thumb for determining
pump head, for example.

Is that Really True?

The total head loss in this system is simply the length multiplied by the friction head loss rate:
Pump head = System length (feet)Unit friction loss rate
(foot pounds per pound of head loss per unit length)
Pump head = 5,000 feet 1.56 feet of head loss
100 feet of length

Thus, the pump head equals 78 feet of head.

Figure 1 is a typical end-suction pump selected for 1,000
gpm and 78 feet of head. The system curve shows that the
pump actually will provide more than 1,000 gpm because the
constant revolutions per minute (rpm) impeller is trimmed in
-inch increments, and the 10-inch impeller shown is slightly
larger than required.
This analysis assumes that the system uses 60F water, and
thats not very useful in an HVAC system. While it could cool
very hot air, it probably couldnt dehumidify it. In a heating
system, 60F water is too cool to keep people comfortable.
Thus, lets assume a chilled water temperature of 40F or
a hot water temperature of 200F and see the effect on the
system and pump.
At 40F, water is more viscous. The friction loss rate for 1,000
gpm in 8-inch pipe rises to 1.61 feet per 100 feet. For the 5,000foot system, the total head loss increases to 80.5 feet.
At 200F, water is less viscous. The friction loss rate for 1,000
gpm in 8-inch pipe is only 1.42 feet per 100 feet. Thus, system
head loss drops to 71 feet.
The cooling and heating system heads have been plotted
on the pump curve showing that the actual cooling system
flow for this pump will be approximately 975 gpm, about 2.5

Assume a closed system of 5,000 feet total equivalent length.

Thats the same as saying everything in the systemreal things
such as heat exchangers or elbowshas the same head loss as
5,000 feet of straight pipe, an approximation in itself. Applying
the rule of thumb at a 20 degree
delta tee, we find that 1,000
Figure 1 Typical end-suction pump for 1,000 gpm and 78 feet of head
gpm is required to provide 10
million Btuh. If the delta tee
were only 10F, the required
flow would be doubled.
Now select a pump. A flow of
1,000 gpm at 60F in standard
8-inch steel pipe will require
1.56 foot-pounds of work per
pound of liquid. This friction
Cooling
head loss rate is available in
tables, charts, and calculators
available from many sources.

56 Plumbing Systems & Design

DECEMBER 2008

Heating

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percent less than the rule of thumb flow. The actual heating
system flow will be about 1,140 gpm, or 1.14 percent more than
the rule of thumb.

What About the Specific Heat?

The specific heat of water also changes with temperature. The
rule of thumb assumes that specific heat equals one, which is
approximately true for a range of temperatures near 95F. However, as water temperature leaves that range, specific heat rises.
At 40F, specific heat is about 4 percent more than the standard conditions assumed in the rule of thumb. At 200F, the
specific heat is about 6 percent greater. An increase in specific
heat means that each pound of liquid can carry that much
more heat for the same temperature change. Therefore, the
decrease in flow in a chilled water system caused by increased
viscosity is offset by an increase in specific heat. In heating
systems, both flow and specific heat increase, resulting in a
built-in safety factor.
Based on all this, the rule of thumb looks pretty accurate, but
any analysis of this type depends on the pump curve. A steeper
pump curve will result in smaller changes of flow for the same
changes in system friction loss. Perhaps the value of this discussion is simply to recognize that any rule of thumb depends on
the assumptions and approximations used in creating it.

Roy Ahlgren is a consultant to the hydronics

industry. He served as chair of the ASHRAE Technical
Committee on Hydronic and Steam Systems and
was the director of the Bell & Gossett Little Red
Schoolhouse. For more information or to comment on
this article, e-mail articles@psdmagazine.org.

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DECEMBER 2008

Plumbing Systems & Design 57