Control and Grid Integration of Photovoltaic (PV) Power Systems

WUT, Poland
Control and Grid Integration of

Photovoltaic (PV) power systems
Presented By
Dr. Chitti Babu Baladhandautham, Ph.D
Post. Doc Research Fellow
Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
Wroclaw University of Technology, POLAND
E-mail: bcbabunitrkl@ieee.org
26/March/2014
bcbabunitrkl@ieee.org
Course Outline
WUT, Poland
Basic concept of PV power generation

Modelling and Characteristics of PV array
Power Converter Topologies for PV energy
Systems
Control and Grid connection Requirements
Summary and conclusions
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PV Power Generation Systems

WUT, Poland
Major advantages of the photovoltaic (PV) power are as follows:

short lead time to design, install, and start up a new plant.
highly modular, hence, the plant economy is not a strong
function of size.
power output matches very well with peak load demands.
static structure, no moving parts, hence, no noise.
high power capability per unit of weight.
longer life with little maintenance because of no moving
parts.
highly portable because of light weight.
Almost 40 percent of the PV modules installed in the world are produced in the United States
of America (USA). Approximately 40 MW modules were produced in the U.S.A. in 1995, out
of which 19 MW were produced by Siemens Solar Industries and 9.5 MW by Solarex
Corporation
Source: Mukund R.Patel Wind
and Solar Power Systems, CRC Press, 1999 3
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Todays PV scenerio in Europe

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Around the world 31.1 GW of PV systems were installed in 2012, up from

30.4 GW in 2011;
PV remains, after hydro and wind power, the third most important
renewable energy source in terms of globally installed capacity.
17.2 GW of PV capacity were connected to the grid in Europe in 2012,
compared to 22.4 GW in 2011; Europe still accounts for the predominant
share of the global PV market, with 55% of all new capacity in 2012.
Germany was the top market for the year, with 7.6 GW of newly
connected systems; followed by China with an estimated 5 GW; Italy with
3.4 GW; the USA with 3.3 GW; and Japan with an estimated 2 GW.
For the second year in a row, PV was the number-one new source of
electricity generation installed in Europe.
Under a pessimistic Business-as-Usual scenario, the global annual market
could reach 48 GW in 2017; under a Policy-Driven scenario, it could be as
high as 84 GW in 2017
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Value Chain for Photovoltaic Energy

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Poly Silicon
Ingot/Wafer
PV Cell
PV Module
Upstream
Original material
for Ingot
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5/17
Silicon Melting
Ingot Growing
System
Downstream
Cell
Production
Module
Production
PV Array, PV
Inverter,
Battery, Support,
Monitoring system,
Installation
Basic concepts of PV cell

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Fig.1. Basic Construction of PV cell
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Fig.2. Photovoltaic Effect
Basic Concepts
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Inside current of PV cell looks like

Reverse direction. Why?
By Solar Energy, current is pumped up

from N-pole to P-pole.
In generation, current appears reverse.
It is the same as for battery.
N
P
Current appears
to be in the
reverse direction ?
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7
Looks like
reverse
N
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
Voltage and Current of PV cell ( I-V Curve )

P
A
(A)
Short Circuit
Voltage on normal operation point

0.5V (in case of Silicon PV)
Current depend on
- Intensity of insolation
- Size of cell
Current(I)
High insolation
Normal operation point
(Maximum Power point)
P
Low insolation
IxV=W
(V)
Voltage(V)
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8
about 0.5V
(Silicon)
Open Circuit
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
(A)
Depend on cell-size
5.55A
Depend on
Solar insolation
4.95A
Current(I)
Depend on
type of cell or
cell-material
( Si = 0.5V )
(V)
Voltage(V)
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9
0.49 V 0.62 V
PV cell Technologies
WUT, Poland
Conversion Efficiency
of Module
Single crystal
10 - 17%
Poly crystalline
10 - 13%
Crystalline
Silicon
Semiconductor
Non-crystalline
Solar
Cell
Compound
Semiconductor
Organic
Semiconductor
Amorphous
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
7 - 10%
18 - 30%
Dye-sensitized Type
7 - 8%
Organic Thin Layer Type
2 - 3%
Electric Energy Output

x 100%
Conversion Efficiency =
Energy of Insolation on cell
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10
Hierarchy of PV System
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Cell
Volt
Ampere
Watt
Size
0.5V
5-6A
2-3W
about 10cm
5-6A
100-200W about 1m
Module 20-30V
Array
200-300V 50A-200A 10-50kW
about 30m
Array
10 - 50 kW
Module,Panel
100 - 200 W
Cell
23W
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11
6x9=54 (cells)
100-300 (modules)
Basic Characteristics
WUT, Poland
V
(A)
Power conditioner (mentioned

later) will adjusts to be most suitable
PMAX voltage and current automatically.
P1
Current(I)
Ipmax
To obtain maximum power, current

control (or voltage control) is very
important.
I/V curve
P- Max control
Power curve
IxV=W
P2
(V)
Voltage(V)
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12
pmax
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
Estimate obtained power by I
/ V curve
R = 0.05()
(A) N
12
If the load has 0.05 ohm resistance,

cross point of resistance character and
PV-Character will be following point.
Then power is 10x0.5=5 W
PV character
( I/V curve )
10
R = 0.05()
Current(I)
8
6
Ohms theory
V
I =
R
2
0
I = V / 0 .05
(V)
0
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13
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Voltage(V)
0.6
Contd.,
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Current is affected largely by change of

insolation intensity.
P
5A
Partially shaded serial cell will produce

current mismatch.
N
P
Bypass Diode
(A)
Mismatch
1A
High intensity insolation
Current(I)
5A
P
Low intensity insolation
N
P
IxV=W
(V)
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14
Bypa
ss
Diode
5
A
1A
1
A
4
A
Contd.,
When module temperature rises up, efficiency decreases.
The module must be cooled by natural ventilation, etc.
WUT, Poland
Temperature and efficiency
Efficiency (%)
14
Crystalline cell
2%
down
12
10
Amorphous cell
8
6
Typical
(25C)
4
0
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15
10
20 30 40 50 60 70
Module Temperature
(deg.C)
Summer time
on roof top
(65C)
80
90
100
Parameters for measuring PV cells performance

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1. Isc - short circuit current
The short circuit current (Isc), is the current which

is generated by the solar cell if it is connected to a
low impedance forcing the voltage across the
device to V = 0.
2. Voc - open circuit voltage

The open circuit voltage (Voc), i.e. the voltage which
builds up across the cell as long as its terminals are
kept on high impedance forcing the electrical current
to I = 0. This quantity is related to the bandgap of the
semiconductor used.
Voc =
kT I ph
ln
+ 1
q Io
3. FF - Fill factor
The fill factor (FF) corresponding to the ratio of the power which can need be
generated by the solar cell (under maximum power conditions i.e. when it is
connected to a suitable charge) to the product of Voc*Isc This factor is related to the
curvature of the I-V characteristics.
P
4. Cell efficiency
FF =
Voc I sc
The cell efficiency can be determined from these three external parameters and
from
the area of the cell
Voc I sc FF
26/March/2014
bcbabunitrkl@ieee.orgPm
=
Pin
incident solar
power
16
Modeling of PV Array
WUT, Poland
Ideal Single Diode Model
qV
I = I ph I o exp
1
kT
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The equivalent circuit with Rs and Rsh

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where,
q electron charge (1.6x10-19 Coulombs),
K Boltzmann constant (1.38x10-23 Nm/K),
T PV Module temperature in Kelvin,
I0 reverse saturation current of diode 1
Iph light generated current of PV module
in Ampere
Rs series resistance of PV module
Rsh shunt resistance of PV module
I current of PV module in Amps
Single Diode Model
q(V + IRs ) V + IRs

I = I ph I o exp
1
kT
Rsh

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The complex equivalent circuit

WUT, Poland
q(V + IRs )
q(V + IRs )
1 I or exp

I = I ph I od exp
m
kT
m
kT
1
2
V + IRs
q(V + IRs )
q (V + IRs )
1
1 I or exp
I = I ph I od exp
Rsh
m1kT
m2 kT
V + IRs V + IRs
1
I ot exp
m
kT
Rsh
3

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Resistive Effects
WUT, Poland
The characteristic resistance of a solar cell is the output resistance of the solar cell at its
maximum power point. If the resistance of the load is equal to the characteristic resistance
of the solar cell, then the maximum power is transferred to the load and the solar cell
operates at its maximum power point.
Effect of Characteristics Resistance
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20
Effects of Parasitic Resistance

WUT, Poland
Resistive effects in solar cells reduce the efficiency of the solar cell by dissipating power in
the resistances. The most common parasitic resistances are series resistance and shunt
resistance.
In most cases and for typical values of shunt and series resistance, the key impact of
parasitic resistance is to reduce the fill factor.
Series resistance does not affect the solar cell at open-circuit voltage since the overall
current flow through the solar cell, and therefore through the series resistance is zero.
However, near the open-circuit voltage, the IV curve is strongly effected by the series
resistance.
Low shunt resistance causes power losses in solar cells by providing an alternate current
path for the light-generated current. Such a diversion reduces the amount of current flowing
through the solar cell junction and reduces the voltage from the solar cell. The effect of a
shunt resistance is particularly severe at low light levels, since there will be less lightgenerated current. The loss of this current to the shunt therefore has a larger impact.
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21
Effect of Temperature
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In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in temperature is

the open-circuit voltage.
Increases in temperature reduce the band gap of a semiconductor, thereby
effecting most of the semiconductor material parameters. The decrease in the
band gap of a semiconductor with increasing temperature can be viewed as
increasing the energy of the electrons in the material. Lower energy is
therefore needed to break the bond. In the bond model of a semiconductor
band gap, reduction in the bond energy also reduces the band gap. Therefore
increasing the temperature reduces the band gap.
I-V plots for different temperatures
P-V plots for different temperatures
30
1.8
25
1.6
1.4
20
P o w e r(W a tts )
Ip v (a m p s )
1.2
T=60
1
T=50
0.8
T=35
T=25
T=60
T=50
T=30
0.6
15
T=35
10
T=45
T=25
T=40
0.4
T=30
T=45
T=40
0.2
0
10
Vpv(volts)
12
14
16
18
20
10
Vpv(volts)
12
14
16
18
Typical Ipv-Vpv output characteristics for different

Typical P-Vpv output characteristics for different
26/March/2014 temperature
temperature
20
22
Effect of Light Intensity

WUT,
Poland
Changing
the light intensity incident on a solar cell changes all solar cell parameters,
including the short-circuit current, the open-circuit voltage, the FF, the efficiency
and the impact of series and shunt resistances.
At low light levels, the effect of the shunt resistance becomes increasingly
important. As the light intensity decreases, the bias point and current through the
solar cell also decreases, and the equivalent resistance of the solar cell may begin to
approach the shunt resistance, thereby increasing the fractional power loss due to
shunt resistance.
Consequently, under cloudy conditions, a solar cell with a high shunt resistance
retains a greater fraction of its original power than a solar cell with a low shunt
resistance
2
P-V plots for different irradiations
30
I-V plots for different irradiations
1.8
25
1.6
G=1.5
G=1.5
20
1.4
G=1.3
P o w e r(W a tts )
Ipv (am ps )
1.2
G=1.1
G=0.9
G=1.3
15
G=1.1
0.8
G=0.9
10
G=0.7
0.6
G=0.5
0.4
G=0.5
G=0.3
0.2
0
G=0.7
10
Vpv(volts)
12
G=0.3
14
16
18
20
10
Vpv(volts)
12
14
16
18
20
26/March/2014
23 levels
Typical Ipv-Vpv output characteristics for different irradiation
levels
Typical P-Vpv output characteristic for different irradiation
Part 2. Power Converter topologies

for 1-Pha grid interfaced PV Energy
Systems
Source: Kjaer, S.B.; Pedersen, J.K.; Blaabjerg, F., "A review of single-phase grid-connected
inverters for photovoltaic modules," Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on , vol.41,
no.5, pp.1292,1306, Sept.-Oct. 2005
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Composition of Photovoltaic Energy System

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Grid
Load
PV Array
PCS
Monitoring System
Data
Transmission
< Block Diagram for Grid-connected Photovoltaic energy system >
PV Array (Solar Module Panel) : Modules are used suitably in series or parallel
connection.
Peripheral components (BOS : Balance of System) : Support for module installation,
Battery
Power Conversion Device (PV Inverter) : PCS (Power Conditioning System)
- PCS converts DC power generated in PV array to AC power.
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25/17
Design topology for PCS Power circuit

Design
Topology
Circuit Diagram
Feature
Low frequency
Transformer
Type
Easy isolation & Simple circuit

Low efficiency for small capacity
Big size and heavy weight
Method applied for large capacity
models
High frequency
Link type
Small size & light weight

Complex circuit for isolation
High cost
Efficient improvement is difficult.
Not applicable for large capacity
models
Transformerless
Type
Small size & light weight

High efficiency
Low cost
High reliability for DC current input
Not applicable for large capacity
models
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Considerable feature for Power Converter

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1) Change of the environmental condition

- Solar radiation, Surface temperature of PV array, Shadow by obstacle or
cloud
Environmental condition is changed frequently and rapidly.
2) Response for the environmental change
- Tracking for most efficient point of PV array
: Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
3) Synchronized operation with grid
- Synchronized operation with grid voltage
4) Protective function
- Inverter protection from grid fault condition
- Grid protection from the fault condition of a solar energy system
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PV Inverter Classification
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The inverters are categorized into four categories:

1) Number of power processing stages in cascade;
2) Type of power decoupling between the PV module(s) and the
single-phase grid;
3) whether they utilizes a transformer (either line or high
frequency) or not;
4) Type of grid-connected power stage.
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28
PV Inverter Configuration
WUT, Poland
FIG. a) Central inverter, string inverter, ac module

26/March/2014
b) Multistring inverter.
29
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
a) Single power processing inverter
b )Dual power processing inverter
c )Dual stage inverter.

26/March/2014
30
Contd.,
(a) Capacitor is placed in parallel with the PV modules
(c) Line-frequency transformer (LFT) is placed

between the grid and the inverter (solves problems
with injection of dc currents into the grid)
26/March/2014
(b) Capacitor is either placed in parallel with the PV

modules or in the dc link
(b) High-frequency transformer (HFT) is embedded in

an HF-link grid-connected ac/ac inverter
(c) HFT is embedded inbcbabunitrkl@ieee.org

a dc-link PV-module-connected dcdc converter.
31
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
Fig. Transformerless high-input-voltage PV inverter with single-phase commonmode (CM) and differential mode (DM) EMI filters.
26/March/2014
32
Grid-connected inverter stages

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Fig. (a), (b) Line-commutated CSI switching at twice

the line frequency
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(c), (d) Self-commutated voltage-source inverter

(VSI) switching with high frequency in PWM
33
AC module inverters
WUT, Poland
Fig. 100-W single-transistor flyback-type HF-link inverter
Fig. Flyback-type inverter with high-power decoupling

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34
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
Fig. Modified Shimizu inverter. Note that the polarity of the PV module is reversed.
Fig. 12. Dual two-transistor flyback-type inverter

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35
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
Fig. Flyback dcdc converter with unfolding dcac inverter
Fig. Flyback dcdc converter with PWM inverter
Fig. Series-resonant dcdc converter with bang-bang dcac inverter

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36
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
Fig. Soladin 120 commercial inverter
Fig. Grid-connected system with half-bridge diode-clamped three-level inverter (HBDC)

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37
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
Fig. Utility interactive photovoltaic inverter with GCC
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38
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
Fig. Topology of the power electronics of the multi-string inverter: Sunny Boy 5000TL.
Maximum power per string equals 2200 W at 125-750 V.
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39
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
Fig. Topology of the power electronics of the three-string inverter.

Maximum power per string equals 1500 W at 200 500 V.
26/March/2014
40
WUT, Poland
Part-3. Control and Grid

Integration of Grid-connected
PV Power Systems
Reference: A. Timbus, M. Liserre, R. Teodorescu, P. Rodriguez, F. Blaabjerg,
Evaluation of Current Controllers for Distributed Power Generation Systems, IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics, March 2009, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 654-664.
26/March/2014
41
WUT, Poland
Importance of Power Electronics in Power

Systems
Increasing applications of Power Electronic

Equipment in Power Systems
Availability of high power
semiconductor devices
Decentralized renewable
energy generation sources
Increased power transfer
with existing transmission
system
Effective control of power
flow needed in a
deregulated environment
Control Center
Central Power
Station
Combined Heat and Power
Plant (CHP)
Factory
Commercial Building
House
Apartment Building
Fuel Cell
Smart House
Performance
Building
Norms for Power quality

42
26/March/2014
Solar Power Plants

CHP House
Wind Power Plants
Village
Commercial
Building
Micro-Turbine
Hospital
Commercial
Building
Fig. Future Power System

Function of Power Electronics in Utility

Applications
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Converter
Source
Load
Controller
Enabling technology providing interface between two

(ac/dc) electrical systems
E.g.
Interconnection of two asynchronous ac systems
dc to ac conversion is required to connect fuel cells or
photovoltaics (PV) to the utility grid
43
26/March/2014
Listing of Power Electronic Applications

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Distributed generation (DG)

Renewable resources (wind and photovoltaic)
Fuel cells and micro-turbines
Storage: batteries, super-conducting magnetic energy storage,
flywheels
Power electronics loads: Adjustable speed drives
Power quality solutions
Dual feeders
Uninterruptible power supplies
Dynamic voltage restorers
Transmission and distribution (T&D)
High voltage dc (HVDC) and medium voltage dc
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS): Shunt and Series
compensation, and the unified power flow controller
44
26/March/2014
Introduction
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9 AC current control are the core of grid-connected converters

9 They are responsible of the safe operation of the converter and
of the compliance with standards and grid codes
9 Ac voltage control is a standard solution in WT-system however
can be adopted also in PV-system for reinforcing stability or
offering ancillary services
A glance at the lecture content

9
9
9
9
9
Introduction
Model of the grid converter
Current control
Voltage control
Summary
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45
Current/Voltage control of Grid-Connected

PWM Inverter
WUT, Poland
vdc
L1
Cf
L2
vC
vg ig Lg
e
v*
PI-based current control implemented in a synchronous frame is commonly used

in three-phase converters
In single-phase converters the PI controller capability to track a sinusoidal

reference is limited and Proportional Resonant (PR) can offer better performances
Modulation has an influence on design of the converter (dc voltage value), losses
and EMC problems including leakage current
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Control strategy for grid-connected PV System

WUT, Poland
The control task can be divided into two major parts

Input side controller.
Grid side controller which is our main focus.
The control strategy applied to the grid-side converter consists

mainly of two cascaded loops
Fast internal current loop, which is responsible for
control of reactive
power, harmonic compensation and
current protection.
External voltage loop, which controls the dc-link voltage
and hence
the active power.
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Harmonic limits for PV inverters

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9 In Europe there is the standard IEC 61727

9 In US there is the recommendation IEEE 929
9 the recommendation IEEE 1547 is valid for all distributed resources technologies
with aggregate capacity of 10 MVA or less at the point of common coupling
interconnected with electrical power systems at typical primary and/or secondary
distribution voltages
9 All of them impose the following conditions regarding grid current harmonic content
Important: The total THD of the grid current should not be higher than 5%
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48
Model of the grid converter

id
WUT, Poland
TA+
DA +
TB +
DB +
TC +
DC +
TA
DA
TB
DB
TC
DC
io
vdc
converter switching function
p(t) = 2 ( pa(t) + pb(t) + 2 pc(t) )

3
ac voltage equation
d i (t ) 1
= Ri (t ) e (t ) + p(t )vdc (t )
dt
L
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49
Use of a synchronous frame

WUT, Poland
p 2 1 1 2
p =
3 0 3 2
r
v
vq
vd
di ( t )
=
dt
di ( t ) =
dt
cos
pd
p =
q sin
-frame
2
2
cos
cos
pa
3
3
pb
sin
sin +
pc
3
3
dq-frame
1
Ri ( t ) e ( t ) + p ( t ) vdc ( t )
L
1
Ri ( t ) e ( t ) + p ( t ) vdc ( t )
L
26/March/2014
p
1 2 a
pb
3 2
pc
did ( t )
1
iq ( t ) = Rid ( t ) ed ( t ) + pd ( t ) vdc ( t )
dt
L
diq ( t ) + i t = 1 Ri t e t + p t v t
d ( )
q( )
q( )
q ( ) dc ( )
dt
L
50
Current Control Methods

WUT, Poland
PWM current control methods
ON/OFF controllers
Separated PWM
linear
non-linear
passivity
PI
hysteresis
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Delta
predictive
optimized
feedforward
fuzzy
resonant
dead-beat
51
PI current control
WUT, Poland
9 Typically PI controllers are used for the current loop in grid inverters
9 Technical optimum design (damping 0.707 overshoot 5%)
e
GPI ( s )
Gf ( s )
Gd ( s )
GPI ( s) = K P +
ig
KI
s
Gd ( s ) =
1
1 + 1.5Ts s
G f ( s) =
i( s)
1
=
v( s) R + Ls
vg
0
Magnitude (Db)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-5
-10
-15
-20 -1
10
10
10
10
10
10
0
Phase (Degree)
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-100
-200
-300
-400
-1
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-0.5
0.5
10
10
10
Frequency (Hz)
10
10
52
WUT, Poland
Shortcomings of PI controller
1
0.98
0.96
0.94
0.92
steady-state
magnitude and
phase error
0.9
0.88
0.86
0.84
0.82
0.8
0.023 0.0235 0.024 0.0245 0.025 0.0255 0.026 0.0265 0.027 0.0275
0.2
0.15
0.1
limited
disturbance
rejection
capability
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
0.019 0.0192 0.0194 0.0196 0.0198 0.02 0.0202 0.0204 0.0206 0.0208 0.021
9 When the current controlled inverter is connected to the grid, the phase error results
in a power factor decrement and the limited disturbance rejection capability leads to
the need of grid feed-forward compensation.
9 However the imperfect compensation action of the feed-forward control due to the
background distortion results in high harmonic distortion of the current and
consequently non-compliance with international power quality standards.
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53
Use of a PI controller in a rotating frame

WUT, Poland
q
d
i (t )
e(t )
iq
The voltage used for
the dq-frame
orientation could be
measured after a
dominant reactance
e(t)
e(t)
e(t)
e ' (t ) = e (t ) L g
26/March/2014
id
The current control can

be performed on the
grid current or on the
converter current
Ki
+
K
p
s
DPI (s)dq =
0
di g
dt
Ki
Kp +
s
0
54
Use of a PI controller in a rotating frame

WUT, Poland
id
id
i
id
abc
abc
Ki
s
v abc
L
Vg
v g
vg
Kp +
iq
v gd
Current
controller
iq
K
Kp + i
s
v*
Current
controller
v gq
v g
v gd
e j v gq
vdc
Vdc controller
dc
K
Kp + i
s
P controller
i
v
Q
P = v ga ia + v gb ib + v gc ic
Q=
1
3
(v
i + v gbc ib + v gca ic
gab a
PQ controller
26/March/2014
Ki
s
K
Kp + i
s
Kp +
id
iq
Q controller
active and reactive

power control can be
achieved
vdc control can be
achieved too
55
WUT, Poland
Use of a PI controllers in a rotating frame in

single-phase systems
id
9 an independent Q control is
achieved
i
i
9 A phase delay block create the

virtual quadrature component
that allows to emulate a twophase system
id
e j
id
Kp +
iq
e j v
Kp +
Vg
v g
2
Ki
s
e j
v gd
vg
Current
controller
iq
v g
Ki
s
Current
controller
v gq
v gd
e j v gq
vdc
9 the v component of the

command voltage is ignored for
the calculation of the duty-cycle
idc
MPPT
Vdc controller
Vdc
K
Kp + i
s
v gd
id
iq
v gq
26/March/2014
56
Use of a PI controllers in two rotating frames

WUT, Poland
9 Under unbalanced conditions in

order to compensate the harmonics
generated by the inverse sequence
present in the grid voltage both the
positive- and negative-sequence
reference frames are required
+
i
e j
iq+
id
PI
e j
e j
PI
26/March/2014
e j
PI
PI
9 Obviously using this approach,

double computational effort must be
devoted
id+
iq
57
Dead-beat controller
WUT, Poland
9 The dead-beat controller belongs to the family of the predictive controllers

9 They are based on a common principle: to foresee the evolution of the controlled
quantity (the current) and on the basis of this prediction:
9 to choose the state of the converter (ON-OFF predictive) or
9 the average voltage produced by the converter (predictive with pulse width
modulator)
9 The starting point is to calculate its derivative to predict the effect of the control
action
9 The controller is developed on the basis of the model of the filter and of the grid,
which is used to predict the system dynamic behavior: the controller is inherently
sensitive to model and parameter mismatches
26/March/2014
58
WUT, Poland
9 The information on the model is used to decide the switching state of the
converter with the aim to minimize the possible commutations (ON-OFF
predictive) or the average voltage that the converter has to produce in order to
e
null it.
i
9 In case it is imposed that the error at the

end of the next sampling period is zero
the controller is defined as dead-beat.
It can be demonstrated that it is the
fastest current controller allowing nulling
the error after two sampling periods.
GDB ( z )
Gf ( z )
vg
i*
i
tON
tON
k
26/March/2014
Ts
k +1
Ts
k+2
59
WUT, Poland
1
a
v(k + 1) = v(k 1) + i (k ) i (k 1) + e(k + 1) e(k 1)
b
b
1
v(k + 1) = v(k ) + i (k ) + e(k + 1) + e(k )
b
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
-0.2
450
460
26/March/2014
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
-0.2
450
neglecting R !
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
60
Dead-beat controller: limits

20
20
10
10
-10
-10
current [A]
current [A]
WUT, Poland
-20
-30
-20
-30
-40
-40
-50
-50
-60
0.04
0.045
0.05
time [s]
0.055
due to PWM !
-60
0.04
0.06
0.045
0.05
time [s]
0.055
0.06
Pole-Zero Map
20
1
0.6/T
0.5/T
0.6
0.1
0.3/T
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.2/T
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.1/T
0.8
0.9
0.8/T
Imaginary Axis
0.4
0.2
0
0.9/T
10
0.4/T
0.7/T
0
-10
current [A]
0.8
/T
/T
-0.2
0.9/T
0.1/T
0.8/T
0.2/T
0.7/T
-0.8
0.6/T
26/March/2014-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-50
0.3/T
-1
-0.2
0.5/T
0
Real Axis
-60
0.04
0.4/T
0.2
0.4
0.6
-30
-40
-0.4
-0.6
-20
0.8
due to
parameter
error !
0.045
0.05
time [s]
0.055
0.06
61
Resonant controller
WUT, Poland
9 Resonant control is based on the use of Generalized Integrator (GI)

9 A double integrator achieves infinite gain at a certain frequency, called
resonance frequency, and almost no attenuation outside this
frequency
s
GI= 2
s + 2
9 The GI will lead to zero stationary error and improved and selective
disturbance rejection as compared with PI controller
B o d e D ia g r a m
Magnitude (dB)
200
100
s
s2 + 2
2
in
out
1.5
-100
0.5
-200
180
0.5
Phase (deg)
90
0
-1
-90
1.5
-180
1
10
26/March/2014
10
Fre q u e n c y
10
(Hz )
-2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
62
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
9 The resonant controller can

obtained via a frequency shift
GDC ( s) =
Ki
s
G AC ( s) =
GDC ( s) =
Ki
(1 + (s c ))
G AC ( s)
Nie mona obecnie wy wietli tego obrazu.
be
G AC ( s ) = G DC ( s j ) + G DC ( s + j )
2K i s
s2 + 2
2 K ic s
s 2 + 2c s + 2
Nie mona obecnie wy wietli tego obrazu.
Bode plots of ideal and non-ideal PR with KP = 1, Ki = 20, = 314 rad/s c = 10 rad/s
26/March/2014
63
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
9 The stability of the system should be taken into consideration

9 The phase margin (PM) decreases as the resonant frequency approach to the
crossover frequency
kP + kI
s 1
k
k
+
I 2
P
s + 2 R + Ls
s
s2 + 2
B o d e D ia g r a m
B o d e Dia g r a m
400
400
300
Magnitude (dB)
200
100
0
200
100
-100
-200
180
-100
180
90
90
Phase (deg)
Phase (deg)
Magnitude (dB)
300
0
-90
-180
1
10
10
10
0
-90
-180
1
10
Fr e q u e n c y (Hz )
26/March/2014
PM
10
10
Fr e q u e n c y ( Hz )
64
Tuning of resonant control

WUT, Poland
9 The gain Kp is founded by ensuring the desired bandwidth

9 The integral constant Ki acts to eliminate the steady-state phase error
6
Gc ( s ) = K P + K I
s
s + o2
-2
-2
-4
-4
-6
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
Ki = 100
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
Gc ( s ) = K P + K I
0. 045
0.05
s
s + o2
2
-6
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
0. 045
0.05
Ki = 500
9 A higher Ki will "catch" the reference faster but with higher overshoot
9 Another aspect is that Ki determines the bandwidth centered at the resonance
frequency, in this case the grid frequency, where the attenuation is positive. Usually,
the grid frequency is stiff and is only
allowed to vary in a narrow range, typically 65 1%.
26/March/2014
Discretization of generalized integrators

WUT, Poland
GI integrator decomposed in two
simple integrators
y (s)
s
= 2
u (s) s + 2
y ( s ) = s u ( s ) v ( s )

v ( s ) = 1 2 y ( s )
Forward integrator for direct path and

backward for feedback path
yk = yk 1 + Ts (uk 1 vk 1 )
2
vk = vk 1 + Ts yk
The inverter voltage reference

Control diagram of PR implementation
K s
ui* ( s ) = ( s ) K p + 2 I 2
s +
kp
Difference equations
yk = yk 1 + Ts K I k 1 Ts vk 1
*
ui ,k = K p k + yk
v = v + T 2 y
k 1
s
k
k
k 1 = k
y = y
k
k 1
vk 1 = vk
26/March/2014
i i*
aw
kI
ii
u i*
G f ( s)
ii
, y > ymax
ymax y
aw =
ymax y , y < ymax
66
Use of P+resonant controller in stationary

frame
WUT, Poland
idd*
ej
ixd*
Kp
+
2
i
3
The voltage used for reference

generation could be measured
after a dominant reactance
Ki s
s2 + 2
ix*
ix
+
ux*
uy*
iy
SVM
Kp
+
u
PLL
Ki s
s2 + 2
iy*
i*
3
e(t )
ix*
iy*
Ki s
0
Kp + 2
+
s
0
DPR(s) =
Ks
0
Kp + 2 i 2
s +0
26/March/2014
i (t )
The current control can be

performed on the grid current
or on the converter current
67
PI vs PR for single-phase grid inverter current control

WUT, Poland
The current loop of PV inverter with PI
controller
The current loop of PV inverter with

PR controller
e
GPI ( s )
Gf ( s )
Gd ( s )
ig
GP + RES ( s )
Gd ( s )
Gf ( s )
vg
PI
G PI ( s ) = K P +
KI
s
Gc (s) = K P + K I
PR
s
s + o2
2
Inverter Gd ( s) = sT + 1
s
.
Plant
(
(
2
2
ii ( s )
1 s + z LC
G f (s) =
=
2
ui ( s ) L fi s s 2 + res
)
)
2
zLC
=
1
Lg C f
2
res
(L
=
+ Li ) zLC
Li
9 No grid voltage feed-forward is required

9 GIs tuned to the low harmonics can be used for selective harmonic compensation
by cascading the fundamental component GI
26/March/2014
WUT, Poland
From PI in a rotating-frame to P+res for each phase

In the hypothesis
Ed(s)
Vd(s)
H11(s)
H11(s)=H22(s)=
H12(s)
vd (t ) = h11 (t ) ed (t )
vq (t ) = h22 (t ) eq (t )
H22(s)
Gc
( d ,q )
26/March/2014
Ki
s
H12(s)=H21(s)=0
H21(s)
Eq(s)
Kp +
Ki
K
+
p s
=
0
Vq(s)
Ki
Kp +
s
0
K K s + 3K
K K s 3K
Ki s
p i 2 i2 0 p i 2 i 2 0
Kp + 2
2
2 2 (s +0 )
2 2 (s +0 )
s +0
K K s + 3K
Ks
2 Kp K s 3K
(a,b.c)
p i 2 i2 0
Gc (s) = i 2 i 2 0
Kp + 2 i 2
3 2 2 (s +0 )
2 2 (s +0 )
s +0
Kp K s 3K
Kp Ki s + 3Ki0
Ks
i 2 i2 0
Kp + 2 i 2

2
2
2 2 (s +0 )
s +0
2 2 (s +0 )
69
Linear controllers : from PI in a rotating-frame to P+res for each

phase
WUT, Poland
va
vc
va (t )
d ia (t ) 1 R 0 ia (t ) 1 2 1 1
vb (t )
+
=
dt ic (t ) L 0 R ic (t ) 3 1 1 2
vc (t )
vb
v a (t ) + v b (t ) + v c (t ) = 0
d
dt
ia (t ) 1 R
i (t ) = L 0
0 ia (t ) 1
+
R ic (t ) 0
0 v a (t )
1 v c (t )
each current is determined only by its voltage !
Kp K s+ 3K Kp K s 3K
Kis
i 2 i2 0 i 2 i 2 0
Kp + 2 2
2 2(s +0 )
2 2(s +0 )
s +0
Kp K s+ 3K
Ks
2 Kp K s 3K
(a,b.c)
i 2 i2 0
Gc (s) = i 2 i2 0
Kp + 2 i 2
3 2 2(s +0 )
2 2(s +0 )
s +0
Kp Kis + 3Ki0 Kp Kis 3Ki0
Kis
+
K

p
2
2
2
2 2(s2 +02)
s2 +0
2 2(s +0 )
26/March/2014
Kis
0
0
Kp + 2 2
s +0
Kis
(a,b.c)
Gc1 (s) =
Kp + 2 2
0
0
s +0
Kis
Kp + 2 2
0
0
s +0
Linear controllers : results (ideal grid conditions)

WUT, Poland
PI controller in a rotating frame

harmonic
spectrum
current error
P+resonant controller for each phase

harmonic
spectrum
26/March/2014
current error
71
WUT, Poland
Linear controllers: results (equivalence of PI

in dq and P+res in abc)
PI controller in a rotating frame
P+resonant in stationary frame
26/March/2014
triggering LCL-filter resonance
triggering LCL-filter resonance
72
Ac voltage control
WUT, Poland
When it is needed to control the ac voltage because the system should

operate in stand-alone mode, in a microgrid, or there are requirements
on the voltage quality a multiloop control can be adopted
The
ac
capacitor
voltage is controlled
though
the
ac
converter current.
L1
Vdc
The current controlled

converter operates as
a current source to
charge/discharge the
capacitor.
26/March/2014
Vc
Vc
V*
73
Contd.,
WUT, Poland
The repetitive controller ensures precise tracking of the selected

harmonics and it provides the reference of the PI current controller.
Controlling the voltage Vc the PV shunt converter is improved with the
function of voltage dips mitigation. In presence of a voltage dip the grid
current Ig is forced by the controller to have a sinusoidal waveform which
is phase shifted by almost 90 with respect to the corresponding grid
voltage.
Vc
Vref
FDFT(z)
+
+
Ig
Iload
z Na
Ic
PV converter
Vc
Vref
+
26/March/2014
Repetitive
control
Ic
-
Iref
PI
Kf
Iref
Summary
WUT, Poland
The PR uses Generalized Integrators (GI) that are double

integrators achieving very high gain in a narrow frequency band
centered on the resonant frequency and almost null outside.
This makes the PR controller to act as a notch filter at the
resonance frequency and thus it can track a sinusoidal reference
without having to increase the switching frequency or adopting a
high gain, as it is the case for the classical PI controller.
PI adopted in a rotating frame achieves similar results, it is
equivalent to the use of three PRs one for each phase
Also single phase use of PI in a dq frame is feasible
Dead-beat controller can compensate current error in two
samples but it is affected by PWM limits and parameters
mismatches
26/March/2014
75
WUT, Poland
Part-4. Distributed Generation

Interconnection Standards
Reference: IREC Interconnection Workshop Wichita, KS October 1, 2003

@ Chris Larsen Larsen Consulting Solutions, Inc.
26/March/2014
76
Utility Interconnection Requirements

WUT, Poland
Regulatory Agency Interconnection Rules

State PUCs, FERC, Muni Boards
Equipment and Facility Requirement

Standards
IEEE 929, IEEE 1547, IEEE 1547.2
Product Testing Standards

UL1741, UL2200, IEEE P1547.1, NEMA, etc.
26/March/2014
77
Presentation Overview
WUT, Poland
IEEE 929
IEEE 1547 Family
1547
1547.1
1547.2
1547.3
UL 1741
26/March/2014
78
IEEE Standards Classification

WUT, Poland
1. Standards: documents with mandatory requirements

(shall)
2. Recommended Practices: documents in which
procedures and positions preferred by the IEEE are
presented (should)
3. Guides: documents in which alternative approaches to
good practice are suggested but no clear-cut
recommendations are made (may)
4. IEEE Standards are Voluntary.
26/March/2014
79
IEEE 929-2000
WUT, Poland
Passed by IEEE
Standards Board
in January, 2000.
P929
Recommended Practice for
Utility Interface of
Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
Prepared by the Utility W orking Group of

Standards Coordinating Committee 21, on Photovoltaics
Provides an
excellent primer
on PV inverter
interconnection
issues.
26/March/2014
Copyright 1998 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.

345 East 47 th Street
New York, NY 10017, USA
All Rights Reserved
This is an IEEE Standards Project, subject to change. Permission is hereby granted for
IEEE Standards committee participants to reproduce this document for purposes of
IEEE standardization activities, including balloting and coordination. If this document
is to be submitted to ISO or IEC, notification shall be given to the IEEE Copyrights
Administrator. Permission is also granted for member bodies and technical committees
of ISO and IEC to reproduce this document for purposes of developing a national
position. Other entities seeking permission to reproduce portions of this document for
these or other uses must contact the IEEE Standards Department for the appropriate
license. Use of information contained in the unapproved draft is at your own risk.
IEEE Standards Department
Copyrights and Permissions
445 Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331
Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331, USA
80
The Need for PV Interconnection Standards

WUT, Poland
z Many utilities were using rotating machinery

requirements for PV systems
z Many of the Interconnection Requirements
were established in early PURPA days
too many requirements

telemetery and Utility Grade relays
special (and costly) engineering were needed for
each specific utility requirements
26/March/2014
81
Purpose of IEEE 929

WUT, Poland
This recommended practice contains guidance

regarding equipment and functions necessary to
ensure compatible operation of photovoltaic
systems which are connected in parallel with the
electric utility. This includes factors relating to
personnel safety, equipment protection, power
quality and utility system operation.
Addresses only the Interconnection Equipment
technical requirements
26/March/2014
82
What Does IEEE 929 Really Impact?

WUT, Poland
Utility
Utility
System
System
26/March/2014
Inverter
PV Array
83
IEEE 929-2000 Power Quality

WUT, Poland
Power quality problems in general are rising

because of proliferation of non-linear loads on
utility systems -- all customers suffer
PV should not add to that problem
Addresses:
1. Service Voltage
2.
3.
4.
5.
26/March/2014
Voltage Flicker
Frequency
Waveform Distortion (IEEE 519)
Power Factor
84
IEEE 929-2000
Safety and Protection Functions
WUT, Poland
1. Response to Abnormal Utility Conditions

9a.
9b.
9c.
9d.
Voltage Disturbances
Frequency Disturbances
Islanding Protection
Reconnect After a Utility Disturbance
2. Direct Current Isolation

3. Grounding
4. Manual Disconnect
26/March/2014
85
WUT, Poland
IEEE 929-2000 Response to Abnormal Utility

Conditions
Voltage (at PCC)
V< 60
(V<50%)
60V<106
(50%V<88%)
106V132
(88%V110%)
132<V<165
(110%<V<137%)
165V
(137%V)
Maximum Trip Time*

6 cycles
120 cycles
Normal Operation
120 cycles
2 cycles
Frequency (at PCC)

<59.3 Hz
59.3 - 60.5 Hz (normal)
>60.5 Hz
Maximum Trip Time*

6 cycles
-6 cycles
*Trip time refers to the time between the abnormal condition being applied and
the inverter ceasing to energize the utility line. The inverter will actually remain
connected to the utility to allow sensing of utility electrical conditions for use by the
reconnect feature.
26/March/2014
86
IEEE 929-2000 Manual Disconnect Switch

WUT, Poland
PV Array
Local
Loads
Utility
System
26/March/2014
Inverter
87
IEEE 929-2000 - Annexes

WUT, Poland
Annex A (Normative) Minimum Test Procedure for

a Non-Islanding PV Inverter
Annex B (Informative) - Bibliography
Annex C - PV Inverters and the Utility Interface
(Terminology)
Annex D - Disconnect Switches & Utility Procedures
Annex E - Islanding as it Applies to PV Systems
Annex F - The PV Inverter Under Utility Fault Conditions
Annex G - Dedicated Distribution Transformer
26/March/2014
88
IEEE 1547-2003
WUT, Poland
Standard for Interconnecting Distributed

Resources with Electric Power Systems
Approved at June 2003 IEEE Standards Board
Meeting
26/March/2014
89
1547 Interconnection Terms

WUT, Poland
Area Electric Power System (EPS)

PCC
Point of Common
Coupling (PCC)
Point of DR
Connection
Load
Local EPS 1
DR unit
Local EPS 2
PCC
Point of DR
Connection
DR unit
Load
Local EPS 3
Note: There can be any number of Local EPSs.

26/March/2014
90
IEEE 1547-2003 Contents

WUT, Poland
1.1 Scope
This standard establishes criteria and requirements for interconnection of distributed
resources (DR) with electric power systems (EPS).
1.2 Purpose
This document provides a uniform standard for interconnection of distributed
resources with electric power systems. It provides requirements relevant to the
performance, operation, testing, safety considerations, and maintenance of the
interconnection.
The requirements shall be met at the point of common coupling (PCC), although
the devices used to meet these requirements can be located elsewhere. This
standard applies to interconnection based on the aggregate rating of all the DR
units that are within the Local EPS. The functions of the interconnection system
hardware and software that affect the Area EPS are required to meet this
standard regardless of their location on the EPS.
The stated specifications and requirements, both technical and testing, are
universally needed for interconnection of DR, including synchronous machines,
induction machines, or power inverters/converters, and will be sufficient for
most installations.1
1
Additional technical requirements and/or tests may be necessary for some limited situations.
26/March/2014
91
IEEE 1547-2003 Contents

WUT, Poland
4.0 INTERCONNECTION TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS AND

REQUIREMENTS
4.1 General Requirements
4.2 Response to Area EPS Abnormal Conditions
4.3 Power Quality
4.4 Islanding
5.0 INTERCONNECTION TEST SPECIFICATIONS AND
REQUIREMENTS
5.1 Design Test
5.2 Production Tests
5.3 Interconnection Installation Evaluation
5.4 Commissioning Tests
5.5 Periodic Interconnection Tests
ANNEX A (INFORMATIVE) BIBLIOGRAPHY
26/March/2014
92
IEEE P1547.1
WUT, Poland
Draft Standard for Conformance Test Procedures for

Equipment Interconnecting Distributed Resources
with Electric Power Systems
Verifies Conformance to IEEE 1547-2003
Provides Test Procedures and order, but does
not define a comprehensive Certification
Process
26/March/2014
93
IEEE P1547.1
WUT, Poland
Purpose:
Interconnection equipment that connects
distributed resources (DR) to an electric power
system (EPS) must meet the requirements
specified in IEEE Standard P1547. Standardized
test procedures are necessary to establish and
verify compliance with those requirements.
These test procedures must provide both
repeatable results, independent of test
location, and flexibility to accommodate a
variety of DR technologies.
26/March/2014
94
IEEE P1547.2
WUT, Poland
Draft Application Guide For IEEE Std. 1547,

Standard For Interconnecting Distributed
Resources With Electric Power Systems
Scope:
This guide provides technical background and
application details to support the understanding
of IEEE 1547, Standard for Interconnecting
Distributed Resources with Electric Power
Systems.
26/March/2014
95
What P1547.2 is Intended to Do

WUT, Poland
Support understanding and facilitate use of IEEE 1547 by

Providing technical background
Providing application details
Characterizing various forms of DR technologies
Characterizing associated interconnection issues
Discussing background and rationale of the technical
requirements in terms of the operation of the
interconnection
Presenting good practice approaches
26/March/2014
96
IEEE P1547.3
WUT, Poland
Title
IEEE P1547.3 Draft Guide For Monitoring, Information
Exchange, and Control of Distributed Resources
Interconnected with Electric Power Systems
Scope
This document provides guidelines for monitoring,
information exchange, and control for distributed
resources (DR) interconnected with electric power
systems (EPS).
26/March/2014
97
97
UL 1741
WUT, Poland
Standard for Inverters, Converters and

Controllers for Use In Independent Power
Systems
Addresses:
Electric Shock Hazards
Fire Hazards
Mechanical Hazards
Utility Compatibility and Interconnection for Grid
Tied Applications
26/March/2014
98
WUT, Poland
Utility Compatibility and Interconnection

Concerns
The following performance parameters are
safety issues
Utility operating voltage and frequency
parameters
Islanding protection
Output Power Quality
26/March/2014
99
Islanding Protection
WUT, Poland
Islanding is when a distributed source

continues to operate, feeding power into a
portion of the grid when the utility source is
no longer present. This situation presents
many hazards including lethal electric shock to
utility service personnel that think that the
load side of the utility transmission line is
electrically dead.
26/March/2014
100
Power Quality
WUT, Poland
These utility interconnected DG products

must meet minimum output power quality
requirements
Output power Factor 0.85% or higher
Harmonic Distortion <5% at full output power
DC Injection minimized to < 0.5% of rated
output current
26/March/2014
101
WUT, Poland
UL 1741 Expansion to Cover the Interconnect

of All Types of DG
UL1741 New Title - The Standard For

Inverters, Converters and Controllers For Use
In Independent Power Production Systems.
Photovoltaic Modules
Fuel Cells
Micro-turbines
Wind and Hydro Turbines
Engine Gen-Set Interconnect Controllers
26/March/2014
102
References
WUT, Poland
1.
D. G. Holmes and T. Lipo, Pulse Width Modulation for Power Converters, Principles and
Practice. New York: IEEE Press, 2003.
2.
M. Kazmierkowski, R. Krishnan, and F. Blaabjerg, Control in Power Electronics

Selected Problems. Academic Press, 2002.
3.
X. Yuan, W. Merk, H. Stemmler, and J. Allmeling, Stationary-frame generalized

integrators for current control of active power filters with zero steady-state error for
current harmonics of concern under unbalanced and distorted operating conditions,
IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 523532, 2002.
4.
D. Zmood and D. G. Holmes, Stationary frame current regulation of PWM inverters with
zero steady-state error, IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 814822,
2003.
5.
M. Bojrup, P. Karlsson, M. Alakla, L. Gertmar, A Multiple Rotating Integrator Controller

for Active Filters, Proc. of EPE 1999, CD-ROM.
6.
R. Teodorescu, F. Blaabjerg, M. Liserre and A. Poh Chiang Loh, Proportional-Resonant

Controllers and Filters for Grid-Connected Voltage-Source Converters IEE Proceedings
on Electric Power Applications.
7.
A. Timbus, M. Liserre, R. Teodorescu, P. Rodriguez, F. Blaabjerg, Evaluation of Current

Controllers for Distributed Power Generation Systems, IEEE Transactions on Power
26/March/2014
103
Electronics, March 2009, vol. 24, no.
3, pp. 654-664.
8. R. A. Mastromauro, M. Liserre, A. Dell Aquila, Study of the Effects of Inductor

Nonlinear Behavior on the Performance of Current Controllers for Single-Phase
PV Grid Converters, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, May 2008, vol.
55, no 5, pp. 2043 2052.
9. IEEE Std 1547-2003 "IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources
with Electric Power Systems", 2003.
10. IEEE Std 1547.1-2005 "IEEE Standard Conformance Test Procedures for
Equipment Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems",
2005.
11. IEC Standard 61727, Characteristic of the utility interface for photovoltaic (PV)
systems,, 2002.
12. IEC Standard 61400-21 Wind turbine generator systems Part 21: measurements
and assessment of power quality characteristics of grid connected wind turbines,
2002.
13. IEC Standard 61000-4-7, Electromagnetic Compatibility, General Guide on
Harmonics and Interharmonics Measurements and Instrumentation, 1997.
14. IEC Standard 61000-3-6, Electromagnetic Compatibility, Assessment of Emission
Limits for Distorting Loads in MV and HV Power Systems, 1996.
26/March/2014
104
Thank You very much

for your attention!
26/March/2014
105

Control and Grid Integration of Photovoltaic (PV) Power Systems

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WUT, Poland

Control and Grid Integration of

Basic concept of PV power generation

PV Power Generation Systems

Major advantages of the photovoltaic (PV) power are as follows:

Todays PV scenerio in Europe

Around the world 31.1 GW of PV systems were installed in 2012, up from

Value Chain for Photovoltaic Energy

Basic concepts of PV cell

Fig.1. Basic Construction of PV cell

Fig.2. Photovoltaic Effect

Inside current of PV cell looks like

By Solar Energy, current is pumped up

Voltage and Current of PV cell ( I-V Curve )

Voltage on normal operation point

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Organic Thin Layer Type

Electric Energy Output

200-300V 50A-200A 10-50kW

Power conditioner (mentioned

To obtain maximum power, current

If the load has 0.05 ohm resistance,

Current is affected largely by change of

Partially shaded serial cell will produce

High intensity insolation

Temperature and efficiency

Parameters for measuring PV cells performance

1. Isc - short circuit current

The short circuit current (Isc), is the current which

2. Voc - open circuit voltage

Ideal Single Diode Model

The equivalent circuit with Rs and Rsh

Single Diode Model

q(V + IRs ) V + IRs

The complex equivalent circuit

Effect of Characteristics Resistance

Effects of Parasitic Resistance

In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in temperature is

P-V plots for different temperatures

Typical Ipv-Vpv output characteristics for different

Effect of Light Intensity

P-V plots for different irradiations

I-V plots for different irradiations

Part 2. Power Converter topologies

Composition of Photovoltaic Energy System

< Block Diagram for Grid-connected Photovoltaic energy system >

Design topology for PCS Power circuit

Easy isolation & Simple circuit

Small size & light weight

Small size & light weight

Considerable feature for Power Converter

1) Change of the environmental condition

The inverters are categorized into four categories:

FIG. a) Central inverter, string inverter, ac module

a) Single power processing inverter

b )Dual power processing inverter

c )Dual stage inverter.

(a) Capacitor is placed in parallel with the PV modules

(c) Line-frequency transformer (LFT) is placed

(b) Capacitor is either placed in parallel with the PV

(b) High-frequency transformer (HFT) is embedded in

(c) HFT is embedded inbcbabunitrkl@ieee.org

Grid-connected inverter stages