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International Journal of Microbiology and Allied Sciences
November 2014, 1(2):78-91

ISSN: 2382-5537
ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE
Page: 78-91
Microbial contamination of environmental, food and treated water samples in

Nakuru North Sub-county, Kenya
Paul Njenga Waithaka1, John Muthini Maingi2, Anthony Kebira Nyamache2
1. Department of Biological Sciences, St. Josephs Kirima School, P. O. Box 17991, Nakuru, Kenya
2. Department of microbiology, Kenyatta University, P.O. Box 43844, Nairobi, Kenya
Corresponding Author: Paul Njenga Waithaka
(Email: waithakanj@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT
Nakuru North sub-county is located 160 Km Northwest of Nairobi at an altitude of 1859 m above sea
level. It has an area of 593 Km2 with a population density of 25.3 per Km2. The residents often suffer
from diarrhoeal diseases which could possibly be due to intake of contaminated foods. The study was
aimed at determining the microbial levels of raw cows milk, animal intestinal wastes, fruits and
vegetable salads, waste water and drinking water. A total of 896 samples; raw cows milk (112), animal
intestinal waste (112), fruits and vegetable salads (112), waste water (112) and boiled (112), chlorinated
(112), filtered (112) and solar disinfected (112) waters were collected and analyzed between May 2012
and April 2013. The microorganisms isolated were confirmed using biochemical tests. Out of the eight
hundred and ninety six (896) samples examined 28.1 % (252/896) were positive for all the microbial
isolates. The prevalence of total coliforms was 100 %, Salmonella (33 %) and E. coli 32.1 %. Total
coliforms showed the highest mean resistance (26.0 %) followed by Salmonella (16.9 %) while E. coli
showed the least mean resistance (15.5 %). However, there was no significant deference (p = 0.98) in
resistance among total coliforms, Salmonella and E. coli at 0.05 level of significant. Foods,
environmental and treated water samples are highly contaminated with microorganisms hence they are a
great public health problem in the area. We recommend prudent waste disposal in order to control cross
contamination in curbing this problem.
Key words: Antimicrobial resistance, Isolation, Microbial contamination, Nakuru.
International Journal of Microbiology and Allied Sciences, Nov 2014, Volume 1 Issue 2
78
Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014
IJOMAS. November 2014, 1(2):78-91
INTRODUCTION
Diarrhoeal diseases due to enteric bacteria are on the increase with the increasing human population
in Nakuru North sub-county. This creates a need for determining the cause of this menace before
it escalates to a serious outbreak that will result in massive loss of lives (23). The major source of
contamination in foods, environmental samples and treated water is human and animal faeces.
Previous studies indicate that 2.4 billion people lack facilities for safe waste disposal (27). Fecal
bacteria are brought into the environments mainly through treated waste water (47). In addition,
untreated wastewater release, surface runoffs and soil leaching are other sources of contamination
(21). Raw cows milk is a highly nutritious and valuable human food and is consumed on daily
basis by many people in Nakuru North (32). It contains most of the nutrients such as carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals required for the growth of microorganisms, combined with
high water activity. Raw milk contains microorganisms capable of causing diseases (18). In the
livestock sector, different types of farm animals carry a large number of pathogens that are capable
of causing disease in humans. In Nakuru north majority of animals slaughtered come from villages
with low levels of basic hygiene. These areas also lack veterinary services that could significantly
reduce the spread of the diseases (49). In most cases Livestock act as carriers of disease causing
microorganisms (11).
In Nakuru North, over seventy five households use animal wastes as manure in their farms without
treatment (23). With the high levels of pathogens in animal wastes, these manure act as
contaminants of fruits and vegetables in the farm. Further contamination of fruits and vegetables
occur when they are on transit to the market. The situation is worsened by the absence of sewerage
systems for safe waste water disposal (30]. The recycling of waste water in Nakuru North increases
the occurrence of pathogens in the environment. This is evidenced by the isolation of Salmonella
from bottled and waste water (9). Previous studies have also isolated Vibrio and Salmonella in
waste and drinking waters (27). Access to safe drinking water is essential for healthy living. Studies
by Kenya Food Security Steering Group (KFSSG) indicate that 60 % of people living in Nakuru
North Sub-county are aware of reduced microbial infection when drinking water is treated (23).
Despite this, cases of enteric diseases are on the increase. This made it important to determine the
physico-chemical properties and analyze the microbial content of water that had been treated and
stored in the study area.
One of the methods that is commonly used in water treatment world over is boiling. Boiling kills
all microorganisms in water when the temperature reaches 100 degrees Celsius (12). For this
method of water treatment to be effective, it is recommended that water be allowed to boil for up
to a minimum of 1 minute (36). For every 1000 feet above sea level, one minute of boiling should
be added to the initial 1 minute (10). However, the method requires fuel which is expensive to get
for most residents of Nakuru North (42). Chlorination is the most widely used chemical method in
Nakuru North Sub-county for water disinfection because it is simple in application and it does not
require the use of fire wood which has become scarce in the recent past (48). In this method,
gaseous chlorine (Cl2) or liquid sodium hypochlorite bleach, (NaOCl) is added to, and reacts with
water to form hypochlorous acid. The acid forms strong oxidizing agents in water which react with
a wide variety of microorganisms (41).
Among the various water filtration methods in use in Nakuru North, the most widely used is
ceramic water filtration, which employs the use of candle-filters (25). Microorganisms are removed
from water as it passes through the filter from the top compartment to the lower compartment
which stores the water up to when it is used. To enhance the effectiveness of filtration, the filters
79
are impregnated with silver nitrate or colloidal silver which are bacteriostatic (33). Previous studies
have shown that design of the filters, method of filter production and quality vary from one
manufacturer to another which may lead to variation in effectiveness of the method in water
treatment (19). Although solar disinfection (SODIS) has gained a lot of popularity elsewhere in
the world, the method is not used in Nakuru North (43). This was the reason for setting up an
SODIS experiment to verify whether the method could work in the study area. However, unlike
other methods of water treatment which require capital investment, this method involves recycling
of Poly Ethylene Terephthalate (PET) bottles which could be an environmental hazard if left lying
in the environment (46). In this method, disinfection is carried out by the action of ultra violet rays
and temperature on the cell membranes of the microorganisms (37).
The presence of pathogenic enteric micro-organisms in foods, the environment and treated water
are a source of diseases when ingested. This becomes worse when the microorganisms are
antibiotic resistant because the diseases are hard to treat (22). In addition, such microorganism may
transmit the resistance to other bacteria present in the same environment. This occurs through
transfer of resistant genes by plasmids (47). Fecal indicator organisms such as total coliforms and
E. coli are used to determine the presence or absence of groups of pathogens associated with foods
and environmental samples (44). Such bacteria mostly occur in the faeces and intestines of warm
blooded mammals. Although the organisms may not be pathogenic themselves they give an
indication of the level of contamination in foods, environmental samples and treated water (12).
The main objective of this study was to determine the abundance of total coliforms and E. coli as
indicators of contamination and to also isolate Salmonella in raw cows milk, animal intestinal
wastes, fruits and vegetable salads, waste water and in treated water. The study also aimed at
determining the antimicrobial resistance of the isolates.
METHODOLOGY
Sample Collection
A total of 896 samples, 112 samples each of vegetables and fruits salads, raw milk from milk
kiosks, intestinal wastes from butcheries, waste water samples from the surrounding environment
and treated drinking water by the households which had been interviewed on methods of water
treatment that they use and from solar disinfection (SODIS) experiment that was set up in the study
area were collected. The study population was selected using random sampling. Samples were
collected using sterile specimen bottles, the temperature and pH were determined from milk, fruits
and vegetable salads, intestinal wastes, and waste water at the point of collection. The samples
were transported to Rift valley regional water testing laboratories in Nakuru town. They were
stored at 4o C until processing.
Isolation of Microorganisms from Solid Samples
Briefly, 25 g of fruit and vegetable salads and intestinal wastes were each taken and placed in
different sterile stomacher bags containing 225 ml of buffered peptone water (Sifin, Germany) and
homogenized using a laboratory blender (Stomacher 400, Seward, England) for 2 min. Serial
dilution to 10-6 was carried out. For isolation of Salmonella, 0.1 ml aliquot of the pre-enrichment
broths using peptone water was transferred aseptically into 10 ml of selenite F broth for 24 h at 37
C (15). The samples were separately streaked on xylose lexine desoxycholate and Salmonella
Shigella agar. One ml of each homogenate was separately transferred to 9 ml of normal saline in
isolating total coliforms. For pour plating 1 ml of each sample was pipetted on in separate petri
dishes before addition of MacConkey agar, swirled and incubated at 45 oC following serial dilution
80
to 10-6. After 1 h, the microorganisms were sub cultured in 15 ml of Violet red bile agar kept at
45 C in separate Petri dishes. The dishes were inverted and incubated at 37 C for 24 h. For
confirmation, colonies were inoculated in to brilliant green bile broth and incubated at 37 C for
48 h and production of gas and turbidity was observed [24]. For isolation of E. coli, the filters were
placed on Eosine methylene blue (EMB) agar for 24 h at 37 oC. Blue-black colonies having a
greenish metallic sheen were streaked onto blood agar plates and incubated for 24 h at 37 C. All
the microbial Isolates were confirmed using biochemical tests.
Isolation of Microorganisms from Liquid Samples
Milk and waste water were first serially diluted to 10-6. Following this, 100 ml each of milk ,waste
water, boiled, chlorinated, filtered and water that had been treated using SODIS were filtered using
0.22 m cellulose nitrate membranes (Whatman GmbH, Germany). For isolation and enumeration
of Salmonella species, petri-dishes containing Salmonella-Shigella agar were inoculated and
incubated at 37 oC for 24 h [31]. Total coliforms were isolated by placing the filters aseptically on
MacConkey agar in separate petri dishes. The dishes were inverted and incubated at 37 C for 24
h. For isolation of E. coli, the filters were placed on Eosine methylene blue (EMB) agar for 24 h at
37 oC. Blue-black colonies having a greenish metallic sheen were streaked onto blood agar plates
and incubated for 24 h at 37 C. Isolated colonies were confirmed as E. coli using biochemical
tests.
Solar Disinfection Experiment
An experimental design adopted from (34) was used in order to investigate the effectiveness of the
method in the study area. Three sets labeled A, B and C each having 6 bottles were used. Set A
had water that had been treated by boiling and found to be infected with microorganisms, B had
water inoculated with previously isolated total coliforms and commercially obtained E. coli (ATCC
25922) and Salmonella (ATCC 6539) while C was a control with contaminated water. Set A and
B were exposed to sunlight for 5 h while set C was kept in the dark. Salmonella analysis was carried
out on hourly basis. Exposure to sunlight was carried out for five continuous hours starting at 10
a. m each day for 90 sunny days (21).
Antimicrobial Sensitivity Testing
The antimicrobial susceptibility testing was carried out by the use of Kirby Bauer disk diffusion
method as described by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) (7). The zones of
inhibition were measured in millimeters and graded according to sensitive, intermediate or resistant
(6).
Data Analysis
Statistical package for social sciences software version 17.0 was used in statistical analysis.
Spearmans rank correlation test was used to establish the relationship between the number of
microbial isolates and the parameters under study. ANOVA was used to compare the means of
physico-chemical parameters and microbial isolates between the various sampling regions while
Tukeys Honest significance was used to separate the means at a significance level of 5 %.
81
RESULTS
Temperature and PH
The milk temperature ranged from 18.4 oC in Bahati to 16.0 oC in Kabatini. In intestinal wastes,
the temperature varied from 21.1 oC in Bahati to 17.6 oC in Bahati. The temperature in fruits and
vegetable salads varied from 21.6 oC in Bahati to 17.8 oC in Kabatini while in waste water, the
range was 21.1 oC in Maili 5 to 17.6 oC in Kabatini. The pH varied from 7.4 in Kabatini to 6.8 in
Bahati in raw milk. The highest pH was 5.8 in Maili 5 while the lowest was 4.8 in Kabatini in
intestinal wastes. In fruits and vegetable salads, the pH ranged from 5.6 in Maili 5 to 4.3 in
Kabatini. The pH in waste water ranged from 5.3 in Kabatini to 4.7 in Bahati and Kabatini. There
was no significant difference in mean temperature (p > 0.05) and pH (p > 0.05) between Maili 5,
Bahati and Kabatini. A correlation study between the isolated microorganisms to temperature and
pH indicated no significant relationship (Table 1).
Sample
Milk
Int. wastes
FV salads
W. water
Microbial type
Temp (oC)
No. of microorganisms
pH
Maili 5
Bahati
Kabatini
Maili 5
Bahati
Kabatini
Maili 5
Bahati
Kabatini
Salmonella
1.0 x104
1.0x103
1.0x103
18.1
17.8
16.8
7.3
7.1
7.4
T. coliforms
2.4x104
3.2x104
1.5x104
19.2
17.5
16.4
6.9
7.2
6.9
E.coli
3.2x104
4.1x104
3.0x104
18.2
18.4
16.6
7.2
7.0
7.0
Salmonella
3.2x104
2.6x104
2.5x104
18.1
18.9
17.8
5.4
5.4
5.4
T. coliforms
3.2x104
2.2x104
1.8x104
20.1
21.1
17.9
5.8
4.9
5.2
E. coli
4.1x104
3.3x104
4.0x104
20.2
19.1
17.6
5.2
5.0
4.9
Salmonella
1.5x104
2.4x104
1.8x104
19.0
20.1
18.1
5.6
5.2
5.5
T. coliforms
4.6x104
4.4x104
4.3x104
20.8
19.2
17.9
4.8
4.8
4.8
E. coli
5.1x104
4.7x104
4.8x104
18.1
21.3
17.9
5.4
5.1
4.3
Salmonella
2.3x105
1.2x105
1.4x105
17.7
19.8
18.1
4.9
4.9
5.3
T. coliforms
3.9x104
3.3x104
4.0x104
21.2
18.9
17.6
5.2
4.5
4.7
E.coli
3.4x105
4.3x105
3.6x105
21.1
19.1
17.8
5.1
5.0
5.1
Table 1: Microbial counts of foods and environmental samples, temperature and pH from Kabatini
Maili 5, Bahati and Kabatini in Nakuru North Sub-county from May 2012 to April 2013
Int. wastes, intestinal wastes; FV salads, fruits and vegetable salads; W. water, waste water; T.
coliforms, total coliforms, Ap counts, aerobic plate count; Temp, temperature.
Microbial Load of Milk, Intestinal Wastes, Fruit and Vegetable Salads and Waste Water
Raw milk from Maili 5, Bahati and Kabatini was assessed for the presence of microorganisms. The
average Salmonella load from Maili 5 was 1.3 x 104 cfu/100 ml which was higher than that in
Bahati and Kabatini (1.0x103). Bahati registered the highest average total coliforms (3.2x10 4) in
milk than Maili 5 (2.4x104) and Kabatini (1.5x104). The E. coli were 4.1x104 in Bahati which was
82

Sampling site
Boiling
Chlorination
Filtration
T. coliform
E .coli
Salmonella
T.coliform
E .coli
Salmonella
T.coliform
E.coli
Salmonella
(x104)
(x104)
(x104)
(x104)
(x104)
(x104)
(x104)
(x104)
(x104)
Kabazi
9.0
8.0
7.0
5.0
5.0
6.0
5.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
7.0
3.0
6.0
Kirima
6.0
8.0
4.0
6.0
4.0
5.0
1.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
6.0
5.0
5.0
7.0
4.0
7.0
Solai
5.0
6.0
5.0
7.0
6.0
9.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
0.0
4.0
7.0
4.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
Green
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Maili 9
5.0
7.0
3.0
6.0
4.0
4.0
3.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
4.0
7.0
2.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
Murunyu
8.0
6.0
2.0
7.0
5.0
6.0
6.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
7.0
8.0
4.0
6.0
3.0
5.0
Maili 7
7.0
8.0
6.0
9.0
4.0
6.0
1.0
4.0
1.0
3.0
1.0
1.0
6.0
6.0
3.0
7.0
3.0
6.0
Nyandundo
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Scheme
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Workers
4.0
6.0
3.0
5.0
5.0
6.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
6.0
4.0
4.0
7.0
5.0
7.0
Mean
4.4
4.9
3.0
5.3
3.3
4.2
2.0
1.3
1.1
1.3
1.4
0.9
4.0
4.3
2.7
4.5
2.7
3.9
Table 2: Colony forming units of microbes from stored water after boiling, chlorination and
filtration in Nakuru North from May 2012 to April 2013.
A, rainy season; B, dry season
higher than in Maili 5 (3.2x104 ) and Kabatini (3.0x104) (Table 1). The difference in microbial
means obtained from raw cows milk in the three sampling sites were not statistically significant
(P >0.05).
The mean Salmonella isolates from animal intestinal wastes in Maili 5 was 3.2x10 4 which was
higher than in Bahati (2.6x104) and Kabatini (2.5x104). The everage total coliforms were 3.2x104
in Maili 5 which was higher than in Bahati (2.2x104) and Kabatini (1.8x104). The E. coli were
highest in Maili 5 (4.1x104), followed by Kabatini (4.0x104) while the least was in Bahati (3.3x104)
(Table 1). The microbial mean differences obtained from intestinal wastes in Maili 5, Bahati and
Kabatini were not statistically significant (P>0.05).
The results of Salmonella isolation from fruit and vegetable salads indicated that Bahati had
2.4x104 isolates which was higher than in Maili 5 (1.5x104) and in Kabatini (1.8x104). The average
total coliforms in Maili 5 was 4.6x104 which was higher than in Bahati (4.4x104) and also in
Kabatini (4.3x104). Maili 5 also registered the highest E. coli followed by Kabatini (4.8x104) while
the least was in Bahati (4.x104) (Table 1). The difference in mean microbial counts in the three
sampling site was not statistically significant (P>0.05).
The Salmonella isolates from waste water in Maili 5 were 2.3x105 which was higher than in Bahati
(1.2x105) and Kabatini (1.4x105). In isolation of total coliforms, Kabatini had an average of 4.0x104
which was higher than Maili 5 (3.9x104) and Bahati (3.3x104). Bahati had an average of 4.3x105
E. coli from waste water which was higher than in Maili 5 (3.4x105) and Kabatini (3.6x105) (Table
83
1). The difference in the microbial averages obtained from waste water in the three sampling sites
were not statistically significant (P>0.05).
Microbial Load of Treated Water
The mean total coliform count, E. coli count and Salmonella from boiled water in the wet season
were 4.4 x104, 3.0 x104 and 3.3 x104 respectively while in the dry seasons the means were; total
coliform (4.9 x104), E. coli (5.3 x104) and Salmonella (4.2 x104). In chlorinated water the means
were; total coliform (2.0 x104), E. coli (1.1 x104) and Salmonella (1.4 x104) in the wet season.
During the dry season, the means were; total coliform (1.3 x104), E. coli (1.3 x104) and Salmonella
(0.9 x104) in the wet season. From filtered water, the means during the wet season were; total
coliform (4.0 x104), E. coli (2.7 x104) and Salmonella (2.7 x104). During the dry season, the means
were; total coliform (4.3 x104), E. coli (4.5 x104) and Salmonella (3.9 x104) (Table 2). The isolation
of microorganism differed significantly in the wet and dry season (p < 0.05). Likewise, the isolated
microorganisms from boiled, chlorinated and filtered water were significantly different (p < 0.05).
Microbial Load after Solar Disinfection
The number of total coliform before exposure to sunlight were 10.7 x 105, 11 x 10 5 and 10.1 x
105 in set A, B and C respectively. E. coli were 9.8 x 105 in set A, 7.6 x 105 in set B and 8.8 x 105
in set C while Salmonella were 1.6 x 105 in set A, 2.9 x 105 in set B and 3.3 x 105 in set C. There
was complete absence of microorganisms in set A and B after five hours of continuous exposure
to sunlight. In set C, the number of microbes varied with time reaching a maximum after 5 h of
exposure (Table 3). The number of microbial isolates from set A, B and C differed significantly
(p< 0.05).
Exposure
Time (h)
Set A
T.
coliform
Cfu/100ml
x10
Set B
Set C
E. coli
Salmonella
T.coliform
E. coli
Salmonella
T.coliform
E. coli
Salmonella
Cfu/100ml
Cfu/100ml
Cfu/100ml
Cfu/100ml
Cfu/100ml
Cfu/100ml
Cfu/100ml
Cfu/100ml
x105
x105
x105
x105
x105
x105
x105
x105
10.7
9.8
1.6
11.2
7.6
2.9
10.1
8.8
3.3
12.4
10.2
2.2
12
10.2
4.4
12.0
9.2
3.6
6.1
8.2
1.8
5.3
6.2
3.5
12.1
9.4.
3.0
1.4
3.0
0.9
1.2
1.3
1.5
13.1
9.4
2.8
1.2
0.0
0.5
0.0
0.0
1.4
1.2
10.2
3.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
11.1
4.1
Table 3: Mean microbial (cfu/100 ml) after solar disinfection in Nakuru North from May 2012 to
April 2013
T. coliform, total coliform; Cfu, colony forming units; h, hours
84
Antibiotic Resistance Patterns

The pure microbial isolates were tested against seven different antibiotics to establish their levels
of resistance. The mean resistance in total coliform was 32.0 %, E. coli (15.4 %), Salmonella (16.6
%). Total coliform (11.7 %), E. coli (10.8 %) and Salmonella (5.6 %) were intermediate resistant
to the tested antibiotics. In addition, 63.1 % of total coliform, 73.9 % of E. coli and 77.0 % of
Salmonella were resistant (Table 4). There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in resistance
between total coliforms, E. coli and Salmonella.
Antibiotic Total coliform (n=98)
E. coli (61)
Salmonella (n=30)
CL30
60.2
0.0
39.8
5.3
21.4
73.3
4.7
12.4
82.9
NA30
63.8
28.2
8.0
74.5
12.9
12.6
94.2
2.0
3.8
C30
5.3
1.9
92.8
2.0
2.6
95.4
2.0
1.9
96.1
CIP5
4.0
23.0
73.0
3.1
28.2
68.7
1.9
17.0
81.1
CN10
0.0
0.0
100.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
AML10
29.7
19.3
51.0
20.1
6.6
73.3
10.4
2.9
86.7
SXT25
13.1
9.6
77.3
2.5
3.8
93.7
2.9
2.9
94.2
Mean
32.0
11.7
63.1
15.4
10.8
73.9
16.6
5.6
77.8
Table 4: Antimicrobial sensitivity test (%) results for the seven antimicrobials in Nakuru North
from May 2012 to April 2013
CL30, Cephalexin; NA30, Nalidixic Acid; C30,Chloramphenicol; CIP5, Ciprofloxacin, CN10,
Gentamicin; AML10, Amoxycillin; SXT25, Sulfa-trimethoprim.
DISCUSSION
We assessed the microbial contamination of foods, environmental samples and treated water in
Nakuru North sub-county in Kenya. The collected samples were found to be highly contaminated
with microorganisms (Table 1). Many countries, Kenya included have responded by putting in
place measures to curb the menace. However, pathogenic microorganisms remain problematic
world over. The mean temperature values obtained from animal intestinal wastes, fruit and
vegetable salads and waste water were higher than in milk (Table 1). In addition, the mean
temperatures for samples obtained from Kabatini were low compared to Maili 5 and Bahati.
The location of Kabatini next to the prominent Bahati forest which lowers the ambient temperature
of the region could be the most probable reason (22). The mean pH values obtained from milk
samples was higher than in intestinal wastes, fruits and vegetable salads and waste water, probably
because the milk did not have acid producing microorganisms (3). However, temperature and pH
did not significantly influence the number of microbial isolates. The possible reasons could be that
the factors were determined in their natural environment without treatments. In addition, the factors
85
did not rise to levels that could influence microbial growth (32). However, the temperatures values
obtained from Kabatini were lower because this study area is located next to the former Bahati
forest.
Comparatively, the prevalence of Salmonella in milk was lower than in intestinal wastes, fruits and
vegetable salads and waste water. This is because Salmonella is not secreted in milk. Its presence
in milk arises from contamination from the environment (3). However, high microbial load were
isolated in milk (Table 1) compared to those obtained from previous studies in Kenya in bovine
milk (31). The findings in the current study were similar to those obtained in South Africa (23).
Poor hygiene practices especially milking by use of bare hand, poor farm management practices,
watering the animals using waste water, lack of animal feed monitoring and presence of rodents
and animals in animal dwelling places could have contributed to detected pathogens in milk (17).
In addition, stress due to travelling for long distances when searching for pasture, food deprivation
and confinement may also have led to the high microbial load observed from milk in this study
(13). The microorganisms isolated from intestinal wastes are presented in table 1. These results
were in contrast with previous studies in Kenya (6.3 %), Ghana (33 %) and Nigeria (9.5 %) (2, 16,
3). Several factors have been linked to the wide variations in the microbial load from animal
intestinal waste. To begin with cross contamination may occur during direct contact of animals or
directly through contact with contaminated surfaces. Another possibility of contamination could
be use of already contaminated knives during slaughter and the hygiene level of the abattoir (26).
The microbial load of fruits and vegetable salads indicates the microbial composition of the soil
used in growing fruits and vegetables, harvesting, transport, storage and processing conditions
(40). The microbial loads observed from the fruits and vegetable salads in this study (Table 1) were
higher than those obtained in other parts of the world (1.0x103) (38, 50, 8). The results obtained in
this study could be a reflection of the level of exposure and handling processes during transport or
processing. The salads were seen to be opened depending on the demand posed by the customers.
This could have further exposed the salads to contamination especially by flies. Moreover,
continued cleaning of fruits and vegetables using the same water could have led to the high
microbial load witnessed in this study (35). The dusty and unhygienic market from which fruits
and vegetables are obtained coupled with contaminated cutting knives could be additional factors
(32).
A recent study on isolation of microorganisms from waste water in Dakar, Senegal obtained lower
microbial load than those obtained in this study (29). The results of this study (Table 1) could be
due to storm runoff or waste water from washing of childrens clothes (4), discharge of kitchen
waste into the environment and disposal of wastes from meat processing industries. Waste water
used in cleaning of livestock housing structures in ranches could be an additional possibility if
disposed off without treatment (45).
The level of microbes obtained from treated water in Green, Nyandundo and Scheme both in the
wet and dry seasons were within the zero microorganisms per 100ml standard given by World
Health Organization (35). The reason for this possibly lies on the location of these regions on hilly
areas which are the origins of rivers which are important water sources in the region. The results
may give a suggestion that the water was obtained from less contaminated sources prior to
treatment (1). On the other hand, the level of microorganisms obtained in the wet season was lower
than those in the dry season (Table 2). This may be associated to dilution effect during the rainy
seasons (37). As opposed to the other methods of water treatment, chlorination was observed to be
the most effective method of treating water. This can be explained by the residual effect chlorine
86
has after water has been treated (46). The number of microorganisms obtained in boiled water in
this study agrees with a previous study (29). This could be attributed to inadequate boiling coupled
with poor storage (46). On isolation of microorganisms from filtered water, the results are in
agreement with previous studies (40). Poor fabrication of the filter candles by local manufactures
could be a contributing factor, cracked candles or candles that have been overused (20).
Solar disinfection was found to be an effective method of treating water (Table 3). This is similar
to results obtained in Kajiado District in Kenya (9). However, (28) observed that water has to be
left outside for two days for effective disinfection to take place using this method. The difference
in the two studies could be attributed to the duration of sunny periods within a day and also the
season during which the method is used (5).
The microbial isolates were highly resistant to amoxicillin, cephalexin and nalidixic acid. On the
other hand, they were most sensitive to gentamicin, chloramphenicol and sulfa-trimethoprim
(Table 4). This study therefore suggests that amoxycillin, cephalexin and nalidixic acid have a low
potential of controlling the microorganisms. The results agree with a previous study by (18).
Because People in Nakuru North keep livestock, they could be using allot of antibiotics in treating
animals (19). This could be a contributing factor to the high level of resistance witnessed in the
current study (6). In addition, seepage of antibiotics into water sources and the selection pressure
posed by their increased usage in the environment could be another possibility (14, 24).
CONCLUSION
Environmental, food and drinking water samples in Nakuru North Sub-county were found to be
highly contaminated with Salmonella, total coliforms and E. coli. This gives an indication that
human and animal wastes are not properly disposed in the study area. In addition, the high levels
of microorganism obtained from treated water indicate that either drinking water is not properly
treated or storage of water after treatment is not properly carried out. There is also a likelihood of
massive misuse and abuse of antibiotics leading to antimicrobial resistance observed in this study.
We recommend health awareness strategy by the public health officers in order to sensitize people
in the study area on the need of practicing proper personal hygiene. There is also a need of creating
awareness on the efficiency of solar disinfection as a method of water treatment in the area. Prudent
usage of antibiotics is also inevitable if resistance to antibiotics is to be curbed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We wish to thank the officials of Rift valley regional water testing laboratories for giving us
working space and all the facilities required in this study. Our special thanks go to Brother Tony
Dolan of the Franciscan brothers and Sister Zipporah Waitathu of the little sisters of Mary
Immaculate for funding this study.
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International Journal of Microbiology and Allied Sciences

November 2014, 1(2):78-91

ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Microbial contamination of environmental, food and treated water samples in

Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014

IJOMAS. November 2014, 1(2):78-91

Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014

IJOMAS. November 2014, 1(2):78-91

Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014

IJOMAS. November 2014, 1(2):78-91

Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014

IJOMAS. November 2014, 1(2):78-91

Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014

IJOMAS. November 2014, 1(2):78-91

Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014

IJOMAS. November 2014, 1(2):78-91

Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014

IJOMAS. November 2014, 1(2):78-91

Antibiotic Resistance Patterns

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Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014

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Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014

IJOMAS. November 2014, 1(2):78-91

3. Adesiuyn, A. A., Dasuki, M. O. and Ibrahim, G. A. (2001). Occurrence and antibiograms

Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014

IJOMAS. November 2014, 1(2):78-91

Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014

IJOMAS. November 2014, 1(2):78-91

Paul NjengaWaithaka et al. 2014

IJOMAS. November 2014, 1(2):78-91

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