Renewable Energy Sources - An Application Guide

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Renewable Energy Sources An Application

Guide
EnergyforFuture
AnilSinghYadav*1,J.L.Bhagoria2
MechanicalEngineeringDepartment,MaulanaAzadNationalInstituteofTechnology,Bhopal,MP462051,India.
*1
anilsinghyadav@gmail.com;2palak_bh@rediffmail.com
Abstract
Living sustainably means conserving nonrenewable

resources by intelligent use of renewable resources.
Evenrenewableresourcesmustbemanagedcarefully
or else they too can disappear faster than they are
replaced. The world is now experiencing this very
problem because in many places forests, plants, wild
animals, clean water, clean air, and rich soil have
become depleted before nature can replace them.
Sustainableuseofresourcesdependsontheprinciples
of conservation and resource management. Since the
1960s, some people have known that conservation of
nonrenewable energy sources is of paramount
importance. At the same time, people must put
increased effort into using renewable energy sources
fromthesun,wind,andwater.
This article presents a review about the application of

various nonconventional & renewable energy sources
especially solar energy. Renewable energy sources are
indigenous, and can therefore contribute to reducing
dependency on energy imports and increasing security of
supply. Development of renewable energy sources can
activelycontributetojobcreation,predominantlyamongthe
smallandmediumsizedenterpriseswhicharesocentralto
the community economic fabric, and indeed themselves
form the majority in the various renewable energy sectors.
Deployment of renewables can be a key feature in regional
development with the aim of achieving greater social and
economic cohesion within the community. Finally, this
paperexploressixbroadtypesofrenewableenergysources,
their characteristics and typical application: solar energy,
windenergy,bioenergy,hydroenergy,geothermalenergy,
waveandtidalenergy.
The concept of renewable versus nonrenewable

resources provides the cornerstone of sustainability.
Renewableresourcesarereplacedbynaturalprocesses
over time, but even these must be conserved so that
they are not used up faster than nature can replace
them.Conversely,nonrenewableresourcessuchasoil
or minerals are formed in the earth over millions of
years. Earth can replenish nonrenewable resources,
butthisoccursovereonssuchasthemillionsofyears
needed to transform organic matter into fossil fuels.
Do people have any real chance to affect the entire
planet and preserve its natural wealth?
Environmentalists think everyone can indeed make a
difference in building sustainability by following the
threersreduce,reuse,andrecycle.
Keywords
Renewable Energy; Solar Energy; Wind Energy; BioEnergy;
HydroEnergy;GeothermalEnergy;WaveandtidalEnergy
Introduction
Energy is the primary force in the universe. Energy
defines the Earths biomes and sustains life. All life,
fromsinglecelledmicrobestobluewhales,existsina
continuous process of consuming, using, and storing
energy.Humancommunitiesworkinthesamewayas
othercommunitieswithregardtoenergymanagement.
Anycommunityconsumesfueltoproduceenergy,but
thecommunitymustalsoconservesomeofthefuelfor
the next generation. This conservation of energy
sourcesfromonegenerationtothenextistheprinciple
behind sustainability, the process by which a system
survives for a period of time. No system in biology
lasts forever, and this is also true for sustainability.
Sustainabilityprolongsthetimethatlivingthingscan
survive, but it cannot ensure that life will go on
forever.
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Energy companies would be wise not to deplete

resourcesfasterthantheearthreplacesthem,aprocess
known as recharging. However, replenishment of
renewableresourceshasbecomeincreasinglydifficult
because of a growing world population. Although
many factors contribute to population growth at
unsustainable rates, two important historical
developments may have had the largest impact on
InternationalJournalofEnergyScience(IJES)Volume3Issue2,April2013
population because they increase life span. First, the

development of the microscope 275 years ago led to
greater knowledge of microbes and an increasing
understanding of disease. Second, conveniences
introduced by the industrial revolution alleviated the
needformanuallaborinmanyindustries.Inshort,life
hadbecomelessphysicallydemanding,andmedicine
had reduced the infant mortality rate and lengthened
life spans. Populations in developed and developing
regions began to undergo exponential growth, which
means that the numbers of humans increase at an
increasingly faster pace over a short period of time.
Exponential population growth is the single most
significant factor in humans increasing ecological
footprint.Inthisdecade,humanshavebeendepleting
resources 21 percent faster than earth can recharge
them. Environmental scientists often describe this
problem as the number of planet earths that people
need to support their activities. At present, humans
need 1.21 earths to support current consumption of
resources.
Bioenergy
Hydroenergy
Geothermalenergy
Waveandtidalenergy
This paper focuses on various applications of
renewableenergysourcessuchassolar,wind,bioand
hydroenergy.
Solar Energy
The sun is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter
withadiameterof1.39x109m(Fig.1).Thesunisabout
1.5 x108 km away from earth, so, because thermal
radiation travels with the speed of light in a vacuum
(300,000 km/s), after leaving the sun solar energy
reachesourplanetin8minand20s.Asobservedfrom
the earth, the sun disk forms an angle of 32 min of a
degree.
Renewableenergysourcesarefundamentallydifferent
from fossil fuel or nuclear power plants because of
their widespread occurrence and abundance. The
primaryadvantageofmanyrenewableenergysources
aretheirlackofgreenhousegasandotheremissionsin
comparison with fossil fuel combustion. Most of the
renewable energy sources do not emit any additional
carbondioxideanddonotintroduceanyrisksuchas
nuclear waste. A renewable energy system converts
theenergyfoundinsunlight,wind,fallingwater,sea
waves, geothermal heat, or biomass into a form, we
can use such as heat or electricity. Most of the
renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly
from sun and wind and can never be exhausted, and
thereforetheyarecalledrenewable.However,mostof
the worlds energy sources are derived from
conventionalsourcesfossilfuelssuchascoal,oil,and
natural gases. These fuels are often termed non
renewable energy sources. Although, the available
quantity of these fuels are extremely large, they are
neverthelessfiniteandsowillinprinciplerunoutat
sometimeinthefuture.
FIG.1EARTHSUNGEOMETRICRELATIONSHIPS
This is important in many applications, especially in

concentrator optics, where the sun cannot be
consideredasapointsourceandeventhissmallangle
issignificantintheanalysisoftheopticalbehaviorof
the collector. The sun has an effective blackbody
temperature of 5760K. The temperature in the central
region is much higher. In effect, the sun is a
continuousfusionreactorinwhichhydrogenisturned
intohelium.Thesunstotalenergyoutputis3.8x1020
MW,whichisequalto63MW/m2ofthesunssurface.
This energy radiates outward in all directions. The
earthreceivesonlyatinyfractionofthetotalradiation
emitted,equalto1.7x1014kW;however,evenwiththis
small fraction, it is estimated that 84 min of solar
radiationfallingonearthisequaltotheworldenergy
demandforoneyear(about900EJ).Asseenfromthe
earth,thesunrotatesarounditsaxisaboutonceevery
fourweeks.Solarenergyisthemostreadilyavailable
andfreesourceofenergysinceprehistorictimes.Itis
estimated that solar energy equivalent to over 15,000
times the worlds annual commercial energy
consumption reaches the earth every year. India
receivessolarenergyintheregionof5to7kWh/m2for
Renewable energy sources are essentially flows of

energy, whereas the fossil and nuclear fuels are, in
essence,stocksofenergy.
Variousformsofrenewableenergysources:
Solarenergy
Windenergy
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300 to 330 days in a year. This energy is sufficient to

setup20MWsolarpowerplantpersquarekilometre
landarea.
Solar energy can be utilized through two different
routes, as solar thermal route and solar electric (solar
photovoltaic)routes.Solarthermalrouteusesthesuns
heat to produce hot water or air, cook food, drying
materials etc. Solar photovoltaic uses suns heat to
produce electricity for lighting home and building,
running motors, pumps, electric appliances, and
lighting. Solar energy can meet three distinct
applications: heating water, heating air, and
generation of electricity in any residential or
commercial setting. In most cases, solar energy
provides the lowest lifecycle cost, and the lowest
environmental impact from the release of greenhouse
gases(GHG).
FIG.3EVACUATEDTUBECOLLECTORCONFIGURATION
However, this system does not meet the demand of

daily routine. After the sack is empty it must be
refilled again by hand. To avoid this inconvenience,
sack and tap can be pressuresealed and a hose can
thenbeconnectedtoreplacewaterautomatically.Asa
further improvement a solar collector with a high
efficiency all year round can replace the sack.
However, the collector content is only sufficient for a
veryshortshowerandthewatertemperatureswillbe
very high. Therefore, a storage tank is needed. Two
systemstointegratehotwaterstoragetanksintosolar
energysystemsaredescribedinthefollowingsections.
WaterHeating
An obvious use of solar energy is for heating air and
water. Dwellings in cold climates need heated air for
comfort, and in all countries hot water is used for
washing and other domestic purposes. Domestic
water heating systems typically use collectors that
havemuchlowerlossesathigherwatertemperatures.
These are either flatplate, evacuated flatplate or
evacuated tube collectors and are integrated with
collectorstoragesystems(Fig.2andFig.3).
1)
ThermosyphonSystems
AthermosyphonsystemasshowninFig.4makes
useofgravity.
FIG.2FLATPLATECOLLECTORCONFIGURATION
FIG.4SCHEMATICOFATHERMOSYPHONSYSTEM
A very simple system for solar water heating can be

made of a black water filled tank that is exposed to
sunlightinsummer.Ifthetankisinstalledhigherthan
the tap, the warm water can be used without any
further component. An example for such an
application is a solar shower that is sold as camping
equipment. In principle, it is a black sack hung on a
highbranchofatree.Ifthissackisexposedforsome
hours to solar radiation, a shower with solar heated
watercanbetaken.
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Coldwaterhasahigherspecificdensitythanwarm
water. It is therefore heavier and sinks to the
bottom.Thecollectorisalwaysmountedbelowthe
waterstoragetank.Coldwaterfromthebottomof
thestoragetankflowstothesolarcollectorthrough
adescending water pipe.When the collector heats
upthewater,thewaterrisesagainandflowsback
tothetankthroughanascendingwaterpipeatthe
upperendofthecollector.Thecycleoftank,water
pipes and collector heats up the water until

temperatureequilibriumisreached.Theconsumer
can draw off hot water from the top of the tank.
Used water is replaced through a fresh supply of
cold water through an inlet at the bottom of the
tank. This cold water joins the cycle and is heated
in the collector in the same way as before. Due to
higher water temperature differences at higher
solar irradiances, the warm water rises faster than
at lower irradiances and the flow rates are
increased. Therefore, the water circulation adapts
itself nearly perfectly to the available solar
irradiance.
2)
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mixes,boilerfeedapplications
Electroplating/galvanizing units: Heating of

platingbaths,cleaning,degreasingapplications
Pulp and paper industries: Boiler feed

applications,soakingofpulp.
SpaceHeating
Space heating is of particular relevance in colder
countries where a significant amount of energy is
required for this purpose. In India it is of important
mainlyintheNorthernandNorthernEasternregions
inwinter.
1)
SystemswithForcedCirculation
ActiveMethods
An active method one which utilizes a pump or a

blowertocirculatethefluidsinvolvedinthespace
heatingsystem.OnesystemisillustratedinFig.6.
In this system, water is heated in solar flat plate
collectors(A)andstoredinthetank(B).Energyis
transferred to the air circulating in the space to be
heatedbymeansofthewatertoairheatexchanger
(E). Two pumps (C) provide forced circulation
between the collectors and the tank, and between
the tank and the heat exchanger. Provision is also
madeforaddingauxiliaryheat(D).Sincethesolar
energyisfirstbeingusedtoheatwater,thesystem
showninFig.6canbeeasilymodifiedtobeatwo
inone system supplying hot water as well as hot
airforspaceheating.
Incontrasttothermosyphonsystems,systemswith
forced circulation use an electrical pump to move
the water in the solar cycle. The collector and
storage tank can be installed independently and a
heightdifferencebetweenthetankandcollectoris
no longer necessary. However, the pipe lengths
shouldbedesignedtobeasshortaspossiblesince
all warm water pipes cause heat losses. Fig. 5
showsasystemwithforcedcirculation.
FIG.5SCHEMATICOFASYSTEMWITHFORCED
CIRCULATION
Afewindustrialapplicationofsolarwaterheaters
arelistedbelow:
Hotels: Bathing, kitchen, washing, laundry

applications
Dairies: Ghee (clarified butter) production,

cleaningandsterilizing,pasteurization
Textiles: Bleaching, boiling, printing, dyeing,

curing,ageingandfinishing
Breweries & Distilleries: Bottle washing, wort

preparation,boilerfeedheating
Chemical /Bulk drugs units: Fermentation of
FIG.6SCHEMATICDIAGRAMOFASPACEHEATINGSYSTEM
USINGLIQUIDFLATPLATECOLLECTOR
Analternativeapproachtospaceheatingistoheat
airdirectlyinsolarairheaters(A),asshowninFig.
7.Theheatisthenstoredinporousbedstorage(B)
packed with rock, gravel or pebbles. Energy is
extracted ant transferred to the space to be heated
by blowing coolair through the porous bed. Once
again an auxiliary heater (D) is provided for
supplyingmakeupheat.
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both vents are closed and energy transfer takes

place only by convection and radiation from the
innersurface.
Anotherpassivedesignapproachforspaceheating
is to construct a sunspace or greenhouse next to
living space to be heated. The sunspace is located
on the south side of the building. It has a large
glassroofandthereisathickwallwithventsatthe
topandbottomlinkingitwiththelivingspace(Fig.
9).Thusthesunspaceactsasabufferzonebetween
the living space and the outdoor conditions.
Duringtheday,sunspacegetheatedupandwarm
airentersthelivingspacethroughthetopopening
A. Cooler air from the living space is pulled out
throughthebottomopeningBtherebyestablishing
a natural circulation flow. In addition, energy is
stored in the link wall. During the night, the
openings are closed and the energy stored in the
linkwallisconductedthroughitandtransferredto
the living space by convection and radiation from
theinnersurface.
FIG.7SCHEMATICDIAGRAMOFASPACEHEATINGSYSTEM
USINGSOLARAIRHEATERS
2)
PassiveMethods
A passive method is one in which thermal energy

flows through a living space by natural means
without the help of a mechanical device like a
pump or a blower. A schematic diagram of a
passive spaceheating system designed by
ProfessorTrombeisshowninFig.8.
FIG.8SPACEHEATINGBYPASSIVEMETHODSTHETROMBE
WALL
The south face of the house to be heated is

providedwithasingleordoubleglazing.Behindit
isathickblack,concretewall,whichabsorbsthe
suns radiation and serves as a thermal storage.
Vents(AandB),whichcanbekeptopenorclosed,
are provided near the top and bottom of the
storage wall. The whole unit consisting of the
storagewallwithventsandtheglazingisreferred
toasaTrombewall.
FIG.9SCHEMATICDIAGRAMOFASUNSPACEFORPASSIVE
SPACEHEATING
SpaceCoolingandRefrigeration
One of the interesting thermal applications of solar
energy is for the purpose of cooling. Space cooling
may be done with the objective of providing
comfortable living conditions (airconditioning) or of
keeping a food product cold (refrigeration). Since the
energy of the sun is being received as heat, the
obviouschoiceisasystemworkingontheabsorption
refrigeration cycle which requires most of its energy
input as heat. Cooling is required most in summer.
Hence, in this case, there is a seasonal matching
betweentheenergyneedsofthespacecoolingsystem
andtheavailabilityofsolarradiation.
Duringtheday,bothventsAandBarekeptopen.
Theairbetweentheinnerglazingandthewallgets
heatedandflowsintothelivingspacethroughthe
top vent. Simultaneously, the cooler air from the
room is pulled out of theliving space through the
bottomvent.Thus,anaturalcirculationpathisset
up. Some energy transfer to the living space also
takes place by convection and radiation from the
innersurfaceofthestoragewall.Duringthenight,
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A diagram of a simple solar operated absorption

systemisshowninFig.10.
medium and high temperature cycles. Low

temperature
cycles
work
at
maximum
temperaturesofabout100C,mediumtemperature
cyclesworkatmaximumtemperaturesupto400C,
while high temperature cycles work at
temperatures above 400C. Low temperature
systems use flatplate collectors or solar ponds for
collecting solar energy. Systems working on the
solar chimney concept have also been suggested.
Medium temperature systems use the line
focussing parabolic collector technology. High
temperature systems use either paraboloid dish
collectors or central receivers located at the top of
towers.
FIG.10SOLARABSORPTIONREFRIGERATIONSYSTEM
Water heated in a flatplate collector array is passed

through a heat exchanger called the generator, where
ittransfersheattoasolutionmixtureoftheabsorbent
and refrigerant, which is rich in the refrigerant.
Refrigerantvapourisboiledoffatahighpressureand
goes to the condenser where it is condensed into a
high pressure liquid. The high pressure liquid is
throttled to a low pressure and temperature in an
expansion valve, and passes through the evaporator
coil. Here, the refrigerant vapour absorbs heat and
coolingisthereforeobtainedinthespacesurrounding
thiscoil.Therefrigerantvapourisnowabsorbedintoa
solution mixture withdrawn from the generator,
whichisweakinrefrigerantconcentration.Thisyields
arichsolutionwhichispumpedbacktothegenerator,
thereby completing the cycle. The rich solution
flowing from the absorber to the generator is usually
heated in a heat exchanger by the weak solution
withdrawnfromthegenerator.Thishelpstoimprove
the performance of the cycle. Some of the common
refrigerantabsorbent
combinations
used
are
ammoniawaterandwaterlithiumbromide,thelatter
being used essentially for airconditioning purposes.
Typical values for the coefficient of performance (the
ratiooftherefrigeratingeffecttotheheatsuppliedin
the
generator)
range
between
0.5
and
0.8.Unfortunately, the installation cost of a solar
absorptionrefrigerationsystemishighbecauseofthe
cost of the large collector array required. Thus
commercializationhasnottakenplacealthoughafew
LowTemperatureSystems:Adiagramofatypical
low temperature system using flatplate collectors
andworkingonaRankinecycleisshowninFig.11.
FIG.11LOWTEMPERATUREPOWERGENERATIONCYCLE
USINGFLATPLATECOLLECTORS
Theenergyofthesuniscollectedbywaterflowing
throughthearrayofflatplatecollectors.Inorderto
get the maximum possible temperature, booster
mirrors which reflect radiation on to the flatplate
collectors are sometimes used. The hot water at
temperatures close to 100C is stored in a well
insulatedthermalstoragetank.Fromhere,itflows
through a vapour generator through which the
working fluid of the Rankine cycle is also passed.
The working fluid has a low boiling point.
Consequently,vapouratabout90Candapressure
ofafewatmospheresleavesthevapourgenerator.
ThisvapourthenexecutesaregularRankinecycle
by flowing through a prime mover, a condenser
and a liquid pump. The working fluids normally
used are organic fluids like methyl chloride and
toluene,andrefrigerantslikeR11,R113andR114.
Ithastobenotedthattheoverallefficiencyofthis
system is rather low, because the temperature
difference between the vapour leaving the
generator and the condensed liquid leaving the
condenserissmall.ForthecycleshowninFig.11,
thetemperaturedifferenceisonly55C.Thisleads
toaRankinecycleefficiencyof7to8percent.The
demonstrationunitshavebeensetup.
PowerGeneration
The generation of electrical power is one of the most
important applications of solar energy source. There
aretwomethodsforgenerationofelectricalpower.
1)
SolarThermalPowerGeneration
Solarthermalpowercyclescanbeclassifiedaslow,
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75
temperature close to 400C have proved to be the

most cost effective and successful so far. A
schematic diagram of a typical plant is shown in
Fig.13.
efficiency of the collector system is of the order of

25 per cent. Hence an overall efficiency of only
about2percentisobtained.Theconceptofasolar
chimneypowerplantwassuggestedinthe1970s.It
isalsocalledasolarupdrafttowerpowerplant.In
such a plant, a tall central chimney is surrounded
atitsbasebyacirculargreenhouseconsistingofa
transparent cover supported a few metres above
thegroundbyametalframe(Fig.12).
High Temperature Systems: Two concepts have

been experimented with in the case of high
temperaturesystems.Thesearetheparaboloiddish
concept and the central receiver concept. In the
paraboloid dish concept, the concentrator tracks
the sun by rotating about two axes and the suns
rays are brought to a point focus. A fluid flowing
through a receiver at the focus is heated and this
heat is used to drive a prime mover. Typically,
Stirling engines have been favoured as the prime
movers. For this reason, such systems are referred
to as DishStirling Systems. Because of the
limitations on the size of the concentrator,
paraboloid dish systems can be expected to
generatepowerinkilowattsratherthanmegawatts.
Thustheycanbeexpectedtomeetthelocalpower
needsofcommunities,particularlyinruralareas.
FIG.12SOLARCHIMNEYPOWERPLANT
Sunlight passing through the transparent cover

causestheairtrappedinthegreenhousetoheatup
by10to20C.Therebyaconvectionsystemisset
up in which the hot air is drawn up through the
central chimney, and is continuously replenished
by fresh air drawn in at the periphery of the
greenhouse. The energy contained in the updraft
airisconvertedintomechanicalenergybyturbines
located at the base of the chimney and then into
electrical energy by conventional electrical
generators.
FIG.14SCHEMATICDIAGRAMOFATYPICALCENTRAL
RECEIVERSYSTEMUSINGAMOLTENSALTASTHEHEAT
TRANSFERFLUID
In a central receiver system, solar radiation

reflected from an array of large mirrors is
concentrated on a receiver situated at the top of a
supportingtower.Themirrorsarecalledheliostats
and they are placed on the ground around the
tower. Their orientation is individually controlled
so that throughout the day they reflect beam
radiation on the receiver. A fluid flowing through
thereceiverabsorbstheconcentratedradiationand
transports the heat to the ground level where it is
used to operate a thermodynamic cycle like the
Rankine or the Brayton cycle. Molten salts, water
(convertedtosteam)andairhavebeenusedasthe
heattransferfluids.Becauseoftheuseofareceiver
FIG.13MEDIUMTEMPERATUREPOWERGENERATIONCYCLE
USINGCYLINDRICALPARABOLICCONCENTRATING
COLLECTORS
Medium Temperature Systems: Among solar

thermalelectric power plants, those operating on
medium temperature cycles and using the line
focussing parabolic collector technology at a
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placed at the top of a tower, a central receiver

system is also referred to as a power tower. A
schematic diagram of a typical central receiver
systemusingamoltensaltastheheattransferfluid
isshowninFig.14.Themoltensaltusedfrequently
is a mixture of 60 per cent sodium nitrate and 40
percentpotassiumnitrate.
A photovoltaic cell used in capturing solar energy

receives photons (the suns rays), which silicon
absorbs. This action releases an electron from a
siliconatomeachtimeaphotonstrikes.Oppositely
charged poles on either side of the cell induce the
electrons to form a current. Fig. 15 shows a
photovoltaiccell.
Cold salt at 290C is pumped from a tank at

ground level to the receiver at the top of a tower
whereitisheatedbytheconcentratedradiationto
a temperature of 565C. The salt flows back to
another tank at ground level. In order to generate
electricity, hot salt is pumped from the hot tank
through a steam generator where superheated
steam is produced. The superheated steam then
goes through a Rankine cycle to produce
mechanicalworkandthenelectricity.Theheliostat
array can be sized to collect more power than is
required by the electricity generation system. In
thatcase,theexcessthermalenergyintheformof
excesssaltat565Caccumulatesinthehottankand
servesasathermalstorage.
A typical silicon cell, with a diameter of 4 in., can

produce more than 1 W of direct current (DC)
electrical power in full sun. Individual solar cells
can be connected in series and parallel to obtain
desiredvoltagesandcurrents.Thesegroupsofcells
are packaged into standard modules that protect
the cells from the environment while providing
useful voltages and currents. PV modules are
extremely reliable because they are solid stateand
have no moving parts. Silicon PV cells
manufactured today can provide over 40 years of
useful service life. PV devicesor solar cellsare
made
from
semiconductor
materials.
Semiconductor materials are those elements or
compoundsthathaveconductivityintermediateto
thatofmetalsorinsulators.
2)
PhotovoltaicConversion
Electricity can be produced from sunlight through

aprocesscalledthePVeffect,wherephotorefers
tolightandvoltaictovoltage.Thetermdescribes
a process that produces direct electrical current
from the radiant energy of the Sun. The PV effect
cantakeplaceinsolid,liquid,orgaseousmaterial;
however, it is in solids, especially semiconductor
materials, that acceptable conversion efficiencies
have been found. Solar cells are made from a
varietyofsemiconductormaterialsandcoatedwith
special additives. The most widely used material
for the various types of fabrication is crystalline
silicon,representingover90%ofglobalcommercial
PVmoduleproductioninitsvariousforms.
In spite of the high initial cost, photovoltaic

systems are being used increasingly to supply
electricity for many applications requiring small
amounts of power. Their costeffectiveness
increases with the distance of the location (where
theyaretobeinstalled)fromthemainpowergrid
lines. For example, studies in India show that it is
moreeconomicaltoinstallastandalonePVsystem
insteadofatransmissionlinetoavillagehavinga
load of 10 kW, if the village is more than 40 km
fromthegridline.
SomeapplicationsforwhichPYsystemshavebeen
developedare,
Pumpingwaterforirrigationanddrinking,
Electrificationforremotevillagesforproviding
street lighting, home lighting and other
communityservices,
Telecommunication for the post and telegraph

andrailwaycommunicationnetwork,
Inaddition,solarcellsarebeingusedextensivelyin
consumer product appliances where very small
amounts of power are needed. These cells are
generallyamorphoussiliconcells.
A diagram of a typical system for pumping water
fromaborewellisshowninFig.16.Suchsystems
havebeendesignedtopumpwaterfromdepthsof
FIG.15APHOTOVOLTAICCELL
77
20to100metresandtosupply5000to50000litres
perday.
FIG.17SOLARSTILL
A sloping transparent cover is provided at the top

Solarradiationistransmittedthroughthecoverandis
absorbedintheblacklining.Itthusheatsupthewater
by about 10 to 20C and causes it to evaporate. The
resultingvapourrises,condensesaspurewateronthe
underside of the cover and flows into condensate
collectionchannelsonthesides.Anoutputofabout3
liters/m2 with an associated efficiency of 30 to 35 per
centcanbeobtainedinawelldesignedstillonagood
sunny day. A number of basintype solarstill plants
having areas greater than 100 m2 are in operation in
FIG.16APHOTOVOLTAICWATERPUMPINGSYSTEM
AsseeninFig.16asolarcellarraysuppliespower
through a dcac inverter to an electric motor
coupled to a submersible pump. The pump is
installedbelowthewaterleveloftheborewell.Its
discharge is connected through a delivery pipe to
storage at ground level. Water can be withdrawn
from the storage tank for use when required.
Usually systems for pumping water do not have
storage batteries and work only during the day
when adequate solar radiation is available.
However other PV systems which have to supply
powerduringtheeveningornightrequirestorage
batteries to store the electrical energy generated
during the day. The capacity of the battery is
determined by the nature of the application. For
example,inastreetlightingsystem,thecapacityof
the storage battery would be such that the street
lightswouldbeonforfiveorsixhourseverynight.
manypartsofAfricaandtheWestIndies.
SolarDrying
Oneofthetraditionalusesofsolarenergyhasbeenfor
drying of agricultural products. The drying process
removesmoistureandhelpsinthepreservationofthe
product.Traditionally,dryingisdoneonopenground.
The disadvantages associated with this are that the
process is slow and that insects and dust get mixed
withtheproduct.Theusesofdryershelptoeliminate
these disadvantages. Drying can then be done faster
and in a controlled fashion. In addition, a better
qualityproductisobtained.Acabinettypesolardryer,
suitableforsmallscaleuse,isshowninFig.18.
The dryer consists of an enclosure with a transparent
cover.Thematerialtobedriedisplacedonperforated
trays.
SolarDistillation
In many small communities, the natural supply of
fresh water is inadequate in comparison to the
availability of brackish or saline water. Solar
distillation can prove to be an effective way of
supplying drinking water to such communities. The
principle of solar distillation is simple and can be
explained with reference to Fig. 17, in which a
conventional basintype solar still is shown. The still
consistsofashallowairtightbasinlinedwithablack,
imperviousmaterialwhichcontainsthesalinewater.
78
Solar radiation entering the enclosure is absorbed in

the product itself and the surrounding internal
surfaces of the enclosure. As a result, moisture is
removedfromtheproductandtheairinsideisheated.
Suitable openings at the bottom and top ensure a
natural circulation. Temperatures ranging from 50C
to 80C are usually attained and the drying time
ranges from 2 to 4 days. Typical products which can
be dried in such devices are dates, apricots, chillies,

grapesetc.
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An indirect type of active device is used when the

solar radiation falling directly on the product (as in
Figs.18and19)isnotadequate,orthetemperatureof
theproductneedstobecontrolled.Onesuchsystemis
showninFig.20.Here,theairisheatedseparatelyin
an array of solar air heaters and then ducted to the
chamber in which the product to be dried is stored.
Suchdryersaresuitableforfoodgrains,tea,spices,etc.
andforproductslikeleatherandceramics.
SolarCooking
An important domestic thermal application is that of
cooking. Over the past 40 years, a number of designs
ofsolarcookershavebeendeveloped,afewofwhich
aredescribedhere.Solarcookerdesignsgenerallyfall
into one of two categories. One category is the box
type cooker, a slow cooking device suitable for
domestic purposes. It essentially consists of a
rectangular enclosure insulated on the bottom and
sides,and having one or two glass covers on the top.
Solarradiationentersthroughthetopandheatsupthe
enclosureinwhichthefoodtobecookedisplacedin
shallow vessels. A typical size available has an
enclosure about 50 cm square and 12 cm deep.
Temperatures around 100C can be obtained in these
cookers on sunny days and pulses, rice, vegetables,
etc.,canbereadilycooked.Thetimetakenforcooking
dependsuponthesolarradiationandvariesfromhalf
anhourtotwoandahalfhours.
FIG.18ACABINETTYPESOLARDRYER
FIG.19FORCEDCIRCULATIONDRYER(DIRECTGAIN)
For largescale drying, the passive device of Fig. 18

relying on natural circulation is replaced byanactive
device with forced circulation as shown in Fig. 19.
Systemsofthistypehavebeenusedfordryingtimber.
FIG.21BOXTYPECOOKERWITHONEREFLECTOR
Asingleglassreflectorwhoseinclinationcanbevaried
isusuallyattachedtotheboxtypecooker.Asketchof
suchacookerisshowninFig.21.Theadditionofthe
mirror helps in achieving enclosure temperatures
whicharehigherbyabout15to20C.Asaresult,the
cookingtimeisreduced.Cookerswithreflectorsonall
fouredgeshavealsobeenbuilt.Boxtypecookerswith
noreflectororwithonereflectoraresimpletouseand
FIG.20FORCEDCIRCULATIONDRYER(INDIRECTGAIN)
79
requirelittleattention.Asaresult,theyhavefoundthe
maximum acceptance amongst all the designs
developed. The item to be cooked has only to be
placed inside and taken out, so that with some
experience,theoperatordoesnothavetospendmuch
time in the sun. However, the disadvantage is that
they cannot be used for cooking items like chapatis
andpureessincetheserequirehighertemperatures.
staysfixed.Thedailyrotationisgenerallycarriedout
by a mechanical tracking device (clock work). In
addition, every second or third day, the tilt of the
reflector is adjusted and the reflector is flexed so that
most of the solar rays are reflected to the secondary
reflector. Temperatures as high as 400C can be
attained and all types of cooking/frying are possible.
One need not have to go outside in the sun unlike a
normalparaboloidcooker.Cookingforabout40to50
personsispossiblewiththiscooker.
The second categories of solar cookers developed are

those in which the radiation is concentrated by a
paraboloid reflecting surface. The cooking vessel is
placed at the focus of the paraboloid mirror and is
thus directly heated. This cooker is referred to as a
dishsolarcooker.Temperatureswellabove200Care
obtained in it and it can be used for cooking food
items requiring roasting, frying or boiling. The
disadvantage of a dish cooker is that it requires
manual tracking every 15 or 20 minutes. Also, since
the cooking is done outdoors, the operator has to
spend a considerable amount of time in the sun. A
variation of the paraboloidtype cooker has been
developedbyScheffiersuchthatsolarradiationcanbe
concentrated and brought inside the kitchen. The
reflector is a small lateral section of a much larger
paraboloid. The inclined cut produces the typical
shape of the Scheffier reflector. The reflector usually
consists of a number of mirror facets supported by a
steel frame. It is mounted outside the kitchen facing
south(inthenorthernhemisphere).Itreflectsthesolar
rays through an opening in the north wall of the
kitchenontoasecondaryreflectorinsidethekitchen.
The secondary reflector further concentrates the rays
ontothebottomofthecookingvessel(Fig.22).
SolarCars
A solar car is an electric vehicle powered by energy
obtained from solar panels on the surface of the car
whichconvertthesunsenergydirectlyintoelectrical
energy.Solarcarsarenotcurrentlyapracticalformof
transportation. Although they can operate for limited
distances without sun, the solar cells are generally
very fragile. Development teams have focused their
effortsonoptimizingtheefficiencyofthevehicle,but
many have only enough room for one or two people.
Althoughwewontfindsolarcarsatanydealerships,
peoplehavebeenbuildingtheirownmodelssincethe
1970s. Ed Passerini who constructed his own
completely solar powered car called the Bluebird in
1977 and Larry Perkins who drove the Quiet
Achieverin1982bothreceivenodsasthefirstpeople
todoso.FordandMazdahaveeventestedthewaters
with solar hybrid concept cars. The 2006 Ford Reflex
installed solar panels in the headlights, and the 2005
MazdaSenkufeaturedsolarpanelsonitsrooftohelp
chargeitsbattery.The2008CadillacProvoqusessolar
panelstopoweraccessories,suchasinteriorlightsand
theaudiosystem.Fig.23showsasolarcar.
FIG.22SCHEMATICDIAGRAMOFASCHEFFIERCOOKER
These cookers require tracking such that the focus
80
FIG.23ASOLARCAR
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SolarPowerSatellite
A solar power satellite (SPS) is a proposed satellite
built in high earth orbit that uses microwave power
transmission to beam solar power to a very large
antenna on earth where it can be used in place of
conventionalpowersources.Fig.24showsconceptof
satellitesolarpowerstation.
FIG.25WINDTURBINE
WindEnergyTechnology
The basic wind energy conversion device is the wind
turbine.Although various designsandconfigurations
exist, these turbines are generally grouped into two
types:
Verticalaxis wind turbines, in which the axis of
rotation is vertical with respect to the ground (and
roughlyperpendiculartothewindstream).
FIG.24SATELLITESOLARPOWERSTATIONCONCEPT
The advantage of placing the solar collectorsin space

istheunobstructedviewofthesun,unaffectedbythe
day/night cycle, weather, or seasons. However, the
costs of construction are very high, and SPSs will not
be able to compete with conventional sources unless
low launch costs can be achieved or unless a space
based manufacturing industry develops and they can
bebuiltinorbitfromoffearthmaterials.
Horizontalaxisturbines,inwhichtheaxisofrotation
ishorizontalwithrespecttotheground(androughly
paralleltothewindstream.)
Followings are the major wind energy technology
applications:
1)
The livelihood and wellbeing of people, animals,

and crops depends on a reliable, costeffective
supply of clean water. Mechanical wind water
pumpingmachineshavebeenusedtopumpwater
fromwellsforcenturies.Thetechnologyofmodern
mechanicalwaterpumpersisrelativelysimple,the
maintenance requirements are modest, and the
replacement parts are not difficult to obtain. The
mechanical water pumper is the best option in
some circumstances. However, because it must be
placed close to the water source, it is often unable
tocapturethebestwindresources.Awindelectric
pumping system overcomes some of the problems
with the simple wind water pumper. This system
generateselectricity,which,inturn,runsanelectric
pump. Wind electric pumping systems allow
greater siting flexibility, higher efficiency of wind
energy conversion, increased water output,
increased versatility in use of output power, and
decreasedmaintenanceandlifecyclecosts.
Wind Energy
Windenergyisbasicallyharnessingofwindpowerto
produce electricity. The kinetic energy of the wind is
converted to electrical energy. When solar radiation
enterstheearthsatmosphere,differentregionsofthe
atmosphereareheatedtodifferentdegreesbecauseof
earth curvature. This heating is higher at the equator
and lowest at the poles. Since air tends to flow from
warmer to cooler regions, this causes what we call
winds, and it is these airflows that are harnessed in
windmillsandwindturbinestoproducepower.Wind
powerisnotanewdevelopmentasthispower,inthe
form of traditional windmills for grinding corn,
pumping water, sailing ships have been used for
centuries. Now wind power is harnessed to generate
electricityinalargerscalewithbettertechnology.Fig.
25showswindturbine.
WaterPumping
81
2)
delivering the winds energy in the most efficient

way. Using some or all of the turbines output to
pump water, grind grain, or run other loads not
dependent on utilitygrade electricity reduces the
needforbatteriesforstorageofconstantfrequency
ACpower.
StandAloneSystemsforHomeandBusiness
Inmanyplaces,windpoweristheleastcostoption
forprovidingpowertohomesandbusinessesthat
are remote from an established grid. Researchers
estimate that wind produces more power at less
costthandieselgeneratorsatanyremotesitewith
anaveragewindspeedgreaterthanabout4meters
per second. The applications for electricity in
households range from operating small household
appliances to refrigeration and freezing, heating,
cooling, and lighting. Wind turbine performance
depends primarily on rotor diameter and wind
speed. The amount of power that a turbine
producesdependsheavilyonthewindspeedatthe
turbine height. System designers must weigh
improved performance of the wind turbine at
highertowerheightsagainsttheincreasedcostand
difficultyofinstallinghighertowers.
4)
The number of dedicated industrial applications

for wind power continues to grow. Small wind
power systems are ideal for applications where
storing and shipping fuel is uneconomical or
impossible.
Wind power is currently being used for the
followingapplications:
3) SystemsforCommunityCenters,Schools,and
HealthClinics
Alargersystemcanprovidepowertoacentralized
communitycenter,healthclinic,orschool.Apower
systemforahealthcentercanenablethestorageof
vaccines and radio communication for emergency
calls. A power system for a school can provide
electricityforcomputersandeducationaltelevision,
video, and radio. Community centers often find
that,inadditiontothebenefitsofthepower,such
as lighting and cooling, the waste energy can be
used to charge batteries or make ice for sale to
households. Extending the distribution lines to
individual homes and creating a minigrid
increases the convenience of the power system to
the community. Many Laboratory is involved in
exploring a new concept that may significantly
lower the cost &/or improve the performance of
village systems: the highpenetration diesel
retrofitsystem.Asubstantialamountofdieselfuel
couldbesavedwithacontrolstrategyandsystem
architecture that allows shutting down the diesel
generator when the wind is sufficient to carry the
load,andusesshorttermbatterystoragetoreduce
diesel startups during instantaneous lulls in the
wind.Theenergyrequirementandequipmentsize
calculationsaresimilaronalargerscaletothose
for the standalone system. The bestdesigned
systems will use as much power as possible
directly, instead of storing it in batteries. This
reduces initial cost and complexity while
82
IndustrialApplications
telecommunications
radar
pipelinecontrol
navigationalaids
cathodicprotection
weatherstations/seismicmonitoring
airtrafficcontrol
Wind machines in industrial applications typically

encountermoreextremeweatherthanhomepower
systems and must be designed to be robust with
veryminimalmaintenance.
Bio-Energy
We have used biomass energy or bioenergy the
energy from organic matter for thousands of years,
ever since people started burning wood to cook food
ortokeepwarm.Andtoday,woodisstillourlargest
biomass energy resource. But many other sources of
biomass can now be used, including plants, residues
from agriculture or forestry, and the organic
component of municipal and industrial wastes. Even
the fumes from landfills can be used as a biomass
energy source. The use of biomass energy has the
potential to greatly reduce our greenhouse gas
emissions. Biomass generates about the same amount
ofcarbondioxideasfossilfuels,buteverytimeanew
plantgrows,carbondioxideisactuallyremovedfrom
the atmosphere. The net emission of carbon dioxide
will be zero as long as plants continue to be
replenished for biomass energy purposes. These
energy crops, such as fastgrowing trees and grasses,
are called biomass feedstocks. The use of biomass
feedstocks can also help increase profits for the
agriculturalindustry.
There are three major biomass energy technology

applications:
1)
Thissteamisusuallycapturedbyaturbine,anda
generator then converts it into electricity. In some
industries, the steam from the power plant is also
used for manufacturing processes or to heat
buildings. Theseare known as combined heatand
power facilities. For instance, wood waste is often
usedtoproducebothelectricityandsteamatpaper
mills. Many coalfired power plants can use
cofiring systems to significantly reduce emissions,
especially sulfur dioxide emissions. Cofiring
involves using bioenergy feedstocks as a
supplementary energy source in high efficiency
boilers.Gasificationsystemsusehightemperatures
and an oxygenstarved environment to convert
biomassintoagas(amixtureofhydrogen,carbon
monoxide, and methane). The gas fuels whats
called a gas turbine, which is very much like a jet
engine,onlyitturnsanelectricgeneratorinsteadof
propelling a jet. The decay of biomass produces a
gas methane that can be used as an energy
source. In landfills, wells can be drilled to release
the methane from the decaying organic matter.
Thenpipesfromeachwellcarrythegastoacentral
point where it is filtered and cleaned before
burning. Methane also can be produced from
biomass through a process called anaerobic
digestion. Anaerobic digestion involves using
bacteria to decompose organic matter in the
absence of oxygen. Methane can be used as an
energysourceinmanyways.Mostfacilitiesburnit
in a boiler to produce steam for electricity
generation or for industrial processes. Two new
ways include the use of microturbines and fuel
cells. Microturbines have outputs of 25 to 500
kilowatts.Aboutthesizeofarefrigerator,theycan
be used where there are space limitations for
powerproduction.Methanecanalsobeusedasthe
fuel in a fuel cell. Fuel cells work much like
batteries but never need recharging, producing
electricityaslongastheresfuel.Inadditiontogas,
liquidfuelscanbeproducedfrombiomassthrough
a process called pyrolysis. Pyrolysis occurs when
biomass is heated in the absence of oxygen. The
biomassthenturnsintoaliquidcalledpyrolysisoil,
which can be burned like petroleum to generate
electricity. A biopower system that uses pyrolysis
oil is being commercialized. Several biopower
technologiescanbeusedinsmall,modularsystems.
A small, modular system generates electricity at a
capacity of 5 megawatts or less. This system is
Biofuels
Converting biomass
transportation.
into
liquid
fuels
for
Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass

canbeconverteddirectlyintoliquidfuelsbiofuels
for our transportation needs (cars, trucks, buses,
airplanes,andtrains).Thetwomostcommontypes
ofbiofuelsareethanolandbiodiesel.Ethanolisan
alcohol, the same found in beer and wine. It is
made by fermenting any biomass high in
carbohydrates (starches, sugars, or celluloses)
throughaprocesssimilartobrewingbeer.Ethanol
is mostly used as a fuel additive to cut down a
vehiclescarbonmonoxideandothersmogcausing
emissions. But flexiblefuel vehicles, which run on
mixtures of gasoline and up to 85% ethanol, are
now available. Biodiesel is made by combining
alcohol (usually methanol) with vegetable oil,
animal fat, or recycled cooking greases. It can be
used as an additive to reduce vehicle emissions
(typically 20%) or in its pure form as a renewable
alternative fuel for diesel engines. Other biofuels
include methanol and reformulated gasoline
components. Methanol, commonly called wood
alcohol,iscurrentlyproducedfromnaturalgas,but
couldalso be produced from biomass.There area
number of ways to convert biomass to methanol,
but the most likely approach is gasification.
Gasification involves vaporizing the biomass at
hightemperatures,thenremovingimpuritiesfrom
thehotgasandpassingitthroughacatalyst,which
converts it into methanol. Most reformulated
gasoline components produced from biomass are
pollutionreducing fuel additives, such as methyl
tertiarybutylether(MTBE)andethyltertiarybutyl
ether(ETBE).
2)
Biopower
Burning biomass directly, or converting it into a

gaseousfueloroil,togenerateelectricity.
Biopower,orbiomasspower,istheuseofbiomass
togenerateelectricity.Therearesixmajortypesof
biopower
systems:
directfired,
cofiring,
gasification, anaerobic digestion, pyrolysis, and
small,modular.Mostofthebiopowerplantsinthe
world use directfired systems. They burn
bioenergy feedstocks directly to produce steam.
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83
designedforuseatthesmalltownlevelorevenat
theconsumerlevel.Forexample,somefarmersuse
the waste from their livestock to provide their
farms with electricity. Not only do these systems
provide renewable energy, they also help farmers
and ranchers meet environmental regulations.
Small, modular systems also have potential as
distributed energy resources. Distributed energy
resources refer to a variety of small, modular
powergenerating technologies that can be
combined to improve the operation of the
electricitydeliverysystem.
3)
Bioproducts
Converting biomass into chemicals for making

productsthattypicallyaremadefrompetroleum.
FIG.26HYDROENERGY
1)
Whatever products we can make from fossil fuels,

wecanmakeusingbiomass.Thesebioproducts,or
biobased products, are not only made from
renewable sources, they also often require less
energytoproducethanpetroleumbasedproducts.
Researchers have discovered that the process for
makingbiofuelsreleasingthesugarsthatmakeup
starchandcelluloseinplantsalsocanbeusedto
make antifreeze, plastics, glues, artificial
sweeteners, and gel for toothpaste. Other
important building blocks for bioproducts include
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. When biomass is
heated with a small amount of oxygen present,
these two gases are produced in abundance.
Scientists call this mixture biosynthesis gas.
Biosynthesis gas can be used to make plastics and
acids, which can be used in making photographic
films,textiles,andsyntheticfabrics.Whenbiomass
is heated in the absence of oxygen, it forms
pyrolysis oil. A chemical called phenol can be
extracted from pyrolysis oil. Phenol is used to
make wood adhesives, molded plastic, and foam
insulation.
Small Hydro Power is a reliable, mature and

proven technology. It is nonpolluting, and does
notinvolvesettingupoflargedamsorproblemsof
deforestation, submergence and rehabilitation.
Indiahasanestimatedpotentialof10,000MW.
2)
MicroHydel
Hilly regions of India, particularly the Himalayan

belts, are endowed with rich hydel resources with
tremendous potential. The MNES has launched a
promotional scheme for portable micro hydel sets
for these areas. These sets are small, compact and
light weight. They have almost zero maintenance
cost and can provide electricity/power to small
cluster of villages. They are ideal substitutes for
diesel sets run in those areas at high generation
cost.Micro(upto100kW)minihydro(1011000kW)
schemes can provide power for farms, hotels,
schools and rural communities, and help create
localindustry.
Geothermal Energy
Geothermalenergyistheheatfromtheearth.Itsclean
and sustainable. Resources of geothermal energy
range from the shallow ground to hot water and hot
rockfoundafewmilesbeneaththeearthssurface,and
downevendeepertotheextremelyhightemperatures
ofmoltenrockcalledmagma.Almosteverywhere,the
shallowgroundorupper10feetoftheearthssurface
maintains a nearly constant temperature between 50
and60F(10and16C).Geothermalheatpumpscan
tap into this resource to heat and cool buildings (Fig
27).
Hydro Energy
The potential energy of falling water, captured and
converted to mechanical energy by waterwheels,
powered the start of the industrial revolution.
Wherever sufficient head, or change in elevation,
couldbefound,riversandstreamsweredammedand
millswerebuilt.Waterunderpressureflowsthrough
a turbine causing it tospin. The Turbine is connected
toagenerator,whichproduceselectricity(Fig.26).
84
SmallHydro
1)
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GeothermalElectricityProduction
Generatingelectricityfromtheearthsheat.
Most power plants need steam to generate
electricity. The steam rotates a turbine that
activates a generator, which produces electricity.
Many power plants still use fossil fuels to boil
water for steam. Geothermal power plants,
however, use steam produced from reservoirs of
hot water found a couple of miles or more below
the earths surface. There are three types of
geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam,
andbinarycycle.
Dry steam power plants draw from underground
resources of steam. The steam is piped directly
fromundergroundwellstothepowerplant,where
itisdirectedintoaturbine/generatorunit.
FIG.27GEOTHERMALENERGY
Flash steam power plants are the most common.

They use geothermal reservoirs of water with
temperaturesgreaterthan360F(182C).Thisvery
hot water flows up through wells in the ground
under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the
pressuredecreasesandsomeofthehotwaterboils
into steam. The steam is then separated from the
waterandusedtopoweraturbine/generator.Any
leftover water and condensed steam are injected
back into the reservoir, making this a sustainable
resource.
A geothermal heat pump system consists of a heat

pump, an air delivery system (ductwork), and a heat
exchangera system of pipes buried in the shallow
ground near the building. In the winter, the heat
pump removes heat from the heat exchanger and
pumps it into the indoor air delivery system. In the
summer, the process is reversed, and the heat pump
movesheatfromtheindoorairintotheheatexchanger.
The heat removed from the indoor air during the
summer can also be used to provide a free source of
hot water. Wells can be drilled into underground
reservoirs for the generation of electricity. Some
geothermal power plants use the steam from a
reservoir to power a turbine/generator, while others
use the hot water to boil a working fluid that
vaporizesandthenturnsaturbine.Hotwaternearthe
surface of earth can be used directly for heat. Direct
use applications include heating buildings, growing
plants in greenhouses, drying crops, heating water at
fish farms, and several industrial processes such as
pasteurizing milk. Hot dry rock resources occur at
depthsof3to5mileseverywherebeneaththeearths
surfaceandatlesserdepthsincertainareas.Accessto
these resources involves injecting cold water down
onewell,circulatingitthroughhotfracturedrock,and
drawing off the heated water from another well.
Currently,therearenocommercialapplicationsofthis
technology. Existing technology also does not yet
allowrecoveryofheatdirectlyfrommagma,thevery
deep and most powerful resource of geothermal
energy. Many technologies have been developed to
take advantage of geothermal energy the heat from
theearth.Followingaretheapplicationsofgeothermal
energy:
Binary cycle power plants operate on water at

lower temperatures of about 225360F (107
182C). These plants use the heat from the hot
water to boil a working fluid, usually an organic
compound with a low boiling point. The working
fluidisvaporizedinaheatexchangerandusedto
turnaturbine.Thewateristheninjectedbackinto
the ground to be reheated. The water and the
workingfluidarekeptseparatedduringthewhole
process,sotherearelittleornoairemissions.
Smallscale geothermal power plants (under 5
megawatts) have the potential for widespread
application in rural areas, possibly even as
distributed energy resources. Distributed energy
resources refer to a variety of small, modular
powergenerating technologies that can be
combined to improve the operation of the
electricitydeliverysystem.
2)
GeothermalDirectUse
Producing heat directly from hot water within the

earth.
85
indoor air into the heat exchanger. The heat

removed from the indoor air during the summer
can also be used to heat water, providing a free
source of hot water. Geothermal heat pumps use
much less energy than conventional heating
systems, since they draw heat from the ground.
They are also more efficient when cooling your
home.Notonlydoesthissaveenergyandmoney,
itreducesairpollution.
Whenapersontakesahotbath,theheatfromthe
water will usually warm up the entire bathroom.
Geothermal reservoirs of hot water, which are
foundacoupleofmilesormorebeneaththeearths
surface, can also be used to provide heat directly.
This is called the direct use of geothermal energy.
Geothermal direct use dates back thousands of
years, when people began using hot springs for
bathing, cooking food, and loosening feathers and
skinfromgame.Today,hotspringsarestillusedas
spas.Buttherearenowmoresophisticatedwaysof
using this geothermal resource. In modern direct
use systems, a well is drilled into a geothermal
reservoir to provide a steady stream of hot water.
The water is brought up through the well, and a
mechanicalsystempiping,aheatexchanger,and
controlsdeliverstheheatdirectlyforitsintended
use. A disposal system then either injects the
cooledwaterundergroundordisposesofitonthe
surface. Geothermal hot water can be used for
many applications that require heat. Its current
usesincludeheating buildings (either individually
or whole towns), raising plants in greenhouses,
drying crops, heating water at fish farms, and
several industrial processes, such as pasteurizing
milk. With some applications, researchers are
exploring ways to effectively use the geothermal
fluidforgeneratingelectricityaswell.
3)
Tidal and Ocean Energy

Tidal electricity generation involves the construction
of a barrage across an estuary to block the incoming
and outgoing tide. The head of water is then used to
driveturbinestogenerateelectricityfromtheelevated
water in the basin as in hydroelectric dams. Barrages
canbedesignedtogenerateelectricityontheebbside,
or flood side, or both. Tidal range may vary over a
widerange(4.512.4m)fromsitetosite.Atidalrange
of at least 7 m is required for economical operation
and for sufficient head of water for the turbines.
Oceans cover more than 70% of earths surface,
making them the worlds largest solar collectors.
Ocean energy draws on the energy of ocean waves,
tides, or on the thermal energy (heat) stored in the
ocean. The sun warms the surface water a lot more
than the deep ocean water, and this temperature
difference stores thermal energy. The ocean contains
two types of energy: thermal energy from the suns
heat,andmechanicalenergyfromthetidesandwaves.
GeothermalHeatPumps
Using the shallow ground to heat and cool

buildings.
Oceanthermalenergyisusedformanyapplications,
including electricity generation. There are three types
of electricity conversion systems: closedcycle, open
cycle, and hybrid. Closed cycle systems use the
oceans warm surface water to vaporize a working
fluid,whichhasalowboilingpoint,suchasammonia.
The vapour expands and turns a turbine. The turbine
thenactivatesageneratortoproduceelectricity.Open
cycle systems actually boil the seawater by operating
at low pressures. This produces steam that passes
through a turbine / generator. The hybrid systems
combinebothclosedcycleandopencyclesystems.
Theshallowground,theupper10feetoftheearth,
maintains a nearly constant temperature between
50 and 60F (1016C). Like a cave, this ground
temperatureiswarmerthantheairaboveitinthe
winter and cooler than the air in the summer.
Geothermal heat pumps take advantage of this
resource to heat and cool buildings. Geothermal
heatpumpsystemsconsistofbasicallythreeparts:
the ground heat exchanger, the heat pump unit,
and the air delivery system (ductwork). The heat
exchanger is basically a system of pipes called a
loop, which is buried in the shallow ground near
thebuilding.Afluid(usuallywateroramixtureof
water and antifreeze) circulates through the pipes
to absorb or relinquish heat within the ground. In
the winter, the heat pump removes heat from the
heat exchanger and pumps it into the indoor air
delivery system. In the summer, the process is
reversed,and the heat pump moves heatfrom the
86
Ocean mechanical energy is quite different from

oceanthermalenergy.Eventhoughthesunaffectsall
ocean activity, tides are driven primarily by the
gravitational pull of the moon, and waves are driven
primarily by the winds. A barrage (dam) is typically
usedtoconverttidalenergyintoelectricitybyforcing
thewaterthroughturbines,activatingagenerator.
www.ijesci.org
Indias Energy Scenario

The potential of various renewable energy
technologiesinIndiaareestimatedbyIREDAandare
listedinTable1.
TABLE1CUMULATIVEDEPLOYMENTOFVARIOUS
RENEWABLEENERGYSYSTEMS/DEVICESINTHECOUNTRY
ASON31DEC2012.
FIG.28TOTALENERGYREQUIREMENTS
In 2008, India and the Nuclear Suppliers Group

agreedonawaivertotheembargoontradeinnuclear
technology. The waiver has removed most of the
obstacles, and India now is planning to have 63,000
MW of nuclear generating capacity by 2032. Indias
longrange plans, however, foresee coal as the sector
with the most growth potential, fueled mostly by
demandforpowergeneration(Fig29).
Fig. 28, Fig. 29, Fig. 30 and Fig. 31 clearly show

projections of Indias energy scenario. The
Government of Indias (GoI) planning commission
predicts dramatic demand increases for coal and oil
over the next 20 years. Fig. 28 shows projections of
Indias energy requirements in its Integrated Energy
Policy(IEP)reportpublishedinAugust2006.
FIG.29TOTALPRIMARYENERGYBYSOURCES
Pellmell load growth driven by the fastexpanding

economy has left India scrambling to catch up with
electricity demand as power outages bedevil the
country.TheElectricPowerSurvey17forecastsapeak
demandgrowthof9%fortheperioduptotheendof
the XI Plan (201112) against actual achievement of
5.3%(Fig30). In2009, CRISILresearchestimated that
Nuclearenergynowcontributesmorethan4,000MW
of power using a largely indigenous technology, but
the nuclear industrys development has been
hamstrungbyIndiasrefusaltosigntheNuclearNon
Proliferation Treaty, cutting the country off from
cooperationandassistanceincivilnucleartechnology.
87
roughly $160 billion would likely be invested in the

powersectorby2014.About$100billionwouldbein
generation, with nearly half of that from private
investors.
FIG.31DEMAND/SUPPLYFORECASTS
Conclusions
Inordertominimizethelevelsofimportdependency
inthefuture,itisimperativetofocusonincreasingthe
supply of indigenous energy resources. Hence, India
should plan to enhance efforts in R&D in the
explorationandproductionofenergyresources.There
isanurgentneedfortransitionfrompetroleumbased
energy systems to one based on renewable resources
to decrease reliance on depleting reserves of fossil
fuels and to mitigate climate change. In addition,
renewable energy has the potential to create many
employment opportunities at all levels, especially in
rural areas. So Isolated systems, whose cost depends
on load factor are needed to be linked with rural
industry.Innovativefinancingisalsoarequirement.
FIG.30PROJECTIONOFACTUALPOWERREQUIREMENT
Spikes in power demand from the agricultural sector

are forcing state governments to increase load
shedding in the summer months. For example, the
powerdeficitinstateofPunjabissoseverethatithas
mandatedaonedayperweekpowercutforthesteel
manufacturing industry, which could be extended to
twodaysifthesituationremainsunchanged.Plansfor
increased capacity and power management initiatives
arebeingexploredtoreducethecostandincreasethe
reliabilityofelectricitytocustomers.
Mainstreamingofrenewablesisveryessential.Energy
security, economic growth and environment
protection are the national energy policy drivers of
anycountryoftheworld.Theneedtoboosttheefforts
for further development and promotion of renewable
energy sources has been felt world over in light of
highpricesofcrudeoil.
A variety of initiatives are in the works to boost

additional capacity from public and private players,
including UMPPs, MPPs, and group captive
generation. Despite these ambitious targets, power
demand will likely outstrip supply well into the XII
Planperiod(Fig31).InJanuary2010,KPMGreleaseda
reportthatoffersinsightfulperspectivesonthefuture
ofthepowergeneration,entitledPowerSectorinIndia:
White Paper on Implementation Challenges and
Opportunities. With such largescale development
taking place in the power sector and the associated
challenges, the importance of comprehensive project
managementorganizationisparamounttoensurethat
projects are completed in a thorough and timely
manner.
88
A disparaging part of the solution lies in promoting

renewable energy technologies as a way to address
concerns about energy security, economic growth in
the face of rising energy prices, competitiveness,
healthcostsandenvironmentaldegradation.Thecost
effectivenessofWindandSmallHydropowerenergy
shouldalsobetakenintoaccount.
An emphasis should be given on presenting the real
picture of massive renewable energy potential; it
www.ijesci.org
would be possible to attract foreign investments to

heraldaGreenEnergyRevolutioninIndia.
India energy Handbook 2011Demand Driven, Supply
Specific action include promoting deployment,

innovation and basic research in renewable energy
technologies, resolving the barriers to development
andcommercialdeploymentofbiomass,hydropower,
solar and wind technologies, promoting straight
(direct) biomass combustion and biomass gasification
technologies, promoting the development and
manufacture of small wind electric generators, and
enhancing the regulatory/tariff regime in order to
mainstreamrenewableenergysourcesinthenational
powersystem.
India
Chained,August2011.
Energy
profile
m?fips=IN.
India
Energy
statistics
at:
IndianRenewableEnergyDevelopmentAgencyLtd.Booklet
on Renewable energy of Ministry of NonConventional
Energy
Sources,
Government
of
India.
http://www.mnre.gov.in/booklets/Book11e.pdf.
Information and Public Awareness. Booklet on Renewable
energyofMinistryofNonConventionalEnergySources,
Government
of
India.
http://www.mnre.gov.in/booklets/Book12e.pdf.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy.
Kalogirou, S. Solar energy engineering: processes and
Coal Statistics from Annual Report 200910 available at:
systems.London:AcademicPresspublications,2009.
http://coal.nic.in/annrep0910.pdf.
Lalwani, M. and Singh, M. Conventional and Renewable
Details of history of departments for Renewable Energy:
EnergyScenarioofIndia:PresentandFuture.Canadian
http://www.mnre.gov.in/.
Journal on Electrical and Electronics Engineering, 1
EnergyConsumptionbySectorin2007:China,India,Japan,
(2010):122140.
Russia, EU27, and the United States available at:
Maczulak, A. Renewable Energy: Sources and Methods.
http://www.earthtrendsdelivered.org/energy_consumpti
NewYork:InfoBasePublishing,2010.
on_by_sector_in_2007_china_usa_india_japan_russia_eu
Maithani,P.C.RenewableenergypolicyframeworkofIndia.
27.
NewDelhi:NarosaPublication,2008.
Policy
of
India
available
at:
Major achievement in energy and renewable energy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_policy_of_India.
availableat:http://www.mnre.gov.in/achievements.htm.
Ghosh, D., Shukla P. R., Garg A., and Ramana V.P.
Planning Commission, Govt. of IndiaSeptember 1995 &
Renewable energy technologies for the Indian power
September1996Projectionsto20202021.
sector: mitigation potential and operational strategies.

Renewable
and
Sustainable
Energy
Reviews
Quaschning, V. Understanding Renewable Energy Systems.
LondonSterling,VA,UKandUSA:Earthscan,2005.
(2002):481512.
Singh, J. and Gu, S. Biomass conversion to energy in
Golait, N., Moharil, R.M. and Kulkarni P.S. Wind electric
IndiaA critique. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
powerintheworldandperspectivesofitsdevelopment
Reviews,14(2010):13671378.
inIndia.RenewableandSustainableEnergyReviews13
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(2009):233247.
Delhi:TataMcGrawHill,2011.
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New
Delhi.
Available
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at:
needs using renewable energy sources in India.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 11
kgrp11/wg11_renewable.pdf.
(2007):16071615.
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available
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/India/Full.html.
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at:
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cf
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available
at:
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89
Prof. Anil Singh Yadav is an

Associate Professor in Mechanical
engineering
department
in
Technocrats Institute of Technology
(Excellence), Bhopal (MP) India. He
receivedhisBachelorofEngineering
(B.E.) from Madhav Institute of
Technology and Science, Gwalior
(MP) in 2001 and Master of
Technology(M.Tech.)fromMaulanaAzadNationalInstitute
ofTechnology,Bhopal(MP)in2004.Currentyheispursuing
Ph.D.fromMaulanaAzadNationalInstituteofTechnology,
Bhopal(MP)inthefieldofsolarenergy.Hehastwelveyears
of teaching experience. He has published/presented more
thanthirtyfiveresearchpapersinnationalandinternational
journals and conferences. He has authored a book Heat
TransferEnhancement(LapLambertAcademicPublishing:
2012, Germany). Prof. Anil Singh Yadav may be reached at
anilsinghyadav@gmail.com.
90
Dr. J. L. Bhagoria is a Professor in

Mechanical engineering department in
Maulana Azad National Institute of
Technology, Bhopal (MP) India. He
received his Bachelor of Engineering
(B.E.)fromSATIVidisha(MP)in1990,
Master of Technology (M.Tech.) from
Maulana Azad National Institute of
Technology, Bhopal (MP) in 1994 and Ph.D. from IIT
Roorkee in the field of solar energy in 2001. He has more
than twenty five years of teaching and research experience.
He has published/presented more than eighty research
papers in national and international journals and
conferences. He established himself as a dynamic
academicianholdingvariouspositioninMANITBhopal.Dr.
J.L.Bhagoriamaybereachedatpalak_bh@rediffmail.com.

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Renewable Energy Sources An Application

Living sustainably means conserving nonrenewable

This article presents a review about the application of

The concept of renewable versus nonrenewable

Energy companies would be wise not to deplete

population because they increase life span. First, the

This is important in many applications, especially in

Renewable energy sources are essentially flows of

300 to 330 days in a year. This energy is sufficient to

However, this system does not meet the demand of

A very simple system for solar water heating can be

pipes and collector heats up the water until

Electroplating/galvanizing units: Heating of

Pulp and paper industries: Boiler feed

An active method one which utilizes a pump or a

Hotels: Bathing, kitchen, washing, laundry

Dairies: Ghee (clarified butter) production,

Textiles: Bleaching, boiling, printing, dyeing,

Breweries & Distilleries: Bottle washing, wort

Chemical /Bulk drugs units: Fermentation of

both vents are closed and energy transfer takes

A passive method is one in which thermal energy

The south face of the house to be heated is

A diagram of a simple solar operated absorption

medium and high temperature cycles. Low

Water heated in a flatplate collector array is passed

temperature close to 400C have proved to be the

efficiency of the collector system is of the order of

High Temperature Systems: Two concepts have

Sunlight passing through the transparent cover

In a central receiver system, solar radiation

Medium Temperature Systems: Among solar

placed at the top of a tower, a central receiver

A photovoltaic cell used in capturing solar energy

Cold salt at 290C is pumped from a tank at

A typical silicon cell, with a diameter of 4 in., can

Electricity can be produced from sunlight through

In spite of the high initial cost, photovoltaic

Telecommunication for the post and telegraph

A sloping transparent cover is provided at the top

Solar radiation entering the enclosure is absorbed in

be dried in such devices are dates, apricots, chillies,

An indirect type of active device is used when the

For largescale drying, the passive device of Fig. 18

The second categories of solar cookers developed are

These cookers require tracking such that the focus

The advantage of placing the solar collectorsin space

The livelihood and wellbeing of people, animals,

delivering the winds energy in the most efficient

The number of dedicated industrial applications

Wind machines in industrial applications typically

There are three major biomass energy technology

Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass

Burning biomass directly, or converting it into a

Converting biomass into chemicals for making

Whatever products we can make from fossil fuels,

Small Hydro Power is a reliable, mature and

Hilly regions of India, particularly the Himalayan

Flash steam power plants are the most common.

A geothermal heat pump system consists of a heat

Binary cycle power plants operate on water at

Producing heat directly from hot water within the