Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266564997
READS
5,304
6 authors, including:
Karl Maton
University of Sydney
University of Sydney
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE
CONTENTS
In this chapter we explore the nature, role and structure of education and knowledge. First, we outline key stages in the
evolution of Australian education and the changing ideologies that shaped its development. We examine the key issues this
history raises for sociology, in particular persistent differences in educational outcomes among social classes, genders
and ethnicities. We then set out the principal ways sociological theories have explained the role of education in maintaining
and changing social inequalities. Finally, we discuss the crucial role of knowledge in contemporary societies and outline
new ways sociologists are exploring the significance of knowledge for education and society.
By the end of the chapter, you should have a better understanding of:
the evolving nature of education in Australia
key ideologies shaping the development of Australian education
central issues and questions addressed by the sociology of education
differential educational achievements of social classes, genders and ethnicities and their role in reproducing or
changing social inequalities
strengths and limitations of different ways of analysing education, encompassing externalist, internalist and
culturalist approaches
a range of significant sociological theories and key studies of education
cutting-edge work rethinking the role of knowledge in education and society.
INTRODUCTION................................................................. 148
EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA: EVOLVING
STRUCTURES AND IDEOLOGIES.............................. 148
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 147
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Additionally, education is big business. It is Australias thirdlargest export industry (Bradley etal. 2008, p.12). Since Kevin
Rudds call for an education revolution in 2007, $16.2billion
of government funding has been allocated to Building the
Education Revolution for school infrastructure and $2.4 billion
for information and communication technologies to create
a Digital Education Revolution. Education is thus a crucial
part of the economy of industrialised societies, accounting
for a significant proportion of government spending and
employing a large workforce. Globally today more people are
being taught, more people are teaching them and more money
is being spent doing so than ever before. Thus, without an
understanding of education, we cannot understand ourselves,
society or the modern world.
EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA:
EVOLVING STRUCTURES
AND IDEOLOGIES
It is easy to forget that formal education as we now understand
it is a relatively recent creation. A universal, compulsory
and formalised education system only began to emerge in
Australia from the mid-19th century onwards. Since then, it
has undergone considerable expansion, and beliefs about its
roles and purposes have changed significantly. Understanding
its current form and contemporary thinking requires placing
148
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 148
27/06/13 8:13 AM
the value of the current social order and their rightful place
within it. They needed, it was said, to be inculcated into
the right kinds of values and beliefs. In outlining how to
do so, such arguments drew on liberal humanist ideas.
According to liberal humanism, education comprises the
pursuit of knowledge for knowledges sake and is contrasted
to training in technical knowledge for vocational ends.
Education is held to be inherently civilising and focused
on shaping ones general attitudes, outlooks and beliefs.
Drawing on these ideas, influential thinkers in the 19th
century argued that expanding education would thereby
enable more members of society to appreciate what Arnold
(1869) called the best that has been known and thought in
the world. Moreover, an emphasis on the intrinsic value of
education and against instrumentalism implied a need for
formal education to be free from external influence as far as
possible; in other words, education should be secular, statefunded and run by educational experts.
Despite governmental attempts to establish such an
education system, school attendance was irregular and
most children left before they completed primary education
(McCallum 1990). During the early 20th century, state
governments attempted to ensure that children stayed
at school for longer by raising the minimum leaving
age, introducing legislation against truancy, prohibiting
employment of children under the age of 14 and creating
more secondary schooling. Participation rose, but by the
advent of World War II nearly half of Australian children
still did not reach secondary school (Connell et al. 1982).
After the war, however, education changed dramatically.
As Figure 5.1 shows, school enrolments rose slowly until the
late 1940s and early 1950s, but then grew far more rapidly.
By then a different view of the social role of education had
come to dominate policy thinking.
Non-government schools
Government schools
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
01
19
06
19
11
19
16
19
21
19
26
19
31
19
36
19
41
19
46
19
51
19
56
19
61
19
66
19
71
19
76
19
81
19
86
19
91
19
96
20
01
20
06
20
11
18
91
18
96
19
Year
Source: Commonwealth of Australia, Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) and Year Books, various years.
149
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 149
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
19
3
19 6
38
19
4
19 0
4
19 2
4
19 4
4
19 6
4
19 8
5
19 0
5
19 2
5
19 4
5
19 6
5
19 8
6
19 0
6
19 2
6
19 4
6
19 6
6
19 8
7
19 0
7
19 2
7
19 4
7
19 6
7
19 8
8
19 0
8
19 2
8
19 4
8
19 6
8
19 8
9
19 0
9
19 2
9
19 4
9
19 6
9
20 8
0
20 0
0
20 2
0
20 4
0
20 6
0
20 8
10
0
Year
Male
Female
Total
Source: Commonwealth of Australia, Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) and Year Books and Historical Population Statistics, various years.
150
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 150
27/06/13 8:13 AM
Percentage of GDP
6
5
4
Private
Government
3
2
1
06
05
04
20
03
99
20
98
94
19
93
89
19
88
84
19
83
79
19
78
74
19
73
69
19
68
64
19
63
19
8
59
19
5
3
54
19
5
19
4
8
4
Year
Source: Compiled from Mathews (1968), ABS (1999c, 2002a, 2008a), Burke & Spaull (2001).
151
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 151
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
efficiency and equity in the marketplace in the 1980s was
accompanied by growing state management of the education
system. As DCruz and Langford put it, governments in
advanced industrialised societies can be seen as:
attempting, in all areas of their activity, including
education, to turn some operations over to the market
to make them more efficient and to subject those that
remain within the state sector to more direct central
control with the aim of increasing efficiency.
(1990, p. xiv)
Contemporary education in
Australia
The education system that has emerged from this history is
complex. For every general statement we can make about its
nature, there are exceptions. However, in outline, its current
features are:
152
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 152
27/06/13 8:13 AM
THREE GIANTSTHE
PROBLEMS OF CLASS,
GENDER AND ETHNICITY
Seni
o
n>
89
Educatio
of
567
lor
De
gr
ee
Cer
tific
a
te IV
a
om
pl
Di
Advanced Diploma
Associate Degree
Ba
ch
e
I
te II
ifica
Cert
34
AQF
tific
Cer ate
egree
urs D
Hono icate
r
o
l
e
f
Bach
erti a
te C plom
i
dua
a
D
r
G
ate
du
Gra
econdary
rS
Ce
rti
1
2
0
1
ee
gr
De
Mas
ters
Degr
ee
fic
at
eI
Austra
lian
Qu
ali
fic
a
work
me
Fra
ns
tio
al
or
ct
Do
Certificate I
Source: Australian Qualifications Framework Council, Adelaide, 2013 AQF Second Edition January 2013 p. 19.
153
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 153
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
Figure 5.5 Higher education students as percentage of population 19362010
6
5
4
3
2
1
2010
2008
2005
2002
1999
1996
1993
1990
1987
1984
1981
1978
1975
1972
1969
1966
1963
1960
1957
1954
1951
1948
1945
1942
1939
1936
Year
Source: Commonwealth of Australia, Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), compiled from ABS Year Books and ABS Australian Historical Population Statistics,
various years.
Social class
Research in Australia, the United Kingdom and the
United States has consistently shown correlations between
social class background and educational achievement.
The children of parents in higher social classes are more
likely to continue into post-compulsory education, achieve
examination passes when at school and gain university
entrance. Evidence shows that despite many policies aimed
at changing these class differentials, expansion has not led
to greater equality of educational experience. The average
level of achievement of working-class students has risen in
absolute termsthey achieve more and at higher levels of the
Proportion in general
population(a)
Participation ratio(b)
1.02
NonEnglish-speaking background
3.8
3.7
4.1
8.0(c)
0.51
Rural/regional
18.1
25.4
0.71
Remote
1.1
2.5
0.44
Low SES
15.0
25.0
0.60
Indigenous
1.3
2.2
0.59
Notes: (a) Based on ABS 2007 data. (b) A participation ratio of 1 indicates appropriate representation of the equity group in the student population. (c) Excludes profound and severe core
activity limitation.
Source: Bradley et al., Review of Australian Higher Education: Final Report 2008. Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary Education
(DIISRTE), p. 28.
154
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 154
27/06/13 8:13 AM
Gender
Until the late 1980s, most sociologists would have agreed
that there are real differences in the school experiences of
boys and girls which reflect and help to maintain the unequal
positions of men and women in society (Henry et al. 1988,
p.149). Such differences would have been understood as
including superior educational attainment by boys, with
the exception of some female-dominated subjects and
occupations. However, since then, there has been a gender
revolution (Arnot, David & Weiner 1999). As the Australian
Bureau of Statistics noted in the late 1990s:
Girls have both extended their lead in the subjects
they had previously dominated, and have begun
to perform better than boys in some of the areas of
mathematics and science. There is now a growing
concern over the significant shift in educational
achievement of boys relative to girls and a recognition
of the need for programs to enhance the participation
and performance of boys as well as girls. (1998a, p.81)
By 2000, an Australian report on educational performance
found that in Year 12 the average girl was outperforming
the average boy in more subjects than vice versa (Collins
etal. 2000, p.2). The difference between the average tertiary
entrance scores of girls and boys in New South Wales rose from
0.6 marks in 1981 to 19.4 marks in 1996 (ABS 1998a, p.83).
This issue has increasingly attracted the attention
ofpolicymakers. In 2002 the federal governments House of
Representatives Standing Committee on Education and
Training presented to Parliament the findings of an inquiry
into the education of boys (Boys: Getting it Right) and two
major reports were released by the federal government
(Alloway etal. 2002; Lingard et al. 2002). By 2003 Brendan
Nelson, then Minister for Education, Science and Training,
could describe the urgent need for action to also address the
educational needs of boys in our schools (Commonwealth
Government of Australia 2003, p.1). A similar story is told in
10
20
30
40
Percentage (%)
50
60
Group of Eight
Post-1988
1960s70s universities
Note: Low SES is determined using a postcode methodology. Students from low SES
backgrounds are those whose permanent home address falls within the lowest 25 per
cent of postcodes as coded by the ABS SEIFA Index of Education and Occupation (Census
2006).
155
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 155
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
countries such as England, Scotland, Canada and the United
Statesfrom a previous position of trailing behind boys in
educational performance, girls have begun surpassing them.
A second issue concerns the subjects studied by girls
and boys. An Australian report has shown that although
most post-compulsory students take English, mathematics,
a science and a social science, there are gendered differences
among Year 12 students. Boys outnumber girls (at a ratio
of 7:4) in physical science and information technology
subjects, while girls outnumber boys in biological science
subjects (5:3) and home science (5:1) (Collins, Kenway &
McLeod 2000, pp.367). Taken as a group, girls study
a broader range of subjects than boys, although they are
relatively underrepresented in information technology and
vocational education. Boys, however, are overrepresented in
mathematics, physical science, technology, computing and
accounting. At the level of higher education, a recent review
concluded that women now participate in higher numbers
than men but remain underrepresented in higher degree
research programs and in areas such as engineering and
information technology (Bradley et al. 2008, p.27).
Ethnicity
In terms of ethnicity, there are two principal points
concerning differences in educational experiences. The first is
the difficulty of making generalisations about ethnicity. Some
ethnic groups have higher levels of attainment and others
have lower levels, and these positions change over time and
can vary depending on geographical location. As research in
the United Kingdom has shown, relations between ethnicity
and educational attainment are further complicated by
interactions with social class and gender (Gilborn & Mirza
2000). In addition, there are differences between more or less
traditionally oriented Indigenous Australians. This diversity
means we cannot describe either a unified ethnic experience
of schooling or an undifferentiated Indigenous Australian
experience and should be wary of generalisations.
Nonetheless, there are significant patterns to the rates of
Indigenous participation and attainment. This is the second
point: Indigenous students are significantly underrepresented
at higher levels of education. Retention rates to Year 12 have
been improving over recent years but remain low compared
to the total population (ABS 2010b). This is reflected in
higher education: Indigenous students are one of the most
underrepresented groups in Australian universities (see
Table5.1). For Indigenous students who do attend higher
education, both their success and retention rates remain
significantly below those for non-Indigenous students
(Universities Australia 2008, p.44). In 2006, for example,
Indigenous students had a 23 per cent lower success rate,
and during the 2000s their retention rate was roughly 19 to
26per cent lower than for non-Indigenous students (Bradley
et al. 2008, p.27). Many Indigenous students leave university
without receiving an award.
Explanations of education
a map of the field
In summary, three key issues concerning inequality have
served as inspiration for the development of sociological
accounts of education:
1.
2.
3.
156
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 156
27/06/13 8:13 AM
NATURALISM: NOTHING TO
DECLARE BUT MY GENES
Before addressing sociological theories, it is worthwhile
considering non-sociological ideas that have, at times,
resonated with commonsense understandings. These
naturalistic explanations explain differences in educational
achievement among social classes, genders and ethnicities in
terms of innate or biological differences among those social
groups.
An influential version of this explanation reflects the
influence of psychology in defining achievement in terms
of individual intelligence. One commentator describes
the psychological capture of education that by the 1940s
had allowed the problems which earlier had belonged
explicitly to subordinate social groups to be posed as
problems relating to individuals, and which now demanded
educational attention along individual lines (McCallum
1990, pp.1267). This individualist focus became centred
on the notion of intelligence as measured by intelligence
quotient (IQ) tests focused on abstract reasoning ability.
Eysenck (1971) and Jensen (1973) argued that about 80 per
cent of intelligence is genetically based and that this largely
accounts for differences in educational attainment among
social groups. Jensen, for example, claimed:
Today there is virtually no uncertainty among those
who have attended to the evidence that individual
variation in intelligence is predominantly conditioned
by genetic factors.
(1973, p.373)
Cultural differences, social discrimination and
inequalities of opportunity, he argued, were less significant.
Jensen (1969) also argued that the higher average IQ score
of white compared to black Americans was genetically
based and justified different approaches to educating the
two groups.
A similarly naturalistic argument was made by Herrnstein
and Murray in The Bell Curve (1994). They claimed that the
class structure of American society reflected differences of
IQ and that the lower intelligence of lower-class people is
expressed through crime, violence, family breakdown, poor
parenting and other socially inadequate behaviour. This
account sparked off a passionate debate because the class
structure of the United States is often associated with and
redescribed in terms of ethnicity. Though they focused on
class, the claims of Herrnstein and Murray were understood
as expressing a racist position of innate white superiority
Criticisms of naturalism
Naturalistic explanations resonate with commonsense
beliefs that educational success results from natural ability.
However, these ideas have been subjected to extensive
critique along two fronts. First, the notion that IQ scores are
a culture-neutral measure of intelligence has been strongly
criticised. Commentators highlight that it is impossible
to determine the degree to which IQ scores are shaped
by genetic or environmental factors (e.g. Kamin 1974).
Moreover, IQ tests have been described as being biased
towards Western, middle-class culture and unable to address
patterns of thinking and decision-making based on different
social structures, such as those of traditional Indigenous
Australian culture (Porteus 1931). Second, the notion that
IQ scores explain differences in educational attainment has
been thoroughly discredited. Differences in scores within
social groups vary just as much as between groups, and studies
show that educational achievement varies between students
of different social classes even when their IQ scores are the
same.
Though biological and innate differences may play a
role (although not as simplistically as most naturalistic
explanations suggest), they cannot by themselves explain
educational differences. As Powles (1987) points out with
respect to gender differences, there is always a large overlap
in the distributions of male and female scores for various
types of tasks, and gendered patterns of achievement vary
across countries and over time, rendering implausible the
notion that such differences are biologically determined.
Nonetheless, some researchers highlight that biological
differences can potentially affect educational achievement and
whether they come into play or are counteracted depends
on socialisation. For example, Rogers proposed that girls
superior performance on verbal tasks may be attributable to
mothers talking more to daughters than to sons at earlier
ages, and that this early development of verbal ability may
in turn influence the brains development and functioning
(1981, p.55).
We can therefore move beyond the longstanding nature
versus nurture debate to hold that biological and cultural
factors may interrelate and interact in complex ways.
Nonetheless, sociological explanations show that natural
ability cannot be posited as the sole basis of social patterns
of difference in educational attainment. For example,
157
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 157
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
summarising research into educational attainment, a recent
OECD report made clear the significance of the social:
The most solidly based finding from research on school
learning is that the largest source of variation in
school achievement is attributable to differences in
what students bring to schooltheir abilities and
attitudes, and family and community background.
Educational inequalities linked to family background
tend to persist.
(OECD 2008, Vol. 2, p.36)
EXTERNALISM:
FULFILLING OTHERS
NEEDS
Externalist approaches look beyond classrooms, schools
and universities for their explanations of education. We can
identify a wide range of approaches as externalist, including
accounts that are highly critical of each others fundamental
assumptions. However, despite their differences what these
kinds of accounts share is a tendency to highlight something
from outside the realm of education as the key driver
ofpractices within the field. All sociological accounts of
education involve an externalist dimension because of their
concern with issues such as social class, gender and ethnicity.
However, here we focus on examples of approaches that give
especial emphasis to factors beyond the field. In the post-war
period, the first such explanation to dominate understanding
of education was structural functionalism, which emphasised
the needs of the economy.
Economic needsstructural
functionalism
Social democratic beliefs, dominant in policymaking during
the 1950s and 1960s, held that a fairer educational system
would help create a more meritocratic society (see pp.15051).
This optimism was reflected in the dominant sociological
understanding of education at the time: structural functionalism.
Epitomised by the work of Talcott Parsons (1951), structural
functionalism focused on the functions served by education
in enabling the social order to be maintained. Parsons (1961)
described schools as both a means of socialising childrenit
is an agency through which individual personalities are
trained to be motivationally and technically adequate to
the performance of adult roles (p.434)and an agency of
manpower allocation (p.435). In other words, education
involved instilling within the young commitment to the
broad values of society and preparing them for a specific kind
of role within the structure of that society. Additionally,
2.
3.
Criticisms of structural
functionalism
Structural functionalism was subjected to a range of
criticisms, particularly of the assumptions underlying the
functions education was held to serve:
1.
2.
3.
158
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 158
27/06/13 8:13 AM
Capitalist needs
reproduction theories
Social class was the first focus of critical approaches in
the form of reproduction or correspondence theories
that came to prominence during the 1970s. Though
ideologically opposed to structural functionalism,
reproduction theories shared their emphasis on the needs
of the economy. The difference between the approaches lay
in how the economy and its needs were defined. Structural
functionalism emphasised the technical dimensions of
economic organisationwhat Goldthorpe (2000) called the
logic of industrialism. In contrast, reproduction theories
described needs in terms of social class intereststhe logic
of capitalism. This focus on class divisions is reflected
in another name by which they became known: conflict
theories of education.
Arguably the best-known reproduction or correspondence
theory is that presented by Bowles and Gintis in Schooling in
Capitalist America (1976). This looked at how experiences and
social relations are structured in the workplace and argued
that correspondences to these can be found in education, which
is thereby preparing students for their future working lives.
Bowles and Gintis argued that the education system exists
in the long shadow of work and reflects the organisation of
production in capitalist society. They highlighted that school
experiences are not all alike:
schools do different things to different children.
Boys and girls, blacks and whites, rich and poor
are treated differently. Affluent suburban schools,
working-class schools, and ghetto schools all exhibit a
distinctive pattern.
(1976, p.42)
Bowles and Gintis argued that schooling for workingclass children is structured so that their experiences
prepare them to become the kinds of workers required
for capitalism to function successfully: hard-working,
obedient, docile, motivated and divided among themselves.
For students from more privileged backgrounds, schooling
is organised to favour greater student participation,
less direct supervision, more student electives, and, in
general, a values system stressing internalised standards of
control(p.132).
159
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 159
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
education legitimates theresulting inequalities by promoting
the belief that equality of opportunity is providing everyone
with similar chances. This ideology thereby constructs
inequalities of outcome as based on differences in personal
ability and effort. Ones success or failure is viewed as being
ones own individual responsibility rather than resulting
from the structure of the educational system itself.
Criticisms of reproduction
theories
This correspondence explanation of differences in educa
tionalattainment exercised considerable influence in
educational thinking, particularly during the late 1970s. For
example, the author of an influential Australian inquiry into
poverty and education proclaimed:
People who are poor and disadvantaged are victims
of a societal confidence trick. They have been
encouraged to believe that a major goal of schooling
is to increase equality while, in reality, schools reflect
societys intention to maintain the present unequal
distribution of status and power.
Patriarchal needsgender
Reproduction theories were criticised for overly focusing on
social class to the neglect of other forms of social inequality.
Some commentators argued that thanks to changes in the
family (see Chapter 4), the nature of work (see Chapter 6),
multiculturalism (see Chapter 8) and the role of women (see
Chapter 9) an exclusive emphasis on social class rendered
these theories increasingly outdated as other dimensions of
social structure assumed greater importance in peoples lives.
Feminists critiqued reproduction theories for neglecting
gender. One needs, however, to distinguish feminisms from
one another: there is no singular feminist position. For
example, Arnot, David and Weiner (1999) describe liberal
and critical educational feminisms. In terms of education,
liberal feminism focuses on issues of equality of access,
experience and opportunity, while critical feminisms (a
category that itself includes a range of positions, including
Marxist, black, lesbian, radical and post-structuralist
feminisms) are more concerned with the gendered basis of
schooling itself and its relations to patriarchal domination
in society.
Each of these different approaches has its own research
questions and views the role of education in society differently
(see Moore 2004, p.22). As we shall discuss, most feminist
research on education has been internalist and focused on
practices and interactions within education. Marxist and
socialist feminisms, however, have often displayed externalist
preoccupations with broader social structures. They have
argued that reproduction theories neglect the ways education
works to serve the needs not only of capitalist society but also
of patriarchal society. Education is providing students with
the practices and beliefs appropriate to their future roles in
both the social division and the sexual division of labour. A
gendered hidden curriculum prepares girls for their future
position in the labour force, in lower paid and lower status
positions and careers, and in the sexual division of labour,
including receptivity to doing unpaid and unrecognised
domestic labour (Wolpe 1988). Though a valuable corrective
to the tendency of internalist feminist research to neglect
wider structural issues, Marxist and socialist feminist
160
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 160
27/06/13 8:13 AM
Criticisms of externalism
Externalist approaches have done much to highlight the
wider social relations of power within which education is
situated. They rightly emphasise that education as a social
field of practice is not separate from society and draw
attention to the demands placed upon education from beyond
the field, such as meeting the needs of national economies
for an educated workforce. However, despite often being
ideologically opposed, externalist approaches share a logic of
explanation that is open to criticism. As Moore puts it, they:
operate with a particular kind of social causality
in which it can be argued: because of this in society,
then that in education or, alternatively, change
education thus and these things will follow in society.
(2004, p.40)
161
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 161
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
INTERNALISM: LOOKING
INSIDE CLASSROOMS
Internalist explanations look primarily within education to
explain differences in educational attainment. They focus on
the organisation of the education system and institutions and
on educational processes or interactions. Reasons for this focus
are threefold. First, what goes on inside schools and universities
is significant to education. This may seem obvious but
externalist approaches, often operating at the macro-level of
analysis of the whole education system, have at times neglected
the fine-grained reality of everyday life in education. Second,
educational institutions and practices are more amenable to
intervention by educationalists and policymakers. It is harder
to shape external relations and such factors as the influence of
the economy or the family. Third, the expansion of universal,
compulsory and free education did not by itself diminish social
inequalities of educational attainment, even when students
were attending similar kinds of school. One response by
educational researchers was to explore whether students were
being interacted with differently within education: might they
be attending similar schools and in similar classrooms but
receiving different kinds of schooling?
In looking at such issues, internalist studies often emphasise
the self-image and sense of identity of students. This focus
builds on symbolic interactionism, which holds that our
sense of ourselves is constructed in relation to how other
people view us. The images of others and their actions towards
us, it is argued, shape how we see ourselves and thereby our
actions and beliefs. In education, a students sense of selffor
example, as sporty or academic, a success or a failuremay be
shaped by the image projected by teachers and fellow students.
Students encounter positive or negative images of themselves
and of the social groups to which they belong that challenge
or reinforce their own sense of themselves and thus their
behaviour, level of commitment to schooling, attitudes and so
forth. This view thereby holds that the identities of students
are malleable and result from the multiple interactions with
teachers and other students they encounter on a daily basis
during schooling. From this perspective, explanations of
educational achievement should explore how individuals are
constructed and the subjective meanings they attach to these
constructions. For example, educational failure might be
understood by different students as resulting from a lack of
ability or due to a lack of effort on their own part, meanings
that could lead to resignation and disengagement on the one
hand or renewed commitment and effort on the other.
162
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 162
27/06/13 8:13 AM
163
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 163
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
Lingard 2004), and there have been drives in a number of
countries to recruit and retain more male teachers. However,
empirical research undermines the claim that gendered role
models (male teachers for boys, female teachers for girls)
helps improve student achievement. For example, in an
Australian study by Lingard et al. (2002) involving a survey
of 641 boys and girls, interviews and focus groups, students
did not identify the gender of their teachers as significant
for their capacity to learn. Another Australian study of
964 students from five co-educational government schools
also contested the value of gendered role models (Martin
& Marsh 2005). The study involved a survey aimed at
assessing academic motivation and engagement, and results
showed that neither of these varied substantially for boys
and girls according to their teachers gender. Indeed, almost
all major empirical studies have dismissed the significance
of role models.
A range of other explanations have been advanced for the
underachievement of boys, including notions of masculinity
discouraging boys from educational success and a general
trend towards coursework-based assessment coupled with
lesser freedom for girls in how they spend their leisure
time (Warrington & Younger 2000). However, a crucial
point that is easily forgotten by these accounts is that
advantage and disadvantage cannot simply be read off from
educational qualifications. As an Australian report on gender
differences in education puts it, if students achieve better
qualifications but are unable to convert these into further
training, education or secure work or indeed into other
aspects of a meaningful life, then their apparent advantage
is limited and short-lived (Collins, Kenway & McLeod
2000, pp.601).
This point highlights a potential weakness of internalism.
By focusing on classroom practices at the expense of wider
issues, such as future destinations in the workforce, internalist
accounts are in danger of missing the bigger picture. In this
case, female advantage in education does not necessarily lead
to social and economic advantages. This is important from
an interactionist perspective, because anticipation of their
future beyond school may shape the behaviour of students
while at school. As Moore puts it:
boys might not do so well as girls because they
dont have to given the advantages that males enjoy
in the labour market! An implication of this is that
if boys did achieve educational parity with girls,
then females would be even more disadvantaged in
the world of work. Increasing equality between the
sexes inside education would increase inequalities
outside it. Educational advantages do not translate
straightforwardly into social and economic
advantages, and students are aware of this.
(2004, p.13)
Ethnicities
Similar interactional studies have explored how different
ethnic groups are viewed by themselves and others in
education. In an overview of this literature, Gale et al.
(1987) showed that all studies have found non-Indigenous
people generally perceive Indigenous Australians in negative
terms, and that Indigenous Australians themselves shared
those perceptions. It is clear, they argued, that negative
stereotypes of Aboriginal people persist as part of what the
white world holds as knowledge about Aborigines (p.273).
For example, in one study 15 teachers were asked to indicate
their main difficulties in teaching Aboriginal students
(Green 1982). They typically identified aspects external
to the school: child deficit, family deficit, environment
deficit and other agencies not supporting the school. Green
argued that teachers begin to build up a negative image of
Indigenous students even before they reach the classroom, on
the basis of gossip, physical appearance, language and their
assumption of social disadvantage. This low expectation then
reinforces poor school performance by these students.
In a similar fashion to issues of gender, emphasis has also
been placed on the nature of the curriculum, specifically
the exclusion or devaluation of Indigenous knowledge. For
example, the Bradley Review of Australian higher education
emphasised:
It is critical that Indigenous knowledge is recognised
as an important, unique element of higher
education, contributing economic productivity by
equipping graduates with the capacity to work across
Australian society and in particular with Indigenous
communities.
(Bradley et al. 2008, p.32)
Criticisms of internalism
Internalist approaches have been significant for bringing
the everyday business of educationteaching students
in classroomsback to the centre of research. They have
also highlighted the significance of identity for students
educational experiences. The tradition of symbolic
interactionism is also being built on by contemporary poststructuralist approaches that argue differential educational
outcomes reflect the degrees to which different social groups
experience education as relevant to and valuing their identity
and experience. For example, discussing discourse theory and
Foucaults ideas, Weiner, Arnot and David state:
Discourses are structuring mechanisms for social
institutions (such as schools), modes of thought, and
individual subjectivities: they are practices that
systematically form the objects of which they speak.
(1997, pp.6212)
164
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 164
27/06/13 8:13 AM
2.
3.
165
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 165
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
4.
CULTURALISM:
INTEGRATING INSIGHTS
INTO EDUCATION
Externalism and internalism have both been criticised for
placing too much emphasis on one dimension of education
externalism on issues beyond education and internalism on
practices within schools and universities. Culturalist theories
have attempted to bring these two dimensions together by
focusing on relations between the cultures students bring to
education, the cultures of different schools and the future
occupational cultures into which students will go after
education. In its more theorised forms, culturalism also
embodies a relational and structural approach: it explores
the organising principles underlying family backgrounds and
educational contexts and the degrees to which these match
or clash. The basic idea is that different family backgrounds
socialise young people into acting and thinking in ways that
resonate to different degrees with the underlying patterns of
educational contexts.
Learning to LabourPaul
Willis
One of the most widely discussed culturalist studies of
education is Learning to Labour by Paul Willis (1977). On
166
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 166
27/06/13 8:13 AM
167
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 167
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
Like structural functionalism and reproduction theories
(see pp.15860), Bourdieu argues that education has an
allocative function: it takes individuals from particular
backgrounds, classifies them and then assigns them to
positions in the social structure. However, Bourdieu accounts
for these external relations in a less reductive manner. As
Maton (2005) highlights, for Bourdieu education has its
own relative autonomy from economic and political power.
That is, education is a social field of practice located within
wider relations of power but with its own ways of working,
beliefs and valuesits own (anthropological) culture. The
autonomy of education means (against externalism) that
one cannot view educational practices as a reflection of
economic or political needs; however, the relative nature
ofthis autonomy means (against internalism) that one
cannot understand educational practices in isolation from
wider factors in society.
For Bourdieu, education helps to reproduce social
inequalities in two principal ways. First, it provides ideological
justification for the way things are in society through its
role in reproducing the beliefs and ideas of dominant social
classes (Bourdieu & Passeron 1977). This involves symbolic
violence or the imposition of a set of ideas that reflects the
beliefs of one section of society on other social classes in
such a way that its selection and valuation are experienced
as legitimate and natural. The culture that is valued highly
by education is, for Bourdieu, arbitrary and reflects social
power rather than cultural valueit is a dominant cultural
arbitrary (p.30). Thanks to education, this arbitrary culture
becomes misrecognised as legitimate by those upon whom
it is imposed. In doing so, it helps buttress those relations
of power, because one vision of reality is taught as if it
were the only possible legitimate vision. By reproducing
the dominant arbitrary culture, education thereby has a
crucial social reproduction function (p.10). Moreover, the
relative autonomy from political and economic influence
enjoyed by education enables this ideological underpinning
of social domination to go unnoticed because of its seeming
independence from the dominant social classes whose interests
it servesdependence through independence (p.67).
The second social reproduction function of education is its
capacity to transform social inequalities into seemingly neutral
educational inequalities. Individuals from different social
groups enter education from a social hierarchy (e.g. upper and
lower social classes). When they leave education they represent
a hierarchy of educational outcomes, thanks to different
levels of achieved qualifications. These qualifications shape
their future career opportunities and social positions, owing
to the value of educational qualifications in the occupational
marketplace. However, this educational or cultural hierarchy
largely mirrors the initial social hierarchyfor example,
lower social groups achieve less educationally. Thus education
translates social inequalities into cultural inequalities, which
in turn legitimate further social inequalities. Moreover,
168
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 168
27/06/13 8:13 AM
Limitations of Bourdieus
approach
Bourdieus field theory represents an advance on externalist
accounts that tend to reduce education to the needs of
economic and political power, while attempting to retain the
insights into classroom practices of internalist accounts and
the significance of the mediation of the family highlighted by
studies such as Learning to Labour and Making the Difference.
Bourdieus approach has proven a fertile ground for further
work and it is the basis for a wide-ranging and growing
number of research studies of all aspects of education
(e.g.Grenfell & James 1998).
The approach is not, of course, without its limitations.
These spring from the extent to which Bourdieus concepts
can enable his intentions to be achieved. His approach aims
to embody a relational and structural mode of thinking.
Practices are understood as emerging from relations between
the structures of actors habituses and the structure of
educational contexts and practices. So we need to analyse
169
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 169
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
the linguistic choices people make. In short, actors from
working-class backgrounds are predisposed to more contextdependent meanings, or a restricted code, while those from
the middle class are additionally predisposed to more contextindependent meanings, or an elaborated code. Language can
be more context-dependent when those conversing have so
much in common that there is little need to make meanings
explicit; this allows for rich meanings to be expressed in an
economical way. Bernstein and colleagues found this form
of discourse to be available to students from both workingclass and middle-class homes. In contrast, an elaborated code
makes many of these taken-for-granted meanings explicit,
and in so doing often involves abstraction, generalisation,
logic and explicating relationshipsthat is, meanings that
are less tied to a specific local context. Research, such as
Holland (1981), showed that this code was more to be found
among middle-class students.
Bernstein explained this differential access to codes in terms
of the forms taken by family relationships that reflect the
nature of different kinds of occupations. Put simply, workingclass jobs often provide little variety, offer few opportunities
for participation in decision making and involve manual more
than linguistic skills, while middle-class occupations offer
greater variety and more negotiation in decision-making and
require more linguistic skills. These relations are reflected
in the form taken by family relations. Bernstein (1971)
distinguished between positional forms of authority, where
the roles of family members are clear-cut and based on ones
position (such as father or eldest child), and personal forms,
where relationships are discussed more and negotiated, and
thus meanings are made more explicit and rules and decisions
are discussed more and explained (rather than Because I told
you to! or Because Im your father).
Bernsteins early work was more sophisticated than can
be relayed in a brief summary. (For example, he argued that
variations within classes, particularly between members
of the industrial and cultural middle classes, can be just
as great as differences between classes.) Nonetheless, the
concepts of elaborated code and restricted code contain
the seeds of many of Bernsteins later ideas, especially the
significance of differences in the context-dependence of
meaning. They were, however, the subject of considerable
misunderstanding. Some critics assumed Bernstein was
being derogatory about working-class language, although
he had stated:
Clearly one code is not better than another; each
possesses its own aesthetic, its own possibilities.
Society, however, may place different values on
the orders of experience elicited, maintained and
progressively strengthened through the different coding
systems.
(1971, p.135)
What is crucial is thus how society values these codes or,
more specifically, how they are differently valued in school.
170
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 170
27/06/13 8:13 AM
CASE STUDY
2.
171
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 171
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
For example, in Manuel Castells three-volume work,
The Information Age, the definition of knowledge is
relegated to a footnote as a set of organized statements
of facts or ideas (1996b, p.17). Like other accounts,
Castells treats knowledge as homogeneous and having
no inner structure with properties or powers of its own,
as if the forms knowledge takes are of no consequence.
So, the very thing that is supposedly now central to
every aspect of our lives is itself not theorised or well
understood.
This knowledge-blindness (Maton 2013a) extends
to most sociological research on education. As Bernstein
(1990) highlights, sociological studies of education tend
to focus on relations to knowledge, such as the relations of
class, gender and ethnicity to the curriculum or classroom
practice. This is true of both externalist and internalist
approaches: whether looking beyond or within education,
both tend to study relations to knowledge. This is to ignore
relations within knowledge or the forms taken by knowledge
itself, its internal structures, such as whether it is abstract
or concrete, based on specialist procedures or personal
experiences, context-dependent or context-independent,
among many other features. Sociology has traditionally
failed to address how these different forms of knowledge
may shape educational experiences and outcomes, such as via
their relations to the socialised dispositions of students. As
research using Bernsteins code theory shows (see p.69), if
high-status knowledge is, for example, context-independent,
this shapes educational opportunities because different social
backgrounds are more and less oriented towards providing
actors with familiarity and ease with such knowledge.
Instead, research has treated knowledge as simply a reflection
of power relations.
This view has dominated sociological thinking since at least
the early 1970s. For example: reproduction theories argued
that educational knowledge reflects the needs of capitalism;
feminist and multicultural theories argue that curricula and
classroom practices reflect the experiences of white European
men; and post-structural approaches claim that knowledge
constructs our identities in ways that reflect the interests of the
powerful. As these examples suggest, the relations to focus
has been adopted by researchers drawing on a diverse range
of other theories, including symbolic interactionism, social
phenomenology and cultural anthropology, as well as ideas
from Bourdieu, Foucault, Derrida and Lyotard, among others.
Why have almost all sociological approaches neglected
relations within knowledge? A growing number of social
realists (Maton & Moore 2010a) argue that this knowledgeblindness reflects a deep-seated but mistaken belief that
either knowledge must be decontextualised, value-free
and objective (essentialism) or it is nothing but socially
and historically constructed and reflects relations of power
(relativism). Faced with this choice, sociologists of education
Social realism
Social realism builds primarily on the culturalist theories of
Basil Bernstein and Pierre Bourdieu (see p.167) and emerged
from discussions among a range of sociologists of knowledge
and education that began in the late 1990s and early 2000s
(for key papers establishing the approach, see Maton &
Moore 2010b). Social realism highlights that knowledge is
the basis of education as a social field of practice; it is the
production, curricularisation, and teaching and learning of
knowledge that makes education a distinct field. To reduce
knowledge to power is thus to obscure a defining feature of
education. Moreover, social realism argues that the choice
between essentialism and relativism is false: we can say that
knowledge is historically and socially situated and shaped by
struggles among social groups without saying this also means
all knowledge is equal and its status merely a reflection of
social power. Social realism acknowledges that knowledge
changes and is shaped by relations of power but maintains
that this is not the whole story. Not all knowledge claims are
equalsome are more epistemologically powerful and offer
better explanations than others (Moore 2009). Exploring the
collective procedures whereby judgements of the comparative
value of knowledge claims are made by academics or teachers
has thus been a central and ongoing focus of social realist
research.
Above all, social realism argues that different forms
of knowledge have effects for intellectual and educational
practices: knowledge may be social but it is also real. Against
the knowledge-blindness afflicting existing accounts of
education and social change more generally, social realism
brings the forms taken by knowledge into view. Social
realists do not argue that this is the only factor that matters
in understanding education and society; rather they show
that this one key factor has been missing and reveal how it
helps shape education and society.
172
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 172
27/06/13 8:13 AM
Specialisation of knowledge
practices
One dimension of LCT is Specialisation, which analyses the
organising principles of knowledge in terms of what makes
a claim to insight special or worthy of distinction (Maton
2000, 2007, 2013a). This begins from the premise that every
practice, belief or knowledge claim is about or oriented
173
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 173
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
towards something and by someone, and so sets up epistemic
relations (ER) to objects and social relations (SR) to subjects,
authors or actors. Simply put, each relation may be more
strongly (+) or weakly () emphasised in practices and beliefs,
and these two strengths together give a specialisation code.
This code represents one set of the organising principles
underlying practices. Any claim to knowledge can be viewed
as specialised by its epistemic relations, by its social relations,
by both or by neither. Figure 5.7 outlines four such codes:
elite
SR
SR+
relativist
knower
ER
174
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 174
27/06/13 8:13 AM
2.
SG+, SD
Time
Source: Karl Maton, Making semantic waves: A key to cumulative knowledge-building, Linguistics and Education, 2013a, p. 14.
175
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 175
27/06/13 8:13 AM
SOCIOLOGY
Figure 5.9 A semantic wave
SG, SD+
concept
concept
unpacking
repacking
SG+, SD
Time
Source: Karl Maton, Making semantic waves: A key to cumulative knowledge-building, Linguistics and Education, 2013a, p. 15.
TUTORIAL EXERCISE
Consider this sociology textbook. Read through the
contents pages and think about relations between the
chapters and the narrative within each chapter. Do
areas of sociology relate to each other, or are they often
separate? How do new theories relate to older theories?
In your group, make a case for seeing sociology as
integrating past ideas within newer, more encompassing
theories. Then make a case for describing sociology as
being segmented into a series of theories and topics in
which newer ideas add to but largely fail to build on older
ones. What forms of knowledge do these represent?
What are the gains and losses of sociology being either
ofthese forms of knowledge?
FURTHER READING
Arnot, M., David, M. & Weiner, G. 1999, Closing the Gender
Gap: Post-war Education and Social Change, Polity Press,
Cambridge.
Grenfell, M. (ed.) 2012, Pierre Bourdieu: Key Concepts,
revised edn, London, Acumen.
Halsey, A. H., Lauder, H., Brown, P. & Wells, A. S. (eds) 1997,
Education, Culture, Economy, Society, Oxford University
Press, Oxford.
Maton, K. 2013, Knowledge and Knowers: Towards a Realist
Sociology of Education, Routledge, London.
Maton, K. & Moore, R. (eds.) 2010, Social Realism,
Knowledge and the Sociology of Education: Coalitions of the
Mind, Continuum, London.
Moore, R. 2004, Education and Society: Issues and
Explanations in the Sociology of Education, Polity Press,
Cambridge.
176
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 176
27/06/13 8:13 AM
WEBSITES
Australian Association for Research in Education:
www.aare.edu.au/live
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace
Relations: http://deewr.gov.au
This website provides insights into the current political
discourse surrounding education.
177
M05_VANK0703_05_LT_C05.indd 177
27/06/13 8:13 AM