LABORATORY MANUAL

EEL 3123 NETWORKS AND SYSTEMS

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL FLORIDA

Prepared by

Dr. PARVEEN WAHID

Ms. YA SHEN
MAY 2013

PREFACE
This lab manual for EEL 3123 - Networks and Systems is an updated version of the earlier
manual. Changes have been made to keep it up to date with the recent curriculum changes in
Electrical and Computer Engineering. The experiments have been re-written with a lot more
detail to help the student conduct them in a straight forward manner and to help in the
understanding of the material.
Every effort has been made to check for any errors and to make sure the experiments are
outlined correctly. If you should find errors that need to be corrected, please contact Dr.
Parveen Wahid at Parveen.Wahid@ucf.edu.

Dr. Parveen Wahid

Fall 2011

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

SAFETY RULES AND OPERATING PROCEDURES ........................................................... - 4 -

LABORATORY SAFETY INFORMATION ............................................................................. - 5 -
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... - 7 -
TROUBLESHOOTING HINTS ............................................................................................... - 8 -
EXPERIMENT #1 DC MEASUREMENTS ........................................................................... - 9 -
EXPERIMENT #2 AC MEASUREMENTS ......................................................................... - 20 -
EXPERIMENT #3 NETWORK ANALYSIS METHODS ..................................................... - 28 -
EXPERIMENT #4 FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS ................................................................... - 34 -
EXPERIMENT #5 SECOND ORDER CIRCUITS .............................................................. - 41 -
EXPERIMENT #6 SINUSOIDAL STEADY STATE............................................................ - 48 -
EXPERIMENT #7 SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE ............................................. - 52 -
EXPERIMENT #8 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS .................................................................... - 58 -
EXPERIMENT #9 FREQUENCY RESPONSE .................................................................. - 64 -
APPENDIX I.

STANDARD RESISTOR COLOR CODE .................................................. - 69 -

APPENDIX II. LIST OF AVAILABLE RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS .......................... - 71 -

APPENDIX III. GUIDELINES TO WRITE A FINAL LABORATORY REPORT .................. - 74 -

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SAFETY RULES AND OPERATING PROCEDURES

1. Students are allowed in the laboratory only when the instructor is present.
2. Be aware of the location of the Emergency Disconnect (red button near the door) to shut off
power in an emergency.
3. Open drinks and food are not allowed near the lab benches.
4. Report any broken equipment or defective parts to the lab instructor immediately. Do not
open, remove the cover, or attempt to repair any equipment.
5. When the experiment is finished, all equipment, except for computers, must be turned off.
Return substitution boxes (resistor boxes or capacitor boxes) to the designated location.
Clean up any cables and components on the bench before leaving.
6. University property must not be taken out of the laboratory.
7. Do not move equipment from one lab station to another.
8. Do not tamper with or remove security straps, locks or other security devices.
9. ANYONE VIOLATING ANY RULES OR REGULATIONS MAY BE DENIED ACCESS TO
THESE FACILITIES.

I have read and understand these rules and procedures. I agree to abide by these rules and
procedures at all times while using these facilities. I understand that failure to follow these
rules and procedures will result in my immediate dismissal from the laboratory and additional
disciplinary action may be taken.

________________________________________
Signature

Date

________________________
Lab name and section

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LABORATORY SAFETY INFORMATION

Introduction
The danger of injury or death from electrical shock, fire, or explosion is present while
conducting experiments in this laboratory. To work safely, it is important that you understand
the prudent practices necessary to minimize the risks and what to do if there is an accident.
Electrical Shock
Avoid contact with conductors in energized electrical circuits. Electrocution has been reported
at DC voltages as low as 42 volts. Just 100 mA of current passing through the chest is usually
fatal. Muscle contractions can prevent the person from moving away while being electrocuted.
Do not touch someone who is being shocked while still in contact with the electrical conductor
or you may also be electrocuted. Instead, press the Emergency Disconnect (red button located
near the door to the laboratory). This shuts off all power, except the lights.
Make sure your hands are dry. The resistance of dry, unbroken skin is relatively high and thus
reduces the risk of shock. Skin that is broken, wet or damp with sweat has a low resistance.
When working with an energized circuit, work with only your right hand, keeping your left hand
away from all conductive material. This reduces the likelihood of an accident that results in
current passing through your heart.
Be cautious of rings, watches, and necklaces. Skin beneath a ring or watch is damp, lowering
the skin resistance. Shoes covering the feet are much safer than sandals.
If the victim isnt breathing, find someone certified in CPR. Be quick! Some of the staff in the
Department Office are certified in CPR. If the victim is unconscious or needs an ambulance,
call 911 and contact the Department Office for help. If able, the victim should go to the Student
Health Services for examination and treatment.
Fire
Transistors and other components can become extremely hot and cause severe burns if
touched. If resistor or other components on your breadboard catch fire, turn off the power
supply and notify the instructor. If electronic instruments catch fire, press the Emergency
Disconnect (red button). These small electrical fires extinguish quickly after the power is shut
off. Avoid using fire extinguishers on electronic instruments.

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Explosion
When using electrolytic capacitors, be careful to observe proper polarity and do not exceed the
voltage rating. Electrolytic capacitors can explode and cause injury. A first aid kit is located on
the wall near the door. Proceed to Student Health Services, if needed.

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INTRODUCTION
The objective of this first laboratory in electrical engineering is to familiarize the student with
operating basic laboratory instrumentation such as an oscilloscope, a function generator, a
multimeter, etc. The student will learn correct laboratory techniques and procedures. In
addition the student will get to work with the circuit simulator Multisim. Another goal of
conducting the lab experiments is to re-enforce the theoretical knowledge learned in the
classroom with practice and vice-versa.
Each of the experiments specifies the objective of the experiment, the equipment that will be
needed to conduct that experiment and the measurements that need to be taken. All
experiments have a brief write-up of the theory behind the experiment. Each experiment also
has three sections to it (i) the theoretical calculation of the results (this is typically done as a
per-lab effort) (ii) a simulation section using the circuit simulator and (iii) an experimental
section. The pre-lab allows the student to understand the material presented in the classroom
and to know what to expect during the lab experiment. The final lab report, that needs to be
submitted for each experiment, should contain a comparison between the calculated,
simulated and measured values. Any discrepancies obtained should be clearly explained. It is
essential that the students learn how to write a detailed lab report and to address all the
question listed within each experiment.
In the execution of the experiment, the highest benefit is gained if the student can distinguish
between performing the experiment step-by-step following instructions and actually
understanding the reasons behind the methodology and the process. To understand the
experiments it is essential that both the theory of the circuit under test and the instruments
used to test them are known clearly.
Most experiments are designed to be one week experiments. The pre-lab with the calculated
and simulated results, is to be completed prior to coming to the lab to do the measurements.

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TROUBLESHOOTING HINTS
1. Be sure that the power is turned on.
2. Be sure that the supply voltages are correct and the ground connections are common.
For some power supplies, the ON button needs to be clicked in order to turn on the
output channel.
3. Be sure the circuit you built is identical to that in the diagram. Do a node-by-node check
if needed.
4. Be sure the resistors, capacitors and inductors used in your circuit all have the correct
values. You can get that information using a digital multimeter, color code or the
nominal value printed on the component.
5. Be sure that the equipment is set up correctly and you are measuring the correct
parameter.
6. If steps 1 through 5 are correct, you probably have used a component that doesnt work.
It is also possible that the equipment does not work (although this is not probable) or the
breadboard you are using may have some unwanted paths between nodes. To find your
problem you much trace through the voltages in your circuit node by node and compare
the signal you have to the signal you expect to have. If they are different, use your
engineering judgment to decide what is causing the difference or ask you lab assistant.

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EXPERIMENT #1

DC MEASUREMENTS

OBJECTIVES

To understand the basics of DC (direct current) circuits.

To use a digital multimeter (DMM) to measure DC voltage, current and resistance.
To understand the valid measurement condition for a digital multimeter.

EQUIPMENT

Breadboard
DC power supply
Digital multimeter (DMM)

BACKGROUND
I.

DC circuit basics

A DC circuit is an electrical circuit that consists of any combination of constant voltage

sources, constant current sources and resistors. The voltages and currents in this circuit are
invariant with time, in other words, constant. A DC circuit is usually powered by a DC voltage
source or a DC current source.
There are basic concepts and laws that are fundamental to circuit analysis. These laws are
Ohms law, KCL (Kirchhoffs current law or Kirchhoffs first law) and KVL (Kirchhoffs voltage
law or Kirchhoffs second law). In addition, the voltage divider rule and the current divider rule
are often applied to simplify the circuit analysis.

II.

Breadboard

A breadboard is also referred to as a solderless breadboard or a plugboard. It is used to build

temporary circuits for testing or to experiment new circuit ideas. It has many holes, which can
be used to plug in resistors, capacitors, inductors, ICs, and etc. A typical breadboard is shown
in Figure 1 - 1. The backside of the bread board, Figure 1 - 1 (b), has strips of metal
connecting the holes on the front side. The holes connected by a same metal strip form one
common node in a circuit. Different components at a given node are connected by pushing in a
corresponding end of each component into holes connected to the same node. It is also
noticed that some common nodes are longer than most of the five-hole nodes. They are

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typically used for power supply connections or for those nodes to which many components are
connected. A jumper wire can also be used to combine two nodes into one.
The breadboard we are using for this lab also has four binding posts on one side of the board.
They are used for DC or AC power supply connections. To connect a binding post onto the
breadboard, a wire with long-enough metal exposed is inserted into the hole at the bottom of
the post followed by tightening the plastic cap to ensure good connection. The other end of the
wire is then plugged into one of the long common nodes on the breadboard.
Here are a few tips for using the breadboard.
1. Never build your circuit without a breadboard, even for the easiest circuit configurations.
2. Always use the binding posts and side-lines (long common nodes) for power supply
connections.
3. It is recommended to use black wires for ground and red (or other colors if there are
multiple voltages needed) for positive voltage (or other DC/AC voltages).
4. Keep the jumper wires short and flat on the board, so that the circuit doesnt look
cluttered.
5. Route jumper wires around the chips, so that it makes it easy to change the chips.
6. You could trim or bend the resistor/capacitor/inductor lead, so that they will fit in snugly
and wont get pulled out by accident.
7. A wire should be used to connect the probe of an oscilloscope onto the breadboard,
since the probe connection might loosen the existing connection of your components.

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(a)

(b)
Figure 1 - 1 Breadboard. (a) front; (b) back.

III.

DC power supply

A DC power supply is a device that supplies DC voltage and current to a circuit. The one we
are going to use for this lab is an Agilent E3630A Triple Output DC Power Supply, as shown in
Figure 1 - 2. It offers three output ratings: 0 to +20V (0 to 0.5A), 0 to -20V (0 to 0.5A) and 0 to
6V (0 to 2.5A), with a total maximum power of 35W. The +/-20V output have the ability to track
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each other by adjusting the Tracking Ratio knob, while the 6V output is adjusted separately.
When setting each output, the corresponding range needs to be selected on METER section in
order to have that particular output displayed on the LED. On VOLTAGE ADJUST section, the
+6V knob is used to adjust the 6V output. The +/-20V knob adjusts both the +20V and the -20V
output at the same time. Therefore, when two voltages with the same absolute value but
opposite polarities are needed, the Tracking Ratio knob needs to be set at Fixed position,
which means the tracking ratio is 1. However, when two voltages with different absolute values
and polarities are needed from the +20V and the -20V output, one of the two (usually the
+20V) needs to be adjusted first using the +/-20V knob, then by varying the Tracking Ratio
knob, the other voltage is then set to the desired output. The COM knob in OUTPUT section is
used as the common ground for all three outputs. The LED will show both the voltage and
current for the voltage range selected, and when the current exceeds the maximum current
rating during measurement, the OVERLOAD indicator will turn on.

(a)

(b)

Figure 1 - 2 Agilent E3630A DC power supply. (a) front; (b) back.

IV.

Digital multimeter

A digital multimeter (DMM) is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several

measurement functions, such as voltage, current and resistance measurement, in one unit,
and displays its result digitally. The one we are going to use in this lab is a Tektronix
DMM4050 6-1/2 Digit Precision Multimeter, as shown in Figure 1 - 3. This DMM is capable of
measuring DC/AC voltages and currents, resistance, integrated frequency, period, capacitance
and temperature measurement.
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Figure 1 - 3 Tektronix DMM 4050

Here are a few tips for using the DMM.

1. Voltage is measured by placing the DMM in parallel with the device under test (DUT) on
which the voltage is to be measured, as shown in Figure 1 - 4 (a). First connect the
DMM input connector (red probe) to 1000V/600V input, and select DCV or ACV. The
ground probe (black probe) is connected to the corresponding LO input. Then place the
probes on two sides of the DUT. Preferably, the red probed should be connected to the
side with higher potential. But sometimes it is hard to decide in a circuit with multiple DC
voltage sources as for which end of the DUT has higher potential. It is fine to just
randomly pick a side. If the reading ends up being negative, that means the red probe is
connected to the lower-potential end.
2. Current is measured by inserting the DMM into the circuit and letting the current being
measured go through the DMM, as shown in Figure 1 - 4 (b). First connect the DMM
input connector (red probe) to 400 mA or 10 A input, and select DCI or ACI. The ground
probe (black probe) is connected to the corresponding LO input. Then insert the probes
into the branch being measured. Preferably, current should flow into the DMM from the
red probed and flow out from the black probe. But sometimes it is hard to decide the
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current direction in a circuit with multiple DC voltage sources. It is fine to assume a

direction. If the reading ends up being negative, that means the current flows in the
opposite direction from your assumption.
3. Resistance measurement is done similar to the voltage measurement by placing the
DMM across the resistor to be measured, as shown in Figure 1 - 4 (c) and use the
button. The ground probe (black probe) is connected to the corresponding LO input.
Note that the resistor being measured should be disconnected from the rest of the
circuit during this measurement.
4. A DMM usually has an internal resistance (typically of 10 M), as shown in the circuit in
Figure 1 - 6 (e). The measurement result will be inaccurate if the resistor for which the
voltage or current being measured is comparable in value to the internal resistance.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 1 - 4 Voltage, current and resistance measurement using DMM, (a) voltage; (b) current; (c) resistance.

V.

Multisim

Multisim is an electronic schematic capture and simulation program used to analyze circuit
behavior. The DC/AC voltage, DC/AC current, resistance, frequency, time-domain waveform,
etc, can be determined using this software. An example circuit simulation measurement is
shown in Figure 1 - 5. In this simulation, all the components are laid out in a way that is the
same as the circuit diagram. Each DMM is connected in the same way that a physical DMM
would be connected on the breadboard. Results are obtained by running the simulation and
then double clicking on each piece of equipment (DMM, oscilloscope, etc) to read the desired
output values..

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Figure 1 - 5 An example for using Multisim

VI.

Standard resistor color code

Low-power resistors have a standard set of values. Color-band codes indicate the resistance
value as well as a tolerance value. Refer to APPENDIX I on how to read the resistance using
the color codes.

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PREPARATION
For the circuits in Figure 1 - 6, use 9V as input voltage. Pick any resistor values between 1k
and 56 k and assign the same values to all resistors with the same name and different values
to those with different names. Refer to APPENDIX II for available resistors and capacitors.
1. For the circuit in Figure 1 - 6(a), calculate V1, V2 and I using Ohms law. Use voltage
divider rule to calculate V1 and V2 again, and then compare them with the V1 and V2
calculated earlier. Are they the same? If yes, the voltage divider rule is verified. Add V1
and V2, is this value equal to the total voltage supplied by the source? If yes, KVL is
verified.
2. For the circuit in Figure 1 - 6 (b), calculate I1, I2, I and VX using Ohms law. Use current
divider rule to calculate I1 and I2 and then compare them with the I1 and I2 calculated
earlier. Are they the same? If yes, current divider rule is verified. Add I1 and I2, is this
value equal to the total current I? If yes, KCL is verified.
3. For the circuit in Figure 1 - 6 (c), calculate the equivalent resistance between points AB
and points CD. Rearrange the resistors in the circuit or use Y- transformation if
needed.
4. For the circuit in Figure 1 - 6 (d), calculate VX.
5. Assume that a DMM with an internal resistance of 10 M is used to measure VX in the
circuit in Figure 1 - 6 (e). Calculate the result if:
a. R is between 1k and 10k.
b. R is larger than 2M.

SIMULATION
Build and simulate the circuits in Figure 1 - 6 using Multisim.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

For circuit (a), use a DMM to read I, V1 and V2.

For circuit (b), use a DMM to read I, I1, I2 and VX.
For circuit (c), use a DMM to read RAB and RCD.
For circuit (d), use a DMM to read VX.
For circuit (e), use a DMM to read VX for both cases considered in PREPARATION
(Figure 1-6e).

Compare all the results with those calculated in PREPARATION.

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EXPERIMENT
1. Measure the resistance of each resistor used in this experiment using a DMM. Compare
the nominal value with the one measured. Refer to Digital multimeter in
BACKGROUND section for how to use a DMM to measure a resistor. The nominal
value of a resistor can also be obtained from its color bands or color code. Build the
circuits in Figure 1 - 6 on a breadboard.
a. For circuit (a), use a DMM to measure I, V1 and V2. Refer to Digital multimeter in
BACKGROUND section for how to use a DMM to measure the voltage and current.
b. For circuit (b), use a DMM to measure I, I1, I2and VX.
c. For circuit (c), use a DMM to measure RAB and RCD.
d. For circuit (d), use a DMM to measure VX.
e. For circuit (e), use a DMM to measure VX for both cases considered in
PREPARATION (Figure 1-6e).
Compare the results with those calculated in PREPARATION and those in SIMULATION.

REPORT
Prepare your report as per the guidelines given in APPENDIX III.

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(b)
(a)

(d)
(c)

(e)
Figure 1 - 6 Circuits

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EXPERIMENT #2

AC MEASUREMENTS

OBJECTIVES

To understand the basics of AC (alternating current) circuits.

To use an oscilloscope to display and record a waveform.
To use an oscilloscope to measure frequency, period, voltage (magnitude, peak-topeak, maximum, minimum, and etc), DC offset, etc, of the waveform.
To use a digital multimeter to measure AC voltage and current.

EQUIPMENT

Function generator
Oscilloscope
Digital multimeter (DMM)

BACKGROUND
I.

AC circuit basics

An AC (alternating current) is a function of time. In AC circuits, the voltage and current sources
are time-varying, with the most common being a sinusoidal variation. Other time-varying
applications, depending on the application, include the square wave and the triangular wave.
A sinusoidal AC voltage or current is described by its amplitude, frequency and phase, for
example,
sin
, where A is the magnitude, w the angular frequency and is the
phase. Special attention must be paid when measuring the voltage or current of an AC circuit,
as three different forms of voltage or current may be obtained from a measurement, namely
Vmagnitude or Imagnitude, VRMS or IRMS or Vpeak-to-peak or Ipeak-to-peak. They can be converted from one
form to another using the following equations:
For square waveforms,

For sine waveforms,

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2
2
For triangular waveforms,
3
3

II.

Function generator

A function generator is a piece of equipment used to generate electrical waveforms. It is widely

used in development, testing and repair of electronic equipment, for example, as a signal
source to test amplifiers, or to introduce an error signal into a control loop. The function
generator we are going to use for this lab is a Tektronix AFG 3022B, as shown in Figure 2 - 1.
It is able to provide 12 different standard waveforms, with dual-channel capability. Sine, square
and triangle waveforms (3 most used waveforms in this lab) can be selected from Function
section. Both frequency and amplitude adjustment buttons are in the same section below Run
Mode section, which can be set either by the numeric keypad or by the knob above that
keypad. The two arrows right below the numeric keypad can change which digit is to be
adjusted. The On button will turn each channel on or off, and CH1/CH2 button decides if it is
a single or a dual channel output. Detailed functions will be shown in EXPERIMENT section.

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Figure 2 - 1 Function generator

III.

Oscilloscope

An oscilloscope is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation of constantly

varying signal voltages. Usually a two-dimensional graph of one or more electrical potentials is
displayed using the vertical or Y axis with time along the horizontal or X axis. In most
instances, an oscilloscope shows events that repeat with either no change or very slow
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changes. Thus, the exact wave shape of an electrical signal can be observed. In addition to
the amplitude of the signal, an oscilloscope can show distortion, the time between two events
(such as pulse width, period, rise time, and etc), and relative timing between two related
signals. The oscilloscope we are going to use for this lab is a Tektronix DPO 4034 Digital
Phosphor Oscilloscope, as shown in Figure 2 - 2. It has 4 analog and 16 digital channels for
analyzing both analog and digital signals. Detailed functions will be shown in EXPERIMENT
section.

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Figure 2 - 2 Oscilloscope

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PREPARATION
1. Calculate the RMS voltage of the following waveforms with 10 V peak-to-peak:
a. Sine wave;
b. Square wave;
c. Triangle wave.
2. Calculate the period of a waveform with the frequency of:
a. 100 Hz;
b. 1 kHz;
c. 100 kHz.

SIMULATION
Build a circuit in Multisim consisting of a function generator and a resistor. Set the frequency to
1 kHz and amplitude to 5V (peak-to-peak to 10 V). Use a multimeter to read the voltage (VRMS)
over the resistor. Use an oscilloscope to display the waveform over the resistor. Peak voltage
and period can also be measured using cursors. Verify the frequency of the output waveform
by converting measured period to frequency.

EXPERIMENT
A. Waveform display and measurement
1. Click Default Settings button located at below the LCD screen on oscilloscope to
clear all the settings from the previous user. For the same purpose, click the Default
button on the function generator, which is located on the left of the numeric keypad,
and then click Enter on the right of the keypad.
2. On the function generator, click Output Menu located on the right of the LCD
screen, select Load Impedance then High Z option. Click the return arrow in the
lower right corner of the screen until the default screen shows up.
3. Set the function generator output to sine wave.
4. Connect Ch.1 of the oscilloscope to the function generator output. Polarities (positive
and negative) of both probes need to be matched, i.e. positive to positive, negative
to negative. Turn on Channel 1 output on function generator by clicking the On
button of channel 1. Click Autoset button on the oscilloscope to automatically find
the waveform on the LCD screen. How many cycles are displayed?
5. Click on the different Function selection buttons on the function generator. What
other waveforms do you observe on the screen? Set the waveform back to
sinusoidal. Click the Autoset button if needed.
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6. Click Ch1 button (yellow) on oscilloscope to bring up the setting options for Ch1.
Click it again, what do you see on the screen? Click the button once again, did the
waveform show up again? With the options for Channel 1 available on the bottom of
the screen, set coupling to DC, and keep the rest at the default setting.
7. Various measurement options for all four channels can be set on the oscilloscope.
To do this, click Measure button in Wave Inspector section and press Add
Measurement button to bring up the menu. Use the Multipurpose a knob to select
the source (Ch1, Ch2, Ch3 or Ch4, whichever is available) and Multipurpose b knob
to select the measurement type. Using the Multipurpose b knob highlight the
frequency, period, amplitude, mean and RMS, and click on OK Add Measurement
each time to bring up the readings on the screen. When finished, click on the Menu
Off button to turn off the menu. (Note: the amplitude definition might be different
from that in your text book. Make sure to check the definition on the oscilloscope
when selecting this measurement.)
8. Vary the frequency and then the amplitude on the function generator. It can be done
by clicking on the Frequency/Period button or the Amplitude/High button, then
either type in the number using the numeric keypad or adjust the knob above that.
How does the waveform change on the oscilloscope screen? Do the readings on the
bottom of the oscilloscope screen change as well? Use Autoset button or manually
adjust the scale vertically or horizontally when needed. (Note: the readings on the
oscilloscope will not be accurate if the waveform is not properly displayed on the
LCD screen, e.g. too few cycles or the waveform exceeds the screen in the vertical
direction.)
9. Vary the channel scale knob in the Vertical section and the time scale knob in the
Horizontal section on the oscilloscope. How does the waveform change on the
screen? Do the readings on the bottom of the screen change as well?
10. Now, with all the measurement displayed on the screen, set the frequency of the
input signal to 1 kHz and magnitude to 5 V. (Try to keep about 4 - 5 cycles displayed
on the oscilloscope screen by adjusting both the vertical and horizontal scale knobs
in order to obtain an accurate reading.) What do you read for frequency? What do
you read for amplitude voltage?
11. Adjust the level knob on oscilloscope. What do you observe when the little arrow is
within the magnitude range of the waveform? How about when it moves outside the
magnitude range? Move it back in so that it is slightly below the peak and the
waveform just becomes stable.
12. Keeping the level the same, slowly decrease the amplitude of the input signal on the
function generator by adjusting the knob above the numeric keypad when
Amplitude is high-lighted on the screen (if not, click on the Amplitude/High button).
What do you see on the screen? Describe what you observed in step 11 and 12, and
explain why.
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13. Adjust the level arrow back to the zero and the signal amplitude back to 5 V.
14. Adjust the DC offset on the function generator by clicking the Offset/Low button
and set the value to 1 V. What do you observe and read on the screen?
15. Set CH1 coupling to AC (refer to step 6) and repeat step 14. What do you observe
and read? Keep the measurement on the botton of the screen so that mean (offset)
reading is available. Make comments on the difference of step 14 and 15.
16. Set CH1 coupling back to DC and set DC offset back to zero.
B. Voltage measurement
1. With a sine wave of 5 V magnitude from function generator, set DMM to measure
AC voltage and place it in parallel with the probe of the oscilloscope. Is the reading
what you expect? Which measurement on the oscilloscope is this DMM reading
equivalent to, Amplitude or RMS?
2. Switch the waveform to a square waveform first, and then to a triangle (ramp)
waveform. In each case what is the AC voltage on DMM? Are all the measurements
consistent with those calculated in PREPARATION?
C. Frequency measurement
1. Set the waveform back to sine wave on the function generator, record the frequency
and period readings from the oscilloscope.
2. Change the frequency on the function generator to 100 Hz and 100 kHz. What are
the frequency and period readings? Click Autoset button or manually adjust the
horizontal scale when needed. Are all the measurements consistent with those
calculated in PREPARATION?

REPORT
Prepare your report as per the guidelines given in APPENDIX III.

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EXPERIMENT #3

NETWORK ANALYSIS METHODS

OBJECTIVES

To analyze a resistive circuit using node or mesh analysis.

To understand Thevenins and Nortons theorems.
To verify the superposition principle.

EQUIPMENT

Breadboard
DC power supply
Digital multimeter (DMM)

BACKGROUND
Electrical circuit analysis is the process of finding the voltages across and the currents through
every component in the network. A number of techniques are frequently used for resistive
circuits.
Nodal analysis is a method of determining the voltage at the nodes in an electrical circuit with
respect to a reference node, using Kirchoffs current law. Mesh analysis is a method that is
used to solve for the current through any component in a planar circuit using Kirchoffs voltage
law. In some cases one method is clearly preferred over another. For example, when the
circuit contains only voltage sources (or current sources), it is probably easier to use mesh
analysis (or node analysis). It is often helpful to consider which method is more appropriate for
the problem solution and make the selection.
Thevenins theorem, also called Thevenin equivalent, states that if we identify a pair of
terminals in any circuit made up of both independent and dependent sources and resistors,
the circuit can be replaced by an independent voltage source Voc in series with a resistor Rt.
This series combination of Voc, the Thevenin voltage, and Rt, the Thevenin resistance, is
equivalent to the original circuit in the sense that if we connect a same load across the
terminals, we would get the same voltage and current at the terminals of the load as we would
have with the original circuit. This equivalence holds for all possible values of load resistances.
Voc is the open-circuit voltage of the original circuit across the terminals. Rt can be found by
either of the two methods listed below. One is to find the short-circuit current isc, then find Rt
using
- 28 -

The other method usually used in less complicated circuits involves deactivating the sources in
the circuit, i.e. replacing all independent voltage sources with short circuits and all
independent current sources with open circuits, and finding the equivalent resistance, which is
Rt. Dependent current and voltage sources are not replaced with open circuits or short circuits.
Nortons theorem, also referred as Norton equivalent, is a dual of Thevenins theorem. If we
identify a pair of terminals in any circuit made up of both independent and dependent sources
and resistors, the circuit can be replaced by a parallel combination of an ideal current source
isc and a conductance Gn, where isc is the short-circuit current at the terminals in the original
circuit and Gn is the ratio of the short-circuit current to the open-circuit voltage at the terminals
in the original circuit.
The four parameters Voc, Rt, isc and Gn are related by

1
For linear circuits containing two or more independent sources, the superposition principle can
also be used for circuit analysis. The voltage across (or the current through) any element can
be obtained by adding algebraically all the individual voltages (or currents) caused by each
independent source acting alone, with all the other independent voltage sources replaced by
short circuits and all the other independent current sources replaced by open circuits.

PREPARATION
For the circuit in Figure 3 - 1, pick any resistor values between 1 k and 50 k, such that not
all resistors are the same. Refer to APPENDIX II for available resistors and capacitors.

- 29 -

Figure 3 - 1 Circuit

- 30 -

1. Short AB, as shown in Figure 3 - 2 (a). Use mesh analysis to calculate the voltage
across each resistor and the current through AB.
2. Leave AB open, as shown in Figure 3 - 2 (b). Use nodal analysis to calculate the
voltage across each resistor and that across AB.
3. Find Thevenins and Nortons Equivalent (Voc, Isc and Rt) using the results from step 1
and 2.
4. If a resistor is connected between nodes A and B, use Thevenins theorem to calculate
the current through this resistor using the following values: 1 k, 2.2 k and 4.7 k.
5. Leave AB open. Find the voltage across AB caused by E1 only. In order to do so, E2 and
E3 need to be set to zero by simply replacing each of them with a wire (short). Repeat
this step and find the VAB caused by E2 only and E3 only. Verify that the sum of these
three voltages found using each source individually equals to that found in step 2.
A

B
_

R
R

E =10V

(a)

(b)

Figure 3 - 2 Mesh and nodal analysis. (a) mesh analysis; (b) nodal analysis

- 31 -

+
_

+
_

E =12V

E =5V

+
_

SIMULATION
Build and simulate the circuit in Figure 3 - 1 using Multisim. Verify all the results you calculated
in PREPARATION section. Refer to the BACKGROUND section in EXPERIMENT #1 for
instructions on how to use DMM and Multisim.

EXPERIMENT
Build the circuit in Figure 3 - 1 on the breadboard. Refer to Section III in Experiment #1 to set
the voltages sources in the circuit.
A. Mesh analysis and nodal analysis
1. Short AB by connecting a wire across nodes A and B. Measure the voltage across
each resistor and the current through AB. Refer to the BACKGROUND section in
Experiment #1 for how to use DMM to read the voltage and current values.
2. Leave AB open. Measure the voltage across each resistor and that between AB.
3. Compare the results from step 1 and 2 with those obtained from PREPARATION
and SIMULATION sections.
B. Thevenins and Nortons theorems
1. Set all voltage sources to zero by simply replacing them with wires. With AB open,
measure the resistance between AB using DMM. How does this compare to Rt
values obtained earlier in the PREPARATION and SIMULATION sections?
2. Connect all voltages sources back into the circuit. With a resistor between A and B,
measure the current through this resistor using DMM. Use the following resistance
values:
a. 1 k,
b. 2.2 k,
c. 4.7 k.
How does these current values compare with those obtained from PREPARATION
and SIMULATION sections.
C. Superposition principle
1. With AB open, measure the voltage across AB caused by each voltage source
individually. E.g. Using source E1 only, set E2 and E3 to zero and measure the voltage
VAB. Repeat for sources E2 and E3. Add these three voltages, what do you get?
Compare the results with those obtained from PREPARATION and SIMULATION
sections.
2. With AB open, measure the voltage across AB caused by:
a. Using source E1 only,
- 32 -

b. Using sources E2 and E3 together with E1 set to zero.

Add these voltages, what do you get? Is it what you expect? Explain.
3. With AB open, measure the voltage across AB caused by:
a. Using sources E1 and E2 together with E3 set to zero,
b. Using sources E2 and E3 together with E1 set to zero,
c. Using sources E3 and E1 together with E2 set to zero.
Add these voltages, what do you get? Is it what you expect? Explain.

REPORT
Prepare your report as per the guidelines given in APPENDIX III.

- 33 -

EXPERIMENT #4

FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

OBJECTIVES

To study the step response of first order circuits.

To understand the concept of the time constant.

EQUIPMENT

Breadboard
Function generator
Oscilloscope
Digital multimeter (DMM)

BACKGROUND
First-order transient circuits are described by a first order differential equation. First-order
circuits contain a resistor and only one type of storage element, either an inductor or a
capacitor, i.e. RL or RC circuits.
For a step voltage/current source input, the output can be expressed as

Where, X(0) is the circuit response at t = 0, and X() is the response at t = . The parameter
is called time constant of the circuit and gives the time required for the response (i) to rise
from zero to 63% (or 1

) of its final steady value as shown in Figure 4 - 1 (a), or (ii) to fall to

37% (or ) of its initial value as shown in Figure 4 - 1 (b). Therefore, the smaller the value of ,
the faster the circuit response is.
For a RC circuit

For a RL circuit

- 34 -

Applying the equations above, the voltage responses across the capacitor and the resistor in
Figure 4-1 can be written as:
1

, for
, for

- 35 -

in

+
_

(a)

(b)

Figure 4 - 1 A first order circuit and its responses. (a) voltage over the capacitor; (b) voltage over the resistor.

- 36 -

PREPARATION
Figure 4 - 2 and Figure 4 - 3 show an RC and an RL circuit.
For all circuits, R = 1 k, C = 0.1 uF, L = 100 mH.
A. Step voltage input
1. For the circuits in Figure 4 - 2 using step voltage sources, derive the analytical
.
expression
for
0, when
2. Sketch or plot
for each circuit.
B. Square wave input
1. For the circuits in Figure 4 - 3 use a square wave input. Assume that
is a
10
.
symmetric square wave with amplitude of
and period of
2. Sketch or plot
for each circuit using superposition. (Show at least five cycles.)
Hint: the square wave can be broken up into a series of step functions with
displacement of /2 and alternate polarities. Each of these step function inputs
generates an output. Thus the total output response is the summation of all the
individual output.

- 37 -

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Figure 4 - 2 Circuits with step voltage sources

- 38 -

in

out

in

out

(a)

(b)
+

in

out

in

out

(c)

(d)
Figure 4 - 3 Circuits with square wave input

- 39 -

SIMULATION
Build and simulate the circuits in Figure 4 - 3 using Multisim. Set the input voltage to 5 with
a frequency of 1 kHz. Display
on the oscilloscope. Compare this result with the plot
from PREPARATION step B.

EXPERIMENT
Use the same component values as in the PREPARATION and the same input settings used
in the SIMULATION, and build the circuits shown in Figure 4 - 3 (a) (d). Complete the
measurements described below. Refer to Experiment #2 for how to use function generator and
oscilloscope.
A. Square wave output
On the oscilloscope, connect Ch1 to the input and Ch2 to the output so that both the
input and the output are displayed on the screen. Save the screen image for both the
input and the output, preferably to a USB drive. Use the Menu button on the
Save/Recall section on the bottom of the oscilloscope screen, then use File Utilities to
select or create a folder to save the image. Press the Save Screen Image button and
use the associated buttons next to the screen to select the format or edit file name etc.
Compare these waveforms with the results from PREPARATION and SIMULATION.
B. Time constant measurement
1. Turn off the input (Channel 1) by pressing the channel number button. Now only the
output is displayed on the screen.
2. Zoom in on the output curve on the oscilloscope such that a large portion (at least
half a cycle) of the rise/drop of a cycle is displayed on the screen. Consider the rise
and drop over one half cycle only for each circuit. Use cursors to determine the
maximum voltage difference E for the output. The time it takes for the output to rise
from the minimum value to 63% of E or to drop from the maximum to 37% of E is the
time constant of the circuit. Record this time constant for each circuit.

REPORT
Prepare your report as per the guidelines given in APPENDIX III.

- 40 -

EXPERIMENT #5

SECOND ORDER CIRCUITS

OBJECTIVES

To study the step response of second order circuits.

To understand the difference between overdamped, critically damped and
underdamped responses.
To determine theoretically and experimentally the damped natural frequency in the
under-damped case.

EQUIPMENT

Breadboard
Function generator
Oscilloscope
Digital multimeter (DMM)

BACKGROUND
Second-order circuits are RLC circuits that contain two energy storage elements. They can be
represented by a second-order differential equation. A characteristic equation, which is derived
from the governing differential equation, is often used to determine the natural response of the
circuit. The characteristic equation usually takes the form of a quadratic equation, and it has
two roots s1 and s2.
0
4
2
4
2
When these roots are rewritten as,

- 41 -

then the natural response of the circuit is determined by:

, there are two real and distinct roots Overdamped, as shown in Figure 5 - 1
(a) and (d).
(ii)
, there are two real equal roots Critically damped, as shown in Figure 5 - 1 (b)
and (e).
(iii)
, there are two complex roots Underdamped, as shown in Figure 5 - 1 (c) and
(f).
(i)

- 42 -

(a)

(d)

(b)

(e)

(c)

(f)
Figure 5 - 1 Second order circuits natural responses

- 43 -

PREPARATION
For all circuits, C = 0.01 uF, L = 100 mH.
A. Step voltage input
1. For both circuits in Figure 5 - 2, write the characteristic equation.
2. Calculate the resistance range for R for the following cases:
a. Over-damped response,
b. Critically damped response,
c. Under-damped response.
3. Plot or sketch the response due to a step voltage input, when:
For the circuit in Figure 5 - 2 (a),
a. R = 22 k
b. R = 6.3 k
c. R = 2.2 k
For the circuit in Figure 5 - 2 (b),
a. R = 680
b. R = 1.6 k
c. R = 4.7 k

- 44 -

(a)

(b)
Figure 5 - 2 Circuits with square wave input

B. Square wave input

1. Set R = 470 (for the circuit in Figure 5 - 3 (a)) or R = 22 k (for the circuit in Figure
5 - 3 (b)). Calculate , o, and d.
2. Plot or sketch the output voltage due to a square wave input with a frequency of 400
Hz and amplitude of 4 V.

- 45 -

(a)

(b)
Figure 5 - 3 Circuits with square wave input

SIMULATION
Build and simulate the circuits in Figure 5 - 3 using Multisim. Set the input voltage to 4 with
a frequency of 400 Hz. Display
on the oscilloscope. Compare this result with that from
PREPARATION step B.

EXPERIMENT
On the function generator use the same square wave input settings as in SIMULATION. Build
the circuits shown in Figure 5 - 3. Complete the measurements described below.
A. Natural responses
1. Use a resistor box, and set R at the values given below. Use the DMM to check the
resistance values before connecting them into the circuit.
For Figure 5 - 3 (a)
a. R = 22 k,
b. R = 6.3 k,
c. R = 2.2 k.
For Figure 5 - 3 (b)
- 46 -

a. R = 680 ,
b. R = 1.6 k,
c. R = 4.7 k.
2. On the oscilloscope, connect Ch1 to the input and Ch2 to the output so that both the
input and the output are displayed on the screen.
3. For each case, save the screen image with the associated measurements for both
the input and the output on to a USB drive. (Follow the steps as explained in
Experiment #4 to do this.)
4. For each case, indicate if the output response is overdamped, critically damped or
underdamped.
B. Damped natural frequency measurement
1. Set R = 470 for the circuit in Figure 5 - 3 (a) or R = 22 k for the circuit in Figure 5
- 3 (b), save the screen image for both the input and the output, and compare it with
the results from PREPARATION and SIMULATION.
2. Zoom in on the output curve so that at least two whole oscillations (ripples) of the
output from the beginning of an output cycle are displayed. Use the cursors to
measure the time period Td between the first two peaks (or between two zero
phases). d is calculated using:
2

REPORT
Prepare your report as per the guidelines given in APPENDIX III.

- 47 -

EXPERIMENT #6

SINUSOIDAL STEADY STATE

OBJECTIVES

To understand and calculate the power factor of a passive circuit.

To verify that resistive components dissipate power while reactive components do not.

EQUIPMENT

Breadboard
Function generator
Oscilloscope
Digital multimeter (DMM)

BACKGROUND
The steady-state response is the response that exists after the initial conditions and transient
or natural response die out. AC steady state analysis determines the steady state response of
a circuit when the inputs are sinusoidal functions. The steady state voltages and currents in the
circuit will also be sinusoidal, with the same frequency as the input signal. The maximum
amplitude and phase angle of the steady state response will, in general, differ from that of the
source.
referred to as the power factor angle, is involved in the calculation of the
The angle
average and reactive power. The power factor is the cosine of this angle
cos

cos

A lagging power factor implies that the currents lags the voltage, hence an inductive load. A
leading power factor implies current leads the voltage, hence a capacitive load. The power
factor (PF) is the ratio of the average power to the apparent power. The average power
absorbed by the element is calculated by,

cos

cos

Eq 6-1

and the apparent power is given by,

| |

- 48 -

Eq 6-2

where Vm and Im are the magnitudes of the voltage and current respectively, VRMS
and IRMS are the rms RMS values voltage and current respectively, V and I are
the phase angles of the voltage and current respectively.
The average power (often simply called power) dissipated in a circuit with a periodic input
signal of period T is defined as
1

Eq 6-4

The average power dissipated by a resistor is given by

Eq 6-5

and the average power dissipated by reactive components, such as inductors and capacitors,
is equal to zero. In other words, reactive components are storage elements and do not
dissipate power.

PREPARATION
Consider the circuit in Figure 6 - 1 with Vin magnitude of 5 V and frequency of 3 kHz.
1. Calculate the total impedance of the circuit.
2. Calculate the power factor of the circuit.
3. Calculate the voltage and current (they are both complex numbers) in each element in
the circuit.
4. Calculate the average power dissipated in each element in the circuit.
5. Calculate the total average power provided by the source.
6. Verify that the power generated by the source equals the total power dissipated in all
the components in the circuit.

and
( and
are the magnitudes of Vin and Vx
7. Assume that
respectively, is the phase angle between Vin and Vx, and they can be read on the
oscilloscope). Prove that the following equation is valid,

tan

sin
cos

Eq 6-6

where
is the power factor angle of the source. Hence the power factor
PF=cos() can be found.

- 49 -

Figure 6 - 1 Circuit

SIMULATION
1. In Multisim, build and simulate the circuits in Figure 6 - 1. Set the input voltage to 5
and frequency to 3 kHz.
2. Determine the voltage and current in each element using a DMM. Remember, the
numbers you obtained are in RMS.
3. Determine the average power dissipated in each element using a power meter.
4. Determine the total power provided by the voltage source (or the total power consumed
by the circuit) using a power meter.
- 50 -

5. Compare all the results from step 2 to 4 with those obtained in PREPARATION.
6. Verify the law of conservation of energy.

7. Determine ,
and (as in
) using oscilloscope and cursors. Calculate
the power factor using the equation in PREPARATION step 7. Compare this result with
that from PREPARATION step 2.

EXPERIMENT
1. Build the circuit on breadboard, and use the same input settings as in SIMULATION.
and the Ch2 probe at . Display both
and
on the
Place the Ch1 probe at
screen. These two curves should have the same frequency but with a phase shift
between each other.
2. Measure
and
using the oscilloscope. Note that is measured indirectly. First
measure the time difference between the two peaks of
and . Expand the time
scale in order to get a better reading with the cursors. Then use the equation 2
(rad) to calculate . Pay attention to the unit. Convert to degrees if needed.
3. Calculate the power factor using the equation in PREPARATION step 7.
4. Measure the voltage and current in each element using a DMM. How does this result
compare with that from PREPARATION and SIMULATION?
5. Calculate the average power dissipated in each element using the results (voltage
and/or current) from the last step. Compare the result with that from PREPARATION
and SIMULATION.
6. Measure the total voltage and current provided by the voltage source.
7. Calculate the total power provided by the voltage source. Compare this result with that
from PREPARATION and SIMULATION.
8. Compare the total power delivered by the voltage source with the total power dissipated
by all the elements in the circuit. Explain your result (e.g. what element contributes to
the power dissipation and what element doesnt).

REPORT
Prepare your report as per the guidelines given in APPENDIX III.

- 51 -

EXPERIMENT #7

SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE

OBJECTIVES

To study the behavior of series and parallel LC circuits at resonance.

To understand the resonance frequency, cut-off frequency, bandwidth and quality factor
of a resonance circuit.
To determine if a circuit is inductive or capacitive.
To understand the circuit behavior at resonance.

EQUIPMENT

Breadboard
Function generator
Oscilloscope
Digital multimeter (DMM)

BACKGROUND
Resonant circuits form the basis for filters that have better performance than first order (RL,
RC) filters in passing desired signal or rejecting undesired signals that are relatively close in
frequency. The resonance frequency is defined as the frequency at which the impedance of
the circuit is purely real, that is, with zero reactance. For the reactance to be zero, impedance
of the inductor must equal that of the capacitor. At resonance, the impedance of a branch
with LC in series is equal to zero, which is equivalent to a short, and the admittance of a
branch with LC in parallel is equal to zero, which is equivalent to an open. As the frequency
increases, the magnitude of an inductive reactance increases, while the magnitude of a
capacitive reactance decreases. A circuit is said to be inductive if the total reactance is
positive, and a circuit is said to be capacitive if the total reactance is negative.
A bandpass, RLC circuit, will have two cut-off frequencies
is

and

where the amplitude

of the maximum value. The cut-off frequency is also called the half-power frequency or 3-

dB frequency in some cases.

The bandwidth BW (or passband bandwidth) is defined as the difference between the upper
and lower cutoff frequencies. In case of a low-pass filter or baseband signal, the bandwidth is
equal to its upper cutoff frequency.
- 52 -

Examples of the resonance frequency, cutoff frequencies and the bandwidth are shown in
Figure 7 - 1 for a bandpass and a bandreject filter

Figure 7 - 1 Resonance frequency, cutoff frequency and bandwidth

The quality factor or Q factor of the frequency response is described quantitatively in terms of
the ratio of the resonance frequency to the bandwidth,

with both
and
are in radians. This definition lends itself to laboratory measurement
because it is possible to measure both the resonance frequency ( ) and the bandwidth ( ). It
is also defined as an energy ratio,
2

- 53 -

The steady response of a circuit will in general have a maximum amplitude and phase angle
that is different from that of the source. In some cases, the magnitude of the voltage response
may exceed that of the voltage source.

PREPARATION
A. RLC circuit basic measurement
For circuits (a) through (d) in Figure 7 - 2, use C = 0.1 uF, L = 100 mH, R = 1 k.
1. Derive the transfer function.
2. Find the resonance frequency, cutoff frequencies, bandwidth and Q factor for each
circuit.
3. What is the phase relation between the total voltage and current, is it leading or
lagging when the frequency is (i) below resonance, and (ii) above resonance? What
is the nature of the circuit in those two regions, ie, is it capacitive or inductive?
B. RLC circuit at resonance
For circuit (e) in Figure 7 - 2, use C = 0.1 uF, L = 100 mH.
1. At resonance frequency, calculate VC if:
a. R = 3 k
b. R = 300
2. Find out whether the magnitude of VC is larger or smaller than Vin. Explain your
result.

SIMULATION
1. Build and simulate the circuits (a) through (d) in Figure 7 - 2 using Multisim. Find the
resonance frequency, half-power frequencies bandwidth and Q factor for each circuit.
Compare the result with that from PREPARATION.
2. Build and simulate the circuit (e) in Figure 7 - 2. Find the magnitude for VC for the
following cases.
a. R = 3 k
b. R = 300
Compare the result with that from PREPARATION.

EXPERIMENT
1. On the breadboard, build circuit (a) in Figure 7 - 2. Connect Ch1 to input and Ch2 to
output so that both the input and the output are displayed on the oscilloscope.
- 54 -

2. Set the input voltage to 5 and frequency to the value calculated in PREPARATION.
For circuits (a) and (c), vary the frequency from the theoretical value to get a maximum
output voltage. The frequency at this maximum voltage Vmax is the resonance
frequency. For circuits (b) and (d), vary the frequency from the theoretical value to get a
minimum output voltage. The frequency at this minimum voltage Vmin is the resonance
frequency.
3. If
/2, vary the frequency again until the output voltage equals VCutoff.
This frequency is the cut-off frequency. There should be 2 cut-off frequencies for each
case.
4. Calculate the bandwidth by subtracting the 2 cut-off frequencies.
5. Calculate the Q factor using the equation from PREPARATION.
6. Repeat step 1 through 5 for circuits (b) to (d) in Figure 7 - 2.
7. Compare your result with that from PREPARATION and SIMULATION.
8. Build circuit (e) in Figure 7 - 2. Connect Ch1 to input and Ch2 to output so that both the
input and the output are displayed on the oscilloscope. Set the input voltage to 5 and
frequency to the resonance frequency found in step 1 for circuit (b) in Figure 7 - 2.
9. Find the magnitude for VC for the following cases.
a. R = 3 k,
b. R = 300 .
Compare the result with that from PREPARATION and SIMULATION. Explain what you
observe.

- 55 -

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
Figure 7 - 2 Circuits

- 56 -

REPORT
Prepare your report as per the guidelines given in APPENDIX III.

- 57 -

EXPERIMENT #8

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

OBJECTIVES

To study the transfer function of a circuit.

To use the transfer function to find the specified frequency specified in the different
cases.

EQUIPMENT

Breadboard
Function generator
Oscilloscope
Digital multimeter (DMM)

BACKGROUND
The transfer function of a circuit is defined in the s domain as the ratio of the output (response)
Y(s) of the circuit to an excitation X(s). All the initial conditions in the circuit are set to zero
while computing the transfer function. The transfer function, denoted by H(s), is then
expressed as

The circuit output (response) can be written as

which says that the Laplace transform of the output (response) is equal to the product of the
transfer function and Laplace transform of the input function.
The transfer function is a complex quantity with a magnitude and phase that are functions of
frequency. A plot of the magnitude and the phase of a transfer function is shown in Figure 8 1.
Keep in mind that the transfer function applies to a single source. If more than one source
exists in the circuit, a transfer function for each source needs to be determined defined first
and the total response can be found using superposition. Also, it is important to note that a

- 58 -

single circuit can have many transfer functions depending upon the output (response) of
interest.

Figure 8 - 1 Frequency response plot

PREPARATION
For all circuits, R = 1k, C = 0.1 F.

- 59 -

A. Singlestage RC circuit
For circuits (a) and (b) in Figure 8 - 2,
1. Derive the transfer function.
2. Find the frequency where the output voltage is 45o out of phase with the input
voltage. Find the amplitude of the output voltage at this frequency.
3. Find the frequency where the amplitude of the output voltage is

that of the input

voltage. Find the phase difference between the input and output voltages.
4. Are the frequencies found in step 2 and 3 the same? Please explain.
B. Twostage RC ladder network
For circuits (c) and (d) in Figure 8 - 2,
1. Derive the transfer function.
2. Find the frequency where the output voltage is 90o out of phase with the input
voltage. Find the amplitude of the output voltage at this frequency.
3. Find the frequency where the amplitude of the output voltage is

that of the input

voltage. Find the phase difference between the input and output voltages.
4. Are the frequencies found in step 2 and 3 the same? Please explain.

- 60 -

(a)

(b)

R
V

R
C

(c)

C
V

C
R

(d)
Figure 8 - 2 Circuits

- 61 -

SIMULATION
In Multisim, build and simulate the circuits (a) through (d) in Figure 8 - 2.
1. For circuits (a) and (b), find the frequency where the output voltage is 45o out of phase
with the input voltage and find the amplitude of the output voltage at this frequency.
2. Find the frequency where the amplitude of the output voltage is

that of the input

voltage and find the phase difference between the input and output voltages.
3. For circuits (c) and (d), find the frequency where the output voltage is 90o out of phase
with the input voltage. Find the amplitude of the output voltage at this frequency.
4. Find the frequency where the amplitude of the output voltage is

that of the input

voltage and find the phase difference between the input and output voltages.

EXPERIMENT
1. On breadboard, build circuits (a) through (d) in Figure 8 - 2. Connect Ch1 to input and
Ch2 to output so that both the input and the output are displayed on the oscilloscope.
2. Set the input voltage to 5 and frequency to that calculated in the corresponding step
in PREPARATION. Measure the phase difference between the input and output. Adjust
the frequency of the input signal appropriately so that the phase difference equals the
values given below and measure the output voltage at that frequency for each case.
a. 45o for circuit (a),
b. 45o for circuit (b),
c. 90o for circuit (c),
d. 90o for circuit (d).
The way to measure the phase difference is as follows. First measure the time
and
. Then use the equation 2
difference between the two peaks of
(rad) to calculate . Pay attention to the unit. Convert to degrees if needed.
3. Set the input voltage frequency to the one calculated in the corresponding step in
PREPARATION. Measure the output voltage. Adjust the frequency of the input signal
appropriately so that the output voltage equals the values given below and measure the
phase different between the input and output at this frequency for each case.
a.
b.

that of the input voltage for circuit (a),

that of the input voltage for circuit (b),

c.

that of the input voltage for circuit (c),

d.

that of the input voltage for circuit (d).

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4. Compare the results in steps 2 through Error! Reference source not found. with those
from PREPARATION and SIMULATION.

REPORT
Prepare your report as per the guidelines given in APPENDIX III.

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EXPERIMENT #9

FREQUENCY RESPONSE

OBJECTIVES

To study the frequency response of RC circuits.

To determine the frequency response using time domain time domain measurements.
To study different types of filters (low pass, high pass, band pass and band reject).

EQUIPMENT

Breadboard
Function generator
Oscilloscope
Digital multimeter (DMM)

BACKGROUND
The frequency response of a circuit is a measure of the output in comparison to the input, as a
function of frequency. The function used to characterize this is the transfer function, with its It
magnitude or gain, typically expressed in dB, and the phase shift, expressed in radians or
degrees. The frequency response is important in the analysis and design of filters, tuners,
amplifiers, etc.
A filter is a network designed to pass signals with a specific frequency range (passband) and
reject or attenuate signals whose frequencies lie outside of this passband. The most common
filters are low pass filters, Figure 9 - 1 (a), which pass low frequencies and reject high
frequencies, high pass filters, Figure 9 - 1 (b), which pass low frequencies and reject high
frequencies, bandpass filters Figure 9 - 1 (c), which pass a select band of frequencies and
reject those outside this range and band reject filters, Figure 9 - 1 (d), which reject a specific
band of frequencies and pass all other frequencies.

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 9 - 1 Basic types of filters. (a) low pass filter, (b) high pass filter, (c) band pass filter, and (d) band reject filter.

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PREPARATION
For circuits (a) and (b) in Figure 9 - 2, R = 1 k, C = 0.1 F. For circuit (c) in Figure 9 - 2, R1 =
1 k, R2 = 10 k, C1 = 0.01 F, C2 = 0.0056 F.
1. Derive the transfer function.
2. Plot or sketch the magnitude vs. frequency and the phase vs. frequency curves in a
linear or log scale.
3. Indicate if the circuit is a low pass, high pass, band pass or band reject filter.

SIMULATION
1. In Multisim, build and simulate the circuits (a) through (c) in Figure 9 - 2. Find the
frequency response for each circuit. This can be accomplished indirectly. Set the input
voltage magnitude to 5 V (pk-to-pk of 10 V). Vary the frequency of the input voltage
source from 100 Hz to 100 kHz, record the output voltage magnitude and the phase
difference between the input and the output voltages at each frequency. At least 10 or
more points are needed in order to completely describe the frequency response. Plot
the voltage vs. frequency curve and the phase vs. frequency curve in either linear or log
scale. Compare the results of circuit (a) and (b) with those from PREPARATION.
2. Specify whether its a low pass, high pass or band pass filter for the frequency response
curves obtained above.

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(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 9 - 2 Circuits

- 67 -

EXPERIMENT
1. On breadboard, build circuit (a) in Figure 9 - 2. Connect Ch1 to input and Ch2 to output
so that both the input and the output are displayed on the oscilloscope.
2. Set the input voltage to 5 . Vary the frequency from 100 Hz to 100 kHz. Refer to
SIMULATION for frequency response measurement. Plot the voltage vs. frequency
curve and the phase vs. frequency curve in either linear or log scale by selecting at
least ten frequency values and determining the amplitude and phase from the
oscilloscope.
3. Compare the result with that from PREPARATION and/or SIMULATION. What kind of
filter is it?
4. Repeat step 1 to 3 for circuit (b) and (c).

REPORT
Prepare your report as per the guidelines given in APPENDIX III.

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APPENDIX I.

STANDARD RESISTOR COLOR CODE

The color code for the resistor value utilizes two digits and a multiplier digit in that order, as
shown in Figure A - 1. A fourth band designates the tolerance.

Figure A - 1 Resistor with four color bands.

The resistance of a resistor with the four bands of color may be written as
10
Where A and B are the values of the first and second bands, respectively, C is a multiplier and
D is the tolerance. The color code together with multipliers and tolerances are listed in
Table A - 1.
Table A - 1 Electronic Color Code

Color

Significant
figures

Multiplier

Tolerance

Black
Brown
Red
Orange

0
1
2
3

100
101
102
103

--2%
--

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Yellow
4
104
-Green
5
105
-6
Blue
6
10
-7
Violet
7
10
-8
Gray
8
10
-White
9
---1
Gold
-10
5%
-2
Silver
-10
10%
None
--20%
For example, if a resistor has four color bands, red-violet-green-gold, as shown in Figure A - 1,
then
2

10

10

5%

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2.7

10

5%

APPENDIX II.

LIST OF AVAILABLE RESISTORS AND

CAPACITORS

Available resistors:

- 71 -

- 72 -

 Available capacitors:

- 73 -

APPENDIX III.

GUIDELINES TO WRITE A FINAL

LABORATORY REPORT

Lab reports are an essential part of all laboratory courses. The goal of lab reports is to
document your findings and communicate their significance. The ability to report technical
information in a clear and concise manner is one of the most important practical skills that a
technically trained person can develop.
A good lab report does more than present data. It demonstrates the writers comprehension of
the concepts behind the data. Simply recording the expected and observed results is not
sufficient. You should also identify how and why differences occurred, explain how they affect
your experiment and show your understanding of the principles the experiment was designed
to examine. Even though following a format is helpful, it cannot replace clear thinking,
organized writing and proper usage of engineering language.
The way an electrical networks lab report is written may be different from other subjects, such
as chemistry and biology. However, it should include at least the following sections: objectives,
equipment, simulations, experiments and conclusions.
Here are a few tips that could be used when writing up a lab report.

The title of the lab should be straightforward and informative. For example, instead of
using Lab #3, write Lab #3 Network Analysis Methods.
Since each circuit can be considered as one independent experiment, the procedure,
data, analysis and conclusion for that particular circuit should be placed in the same
area. Once everything about this circuit is finished, move on to the next one.
In most cases, your experimental data need to be compared with either calculated data
or simulated data, or both. In the case when the two dont match up, an explanation is
needed.
Numerical data should always be presented in a table with proper label and unit.
Graphics need to be clear and well labeled as well.
The conclusion section for the entire lab is general conclusion of what you learned,
explanation of the results obtained, your understanding of the whole lab, etc.
A printed version is always preferred.

Attached is a format example for a lab report. It may be used as a reference, and doesnt need
to be followed strictly.

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Lab # 1 DC MEASUREMENT [Title]

OBJECTIVE
[Objective list]

To understand the basics of DC (direct current) circuits.

To use a digital multimeter (DMM) to measure DC voltage, current and resistance.
To verify the valid measurement condition for a digital multimeter.

EQUIPMENT
[Equipment list]

Breadboard
DC Power supply
Digital multimeter

SIMULATION
1. Circuit 1 is simulated in Multisim. [Describe what is beingsimulated.]

- 75 -

[Screen shot of the circuit

simulated in Multisim]

Figure 1

Table 1

[Numerical data]
I (mA)
V1 (V)
V2 (V)

2. [Second

circuit (if any), brief description]

- 76 -

[Screen shot of the circuit

simulated in Multisim]

Figure 2

Table 2

[Numerical data]

EXPERIMENT
1. Measure the actual values of all resistors, and compare them with nominal values. [A brief
description for this step.]
Table 3

[Numerical data]

Nominal value

R1 ()
R2 ()
R3 ()

- 77 -

Measured value

2. Connect the circuit in Figure 3 and measure V1, V2 and I. Compare measured results with
calculated and simulated ones. [A brief description for this step.]
[Circuit is displayed in Figure 3, data is recorded in Table 4, and data comparison is done in
Table 5. Verify rules and laws if any.]

[Circuit for this step]

Figure 3

Table 4

[Numerical data]

Measured result

I (mA)
V1 (V)
V2 (V)

Table 5

[ Compare Data ]

Calculated result

I (mA)
V1 (V)
V2 (V)

- 78 -

Simulated result

Measured result

Verify Ohms Law:

Verify Voltage Divider Rule:
Verify KVL:
[Conclude, comment on what you have observed.]

3. [Same as step 1 or 2]

CONCLUSIONS
[Provide all the conclusions you have arrived at from the calculated, simulated and measured
results.]

- 79 -