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World Communicates
Describe the energy transformations required in one of the following:
-

Mobile phone

Sound -> Electrical -> Electromagnetic (Radio) -> Electrical -> Sound

Describe waves as a transfer of energy disturbance that may occur in

one, two or three dimensions, depending on the nature of the wave and
the medium.
Waves transfer energy though the kinetic energy in particles being propagated.
How many dimensions a wave has depends on the nature of the wave. A one
dimensional wave may occur in a slinky, a two dimensional wave may appear as
ripples on the surface of water, and a three dimensional wave occurs in sound.

Identify that mechanical waves require a medium for propagation while

electromagnetic waves do not.
Mechanical waves rely on the propagation of kinetic energy through particles,
and hence requires a medium. Electromagnetic waves do not, as it relies on
changes in electric fields.

Define and apply the following terms to the wave model: medium,
displacement, amplitude, period, compression, rarefaction, crest,
trough transverse waves, longitudinal waves, frequency, wavelength,
velocity.
Displacement is the distance that a single particle has moved from its
equilibrium position as a result of wave movement.

Longitudinal waves are waves in which the medium oscillates parallel to the
direction of wave propagation e.g. Sound.
Medium is the particles that a longitudinal wave propagates through.
Compression is the region in a longitudinal wave
where the particles are closest together
Rarefaction is the region in a longitudinal wave
where the particles are furthest apart.

Transverse waves are waves in which the medium oscillates perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation. E.g. Light

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Amplitude is the maximum displacement as a result of wave movement
Crest is the point of maximum displacement
Trough is the point of minimum displacement
(negative)

Note that a wave may be graphed as displacement over time, which indicates
the displacement of a single particle as time passes, or as displacement over
distance, which indicates the displacement of multiple particles as distance
increases.

Frequency is the number of wavelengths that pass through a point during a

second
Wavelength is the distance between successive waves in a wave
Velocity is the velocity at which the wave is moving, i.e. he distance travelled in
a second.

Describe the relationship between particle motion and the direction of

energy propagation in transverse and longitudinal waves.
In a transverse wave the particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation.
In a longitudinal wave, the particles oscillate parallel to the direction of wave
propagation.

Quantify the relation between velocity, frequency and wavelength for a

wave.

Therefore v=f

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Where V is ms-1, f is Hz, and is m

Identify that sound waves are vibrations or oscillations of particles in a

medium
Sound waves are longitudinal waves where particles oscillate perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.

Relate compressions and rarefactions of sound waves to the crests and

troughs of transverse waves used to represent them.

Explain qualitatively that pitch is related to frequency and volume to

amplitude of sound waves.
Pitch is affected by frequency. The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch,
and the lower the frequency, the lower the pitch. It is not affected by amplitude.
Volume is affected by amplitude. The higher the amplitude, the louder the
sound, the lower the amplitude, the softer the sound. It is not affected by
frequency.

Explain an echo as a reflection of a sound wave.

An echo is the reflection off an object of a sound wave back to the source. It may
be heard if the object does not absorb much sound energy.

Describe the principle of superposition and compare the resulting

waves to the original waves in sound.
Superposition is the phenomenon whereby two or more vibrations interfere with
each other, either amplifying or cancelling the noise.
Constructive interference is where two waves pass each other and net
displacement is increased.
Destructive interference is where two passing waves cancel each other out.

It may occur in the wave intersection of two speakers are placed next to each
other.

Describe electromagnetic waves in terms of their speed in space and

their lack of requirement of a medium for propagation.
An electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave where energy is passed through
by oscillation of electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Hence, they do not require a medium to travel through. They also
travel at the speed of light, which is 3x10 8ms-1.

Identify the electromagnetic wavebands filtered

atmosphere, especially UV X-rays, and gamma rays.

out

by

the

Uv, X-rays and gamma rays are generally filtered out by the earths ionosphere
and stratosphere.

Identify methods for the

electromagnetic spectrum.
Ray
Radio
Microwave
Infrared
Visible
UV
X-rays
Gamma Rays

detection

of

various

wavebands

in

Method of Detection
Radio Receivers connected to aerials
Aerials, satellites
Skin, night vision goggles
Eye, Photographic film
Photographic film
Photographic film
Photographic film

Explain that the relationship between the intensity of electromagnetic

radiation and distance from a source is an example of the inverse
square law:
Intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.

This can also be combined, such that I

Outline how the modulation of amplitude or frequency of visible light,

microwaves and/or radio waves can be used to transmit information.
Radio waves can be varied to transmit information via the varying of
instantaneous frequency and amplitude. Information is then carried through
superposition of a carrier wave. AM (amplitude modulation) uses a much
narrower range of frequencies, so more stations may fit into a smaller
bandwidth. FM (frequency modulation) does not depend on amplitude changes,
so strength of the signal does not change.
Microwaves, which are used for phones and television, rely on the modulation of
instantaneous frequency to differentiate the information.
Visible light may be used to transmit information through the use fibre optic
cables, generally used for fast internet connections across continents.

Discuss problems produced by the limited range of the electromagnetic

spectrum available for communication purposes.
As there is limited space, care must be taken in order to not overlap any of the
signals. For radio stations, each one is allocated a bandwidth, normally 0.2 MHz
of leeway.

Describe and apply the law of reflection and explain the effect of
reflection from a plane surface on waves.
In a reflection, the angle of incidence, in relation to
the normal is always equal to the angle of reflection.
The normal is the line perpendicular the surface at
point of incidence.

Describe ways in which the applications of reflection of light, radio

waves, and microwaves have assisted in information transfer.
Optic fibre cables rely on the internal reflection of light to transmit information
long distances with little information lost.
Radio waves may either bounce of the ionosphere to reach an area out of line of
sight, or it may bounce of a satellite in space to achieve the same effect.
Microwaves are used in radar (Radio direction and ranging), where any
reflections of microwaves are recorded to determine the distance and direction
of an object.

Describe one application of reflection for each of the following:

Reflection of plane surfaces create a virtual image, as an object appears behind
the mirror. It is normally used in household mirrors.
Reflection of concave surfaces reflects all light coming from the focus in parallel
lines away from the curve. It is used in car headlights; to maximise the distance
the light may travel.
Reflection of convex surfaces is used in driving mirrors, to increase the field of
view.
Reflection of radio waves are used to transmit information around the world. It
does so by bouncing a signal off the ionosphere, to reach areas that it previously
could not reach due to the curvature of the earth.

Explain that refraction is related to the velocities of a wave in different

media and outline how this may result in the bending of a wavefront.
When a wave travels into a denser medium, such as from air to water, it will
bend towards the normal, wavelengths are smaller and velocity is slower.
Frequency however, will remain the same.

Define refractive index in terms of changes in the velocity of a wave in

passing from one medium to another.
A refractive index (n) is a ratio of how much a wave speeds up or slows down
when entering another medium. The absolute refractive index is the refractive
index of a medium when it is being entered from a vacuum. i.e. velocity is equal
to the speed of light exactly.

Define Snells Law:

Each medium has a refractive index, which indicates how far the light will bend,
as well as the wavelength and velocity changes that occur.

Notes:
N2 and N1 are switched in order to everything else
The relative refractive index will be larger than 1 if medium 2 is denser than
medium 1. i.e. the n (absolute refractive index) also represents density.

Identify the conditions necessary for total internal reflection with

reference to the critical angle.
When a wave travels into a less dense medium, it will bend away from
normal. By adjusting the angle of incidence, there will be an angle where
angle of refraction becomes 90 degrees. The angle of incidence is called
critical angle. If the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, then
light simply reflects, and the laws of reflection apply instead.

the
the
the
the

Outline how internal reflection is used in optical fibres.

Optical fibre cables are made of pure, bubble-free glass. The core has a higher
refractive index than the cladding around it, and there is a plastic sheath around
that to prevent any stray light from entering. Because of the density of the
cladding, there is total internal reflection, allowing light to travel large distances.

Identify types of communication data that are stored or transmitted in

digital form.
Global Positioning Systems is used to accurately identify the location of a
receiver. This is done through triangulation in satellites, which is then
transmitted to the receiver.
CDs and DVDs can store video and sound, using a bumped metal coated disc.
Light is reflected off the surface, and the intensity of the measure light is then
translated into an electrical signal.
The internet is a huge database which stores an extremely large amount of data.
It can be used to both store digital data to be viewed by yourself or other people,
and also may be used to communicate between multiple people with an internet
connection.

Electrical Energy in the Home

Discuss how the main sources of domestic energy have changed over
time
1.5 million years ago, the source of energy was sunlight, muscles or fire from
wood. About 5000 years ago, boats exploited wind and water energy for
transportation. Then, the industrial revolution in the 18 th/19th century brought
about the use of coal as a main energy source. Today, we continue to mainly use
fossil fuels, as well as hydro, wind, nuclear and solar energy.

Assess some of the impacts of changes in, and increased access to,
sources of energy for a community.
The use of wind and water energy in boats allowed for more efficient trading
between countries. The burning of coal allowed the production of new types of
alloy, for example steel, but also spread pollution and disease. Now, renewable
sources are being created, such as solar, wind, and hydro to try and reduce the
environmental effects of pollution.

Discuss some of the ways in which electricity can be provided in remote

locations.
Small generators, where turbines are rotated by internal combustion engines
fuelled by petrol or oil may be used to provide electricity. Furthermore, solar
power or wind generators may be used to provide electricity in remote locations.

Describe the behaviour of electrostatic charges and the properties of

the fields associated with them.
Electrostatic charge is a charge due to an excess or deficiency of electrons.
Protons have positive charge and electrons have negative charge, and the
number of each determines the positive, negative or neutral nature of the
charge. Like charges repel, whereas unlike charges attract.
Electrostatic charges can be created via friction. When an object is rubbed
against another, electrons are transferred between the two objects, creating a
charge.

Define the unit of electric charge as the coulomb

The SI unit of electric change is the coulomb, which has the charge of
6.25x1018electrons/protons.

Define the electric field as a field of force with a field strength equal to
the force per unit charge at the point.

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An electric field is the region where a tiny electric charge experiences a force.
The strength may be calculated by
E = F/q
Where E is the electric field force, F is the force experienced by the charged
particle, and q is the charge on the particle.
The electric field direction is the direction a small positive charge would travel in.

Define electric current as the rates at which charge flows

(coulombs/second or amperes) under the influence of an electric field
Electric current is the rate at which charge flows. 1 Ampere is defined as the flow
of one coulomb though a specific point in one second.

Identify that current can be either direct with the net flow of charge
carriers moving in one direction or alternating with the charge carriers
moving backwards and forwards periodically.
Charge carriers are moving charges in an electric field, in this case, an electron.
There are two ways in which it may be transmitted. DC only moves the charge
carriers in one direction, whereas AC alternates the charge carriers backwards
and forwards by switching the polarity of terminals.

Describe electric potential difference (voltage) between two points as

the change in potential energy per unit charge moving from one point
to the other (joules/coulomb or volts)
Voltage is the change in potential energy or work per unit charge when moving
from one point to another.

Discuss how potential difference changes between different points

around a DC circuit.
From BC, the electric potential energy drops, as it is
dissipated by the resistor.
From DA, the electric potential energy rises, as
electrical potential energy is generated by the power
supply
From AB there should be no change, as wires have
very little resistance.
Identify the difference between conductors and insulators.
A conductor is a material which transmits heat or electric energy. An insulator is
a material which does not readily conduct heat or electric energy.

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In terms of electricity, a conductor contains charge carriers, and an insulator
does not, (though if the voltage is high enough, it can become a conductor e.g.
lightning in air)

Define resistance as the ratio of voltage to current for a particular

conductor
Resistance () is the potential difference across a resistor due to energy
dissipated by collisions of electrons. It can be defined as
V = IR
Where V is voltage, I is current, and R is resistance. This is known as Ohms Law.

Describe qualitatively how each of the following affects the movement

of electricity through a conductor.
Resistance is directly proportional to length, as there will be more places for
collisions to occur
Resistance increases with temperature, as the vibrations of the lattice increase,
increasing the change and intensity of collisions.
Resistance is inversely proportional to cross sectional area, as there is more
space for the electrons to travel between the lattice, reducing the chance of
collision
Resistance depends on the material used. All materials have a resistivity value
(p), which is measured in Ohm meters (m) at 20oc. The resistance of a wire can
then be calculated as:
R = (pl)/A

Identify the difference between series and parallel circuits.

In a series circuit, the components are arranged in a chain with one path for
current to flow through.
In parallel circuits, the components are arranged within branches that separate,
and the meet together again, with multiple paths of current flow.

Compare parallel and series circuits in terms of voltage across

components and current through them.
In series, the sum of the voltage across each of the components is equal to the
total voltage. The current remains the same through each component of the
circuit.
In parallel, the sum of the current is equal to the total current running through it,
and the voltage remains the same over both branches.

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Identify the uses of ammeters and voltmeters

Ammeters are used to measure current, while voltmeters are used to measure
voltage.

Explain why ammeters and voltmeters are connected differently in a

circuit
Ammeters are connected in series, and has minimal resistance, so that it does
not affect the thing that it is measuring, and it has minimal impact on the
voltage drop of the circuit.
Voltmeters are connected in parallel, and have maximal resistance, so that it will
have a minimal impact on the current throughout the rest of the circuit.

Explain why there are different circuits for lighting, heating and other
appliances in a house
Different circuits are used to control the maximum current that a specific
appliance may need. For example, lighting may require 8 amps, while a stove
may require 32 amps.

Explain that power is the rate at which energy is transformed from one
form to another
Power (Watts) is equal to energy over time. It is the rate at which energy is
transformed from one form to another

Identify the relationship between power, potential difference and

current
Voltage is energy per coulomb, while current is coulombs per second. If the two
are multiplied together, we get energy over time, which is equal to power.
Therefore, power is also equal to VI.

Identify that the total amount of energy used depends on the length of
time the current is flowing and can be calculated using:
Energy is P x T, where P is power, and T is time.

Explain why the kilowatt-hour is used to measure electrical energy

consumption rather than the joule

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Because if joules were used, the numbers would be incredibly huge, and
therefore inconvenient to use.
Describe the behaviour of the magnetic poles of bar magnets when
they are brought close together
Magnets have a north and south pole. When two magnets are brought close
together, like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
Also, the closer they are, the more the force increases.

Define the direction of the magnetic field at a point as the direction of

force on a very small north magnetic pole when placed at that point
A magnetic field is the area of influence surrounding a pole. The direction of the
field is the direction at which a small north magnetic pole would move when
placed there.

Describe the magnetic field around pairs of magnetic poles

Describe the production of a magnetic field by an electric current in a

straight current-carrying conductor and describe how the right hand
group rule can determine the direction of current and field lines
Current through a wire forms magnetic fields
in the form of concentric circles around the
conductor. When the right hand is positioned
such that the thumb is pointing towards the
direction of conventional current, the
remaining fingers represent the direction of
the magnetic field lines.
Compare the nature and generation of magnetic fields by solenoids and
a bar magnet
A solenoid is a cylindrical coil of wire acting as a
magnet when carrying electrical current. The poles
may be determined by using the right hand grip
rule in the direction of conventional current.

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Discuss the dangers of an electric shock from both a 240-volt AC mains
supply and various DC voltages, from appliances, on the muscles of the
body
0.001A may make a person feel the sensation of a shock.
0.01A will induce violent muscle contraction, meaning they may be unable to
release the wire
0.02A will paralyse the respiratory muscles, stopping breathing
0.1A passing through a region of the heart will shock the muscles into erratic
contractions, so that the heart may no longer function. Death may occur in a few
minutes. (A 240V AC mains supply is 0.25 mA)
1A will cause serious burns to body tissues.

Describe the functions of circuit breakers, fuses, earthing, double

insulation and other safety devices in the home.
Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers detect high amounts of current, which activates an
electromagnet which physically disconnects the circuit. It is aimed at preventing
electrocution during a short circuit, or a circuit overload.
Fuse
Fuses are a small wire that is designed to melt when the current going through it
is too high. Some people choose to replace it with an iron nail, which will allow
much more current through before melting, highly increasing the chance of
death during electrocution. The symbol for a fuse is shown below.

Earthing
Earthing connects the metal case of an appliance to the ground, and works with
the fuse to prevent the metal being electrified. If a live wire somehow becomes
exposed, and touches the metal case, the earth wire provides a path for the
electricity to go into the earth, completing the circuit. The resulting short circuit
then causes the fuse to burn out, thus cutting the circuit, and preventing the
metal case from being electrified.
Double Insulation
Double insulation is when the inside is covered in a layer of
plastic, meaning that there is no way for an exposed live wire to
touch the outer casing. This means that there is no need for an
earth wire, and a two core cable will suffice. The symbol for
double insulation is shown to the right.

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Cosmic Engine
Outline the historical development of models of the universe from the
time of Aristotle to the time of Newton

Aristotle
Aristarchus
Copernicus
Galileo

Outline the discovery of the expansion of the Universe by Hubble

following its earlier prediction by Friedmann
Describe the transformation of radiation into matter which followed the
Big Bang
Identify that Einstein describe the equivalence of energy and mass
Outline how the accretion of galaxies and stars occurred through:
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Expansion and cooling of the Universe

Subsequent loss of particle kinetic energy
Gravitational attraction between particles lumpiness
Lumpiness of the gas cloud that then allows gravitational collapse

Define the relationship between the temperature of a body and the

dominant wavelength of the radiation emitted from that body
Identify that the surface temperature of a star is related to its colour
Describe a Hertzprung-Russell diagram as the graph of a stars
luminosity against its colour or surface temperature
Identify energy sources characteristic of each star group, including
Main Sequence, Red Giants and White Dwarfs
Identify that energy may be released from the nuclei of atoms
Descrbe the nature of emissions from the nuclei of atoms as radiation
of alpha and beta particles and gamma rays in terms of
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Ionising power
Penetrating power
Effect of magnetic field
Effect of electric field

Idenfity the nature of emmisions reaching the Earth fro the Sun
Describe the particulate nature of the solar wind
Outline the cyclic nature of sunspot activity and its impact on Earth
through solar winds

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Describe sunspots as representing regions of strong magnetic activity
and lower temperature