Types of Aircraft Materials

A. Metal
B. Composite Material
C. Wood and Fabric
A.1 STRUCTURAL METALS

Knowledge and understanding of the uses, strengths, limitations, and other characteristics of
structural metals is vital to properly construct and maintain any equipment, especially
airframes.
In aircraft maintenance and repair, even a slight deviation from design specification, or the
substitution of inferior materials, may result in the loss of both lives and equipment.
The use of unsuitable materials can readily erase the finest craftsmanship. The selection of
the correct material for a specific repair job demands familiarity with the most common
physical properties of various metals.

A.2 PROPERTIES OF METAL

1. Hardness - refers to the ability of a material to resist abrasion, penetration, cutting action,
or permanent distortion. Hardness may be increased by cold working the metal and, in the
case of steel and certain aluminum alloys, by heat treatment.
2. Strength - one of the most important properties of a material is strength. Strength is the
ability of a material to resist deformation. Strength is also the ability of a material to resist
stress without breaking.
3. Density - is the weight of a unit volume of a material. In aircraft work, the specified weight
of a material per cubic inch is preferred since this figure can be used in determining the
weight of a part before actual manufacture.
4. Malleability - a metal which can be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various shapes
without cracking, breaking, or leaving some other detrimental effect, is said to be malleable.
5. Ductility - is the property of a metal which permits it to be permanently drawn, bent, or
twisted into various shapes without breaking. This property is essential for metals used in
making wire and tubing.
6. Elasticity - is that property that enables a metal to return to its original size and shape when
the force which causes the change of shape is removed. This property is extremely valuable
because it would be highly undesirable to have a part permanently distorted after an
applied load was removed.
7. Toughness - a material which possesses toughness will withstand tearing or shearing and
may be stretched or otherwise deformed without breaking. Toughness is a desirable
property in aircraft metals.
8. Brittleness - is the property of a metal which allows little bending or deformation without
shattering. A brittle metal is apt to break or crack without change of shape.
9. Fusibility - is the ability of a metal to become liquid by the application of heat.
10. Conductivity - is the property which enables a metal to carry heat or electricity. The heat
conductivity of a metal is especially important in welding because it governs the amount of
heat that will be required for proper fusion.
11. Thermal Expansion - refers to contraction and expansion that are reactions produced in

metals as the result of heating or cooling.

=) An alloy is composed of two or more metal elements mixed together with a strong bond.

A.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF METAL

1. Ferrous metal
2. Non-ferrous metal
3. Other metals

1. Ferrous Metal
Any alloy containing iron as its chief constituent is called a ferrous metal.
The most common ferrous metal in aircraft structures is steel, an alloy of iron with a
controlled amount of carbon added.

Alloying agents in Steel

#Iron
- It is a chemical element which is fairly soft, malleable, and ductile in its pure form.
- Iron combines readily with oxygen to form iron oxide, which is more commonly known as rust. This
is one reason why iron is usually mixed with various forms of carbon and other alloying agents or
impurities.
- Cast iron has few aircraft applications because of its low strength-to-weight ratio. However, it is
used in engines for items such as valve guides where its porosity and wear characteristics allow it to hold a
lubricant film. It is also used in piston rings.

#Steel
- To make steel, pig iron is re-melted in a special furnace. Pure oxygen is then
forced through the molten metal where it combines with carbon and burns. A
controlled amount of carbon is then put back into the molten metal along with other
elements to produce the desired characteristics.
#Carbon
- It is the most common alloying element found in steel. It is the carbon in steel
that allows the steel to be heat treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness,
strength, and toughness.
- The greater the carbon content, the more receptive steel is to heat treatment
and, therefore, the higher its tensile strength and hardness. However, higher carbon
content decreases the malleability and weldability of steel.
# Sulfur
- Causes steel to be brittle when rolled or forged and, therefore, it must be
removed in the refining process. If all the sulfur cannot be removed its effects can be
countered by adding manganese.

# Phosphorous
- Raises the yield strength of steel and improves low carbon steel's resistance to
atmospheric corrosion.
# Nickel
- Adds strength and hardness to steel and increases its yield strength. It also
slows the rate of hardening when steel is heat-treated, which increases the depth of
hardening and produces a finer grain structure.
# Chromium
- It is alloyed with steel to increase strength and hardness as well as improve its
wear and corrosion resistance.
SAE Classification of Steels
- Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
- An organization that has established standards for materials and processes
that are widely used in the aviation industry.
- Steel used in aircraft structure is classified according to the SAE four-digit
numbering system that identifies its composition.
SAE Four-digit System
First Digit: basic alloying element
Second Digit: the percentage of the basic element in the alloy
Third and Fourth: percentage of carbon in the alloy in hundredths of a percent

Some of most commonly used SAE steels:

1xxx Carbon Steel
Types of Carbon Steel:
1. Low-carbon Steel containing 0.10% and 0.30% carbon. Used for
making safety wire and certain secondary structural parts where strength is not
critical.
2. Medium-carbon Steel containing 0.30% and 0.50% carbon. Used
for machined and forged parts, especially where surface hardening is needed.

3. High-carbon Steel containing 0.50% and 1.05% carbon. Used where

extreme hardness is required, springs are made of high-carbon steel.
2xxx Nickel Steel
- Nickel may be alloyed with carbon steel to increase its hardness, tensile
strength, and elastic limit without appreciably decreasing ductility.
- SAE 2330 steel is used for aircraft bolts, cable terminals, keys, clevises,
and pins.
3xxx Nickel chromium Steel
- Nickel gives toughness to steel, and chromium hardens it.
- SAE 3130 and 3250 are used for forged and machined parts where high
strength, ductility, toughness, and shock resistance are needed.
41xx Chrome-molybdenum Steel
- This alloy combines toughness and high strength with ease of welding
and machining.
- SAE 4130 is used extensively for welded steel structure such as
fuselage frames, landing gear, and engine mounts.
- Engine cylinders and other highly stressed parts are often made of SAE
4130 steel.
6xxx Chrome-vanadium Steel
- Used extensively for wrenches and other hand tools where extremely
high strength and hardness are essential.
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2. Non-Ferrous Metal
- Much of the metal used on today's aircraft contains no iron. The term
that describes metals which have elements other than iron as their base is
nonferrous.
- Aluminum, copper, titanium, and magnesium are some of the more
common nonferrous metals used in aircraft construction and repair.
a. Aluminum
- It is one of the most widely used metals in modern aircraft construction.
- It is vital to the aviation industry because of its high strength to weight
ratio and its comparative ease of fabrication.
- The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its light weight. It is
nonmagnetic and is an excellent conductor.
- Pure aluminum is light weight and corrosion resistant, but it lacks
strength for use as a structural material. Other elements are mixed with it to
increase its strength, but it becomes susceptible to corrosion.

Four Digit Index System

- Aluminum and aluminum alloys are designated by a four digit index system.
The system is broken into three distinct groups: 1xxx group, 2xxx through 8xxx
group, and 9xxx group (which is currently unused).
First Digit: Alloy type
Second Digit: Modification of Alloy
Third and Fourth Digit: Purity of Aluminum or different alloy in the group
Second Digit

- The second digit indicates specific alloy modifications.

- Second number be zero, it would indicate no special control over individual
impurities or it indicates original alloy.
- Digits 1 through 9, indicate the number of controls over individual impurities in
the metal.

Third and Fourth Digit

- The last two digits of the 1xxx group are used to indicate the hundredths of 1
percent above the original 99 percent designated by the first digit.

- In the 2xxx through 8xxx groups, the last two of the four digits in the designation
identify the different alloys in the group.
List of most generally used alloy types for aircraft structural aluminum:
Alloy 1100
- Is a low strength, commercially pure aluminum that can be only be used in
non-structural applications where strength is not important.
- High thermal and electrical conductivity, good corrosion resistance and is easy
to work.
Alloy 2024
- Is the most popular structural aluminum alloy. Its strength is equivalent to the
mild steel, but its susceptible to corrosion.
Alloy 3003
- It is similar to 1100 and is used for the same types of applications. It is
nonheat treatable but it can be hardened by cold working.
Alloy 5052
- Is used for welded applications such as fuel tanks and for rigid fluid lines.
When it is exposed to temperature above 150OF, or when it is excessively cold
worked, its susceptibility to corrosion increases.
Alloy 6061
- Used in applications where heat treatability, ease forming, medium strength,
and good corrosion resistance are needed.
Alloy 7075
- Used for high strength structural requirements.
Clad Aluminum
- An aluminum alloy sheet that has a coating of pure aluminum rolled onto its
surface.

- Aluminum alloy are corrosive, but pure aluminum is not. The pure aluminum
cladding protects the core alloy sheet from corrosion.
- Alclad and Pureclad are registered trade name for clad aluminum alloy sheets.
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloy
- Is the lightest structural metal, weighing only about two thirds as much as
aluminum.
- Pure magnesium does not have enough strength for use as structural material,
but when alloyed with aluminum, zinc, or manganese, its strength is sufficient. It can
be forged or rolled into thin sheets.
- It is highly susceptible to corrosion and its has a tendency to crack when it is
subjected to excessive vibration. Under certain conditions magnesium dust and fine
chips can be ignited easily.
Copper and Copper Alloy
- It is one of the most widely distributed metals. Its use as a structural material
is limited because of its great weight.
- Some of its outstanding characteristics, such as its high electrical and heat
conductivity, in many cases overbalance the weight factor.
- In aircraft, copper is used primarily in the electrical system for bus bars,
bonding, and as lockwire.
Titanium and Titanium Alloy
- Has high structural strength which it retains to high temperature. It is used in
turbine engines, and for aircraft skins in areas where the temperature is high.
- It may be welded, but because it reacts with oxygen at high temperatures, it
must be protected from the air with a blanket of inert gas. Inert gas welding is used.
Titanium Designation
- The A-B-C classification of titanium alloys was established to provide a
convenient and simple means of describing all titanium alloys. Titanium and titanium
alloys possess three basic types of crystals: A (alpha), B (beta), and C (combined
alpha and beta).
1. A (alpha) all around performance; good weldability; tough and strong both cold
and hot, and resistant to oxidation.
2. B (beta) bendability; excellent bend ductility; strong both cold and hot, but
vulnerable to contamination.
3. C (combined alpha and beta for compromise performances) strong when
cold and warm, but weak when hot; good bendability; moderate contamination
resistance; excellent forgeability.
Titanium Corrosion Characteristics
- The corrosion resistance of titanium deserves special mention. The resistance
of the metal to corrosion is caused by the formation of a protective surface film of
stable oxide or chemi-absorbed oxygen. Film is often produced by the presence of
oxygen and oxidizing agents.

3. Other Metals
a. Corrosion Resistant Steel
- Commonly called stainless steel. It contains large amounts of chromium and
nickel.

- Their strength and resistance to corrosion make them well suited for
hightemperature applications such as firewalls and exhaust system components.
- Is not normally classified in the SAE system, rather it is identified by a threedigit system.
- Corrosion resistant steel can be divided into three general groups based on
their chemical structure: austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic.
1. Austenitic Steel
- Also referred to as 200 and 300 series stainless steels, contain a large
percentage of chromium and nickel, and in the case of the 200 series, some
manganese.
- Can be hardened only by coldworking while heat treatment serves only
to anneal them.
2. Ferritic Steel
- Are primarily alloyed with chromium but many also contain small
amounts of aluminum.
- It contains no carbon and, therefore, do not respond to heat treatment.
3. Martensitic Steel
- These steels are alloyed with chromium only and therefore are magnetic.
- This steel become extremely hard if allowed to cool rapidly by quenching
from an elevated temperature. It also referred as 400 series of stainless steel.
b. Monel
- Leading high nickel alloy combines the properties of high strength and
excellent corrosion resistance.
- Used for gears and chains to operate retractable landing gears, and for
structural parts subject to corrosion.
- Is used for parts demanding both strength and high resistance to corrosion,
such as exhaust manifolds and carburetor needle valves and sleeves.
b. K Monel
- A nonferrous alloy containing mainly nickel, copper, and aluminum. It is
produced by adding a small amount of aluminum to the Monel formula.
- It is corrosion resistant and capable of being hardened by heat treatment. Used
for gears and structural members in aircraft which are subjected to corrosive attacks.

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