Russian Journal of Nondestructive Testing, Vol. 37, No. 2, 2001, pp. 7999. Translated from Defektoskopiya, No.

2, 2001, pp. 325.

Original Russian Text Copyright 2001 by Bida, Nichipuruk, Tsarkova.

MAGNETIC
AND ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS

Magnetic Properties of Steels

after Quenching and Tempering.
I. General. Carbon Steels
G. V. Bida, A. P. Nichipuruk, and T. P. Tsarkova
Institute of Metal Physics, Ural Division of Russian Academy of Sciences, Yekaterinburg, Russia
Received August 4, 2000

AbstractThe publication is composed of three parts. The first describes characteristics that are used
in nondestructive tests of ferromagnetic components and assemblies, and the classification of these
characteristics with structure- and phase-sensitive ones. Physical processes during quenching and tempering of carbon and low-alloyed steels are discussed, alongside their effect on the coercive force, saturation magnetization, electric resistivity, and hardness of the 30Kh3MFA, 40KhFA, and ShKh15
steels. These parameters are given as functions of the heating temperature in the processes of quenching and tempering of these steels.

By the present time, we have investigated 1 the magnetic and mechanical parameters and electric resistivity of various sorts of steel with different chemical compositions as functions of heating temperatures
for quenching, Tquen, and tempering, Ttemp [136]. Attempts have been made to summarize and classify
these data [3739]. The necessity arose to summarize the data concerning the effect of thermal processing
on the mentioned properties of steels. The authors of this publication hope that this information will be
helpful, primarily, for workers of industrial laboratories at machine-building factories and research laboratories engaged in NDT studies of thermally processed steel components, and also for students specializing in NDT techniques.
STRUCTURE- AND PHASE-SENSITIVE
MAGENTIC PARAMETERS
Figure 1 plots the magnetization curve and the descending branch of the hysteresis loop of a ferromagnetic material. The graph shows magnetic characteristics of materials that are measured in steels
when nondestructive techniques are being developed for assessing their qualities, including those of
thermally processed steels. Here Hc is the coercive force, Hr is the relaxation coercive force, Hmax is
the magnetic field intensity corresponding to the highest magnetic susceptibility max, Hs is the magnetic field of technical saturation, Ms is the saturation magnetization, Mr is the residual magnetization,
Mmax is the magnetization corresponding to the highest susceptibility, and MHr is the relaxation
magnetization.
The relaxation magnetic susceptibility, which will be discussed in this paper, is calculated by the formula r = MHr /Hr. This is the slope of the straight line connecting the return point MHr to the origin. The
definitions of the basic parameters of ferromagnetic materials are given in the State Standard GOST
19693-74: Magnetic Materials. Terminology and definitions.
The magnetic parameters are usually grouped as structure-sensitive and phase-sensitive ones. The first
group, traditionally, includes the coercive force Hc, the initial, in, maximal, max, and relaxation, r, susceptibility parameters, the magnetic field corresponding to the maximal magnetic susceptibility (permeability), Hmax, and the energy P lost to one cycle of sample magnetization [40, 41]. The second group
incorporates the saturation magnetization Ms [42], and the electric parameters, such as the electric resistivity and termo-emf Et. This classification, however, is not absolute. The magnetic susceptibility parameters in, max, and r, which are proportional to the saturation magnetization squared [49, 50], are also
1

E.Yu. Sazhina took part in these measurements. Relaxation magnetic parameters have also been measured in samples of
some sorts of steel, which were previously studied by V.M. Morozova.
1061-8309/01/3702-0079$25.00 2001 MAIK Nauka/Interperiodica

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BIDA et al.

Ms
Mr

Mmax(H)

max
Hr

Hc
r

Hmax

Hs

MHr

Fig. 1. Magnetization curve and section of the downward branch of the hysteresis loop of a ferromagnetic
material (schematic diagram).

susceptible to the phase state of the material. The relaxation magnetization MHr is also susceptible to both
structure and phase composition. The resistivity is also structure-sensitive to a certain degree [51]. These
issues will be partly discussed in this paper.
CARBON AND LOW-ALLOYED STEELS
Processes during Quenching
A steel is quenched by heating it above a critical temperature Ac1 or Ac3, keeping it at this temperature for a certain time, and cooling rapidly. The heating temperature is selected to perform the
transformation of the iron crystal lattice (austenization); the time of exposure to the high temperature
should be sufficient to obtain a homogenous -solid solution (this requires the completion of the
transformation, dissolution of carbides, etc.); the rate of cooling to a certain temperature Mon (the onset
of the martensite transformation) should be higher than a certain critical value; only in this case will the
iron crystal lattice restructure without diffusion ( ) [43, 52]. The goal of the quenching process is
formation of the martensite structure, i.e., an oversaturated solution of carbon and other alloying elements in -Fe.
Two morphological types of the martensite are known: the lamellar and lath martensites. The lamellar
(acicular) martensite is generated in medium- and high-carbon steels. Its crystals have lamellar shapes.
The middle zone of a plate, which is dubbed midrib, is the region of a high density of twinning surfaces.
The outside zones of a plate are sliding surfaces. After the moment when the temperature drops to Mon in
the process of cooling, the first generated martensite plates penetrate through the entire austenite grain,
which is divided by these plates. A martensite plate cannot penetrate through the boundary of an austenite grain, therefore the dimensions of these plates are limited to those of the austenite grain. Plates that are
generated later have smaller dimensions and define smaller regions in the austenite.
Martensite plates grow at a great speed. Probably, this is the reason why the mechanism of additional
deformation changes: from twinning in the midrib to sliding on the periphery. Owing to the high speed of
the plate growth, the heat-sinking mechanism is not quite efficient, which leads to the change in the additional deformation mechanism [43].
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81

Even when the temperature drops to that at which the martensitic transformation terminates, Mterm,
a certain quantity of residual austenite remains. The remaining austenite is different from that in the initial form because the former has a higher density of defects due to the local plastic strain generated by the
martensite crystals. Near these crystals, one can observe clusters of dislocations, networks of intertwined
dislocations, etc. Higher temperatures of the austenitic transformation lead to greater stability of the overcooled austenite because the austenite phase produced at higher temperatures has a more homogeneous
chemical composition and larger grain dimensions.
The lath martensite is typical of low-carbon and medium-carbon steels, most of structural alloyed
steels, and carbon-free iron alloys. Its structure is composed of thin laths aligned with one axis
and assembled in packages. Within one package, neighboring laths are separated by small- and
large-angle boundaries. The lath width is small (0.10.2 m). This martensitic structure contains no
twins. Complex networks of dislocations in laths at high dislocation densities look like the structure of
a metal after cold plastic deformation. The laths consist of elongated and slightly misaligned subgrains.
The martensitic transition in the process of quenching hardens steels considerably owing to several factors. Among them are the reduction of grains, the phase hardening, which generates a highly fragmented
structure, and formation of the oversaturated -solid solution.
A martensitic structure with optimal operational characteristics can be obtained only by performing the
technological process strictly to the prescribed regimes. Insufficient heating can result in the absence of
the steel austenization or incomplete austenization, which can lead to an incompolete dissolution of carbides. This is also possible when the exposure time to the high temperature is insufficient. After that the
quenching does not bring about the martensitic transformation: this transformation can be partial, or the
resulting material may contain a great quantity of excessive carbides. After insufficient heating, the resulting material is usually troostite, or one of various combinations of the troostite and martensite, etc.
Overheat favors growth of austenitic grains and leads to a smaller number of grain boundaries, which
act as obstacles for growing martensite crystals. As concerns high-carbon and medium-carbon (predominantly alloyed) steels, two temperature ranges of austenitic grain growth are defined. In the lower range,
carbide inclusions that have not dissolved are present, which impedes the grain growth. In the upper
range the austenite has the one-phase structure, and the grains grow continuously. As a result of this
unimpeded grain growth, the martensite plate dimensions are larger, hence the higher content of the
residual austenite.
After the complete dissolution of the carbide phase, further increase in the heating temperature of the
quenching has no effect on the transformation and the quantity of the residual austenite.
Tempering Processes
The contemporary theory of transformations in the process of tempering specifies temperature intervals
associated with the sequence of changes in the structure and phase composition of a quenched steel as the
temperature increases [43, 52, 53].
As was noted above, the initial structure of a steel in the quenched state includes the martensite
(lamellar or lath), which has the tetragonal -lattice, and the residual austenite. The morphological type
and tetragonal parameter of the -lattice are determined mostly by the carbon content. The martensite
structure is characterized by the high density of structural defects, such as dislocations, low-angle and
high-angle boundaries, and twinning surfaces. Let us consider the sequence of processes for tempering
steels.
Precipitation. It occurs in high-carbon steels at temperatures ranging from the room temperature
to 8090C. In this process, isolated carbon atoms from the oversaturated solid solution are absorbed
by structural imperfections. On some crystallographic planes, clusters are formed, i.e., zones rich in
carbon.
First transformation (90180C). This is the first stage of the martensite decay. Carbon is precipitated from the oversaturated solid solution. The martensite decay generates two phases. In addition
to the martensite which has not yet decayed and has the initial carbon concentration, a phase depleted
of carbon owing to its ejection from the solid solution is produced. The quantity of this phase increases gradually. The resulting structure is termed tempered martensite. From the fraction of the solid solution without twins, metastable -carbide with the hexagonal lattice (its tentative formula is Fe2.4C)
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coherently matched to the martensite lattice is precipitated. In steels with the carbon content lower than
0.2%, no -carbide is generated because most of the carbon is bound to dislocations. The twinning surfaces of the plate-type martensite are sources of low-temperature cementite with the rhombic lattice,
whose parameters are different from those of the Fe3C lattice. The supposed formula of this cementite
is Fe2C.
In steels with the carbon content below 0.6%, the first transformation is negligible in the process of
tempering. This transformation occurs in the process of quenching because carbon atoms bound to structural defects have lower energies than those at their usual interstitial positions in the lattice. The lower the
carbon content, the higher the onset temperature Mon of the martensite transformation, and the higher the
rate of carbon diffusion to defects of the crystal structure. As a result, low-carbon steels are more prone to
the self-tempering process.
Second transformation (180260C). In this process the residual austenite decays to a heterogeneous
mixture of the oversaturated -solid solution and plates of cementite or -carbide. The process is similar
to the bainite transformation of the primary austenite.
A concurrent process is the second stage of the martensite decay to one phase. This decay gradually
decreases the carbon content in the solid solution, which leads to lower values of the tetragonal parameter
of the martensite lattice and the internal stress. The products of the martensite decay and residual austenite are identical at one temperature. The second stage of the martensite decay proceeds at temperatures of
up to 300C and even higher.
On this stage of the decay in high-carbon steels, -carbide with the monoclinic lattice and supposed
formula Fe5C2 is precipitated.
Third transformation. It occurs in the temperature interval of 300 to 400C. The remaining excessive carbon is ejected from the solid -solution, the carbides are fully unbound (their lattices no longer
match that of the -phase), and both the density and distribution of defects in the -phase change. The
low-temperature carbides transform to the cementite. The latter is the product of interaction between
the iron and carbon ejected from the structural defects and the solid solution that has ultimately
decayed.
The processes of recovery and recrystallization in the -phase take place over a broad interval of temperatures. These processes are impeded by carbon particles, which pin both isolated dislocations and largeangle and small-angle boundaries. It was noted that, under conditions of gradual heating, the recovery in
the -phase is most rapid at 450C. In the lath martensite, small-angle boundaries disperse (this process
is similar to coalescence in annealed cold-strained metals). At higher tempering temperatures, recrystallization occurs in the ferrite.
Fourth transformation (500700C). The matrix is further recrystallized, the cementite is doped
with chemical elements from the carbide, and the carbide particles merge. These processes are interrelated. When the pinning of large-angle boundaries is weakened as a result of merging of carbide particles, the recrystallized grains grow owing to the motion of these boundaries. At temperatures of
550600C, these processes are assisted by the dissolution of the carbide due to the higher limit on the
carbon solvability in -Fe.
Effect of Quenching and Tempering on Magnetic Properties of Steels,
Their Hardness and Electric Resistivity
This paper considers only the effect of quenching and tempering processes on Hc, Ms, MHr, r, , and
HRC of the steels 30Kh3MFA, 40KhFA, and ShKh15. Measurements of these parameters in these sorts
of steel are plotted in Fig. 2. As concerns other sorts of steel, the description of their characteristics will
be less detailed. Chemical compositions of the steels under investigation are listed in Table 1, and
parameters of thermal processing of samples are given in Table 2. This paper reports on investigations
of carbon steels, the second paper is dedicated to low-alloyed sorts, and the third to high-chromium
steels.
Coercive force. The coercive force of magnetically soft materials is determined by the average force
impeding irreversible displacements of domain walls in the process of cyclic magnetization. Factors
impeding these displacements can be nonferromagnetic inclusions of various shapes and dimensions,
stressed zones due to dislocations and other species, stress gradients, boundaries between different phases, grains and subgrains, other inhomogeneities and defects of the crystal lattice [44].
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MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF STEELS AFTER QUENCHING AND TEMPERING. I.

Hc, /m

II

(a)

50

50

35

35

20

20

5
(b)
1700

1600
Ms, /m

1600
1400
1500

1200

1400

1000
(c)
2500

MHr, /m

2500
2000

2000

1500

1500

1000

1000

(d)
160
120
120

90

80

60
30
700

800
900
Tquen,

1000

40

200

400
600
Ttemp,

800

Fig. 2. (a) Coercive force Hc, (b) saturation magnetization Ms, (c) relaxation magnetization MHr, (d) magnetic susceptibility r, (e) electric resistivity , and (f) hardness of the steels () 30Kh3MFA, () 40KhFA, and () ShKh15 versus heating temperatures for (I) quenching and (II) tempering.

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BIDA et al.
I

II

(e)

50
35

, m

40
30
30

25

20
(f)
65

HRC

60
45

50

30

35

15
20
700

800
900
Tquen,

1000

200

400
600
Ttemp,

800

Fig. 2. (Contd.)

When domain walls (DW) in a crystal are pinned by randomly distributed large (din >> 180) nonferromagnetic inclusions of the spherical shape [45], the coercive force is given by the formula
12

12

2.8 180 1in2 din 2 Lx

Hc

ln
.
0 M s S1 2 180 180

(1)

If inclusions are small (din << 180),

1.75 180 1in2
Hc
0 M s S1 2

12

2 Lx
ln
.
din

(2)

When domain walls are impeded by stressed zones around dislocations, whose density is r [46],
12

3 s Gbr 1 4 1 +
2 Lz
12
Hc
1 + 180r 180 ln
.
12
8 0 M s S 1
180

(3)

Finally, if domain walls are impeded by boundaries of mosaic blocks with average dimension l [47],
32
3180
Hc =
2 0 Ms S1 2 l1 2

l
ln

180

12

E
.
x

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MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF STEELS AFTER QUENCHING AND TEMPERING. I.

85

Table 1. Chemical compositions of the steels under investigation, wt %

Serial
Sort of steel
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46

30
35
45
U8
U8
U10
U12
50G
75G
12KhN3
20KhN3
15KhSND
20N2M
20KhMA
30KhMA
25Kh1MF
25Kh1MF
30KhGSA
30KhGSNA
Kh3MFA
38KhS
38KhGN
38KhN3M
38KhMYuA
40Kh
40KhFA
40Kh1NVA
40KhN2MA
45KhN
45KhMF
45Kh1
50KhNM
50KhN1M
65S2VA
ShKh15
SP28
SP33
Kh13
20Kh13
30Kh13
40Kh13
40Kh9S2
40Kh10S2M
14Kh12N2
EI992
95Kh18

State
Standard
(GOST)
105074

143574

454371

1050063

454371

1070278

1495979
80178

563272

596961

563272

Si

Mn

Cr

0.31
0.36
0.49
0.83
0.81
1.03
1.18
0.52
0.73
0.10
0.18
0.17
0.17
0.20
0.30
0.24
0.26
0.34
0.35
0.27
0.38
0.39
0.33
0.37
0.38
0.38
0.39
0.38
0.48
0.47
0.43
0.48
0.55
0.64
1.02
0.27
0.34
0.14
0.21
0.27
0.37
0.40
0.41
0.17
0.72
0.89

0.23
0.24
0.28
0.23
0.34
0.33
0.33
0.22
0.21
0.24
0.26
0.49
0.20
0.24
0.26
0.35
0.34
1.15
1.12
0.23
1.25
1.00
0.19
0.33
0.28
0.28
0.29
0.21
0.24
0.32
0.24
0.28
0.30
1.60
0.23
0.98
1.03
0.79
0.48
0.35
0.24
2.25
2.3
0.39
1.43
0.20

0.52
0.50
0.71
0.28
0.35
0.29
0.25
1.00
0.81
0.43
0.47
0.56
0.56
0.46
0.57
0.54
0.53
1.00
1.05
0.47
0.37
0.30
0.35
0.53
0.73
0.70
0.50
0.60
0.61
0.65
0.72
0.70
0.72
0.77
0.28
0.66
0.54
0.25
0.26
0.33
0.48
0.34
0.6
0.70
0.45
0.41

0.10
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.2
0.15
0.18
0.10
0.08
0.83
0.86
0.68
0.19
0.83
0.93
1.70
1.67
1.03
1.1
2.70
1.37
0.65
1.30
1.41
1.03
0.10
1.48
0.82
0.51
0.93
1.08
0.86
0.87
0.29
1.62
2.90
2.82
12.5
12.8
13.8
13.8
8.9
9.5
16.98
19.8
18.0

Ni

Mo

0.1

0.10

0.15
0.20
0.15

2.87
3.15
0.40
1.74

0.20
0.20
0.16

1.00

0.92
2.95

0.1

1.59
1.33
1.07
1.16
0.1
1.57
1.60

0.99
1.14

0.2

2.5
1.5

0.22
0.15
0.16
0.31
0.28

0.20

0.26
0.25

0.11
0.17

0.21

0.30
0.22

0.44
0.44

0.8

0.08

0.25
0.26

0.08

0.12

0.16

0.12
0.10

Cu

0.023
0.014
0.022
0.025
0.03
0.025
0.026
0.05 0.016

0.024

0.025

0.020
0.22 0.025

0.012

0.020
0.19 0.021
0.12 0.005
0.11 0.005
0.05 0.012
0.18 0.015
0.1
0.022

0.009
0.20 0.019
0.05 0.008
0.012
0.020
0.014

0.009

0.016
0.17 0.020
0.14 0.01

0.022
0.1
0.016
0.1
0.015

0.011

0.008

0.006

0.005

0.010

0.018

0.011

0.02

0.012

P
0.03
0.013
0.028
0.032
0.033
0.032
0.032
0.009
0.015
0.015
0.016
0.030
0.021
0.023
0.022
0.019
0.017
0.012
0.020
0.022
0.011
0.024
0.012
0.020
0.019
0.021
0.015
0.019
0.020
0.024
0.024
0.018
0.019
0.010
0.026
0.009
0.008
0.026

0.020
0.010

0.02
0.018

* The steels 40Kh1NVA, 65S2VA, SP28, and SP33 contain 0.55, 1.02, 0.89, and 0.98% of tungsten, respectively, and the
steel 38KhMYuA 0.7% of aluminum.
** The steel 12Kh13 belongs to the class MF; the steels 20Kh13, 30Kh13, 40Kh13, 4Kh9S2, 4Kh10S2M, 14Kh17N2,
EI992, and 95Kh18 to the class M. The steels 12Kh13, 20Kh13, 30Kh13, and 40Kh13 belong to the type 13, in what concerns
their chromium content; the steels 14Kh17N2, EI992, and 95Kh18 to the type 17.

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Table 2. Parameters of thermal processing of steels

Serial
Sort of steel
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

30
35
45
U8
U8*
U8
U10
U12
50G
75G*
12KhN3A
20KhN3A
15KhSND
20N2M
20KhMA
30KhMA
25Kh1MF
25Kh1MF
30KhGSA
30KhGSNA
30Kh3MFA
38KhS
38KhGN
38KhN3M
38KhMYuA

Tquen, C

Cooling
material

850
850
850
850
850
850
800
800
850
850
860
820
900
860
880
880
950
950
900
900
870
900
860
850
860

Water

Oil

Water
Water
Water
Oil

Air
Oil

Water
Oil

Time
Serial
of tempeSort of steel
no.
ring, h
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.5
2
2
2
1.5
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46

40Kh
40KhFA
40Kh1NVA
40KhN2MA
45KhN
45KhMFA
45Kh1
50KhNM
50KhN1M
65S2VA
ShKh15
ShKh15*
SP28
SP33
12Kh13
20Kh13
30Kh13
40Kh13
40Kh9S2
40Kh10S2M
14Kh12N2
EI992
95Kh18
95Kh18*
95Kh18*

Tquen, C

Cooling
material

Time
of tempering, h

860
880
880
850
850
870
860
830
870
850
850
850
950
950
1000
1030
1030
1000
1020
1020
1030
1050
1000
1070
1100

Oil

Air
Oil

1.5
1.5
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

* A batch of samples was processed in liquid nitrogen after quenching.

In these formulas din and in are the mean diameter and volume concentration of nonferromagnetic
inclusions; 180, S, and = 180 are the thickness, area, and the specific surface energy, respectively, of
a 180 domain wall; Ms is the saturation magnetization; 0 = 4 107 J/(A2 m); is the Poisson ratio; G
is the elasticity modulus; b is the magnitude of the Burgers vector; s is the magnetostriction in the saturated state; and |E|/x is the energy gradient. The latter parameter for iron and nickel, and edge and screw
dislocations with different orientations relative to DW can be found in [47].
The most comprehensive account of the effect of phase and structural transformations in ordinary carbon and low-alloyed steels (hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid) in the processes of quenching and tempering on the coercive force was published by Morozova and Mikheev [11, 12]. However, they did not take
into consideration differences in the morphological types of the martensite in low- and high-carbon steels,
even though this structure is the goal of the quenching process and the initial state in the tempering procedure. Nor did they take account of the fact that the first transformation normally conducted in the
process of tempering occurs on the stage of quenching in most low- and medium-carbon steels, as well as
in some high-carbon, alloyed steels (such as ShKh15 [48]).
The coercive force and relaxation coercive force correspond to the average value of maximal critical
fields in a ferromagnetic material. These fields have close values, therefore transformations induced by
quenching and tempering have similar effects on Hc and Hr. This is supported by previously published data
[25, 26, 29, 3136] and the experimental results given in this paper. We assume that all said about the coercive force also refers to the relaxation coercive force.
Changes in the coercive force induced by higher heating temperatures in the process of quenching can
be described, in general, as follows. The coercive force of low- and medium-carbon steels increases as the
heating temperature approaches its normal value, achieves its maximum, and remains constant or drops
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slightly at higher temperatures (Fig. 2a, I). The coercive force of high-carbon steels has a peak around the
normal austenization temperature (or at a slightly higher temperature) and drops at higher temperatures.
The high coercive force of the martensite is largely due to the higher magnetic anisotropy controlled by
the magnetic lattice structure and magnetoelastic effects.
The coercive force increases in both quenched and unquenched states with the carbon content. Here we
are considering the quenched state, and first let us discuss the normal quenching process. In this case the
growth in Hc is due to the higher tetragonal parameter of the martensite lattice, density of imperfections
(dislocations and twins), and quantities of residual austenite and undissolved carbides. The growth in the
dislocation density, the formation of intertwined dislocation networks, and the presence of twinning surfaces in the plate-type martensite give rise to a notable increase in the internal stress and dimensions of
stressed zones. The residual austenite and undissolved carbides act as nonferromagnetic inclusions. Their
larger dimensions result in a larger resistance to displacements of domain walls in the process of cyclic
magnetization.
The constant value Hc or the slow drop in this parameter of low- and medium-carbon steels with
increasing austenization temperature is attributed to both the low content of residual austenite and the compensation of two counteracting factors, namely, the elimination of excessive ferrite (which has a low coercive force) and the resulting more uniform distribution of carbon in the martensite (which leads to lower
Hc of the martensite). This process is also assisted by the self-tempering of the steels under consideration
in the process of quenching, which drives the structure closer to the state of equilibrium.
As a result of the higher austenization temperature in quenching of high-carbon steels, which leads to
the complete dissolution of carbides, the growth of both martensite plates and residual austenite zones that
do not undergo the transformation, and also the higher content of the latter phase, Hc has a maximum and
drops at higher temperatures. The dimension of the nonferromagnetic austenite zones passes through the
critical value corresponding to the maximal coercive force. The decrease in the dimensions of carbide
inclusions during their gradual dissolution, the growth of the martensite plates and the quantity of residual austenite also drive the coercive force lower. This decrease is somewhat impeded by the higher level
of stress in the martensite plates.
The sharp drop in the coercive force as a result of tempering at temperatures below 300C (Fig. 2a, II)
is due to the lower magnetic anisotropy caused by the martensite decay and the resulting decrease in the
internal stress and dimensions of stressed zones. Other factors decreasing the coercive force are the lower
surface tension of domain walls and smaller scattered magnetic fields resulting from the residual
austenite decay.
Over the tempering temperature interval of 300 to 600C, the coercive force is controlled by the following main factors: redistribution of dislocations, smaller distortions of the -phase lattice, lower internal stress, and also transformations in the carbide and merging of carbide particles.
The redistribution of dislocations, smaller distortions of the crystal lattice, lower levels of internal
stress, and smaller dimensions of stressed zones in the -phase lead to lower values of the coercive
force. Larger dimensions of carbide particles lead to higher Hc owing to the smaller total area of domain
walls and larger additional energy needed to increase this area when the walls are driven from the carbide particles in the process of cyclic magnetization. Another cause of the higher coercive force is scattered magnetic fields due to the weakly magnetic carbide particles. There are few carbides in low-carbon steels, so the effect of the first cause, i.e. internal stress, prevails. Over this interval of tempering
temperatures, Hc slightly drops. In medium-carbon steels, the contributions of the internal stress and
carbide particles to the coercive force are approximately equal, and Hc is almost constant. The quantity
and influence of the carbide particles increase with the carbon concentration. At larger dimensions of
these particles, closing domains (seeds of the opposite magnetization) are formed around them, and they
are arrested by the carbide particles. The coercive force increases till the particles arrest the closing
domains. When the carbide inclusions reach their critical dimension, the closing domains behave as
independent entities and can grow. Only under these conditions does the coercive force decrease. Thus,
the coercive force of the high-carbon steels increases, achieves its maximum, and drops on this temperature interval.
At higher tempering temperatures, Hc can become higher because the conditions approach those of the
quenching processes.
Saturation magnetization. This parameter of a ferromagnetic material is controlled largely by its
phase composition. A phase is defined as a homogeneous zone of the material with a specific lattice structure, which depends on the chemical composition and density. The saturation magnetization is almost
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independent of the shapes of phase zones, their dimensions, level of stress in the material and its structural components. According to the additivity law, the saturation magnetization of a heterogeneous system is
given by the formula [42, 44]
n

MsV0 =

M V,

(5)

si i

i =1

where V0 is the sample volume, Msi and Vi are the magnetization and volume of a specific constituent
phase, respectively.
Hence we can infer that the saturation magnetization is an additive function of the saturation magnetizations Msi of the constituent phases of the ferromagnetic material and their relative contents = Vi/V0.
When the quenching temperature Tquen increases, the saturation magnetization of low- and medium-carbon steels drops slightly or remains unchanged (Fig. 2b, I). Such steels contain little residual austenite, and
the contribution of the weakly magnetic carbides lowers because they are dissolved almost completely at
high temperatures. Here the decrease in Ms due to the residual austenite is partly compensated for by the
dissolution of the carbide inclusions.
In high-carbon, low-alloyed and alloyed steels (see the characteristic of the ShKh15 steel in Fig. 2b, I),
Ms drops with Tquen. The main cause of this drop is the generation and accumulation of the residual austenite. Its quantity depends on the carbon content and the presence of other alloying elements: the larger the
content of carbon and other elements driving down the martensite point Mon, the larger the quantity of
residual austenite.
Since the saturation magnetization drops at higher Tquen, this parameter is used in testing the quality of
quenched high-carbon steels (for tools and ball-bearings), in particular, for diagnosing an overheat because
the overheat leads to a higher content of the paramagnetic residual austenite [48]. Insufficient heating is
easily detected using the coercive force.
On the second stage of tempering, the paramagnetic residual austenite decays completely. As a result,
Ms increases in the region Ttemp 200300C (Fig. 2b, II). This increase is quite considerable for the
ShKh15 steel and smaller in the 30Kh3MFA and 40KhFA steels, even so, this indicates that small quantities of the residual austenite are generated in the process of quenching and decay when the material is tempered. The small drop in Ms at Ttemp > 300C is due to the carbide precipitation from the -solid solution.
Relaxation magnetization. The relaxation magnetization is related to the structural parameters of
a ferromagnetic crystal by the relation [49]
MHr = 0.72Mscos

( din + 180 ) ln (0.72 ),

(6)

Lz

where = 2Lz/(din + 180) and Lz is the magnetic domain dimension in the direction of the wall displacement.
When domain walls are pinned on dislocations,
MHr

(1 +
= 0.72M cos
s

180 r
Lzr 1 2

12

) ln (0.72 ).

(7)

As was noted above, the martensite transformation in the process of quenching leads to notable hardening of a steel because oversaturated -solid solution is generated. In this case, grains are reduced, and phase
hardening takes place, which results in a highly fragmented structure. These factors lead to smaller domain
dimensions, and this is the major factor [18] of the increase in MHr (Fig. 2c, I). Since the residual austenite is paramagnetic, it reduces Ms, hence the growth in MHr, described by Eq. (6), is slowed. The higher dislocation density has a dual effect on MHr: owing to the higher level of internal stress, dislocations decrease
MHr in Eq. (6), but smaller domain dimensions lead to higher MHr. The main cause of the growth in MHr,
however, is the reduction in the domain dimensions. As in other sorts of high-carbon steel, of both hypoand hypereutectoid varieties, the fraction of residual autstenite in the ShKh15 steel increases considerably
at Tquen > 850C, which leads to a sharp drop in Ms, hence in MHr. The relaxation magnetization of these
steels in the quenched state (before tempering) is lower than that of low- and medium-carbon steels.
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60

1600
200

1560

18
1640
1600

160

20

800

10
700

800
900
Tquen,

2250
1600
750

20

Hc, /m

1600

80
MHr, /m

2400

10
0
0

1000

Fig. 3. Magnetic parameters, electric resistivity, and hardness of the steel 35 versus heating temperature for quenching: () Hc, () MHr, () r, () Ms, () , and () HRC.

MHr, /m

120

100

Hc, /m

21

1560

150

20

Ms, kA/m

, m

1640

18

Ms, kA/m

21

HRC

40
24

20

24
, m

60
HRC

40

89

200

400
Ttemp,

600

Fig. 4. Magnetic parameters, resistivity, and hardness of the

steel 35 versus Ttemp. The notation is the same as in Fig. 3.

In the process of tempering, MHr reduces mostly in the region of intermediate and high Ttemp. Structural
transformations caused by the low-temperature tempering of low- and medium-carbon steels have little
effect on MHr, whereas the processes in high-carbon steels lead to its increase to the maximal value and
the subsequent drop. The onset of the notable reduction in MHr takes place at Ttemp 350 400C. The
growth in MHr on the second tempering stage is due to the austenite decay. In the ShKh15 steel this
decay takes place on the interval Ttemp 150250C, and this is the temperature interval where MHr rises
(Fig. 2c, II). The similar increase of MHr takes place in a number of high-carbon steels. The 30Kh3MFA
and 40KhFA steels contain little residual austenite, and the effect of its decay on MHr is insignificant. The
reduction in the relaxation magnetization at higher Ttemp is due to large domain dimensions, in accordance
with Eqs. (6) and (7).
Relaxation magnetic susceptibility. The parameter r is related to structural parameters. If domain
walls are pinned by nonferromagnetic inclusions [49],
r ~

32
0 M s2 180
cos 2 S1 2
,
12
Lz
1in2 180 din3 2 (ln )

(8)

and if domain walls are impeded by dislocations,

r ~

0 M s2 cos 2 1 + 180r 1 2
Gbr 3 4l1 2 (ln )

12

12

S1 2
.
Lz

(9)

Here l is the length of a dislocation section parallel to the domain wall plane [50].
The relaxation magnetic susceptibility drops monotonically with Tquen (Fig. 2d, I). Starting with Tquen
800850C, it is approximately constant in most sorts of steel (see Figs. 3, 5, and 8 below). The main causes of the drop are the higher dislocation density, as is indicated by Eq. (9), and also the higher volume
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40
28

20

, m

, m

30

HRC

40

20

1640
1600

200

Ms, k/m

25

24
20
1600
1560

160
r

20

1640

1560

150

HRC

60

60

Ms, k/m

90

120

Hc, /m

1000

15
0

700

800

900
Tquen,

750
20
0

1000

Fig. 5. The same characteristics as in Fig. 3 for the steel

50G.

1500

40

MHr, /m

1750

30

2250
Hc, /m

2500

MHr, /m

80
100

200

400
Ttemp,

600

800

Fig. 6. The same characteristics as in Fig. 4 for the steel

50G.

fraction of local zones with higher internal stress and larger dimensions of these zones [33, 49]. Smaller
dimensions of magnetic domains act as an impeding factor. Additional factors in the ShKh15 steel, as in
other high-carbon steels, is the larger fraction (in) and dimension (din) of residual austenite inclusions,
which leads to lower Ms, hence lower r in (8). For this reason, the curve of r (Tquen) for ShKh15 is below
the similar curves characterizing the 30Kh3MFA and 40KhFa steels (Fig. 2d, I).
In the process of tempering, r passes through its maximum. At lower carbon contents the peak is in
the region of higher Ttemp (Fig. 2d, II). The cause of the growth in r is the decay of the martensite and
residual austenite and the related decrease in the dislocation density, level of internal stress, and the fraction of the nonmagnetic phase. The drop in r is due to larger domain dimensions. The competition
between these two processes in different sorts of steel determines the temperature Ttemp at which r has its
peak. The rise in r, just as in MHr, in the region Ttemp > 700C is due to the proximity to the quenching
temperature.
Resistivity. One of the main causes of higher electric resistivity of metals and alloys is distortions of
their lattices. These distortions can be caused by strain hardening, including phase hardening, formation
of interstitial and substitutional solid solutions, oversaturated solid solutions, etc. The resistivity is also
affected by the concentration, dimensions, and shapes of inclusions of different phases, chemical interaction between components of a solid solution, and a number of other factors.
When a solid solution is formed, the resistivity increases. Placement of foreign atoms of a dissolved
substance in the host lattice of metal-solvent leads to its distortions, irregularities in its electric field due
to more intense electron scattering [51].
Strain hardening also distorts crystal lattices owing to shear strain, which changes the character of interatomic bonds. Changes in the resistivity due to the shear strain are described by the empirical formula [54]
= c,

(10)

where c is the factor depending on the impurity concentration in the metal, and is the constant: for most
metals 2.
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40

HRC

20

24
20

1650
Ms

1600
1550

Mr, /m

1200
1000

Ms, k/m

Mr

800

800

600
400

max

max

, m

28

HRC

60

200

150
r

r, in

in

100

Hc, /m

2250
1500

MHr

30

750

MHr, /m

50

Hc

20
10
0

150

300
Tquen,

450

600

Fig. 7. Coercive force Hc, relaxation magnetization MHr, initial, in, relaxation, r, and maximal, max, magnetic susceptibilities, residual magnetization Mr and saturation magnetization Ms, electric resistivity , and hardness HRC of the steels
() 30 and () 45 versus tempering temperature.

In most cases the alloy electric conductivity, = 1, is an additive function of the conductivity parameters of different phases. However, this quantity is also affected by a number of structural factors. Among
them are the grain dimension, since crystal lattices are distorted near grain boundaries, and dimensions of
inclusions in the host lattice in comparison with the electron free path, because the additional scattering
mechanism sets on when these lengths are comparable. This contribution to is maximal at inclusion
dimensions of about 1 nm [51].
The resistivity depends on the chemical interaction between alloy components in the following manner: in the continuous set of solid solutions, the resistivity is the higher, the farther the alloy composition
is from that of its pure components. A maximal resistivity in a binary alloy is observed when the contents
of its components (in atomic percents) are equal. Even so, the proportion of alloy components corresponding to the maximal resistivity can be different from 50% in a solid solution of a ferromagnet and a metal
with a high paramagnetic susceptibility.
The resistivity of steels is higher as a result of higher Tquen (Fig. 2e, I), and the highest increase in
occurs in ShKh15. In this case, the resistivity grows owing to the formation of the oversaturated -solid
solution with considerable distortions of the crystal lattice and strain hardening due to shear strain in
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45
40
30
15

30

1700

20
Ms

1550

Ms, k/m

, m

HRC

HRC

60

120
1400
r

80

40

40

1400

Hc, /m

MHr

700

MHr, /m

2100

20
Hc
0
700

750

800
850
Tquen,

900

950

Fig. 8. Magnetic parameters, electric resistivity, and hardness of steel U8 samples () not processed and () processed at
the liquid nitrogen temperature as a function of heating temperature for quenching.

medium-carbon steels and strain due to twinning in high-carbon steels. An additional factor affecting in
ShKh15 and other eutectoid and hypereutectoid steels is the presence of the residual austenite, i.e., the second phase, which produces additional phase hardening.
The resistivity of all the steels under consideration drops with the increasing tempering temperature.
The sharpest drop in over the temperature interval of 0 to 300C was observed in ShKh15 (Fig. 2e, II)
and steels with larger contents of the residual austenite in the quenched state. Since tempering brings about
structural transformations reversing those due to the quenching, namely, the decay of the martensite and
residual austenite, precipitation of excessive carbon from the -solid solution and generation of carbides,
annihilation of dislocations and reduction in internal stress, these transformations also reduce . Individual
contributions of all these factors on different tempering stages determine the rate of decrease in . The
merging of carbide particles slows the decrease in owing to additional electron scattering by carbide particles.
Hardness. Hardness is defined as the resistance of a body to penetration of another, harder piece of
a solid [55]. In hardness measurements, a metal is strained in the region of plastic deformation, therefore
its hardness characterizes the metals resistance to large plastic deformations.
The hardness increases with Tquen and achieves a certain limiting value (Fig. 2f, I). This value of HRC
is characterized by the martensite hardness in a steel of a specific chemical composition. The graph
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45
30
15
26

1700

18

1550

Ms, k/m

, m

34

HRC

60

160
1400

100

2000

Hc, /m

40

MHr, /m

3000

40

1000
20

150

300
450
Ttemp,

600

750

Fig. 9. The same characteristics as in Fig. 4 for the steel U8.

indicates that the higher the carbon content in the steel, the higher its hardness in the quenched state. At
higher Tquen the hardness drops owing to the higher content of the residual austenite, whose hardness is
lower than HRC of the martensite, in the steel structure.
HRC of all steels is lower as a result of higher tempering temperatures (Fig. 2f, II). The main cause
of its drop is the decay of the martensite and residual austenite. In the region of tempering temperatures below about 200C, the hardness drops insignificantly. Here the martensitic structure remains
and, concurrently with the ejection of carbon from the martensite, which leads to lower HRC, the ejected carbon atoms are accumulated on dislocations in Cottrells clouds [56], which harden the metal
structure. At higher Ttemp the processes of the martensite and residual austenite decay are more rapid,
which leads to the sharp drop in HRC.
High-Carbon Steels
Figures 3, 5, 8, and 11 plot the parameters Hc, MHr, r, Ms, , and HRC as functions of the heating temperature for quenching, Tquen, for the steels 35, 50G, 75G, and U8. The curves for the coercive force, relaxation magnetization, magnetic susceptibility, and hardness are similar to those given in Figs. 2a, 2c, 2d, and
2f (I for all figures), characterizing the medium-carbon, low-alloyed steels 30Kh3MFA and 40KhFA. This
can also be said about the electric resistivity, up to a point. The saturation magnetization of the 35 and 50G
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HRC

40

, m

40

20

32

HRC

60

1650

16
Ms

1500

1250

1350

Ms, k/m

24

750

Mr

500

450
300

max

max

Mr, /m

1000

150
r

100

in

50

2500
MHr

Hc, /m

60

2000
1500
1000

40
Hc

20
0

100

200

300
400
Ttemp,

500

600

MHr, /m

in, r

150

700

Fig. 10. The same characteristics as in Fig. 7 for the steels () U8, () U10, and (+) U12.

steels drops in the region of low Tquen, has a broad down-peak, and, after a small rise, is almost constant. In
this case, as in ShKh15 (Fig. 2b, I), the drop in Ms is due to the residual austenite in the structure.
Figures 4, 7, 9, and 10 show the same parameters of the steels 35, 30, 45, and U8 (the samples of
the same chemical compositions as those in Fig. 8), U8, U10, U12, and also 50G (Fig. 6), and 75G
(Fig. 12) as functions of the tempering temperature Ttemp. In addition, Fig. 7 for the 30 and 45 steels,
and Fig. 10 for the U8, U10, and U12 steels plot the initial, in, and maximal, max, susceptibilities, and
the residual magnetization Mr as functions of Ttemp. Almost all that was said about Hc, Ms, MHr, r, ,
and HRC of the steels characterized in Fig. 2, II applies to the steels discussed in this section.
Therefore, we will focus our attention on the susceptibilities in and max, and the residual magnetization Mr versus Ttemp.
Figures 7 and 10 clearly show that the initial magnetic susceptibility versus Ttemp closely follows the
curve of the relaxation magnetic susceptibility: it rises, passes through its maximum, and falls. In the
region of higher Ttemp it rises again. A similar shape of the in(Ttemp) curve for the 38KhS steel was recorded earlier [57]. It is natural that in and r as functions of Ttemp are similar, because both these characteristics are controlled by reversible displacements of domain walls, and the expressions for in [50] are similar to (8) and (9), only with a different constant or a slowly changing cofactor.
The curve of max(Ttemp) is approximately the mirror reflection of the similar curve for Hc. The opposite
tendencies in the behavior of max and Hc with increasing Ttemp are due to the physical nature of these
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55

HRC

35
15

32
26

1500

160
Ms

1400

120

1300

80

40

2300

MHr

1800
40
Hc, /m

Ms, /m

1600

20

1300

30

MHr, /m

, m

38

HRC

75

800
20
10
0
700

750

800
850
Tquen,

900

950

Fig. 11. The same characteristics as in Fig. 8 for the steel 75G.

characteristics: max is determined by the maximal number of irreversibly displaced 180-degree domain
walls, whereas Hc is controlled by the maximal delay in the irreversible displacements of these walls. In
addition, max is directly proportional to Ms, and Hc, in its turn, is inversely proportional to Ms in expressions (1)(4).
Below Ttemp 400C, the residual magnetization increases, and it remains approximately constant at
higher tempering temperatures. This dependence on Ttemp is due to the following factors. The residual magnetization is determined by the sum of irreversible displacements of domain walls in the field range corresponding to the maximal magnetic susceptibility (permeability), therefore Mr increases following max.
It also depends on the saturation magnetization of the steel and scattered magnetic fields due to nonferromagnetic and weakly magnetic inclusions. At higher Ttemp, when the produced cementite particles merge
and Ms continues to drop, the residual magnetization does not increase, and even falls in some sorts of
steel.
In addition, Figs. 8 and 11 show characteristics of the U8 and 75G steels processed in the cold after
quenching. To this end, the samples were kept during two hours immediately after quenching in a mixture
of kerosene and ethyl alcohol frozen by liquid nitrogen to a temperature of 70 5C. This cold processing was applied only to the samples quenched at Tquen > 800 and 850C, which contained residual austenite in their structure. The decay of the paramagnetic austenite leads to higher Ms, MHr, and r, lower Hc and
, whereas the hardness of the 75G steel changes little in this temperature interval, and the hardness of the
U8 steel corresponds to that of the samples that were obtained at Tquen > 850C and not processed at the
low temperature. These changes are driven by the transformation of the residual austenite to martensite.
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55
40

HRC

, m

44
30

HRC

66

33

20
Ms

1500

160
1400
120

Ms, k/m

1600

1300
r

80

2250
MHr

Hc, /m

40

1500

30

750
Hc

20
10

MHr, /m

40

150

300
Ttemp,

450

600

Fig. 12. Magnetic parameters, electric resistivity, and hardness of steel 75G samples () not processed and
() processed in the cold as a function of the tempering temperature.

After tempering, differences in the characteristics of the 75G steel (except the hardness) were detected
only in the samples containing residual austenite (Fig. 12). After the second tempering stage, these differences disappeared.
The work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (grant no. 00-15-99050).
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