XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

New approaches for feeding poultry

main objective of the majority of these studies is to
optimize the utilization of ingredients by animals,
reducing costs and increasing the efficiency of
production systems.
Department of Animal Science,
Federal University of Viosa, Viosa, MG, Brazil

Summary

Introduction
The pressure to reduce broiler feeding costs is
constant, since it represents approximately 70% of
the total production cost. To obtain better precision
in the formulation of broiler diets, it is necessary
to know the exact composition and energy value
of each ingredient, as well as their limitations.
Several studies have been carried out to update the
nutritional values of feedstuffs traditionally utilized
in the formulation of diets for poultry, and also to
determine the nutritional value of new feedstuffs
and byproducts, which make the composition tables
more complete and accurate. In addition to enabling
the development and qualification of technicians,
graduate students, and professors/scientists, the

This article uses the equations and

recommendations of the Brazilian Tables for Poultry
and Swine (Rostagno et al., 2011), and also recent
research data and approaches with the objective of
improving the feeding efficiency of broiler chickens.

Early Posthatch Feeding

(From Hatching to Housing)
The incubation period of broiler chicks is 21 days.
However, this time may vary in function of several
factors, such as egg storage time and temperature;
temperature and relative humidity in the incubator;
genetic strain and age of the breeder hen, etc.
In addition to staying for an extended period of
time inside the hatcher, chicks are also classified,
vaccinated, sexed and placed in chick trays for
transportation. Preferably, after placed in the trays,
the chicks will be taken to the farm on the same
day; however, it is not uncommon to find cases
where the chicks spend the night in the hatchery to
be delivered the following day.

S. Salguero, L.F.T. Albino, P.B. Rodrigues, and H.S. Rostagno

arly posthatch feeding of a special diet in the

transport tray increases broiler performance.
Adding Glutamine or Glutamine-Glutamic
Acid in the diet improves the uniformity of
broiler chickens. Part of the variation in animal
performance is caused by the lack of adjustment
of the feedstuff composition matrix. The quality
control of feedstuffs allows formulation of more
efficient and economical diets. Equations have been
developed to determine the equivalence in available
phosphorus of different levels of 3-Phytase and
6-Phytase. The utilization of equations to estimate
nutrient requirement enables determination of
nutritional requirements, according to performance
and feed intake of broiler chickens. Lysine and
methionine + cystine requirements can be higher
to maximize lean meat yield than for optimum feed
conversion.

It is well known that the most valuable pieces of

information on the composition of each ingredient
should be obtained locally. However, the analysis
of each load is costly and cumbersome. Thus, the
summarization of data in composition tables such as
NRC (1994), NRC (1998), FEDNA (2003), Sauvant et
al. (2004) (INRA) and Rostagno et al. (2011) is very
helpful and convenient for nutritionists working in
many different areas.

The distance between the hatchery and the farm,

the road and transport truck conditions may result
in the chicks being in the trays for a period of 24 to
72 hours before having access to feed. Depriving
the chick of feed will result in the utilization of
the residual yolk sac for maintenance and growth,
especially the intestine. The chicks intestine weight
increases faster than the body weight. This quick
development reaches its peak at around 6 to 8
Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 07

XXIV

S. Salguero, L.F.T. Albino, P.B. Rodrigues, and H.S. Rostagno

days. Noy & Sklan (2000) determined that chicks

subjected to a 48-hour fasting period after hatch
lost body weight. However, the small intestine grew
60% in chicks fasting and 200% in chicks receiving
feed.

The energy required for maintenance of the

chick during the first 24 hours of life has been
estimated to be approximately 11 kcal (112 kcal
weight0.75). If the residual yolk sac content is utilized
as the only source of energy, with 100% efficiency,
it would generate only 9.4 kcal, and the chick
would have a negative energy balance, and certainly
lose weight (Dibner et al., 1998). After hatch, the
yolk sac contains about 20% protein, including
immunoglobulins of maternal origin and serum
proteins. The utilization of these protein fractions as
source of amino acids or energy deprives the chick
of an important mechanism of immune defense
during the first week of life, emphasizing the
importance of early posthatch feeding to increase
glycogen reserves, and save nutrients of the yolk for
the immune system.
During the first 3 to 4 days posthatch, the
digestive system of the chick needs to go through
modifications to adapt to a diet rich in carbohydrates,
with the production of digestive enzymes, previously
unnecessary, such as amylase and maltase. The chick
cannot efficiently digest large amounts of maltose
and other disaccharides; therefore, the supply of
monosaccharides promptly available for absorption
is an option that has shown good results, although
these are expensive ingredients (Batal and Parsons,
2004).

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

protein isolate must be a priority for early posthatch

diets.
Because of the long post-hatch holding period,
studies aiming at supplying feed to the chick still in the
hatchery or in the transport trays have been carried
out, in order to reduce weight loss and increase the
birds growth performance. Experiments have been
conducted at Federal University of Viosa with the
objective of evaluating the utilization of special diets
in the transport tray. Toledo (2003) investigated the
effect of fasting versus a diet (crumbled or mini
pellets + 20% water) in the transport tray. The
chicks remained in the trays for 20 hours to simulate
the transport from the hatchery to the broiler house.
At ten days of age, chicks that received the special
diet showed better weight gain (+7%) and feed
conversion (-6%), when compared to the control
group (fasting).
Nery (2006) conducted three preliminary tests
assessing the supply of diets with 20% moisture
to chicks maintained in the transport trays for 33
hours. The utilization of the special diet resulted in
a weight loss reduction of 0.8 g per chick (Fasting =
-4.4g; Diet = -3.6g).
An experiment was conducted by Nery et al.
(2006), with chicks held in transport trays for 36
hours or quickly placed in the experimental house
after hatch, with access to feed and water. The
supply of an early posthatch diet promoted not only
smaller weight loss for the chicks that remained in
the trays for 36 hours, but also the weight gain at 42
days was statistically similar to the broilers promptly
housed and fed after hatch (Table 1).

Feed intake stimulates production, secretion,

and activity of pancreatic enzymes and enzymes of
Brito (2007) conducted an experiment in the
the villi on the intestinal mucosa. Bile salt secretion
experimental center of a Brazilian company, where
is low after hatch, and increases with age, until the
chicks remained in the transport tray or received 5g
21st day of age, when it then decreases (Krogdahl,
/ chick of an early posthatch crumbled diet (with
1985), and may limit fat digestion and absorption.
no addition of water) during a 24-hour transport.
Some authors have
observed that the
Table 1 - Effect of early posthatch feeding on weight gain (WG) and feed
addition of cholic
conversion (FC) of broilers at 36 hours, 7 and 42 days of age.
acid improves the
36 hours
7 days
42 days
digestion of fat in
Treatments
1
2
chicks (Polin et al.,
WG
FC
WG2
FC
weight
1980). The utilization
Fast housing
10.8 a
113 a
1.610 a
2288 a 1.770
of highly digestible
Fast for 36 h
-4.5 b
89 c
1.540 ab 2189 cd 1.725
feed ingredients, such
Early Postharch Diet (PD)
-3.7 b
97 bc
1.490 ab 2226 bc 1.754
industrial amino acids,
glucose, blood plasma,
PD + GLN-GLU
-3.4 b
100 b
1.450 b
2266 ab 1.756
fish meal, corn gluten
CV%
3.47
3.99
5.63
1.78
2.88
meal and soy protein
1

weight
=
Weight
variation,
in
grams.
2
Values
expressed
in
grams.
Nery
et
al.
(2006)
concentrate or soy
Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 07

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Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

Results shown in Table 2 support the conclusion that

feeding in the transport tray improved performance
and relative heart and bursa weight at 7 days of
age. The beneficial effect on performance went on
until 35 days of age.

(P<0.05) with the increase of GLN-GLU in the

diet. However, carcass and breast yields were not
affected (P>0.05) by the different levels of amino
acids (Tables 3 and 4).

Use of glutamine in
vegetable diets for broiler
chickens
The addition of Glutamine
(GLN) or a product containing
Glutamine and Glutamic Acid
(GLN-GLU) in diets for piglets
immediately post-weaning is
very common in Brazil, and
in many other Latin American
countries. In an excellent review
by Watford et al. (2011), the
authors concluded that even
though these amino acids are
classified as non-essential, there
is scientific evidence that GLN can
promote benefits not only during
hyper-catabolic phases, but also
improving growth performance of
healthy mammals.
The utilization of GLN or GLNGLU in broiler diets has been
scantly studied, although there
are scientific justifications to
evaluate the use of these amino
acids in diets during the first days
of age. Lora (2006) evaluated the
effect of different inclusion levels
(0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1%) of
a commercial product containing
GLN-GLU in corn-soybean meal
diets, with broiler chickens from 1
to 44 days of age. Weight gain,
carcass weight, breast weight and
bird uniformity improved linearly

Table 3 - Weight gain, carcass weight, breast with bone weight and
uniformity of broiler chickens at 44 days of age fed diets containing
different gln-glu levels.
GLN-GLU
level (%)

Weight
Gain (g)

Carcass
Weight(g)

Breast w/
Bone (g)

Uniformity
1%

0.00 %

2789

2235

748

67

0.25%

2803

2201

769

78

0.50 %

2861

2264

770

80

0.75 %

2887

2316

785

76

1.00 %

2879

2294

771

82

ANOVA

L = (P<0.08)

L = (P<0.06)

CV %

4.62

4.83

L = (P<0.05) L = (P<0.007)
3.31

11.61

1 - Uniformity = % of birds within the interval average weight + 10%. L = Linear

effect. Lora (2006).

S. Salguero, L.F.T. Albino, P.B. Rodrigues, and H.S. Rostagno

Bird uniformity
acquires economic
Table 2 - Effect of early posthatch feeding in the transport tray on performance, heart i m p o r t a n c e
and bursa of broiler chickens.
during slaughter
Treatment
7 days
35 days
house processing,
Gain, g Heart, %LW Bursa,%LW
Gain, g Conversion making it possible
to maximize the
Fast
123.2 b
0.79 b
0.13 b
2025 b
1.562 b
use of machines,
Early Posthatch Diet 130.2 a
0.82 a
0.15 a
2073 a
1.537 a
reducing carcass
1 - 5 g / chick of Pre-housing diet ground in the transport box Brito (2007) Personal communication. and parts outliers,
and improving the
appearance of the
final market products. In an experiment developed
at Federal University of Viosa, as part of the
Doctorate Thesis of Valdir Ribeiro Jr. (in progress),
four dietary inclusion levels (0, 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6%)
of GLN or GLN-GLU were evaluated with broiler

Table 4 - Effect of gln and gln-glu levels on the uniformity of broiler

chickens at 9 and 21 days of age.
Age = 9 days

Age = 21 days

Level
(%)

GLN

GLN-GLU

X Level

GLN

0.0

74.8

72.8

73.8

73.5

72.5

73.0

0.2

79.7

76.8

78.3

81.3

72.9

77.1

0.4

83.3

79.9

81.6

76.2

80.3

78.2

0.6

82.1

78.7

80.3

79.5

75.8

77.6

X Source

80.0

77.0

78.5

77.6

75.4

76.5

ANOVA

Interaction (ns)

L(0.01)

GLN-GLU X Level

Interaction (ns)

L(0.05)

1 - Uniformity = % of birds in the interval average weight + 10%. L = Linear

effect. Ribeiro Jr (DS Thesis).
Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 07

XXIV
chickens in the period of 1 to 9 and 1 to 21 days
of age. Weight gain was not affected by the dietary
levels of the amino acids; however, feed conversion
and uniformity improved linearly (P<0.05) in the
two studied periods (Table 5).
Table 5 - Equations to estimate the metabolizable
energy of feedstuffs for birds.
Vegetable feedstuffs
MEpoultry = 4.31 CPd + 9.29 Fd + 4.14 NFEd
Animal origin-feedstuffs and fat
MEpoultry = 4.31 CPd + 9.29 Fd

S. Salguero, L.F.T. Albino, P.B. Rodrigues, and H.S. Rostagno

MEpoultry = Metabolizable Energy Poultry, kcal/

kg; CPd = Digestible Protein Poultry, g/kg; Fd =
Digestible Fat Poultry, g/kg; NFEd = Digestible
Nitrogen Free Extract, g/kg

Data From Theses of UFV. Janssen, W. M. European

Table of Energy Values for Poultry Feedstuffs.
Wageningen, Holland. 1989, 104p. Titus, H. W.
Alimentacin Cientfica de las Gallinas. Ed. Acribia,
Spain. 1960, 290p.

Composition of feedstuffs:
metabolizable energy

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

ones. Feed composition tables are better utilized

when the variation of nutrients in the feedstuffs
is small. In contrast, feed composition tables have
their utility reduced when ingredients, like animal
by-products, show high variation in its nutritional
content (Batterham, 1990).
The energy content of the feedstuffs is the most
important factor to be considered when feeding
broilers. Energy is related to feed conversion and is
utilized in the most different metabolic processes,
ranging from maintenance to the maximum
productive potential (Fischer Jr. et al., 1998).
The formulation of poultry diets based on the
metabolizable energy (ME) started in the 1960s,
replacing productive energy. According to Hill and
Anderson (1958), the productive energy values of
the ingredients were very difficult to determine and
quite variable. Thus, the metabolizable energy of
feedstuffs started to be used to express the amount
of energy available in the feedstuff, because it was
relatively simple to determine, and with low variation.
Currently, there are prediction equations that allow
the calculation of the ME of ingredients, according
to the nutrient content of each sample. Rostagno
et al. (2011) published equations to estimate the
energy of feedstuffs for broiler chickens and laying
hens, which can be used to correct and adjust the
energy levels of ingredients by the nutritionists in
the feed industry (Table 6).

For the calculation of poultry diets, nutritionists

utilize tables such as the NRC (1994), NRC (1998),
FEDNA (2003), Sauvant et al. (2004) (INRA) and
Rostagno et al. (2011). For many years, the main
According to Fawcett and Webster (1999),
problem faced by Brazilian nutritionists utilizing
variations in the quality of diets, especially due to
foreign tables was the
difference
from
the
Table 6 - Equation to estimate corn and soybean amino acid content as
chemical composition of
function of crude protein.
the ingredients available
1.- Determine feedstuff crude protein (%CP).
in Brazil. The investment
2.- Use the equation to estimate the sum of amino acids (AAs).
of private companies and
3.- Calculate the content (%) of each amino acid considering its % in the
research
institutions
in
sum.
quality control laboratories,
Sum of AAs = Lys + Met + (Met+Cys) + Thre + Tri + Arg + (Gly+Ser) + Val +
and in the elaboration of
Ile + Leu + His + Phe + (Phe+Tyr).
feed composition tables
Corn Eq: Y(Sum of AA, %) = 0.3468 + 0.5757 (%CP); R2 = 0.71; n = 428
provided more subsidies
Soybean (full fat and meal) Eq: Y(Sum)= -0.3850 +0.6750(%CP) R2 = 0.93;n
for the decision making
= 299
process, and better quality
Soybean meal
of diet formulation.
Corn % AA
% AA in
Ex. SM
Amino acids
(SM) Ex. Corn
in the Sum
the Sum 46.22%CP
7.2% CP
Currently, nutritionists
have
available
several
Sum of AAs. %
100
4.492
100
30.814
sources of information to
Lysine. %
4.570
0.205
9.256
2.852
support the calculation of
Met+Cys. %
6.611
0.297
4.256
1.311
nutritional programs. It is
Lys: Corn CP: 7.20%; Eq. Sum of AAs=4.492% Calculation: 4.570 4.492 / 100 =
up to them, however, to
0.205 % Lys.
identify the most suitable
Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 07

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Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

the nutrient content of ingredients, constitute the

main cause of deviations between the expected and
the observed performance in broiler chicken flocks.
The utilization of underestimated or overestimated
energy values of feedstuffs can result in large
variations in broiler performance. According to
Benicio (1995), dietary ME linearly affects feed
conversion of broiler chickens. Analyzing the results
of 78 experiments from Fisher and Wilson (1974)
and 6 experiments from Benicio (1995), it can be
concluded that the change of -/+ 100 Kcal ME/Kg
of diet increase/decrease feed conversion of broilers
in 3.4%, respectively.

Composition of feedstuffs:
amino acids

To demonstrate the importance of the

utilization of equations to correct the ME and
amino acids content of corn and soybean meal,
according to the composition, examples are shown
of analyzed protein and fat in corn, which result
in lower energy value (-112 kcal ME/kg) and
-0.02% total and digestible lysine contents, when
compared to the values cited in the Brazilian Tables
of 2011 (Table 8). In the case of soybean meal,
higher protein and fat results in +86 kcal ME/kg
and +0.06% total and digestible lysine. These
alterations in the nutritional values of the most
important ingredients of poultry diets support the
conclusions of Fawcett and Webster (1999) that
nutrient variations in ingredients are the main
cause of deviations between the expected and
observed performance in broiler chickens.

Available
phosphorus
equivalency of phytases
There is an increased demand for inorganic
phosphorus (P) by agricultural and livestock systems,
and production is expected to peak around 2030.
Phosphorus is the most expensive mineral in poultry
diets, and has been the subject of many studies,
because of the environmental impact caused by the
excretion of non-digested P.

A review of 14 experiments with different lysine

levels for broiler chickens, allowed concluding that
Phosphorus in vegetable ingredients is in the
lysine affects first, linearly, and second, quadratically
form of phytate, which is considered unavailable to
the feed conversion ratio.
Considering only the linear effect,
Table 7 - Example of equations utilization to adjust the me and amino
the reduction of 0.10% digestible
acids content of corn and soybean meal.
lysine, below the requirement,
Nutrients
Corn
Soybean meal
will increase feed conversion in
1
2
BT 11
New
BT 111
New2
3.2%. If the lysine level in the
diet is adequate (at requirement
Moisture, %
12.52
13.20
11.25
10.25
level), the increase in lysine does
Protein, %
7.88
7.20
45.22
46.22
not result in improvement of feed
Fat,
%
3.65
2.65
1.69
2.69
conversion.
Fiber, %
1.73
2.73
5.30
4.30
To calculate the amino acid
ME, kcal/kg
3381
3269
2254
2340
content of the feed ingredients,
3
3
3
0.21 (0.17)
2.79 (2.57) 2.85 (2.63)3
Lysine, %
0.23 (0.19)
companies utilize NIRS or
Met+Cys, % 0.33 (0.29)
0.30 (0.27)
1.28 (1.13) 1.31 (1.15)
equations that estimate the
percentage of each amino acid,
1 - Values from the Brazilian Tables 2011. 2 - Moisture, protein, fat and fiber
according to the protein content.
values analyzed. Metabolizable energy (ME) and total amino acids obtained
by prediction equations Tables 6 and 7. 3 - Values in parentheses are of true
The recently published Brazilian
digestible amino acids of the feedstuffs calculated with the true digestible
Tables (Rostagno et al., 2011)
coefficient of the Brazilian Tables 2011.
include equations to estimate
Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 07

S. Salguero, L.F.T. Albino, P.B. Rodrigues, and H.S. Rostagno

Amino acids are the basic units of protein, and

are critically important in poultry nutrition. Amino
acids are used for many functions in the organism,
but there is one that predominates over the others:
protein synthesis. The knowledge of the exact
amino acid content of the ingredients, allows for
more precision in the formulation of diets. Precisely
providing the minimum amino acid requirements
avoids excess of protein in the diet, and reduces the
impact in the environment. It must be emphasized
that the reduction of 1% of protein in the diet
results in 8 to 10% less nitrogen excreted, which
also decreases the levels of ammonia in the air.

the amino acids content of corn and soybean meal

(Table 7).

XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

Table 8 - Available phosphorus equivalency from 3-phytase obtained with prediction equations of weight
gain and bone ash for broiler chickens1 (Rodrigues et al., 2012).
Parameter

Linear Equations

FTU/kg of diet

Wt Gain

XAvail.P(%) = 0.0215 + 0.0001085*Phyt3

0.0758

0.1300 0.1843

Bone Ash

XAvail.P(%)=0.04745+0.00009897* Phyt3

0.0969

0.1464 0.1959

0.0864

0.1382 0.1901

500

Mean

1000

1500

Non Linear Equations

Wt Gain

XAvail.P(%) = - ln(-2.4378-0.0003473* Phyt3 + 3.1577)/11.8254

0.0511

0.0835 0.1366

Bone Ash

XAvail.P(%) = - ln(-2.7193-0.00029114* Phyt3 + 3.4321)/7.867

0.0721

0.1098 0.1636

Mean

0.0616

0.0967 0.1501

Overall Mean

0.0740

0.1175 0.1701

S. Salguero, L.F.T. Albino, P.B. Rodrigues, and H.S. Rostagno

1 - Data used for the equations: Avail.P. = 23 experiments, n=116; Phyt3= 23 experiments, n=113.

birds. There is a need to look for alternatives that

could reduce P supplementation in poultry diets,
and consequently, its excretion to the environment
(Cordell et al., 2009).
Phytases have received special attention,
because this enzyme breaks the phytate molecule,
making available not only P, but also other
nutrients bound to phytic acid. However, in the
literature, different reported responses to phytase
supplementation are found, which evidences the
multiple factors that can affect such response; such
as the amount of phytase added to the diet, the
phytate level, dietary Ca and inorganic P contents,
additives and vitamin D (Selle and Ravindran, 2008;
Singh, 2008).

phytases for broiler chickens, Rodrigues et al.

(2012) evaluated data from experiments with
different levels of available phosphorus, 3 phytase
(Phyt3) or 6 phytase (Phyt6) from studies published
in the last two decades. The parameters utilized
were weight gain and bone ash percentage of
broiler chickens reared up to 28 days of age.
Each model adjusted for weight gain and bone
ash was equalized (equation of Pavailable = equation
of phytase level), and available phosphorus
equivalency of each phytase was calculated. The
average % Pavailable equivalency was 0.074, 0.1175
and 0.1701% for 500, 1000 and 1500 FTU of Phyt3
/ kg of diet, respectively. For Phyt6, the equivalency
was 0.1024, 0.1526 and 0.2206% Pavailable for 500,
1000 or 1500 FTU /kg of diet, respectively (Tables
9 and 10).

To evaluate the possibility of standardizing

the available phosphorus equivalency of different
Table 9 - Available phosphorus equivalency from 6-phytase obtained with prediction equations of weight
gain and bone ash for broiler chickens1 (Rodrigues et al., 2012).
Parameter

Linear Equations

FTU/kg of diet
500

1000

1500

Wt Gain

XAvail.P(%) = 0.0654+ 0.00013243* Phyt6

0.1316

0.1978

0.2640

Bone Ash

XAvail.P(%) = 0.063 + 0.00009895* Phyt6

0.1125

0.1620

0.2114

0.1220

0.1799

0.2377

Wt Gain

XAvail.P(%) = - ln(-2.24757-0.00033695* Phyt6+2.83246) / 0.0827

10.597

0.1316

0.2390

Bone Ash

XAvail.P(%) = - ln(-2.5751-0.00025196* Phyt6 +3.2553)/7.1318 0.0827

0.1189

0.1677

Mean

0.0827

0.1252

0.2034

Overall Mean

0.1024

0.1526

0.2206

Mean
Non Linear Equations

1 - Data used for the equations: Avail.P= 17 experiments, n=103; Phyt6= 22 experiments, n=95

Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 07

XXIV

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August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

Table 10 - Equations utilized to calculate the digestible lysine

requirement (dig lys) and available phosphorus (avail.p) for male and
female broiler chickens.
General equation
Nutrient Req. (g/day) = g. for Maintenance + g for Gain
True digestible lysine (g/day)
Males
Dig. Lys = 0.07 W0.75 + (14.43 + 2.543 W - 0.270 W2) G; R2= 0.80

trials with birds of different ages. Also,

some experimental results published
in Brazil were utilized. To determine
the nutritional requirements of other
amino acids, the ideal protein concept
was applied, maintaining for each
type of bird, the amino acid/lysine
ratio expressed on the basis of true
and total amino acids digestibility.

Initially, all the dose-response

experiments
with
lysine
were
compiled, determining the digestible
lysine daily intake for broilers. Next,
the lysine for maintenance was
calculated (0.07 P0.75), and the amount
of digestible lysine needed per kg of
weight gain at the different growth
phases was obtained. For these
determinations, the results of several
trials were used (79 values with males
and 36 with females). In Table 11, the equations
utilized to calculate the amount of true digestible
lysine per day for male and female broiler chickens
are presented. A similar approach was used to obtain
the equation which calculates the requirements
of phosphorus in broiler chickens; however, the
number of experiments was lower and the variation
found was higher. Table 11 shows the equations
obtained to estimate the available phosphorus
requirement and the Ca:P ratio recommended for
male and female broilers.

Females
Dig. Lys = 0.07 W0.75 + (14.42 + 2.859 W - 0.292 W2) G; R2 = 0.79
In which: W = Average Weight, kg; G: Daily Gain, kg.
Available phosphorus (g/day)
Males and Females
8 21 days: Avail.P/day = 0.026 W0.75 + 5.2 G
22 56 days: Avail.P /day = 0.026 W0.75 + 5.5 G
Total Ca: Available P Ratio Recommended: 2.13

Professors from the Department of Animal

Science at Federal University of Viosa have
performed a series of studies to elaborate, based on
data obtained in Brazil, a table of feed composition
and nutritional requirements of poultry and swine.
In the 3rd edition of the Brazilian Tables
(Rostagno et al., 2011), the requirements of the
most important nutrients were set in daily amount
per animal for optimum performance. The factorial
method was utilized, when possible, following the
model: Nutrient Req. (g/day) = g for Maintenance +
g for Production.

The use of equations to estimate the nutritional

requirements of broiler chickens allows for the
requirements to become more flexible. Thus, there
is not only one recommended level, but many,
according to the performance and feed intake of the
birds. As examples of this variation in the nutritional
requirements of lysine and phosphorus, in Table 12,

S. Salguero, L.F.T. Albino, P.B. Rodrigues, and H.S. Rostagno

Requirements of lysine
and available phosphorus

The nutrient levels recommended for broilers

were determined by a
series of dose-response Table 11 - Requirement of digestible lysine (dig lys), available phosphorus (availp)
experiments, associated and calcium for male broiler chickens of average performance utilizing the equations
to observations of the on Table 11.
Dig
AvailP, AvailP,
Ca1
performance of several Age, Weight Gain, Intake Dig Lys,
Kg
g/day g/day g/day Lys, % g/day
%
%
commercial flocks, in Days
different regions of 8
0.207
31.3
40.0
0.489
1.223 0.171
0.427 0.894
Brazil.
14
0.450
52.4
72.3
0.852
1.177 0.287
0.396 0.831
Lysine was used as
reference to estimate the
nutritional requirements
of the amino acids. The
lysine
requirements
were determined by
several dose-response

21

0.886

74.7

115.2

1.295

1.124

0.412

0.358

0.750

28

1.464

91.3

158.6

1.698

1.071

0.537

0.338

0.724

35

2.131

98.8

192.3

1.963

1.021

0.589

0.306

0.656

42

2.833

97.7

209.0

2.040

0.976

0.590

0.282

0.605

1%Ca: Average calculated by multiplying the % of available P by 2.13 and the % of

digestible P by 2.35.
Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 07

XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

Table 12 - Effect of dig. Lysine on feed conversion, lysine deposition and breast filet
yield of broiler males from 10 to 21 and 22 to 35 days.
Experiment 10 21 days

Experiment 22 35 days

Dig Lys
(%)

Feed
Conv

Lys Deposition
(g / day)

Dig. Lys
(%)

Feed
Conv

Breast Filet
Yield (%)

1.06

1.48

0.58

0.92

1.77

23.8

1.12

1.47

0.54

0.98

1.72

24.2

1.16

1.43*

0.60

1.04

1.69*

24.0

1.24

1.46

0.59

1.10

1.73

24.5

1.30

1.44

0.63*

1.16

1.72

25.6*

LL

1.16

1.30

1.04

1.16

Regression
Requirement

Regression
Requirement

S. Salguero, L.F.T. Albino, P.B. Rodrigues, and H.S. Rostagno

L = Linear Effect (P<0.05); Q = Quadratic Effect (P<0.05). Rostagno et al. (2007). * Best
Value.

the data on performance of male broiler chickens

are presented, where the daily requirements of
digestible lysine and available phosphorus in g/day
and in percentage are calculated.
High levels of calcium (Ca) and phosphorus in
the diets for broiler chickens should be avoided,
since they affect bird performance and increase the
contamination of the environment. The Ca:Pavailable
ratio must be maintained at 2.13:1, and at 2.35:1
for the Ca:Pdigestible at the recommended levels. The
Ca requirement was calculated with the average of
the available and digestible P levels multiplied by the
respective ratios.

Amino acids level for

optimum lean growth
Broiler production is currently oriented for parts
marketing, and no longer to whole carcasses, which
led to the development of birds with higher lean
tissue yield and lower fat content (Buteri, 2003).
Broilers with high breast yield and low carcass
fat content are the main objective of poultry
companies as the awareness of consumers on
health issues has increased demand for lean
meat and rejection of fat carcasses. In addition to
genetics, lean tissue accretion and fat deposition
are influenced by nutrition, feeding program,
age, sex, and environmental conditions (Leeson,
1995).
According to Geraert et al. (2005), amino acid
requirements for broilers have been historically
determined in dose-response trials, with the

Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 07

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

concentration
of
the amino acid that
produces
maximum
weight gain chosen
as the requirement.
H o w e v e r ,
recommended dietary
amino acid levels
may vary according
to performance and
carcass
parameters.
In
general,
lysine
requirement hierarchy,
as
mentioned
by
Leclercq (1998), would
follow the following
order: weight gain
< breast fillet <
feed conversion <

abdominal fat.
The modern broiler has high capacity of growth
and protein deposition (especially of breast meat),
and the amino acid requirements can be higher
to maximize lean meat yield than to optimize feed
conversion.
In order to study the effect of dietary digestible
lysine level, while maintaining a constant amino acid
to lysine ratio, on broiler performance (10 21
and 22 35 days), lysine deposition (10 - 21 days)
and breast filet yield (22 35 days), Rostagno et
al (2007) carried out two experiments with Cobb
broilers. Table 13 shows the experimental results,
demonstrating that male birds linearly increased
lysine body deposition (Lys. requirement 10 21
days = 1.30%), whereas the requirement for feed
conversion was 1.16%. During the 22 - 35 days
phase, the recommended level of digestible lysine
was 1.04% for feed conversion, and 1.16% for
breast filet yield. These results indicate a 12%
increase in lysine requirement for lean gain
compared to the recommended digestible lysine
for optimal feed conversion rate (Table 13).
Similar results have recently been obtained
at Federal University of Viosa by Pessoa (2012),
who conducted two experiments, as part of
his Doctorate Thesis (In progress), to evaluate
different Methionine + Digestible Cystine/
Digestible Lysine ratios on performance and
breast filet yield of male Cobb broiler chickens.
The main conclusion, based on results shown in
Table 14, is that in order to improve breast yield,
the Methionine + Cystine level must be higher than
for optimum feed conversion.

XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

classified as average and

high performance were
calculated.

Table 13 - Effect of Met + Cys dig. / Lys Dig. Ratios on performance and breast
filet yield of broilers from 1 to 10 and 11 to 21 days of age.
Experiment 1 10 days

M+C/Lys
Ratio (%)

Weight
Gain (g)

Feed Filet Yield

Conv.
(%)

Experiment 11 21 days
Weight
Gain (g)

Feed
Conv

Filet Yield
(%)

65

194.2

1.48

10.3

515.2

1.50

15.0

68

204.9

1.47

10.3

515.6

1.51

15.2

71

210.6*

1.42*

10.8

512.2

1.49

15.4

74

209.4

1.42

10.7

516.3

1.49

16.1

77

210.1

1.42

11.3*

527.5

1.47

16.2

80

204.9

1.43

11.1

529.6*

1.46*

16.3*

Regression

Diets were formulated

with traditional feedstuffs
for each phase, the
cost per kg of diet was
obtained, and finally,
the feeding cost was
calculated (US$/bird) for
a bird with 3040g. The
average-performance
broiler takes 49 days
to reach 3040 g versus
44 days for the highperformance broiler. This

L = Linear Effect (P<0.05); Q = Quadratic Effect (P<0.05). Pessoa (2012).* Best Value.

Table 14 - Performance of male broiler chickens (average vs high) and digestible lysine requirement1.
Phase, Weight Gain, Intake
days
g
g/day g/day

High Performance
Lysine
%2

Phase,
days

Weight,
g

Gain,
g/day

Intake
g/day

Lysine
%2

0-7

184

20.3

23.1

1.250

0-7

179

19.6

24.8

1.25

7-21

788

43.1

65.0

1.097

7-21

886

50.5

75.7

1.106

21-37

2024

77.3

138.9

1.037

21-35

2131

88.9

158.9

1.047

37-49

3040

86.0

192.6

0.928

37-44

3040

99.2

205.4

0.996

1 - Data obtained from Brazilian Tables of 2005 and 2011 (Rostagno et al., 2011). 2 - The ME levels of the diets for the
average and high performance broilers were the same: Pre-starter, 2975; Starter, 3050; Grower, 3150; and Finisher, 3200
kcal/kg

Adjustment of nutritional
requirements andfeeding
cost of broilers
In the model presented
in the Brazilian Tables of
2011(Rostagno et al., 2011), the
nutritional requirements must
be calculated according to the
animal performance. Utilizing
this model, the nutritional level
of the diet for an averageperformance broiler must be
lower than the requirement for
a high-performance broiler. To
illustrate this methodology, data
on the performance of male
broilers published in the Brazilian
Tables of 2005 and 2011 (Table
15) were utilized; the nutritional
requirements of the chickens

difference is shown in Table 15, where the average

broiler consumes more diet and energy (+300 g
and +982 kcal ME), in comparison with the high

Table 15 - Simulation of nutrient intake and feeding cost of male broilers

with average and high performance using data from Table 15 and the
brazilian tables (2011) to estimate the nutritional requirements1.
Parameters

Average
Performance

High
Performance

Difference
(High-Average)

3040

3040

--

49

44

-5

Gain, g/day

62.0

69.1

+7.1

Feed Intake, g

5606

5306

-300

Dig Lys Intake, g

56.5

55.6

-0,8

Final weight, g
Age, days

AvailP Intake, g

17.7

17.4

-0.3

ME Intake, kcal

17652

16670

-982

2.15

2.09

-0.06

Feed Cost, US$/Bird

S. Salguero, L.F.T. Albino, P.B. Rodrigues, and H.S. Rostagno

Average Performance

1 - Diets formulated with traditional ingredients (corn, soybean meal, dicalcium

phosphate).
Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 07

S. Salguero, L.F.T. Albino, P.B. Rodrigues, and H.S. Rostagno

XXIV

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

performance bird. Since nutritional requirements

were adjusted according to the performance of
each type of bird, the digestible lysine and available
P intake varied little. The effect was determined by
the maintenance requirement of the 5 extra days
to reach the target weight. The feeding cost per
bird was higher for the average broiler (0.06 US$/
bird), which represents a significant amount when
calculated for a producer with an output of 1 million
broilers per month (60,000.00 US$/month). These
values are even more significant if the nutritionist
does not adjust the requirements according to
the lower performance, and the diet fed to highperformance broilers are used. In this case, the
feeding cost for average-performance broiler
becomes 2.20 US$/bird versus 2.09 US$/bird for the
high-performance broiler, resulting in a difference
of 0.11 US$/bird or 110,000.00 US$/month for a
producer of 1 million birds/month (Tables 15 and
16).

BENICIO, L.A.S. (1995) Estudo da influncia de linhagens

e de nveis nutricionais sobre o desempenho,
rendimento de carcaa e avaliao econmica em
frangos de corte. Ph. D. Thesis, Federal University of
Viosa.

Final considerations

FISHER, C. and WILSON, B.J. (1974) Response to

dietary energy concentration by growing chickens,
in: MORRIS, T.R. & FREEMAN, E.B.M. (Eds) Energy
Requirements of Poultry, pp. 151-184 (Edinburg)

Early posthatch feeding of a special diet in the

transport tray increases broiler performance.
Adding Glutamine or Glutamine-Glutamic
Acid in the diet improves the uniformity of
broiler chickens.
Part of the variation in animal performance
is caused by the lack of adjustment of the
feedstuff composition matrix.
The quality control of feedstuffs allows
formulation of more efficient and economical
diets.
Equations have been developed to determine
the equivalence in available phosphorus of
different levels of 3-Phytase and 6-Phytase.
The use of equations to estimate nutrient
requirement enables determination of
nutritional requirements, according to
performance and feed intake of broiler
chickens.
The lysine and methionine + cystine
requirements can be higher to maximize lean
meat yield than for optimum feed conversion.

References
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Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

Area: Nutrition and Feed Technologies August 07

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BUTERI, C.B. (2003) Efeitos de diferentes planos
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August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

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