J . Chem. Tech. Biotechnol.

1986,36,212-218

A Comparison of Treatment Methods for

Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) Wastes
J. 0.Edewor
Chemical Engineering Department, University of Lagos, Akoka-Lagos, Nigeria
(Manuscript received 15 May 1985 and accepted 6 November 1985)

A study of the operational variables involved in the treatment of palm oil mill
effluent (POME) was carried out. These included the acidic or alkaline nature of
the POME discharged from the oil mills, the efficiency of the decay (or digestion)
of the chemical oxygen demand (COD) contents of the POME, the economic
benefits that could arise from the digested sludge and biogas and finally the net
economic recovery abilities of the various treatment methods available. The
chemical oxygen demand (COD) contents of the POME must be reduced to an
acceptable level of 2000-3000 mg solids dm-3 of sludge before the latter can be
used as a fertiliser material. In 10 days of operational periods various anaerobic
digestion treatment methods gave COD reduction efficiencies of 76-96%, the batch
pond anaerobic digestion mode gave an efficiency of 76.5%, the continuous pond
modes 92.5-95.5% and the tank digester 93.8%. In all anaerobic operations the
optimal pH values of the POME media were in the range 7.1-7.6 and a ratio of the
volatile acids to the total alkalinity of the media (VAAA) of 0.3 or less was found
to enhance the performance of these digesters. Economic analyses carried out on
all modes of treatment gave the following economic recovery abilities: the
decanteddrier system gave a break-even situation of 3 years, the tank digester
system, 2 years, and the single stage anaerobic pond system, 6 years. The batch
pond system appeared not to give a break-even situation. Of the treatment
methods examined the decanteddrier and tank digester systems were concluded to
be optimal.

Keywords: Palm oil mill effluent; wastes treatment; anaerobic digesters; aerobic
digesters.
1. Introduction

As is typical of the green revolution programme in Nigeria, any large-scale farming is usually
associated with two main benefits. The first, and more obvious, is the production of abundant
food for the local population. The second and more salient benefit is the accrual of waste
materials that result in the process of harvesting the various food materials. These wastes can
often be recycled as useful raw materials in a variety of different industries. Typical of such waste
accruals is the generation of mill effluent wastes from mills that extract palm oil from palm
bunches. Edewor (unpublished) estimated that from an oil palm plantation of 56 000 ha of space,
with a palm tree population of 12.8 million, Nigeria is capable of producing 160 million kg of
edible oil per annum. In obtaining this quantity of oil about 162 million kg of palm oil mill
effluent (POME) wastes will be generated per annum. This paper considers the possible uses to
which these wastes can be putlor how best these waste materials could be discarded. Edewor
(unpublished) estimated that from this amount of POME Nigeria could generate about 9 million
kg of fertiliser materials that could be recycled back into the palm plantation. Furthermore, it is
feasible that biogas could be generated from the POME by anaerobic digestion processes.
This paper attempts to review and assess the practical and economic value of the various
methods that could be used to recover the gases or fertilisers from POME waste materials.
212

Treatment methods for POME

213

2. Methods
2.1. The nature of POME
Palm oil mill effluent (POME) wastes are the fibre-free non-oil components obtained from the
clarification zone of oil mills. The digestion of palm fruit bunches to yield palm oil involves a
number of stages, or zones, including sterilisation, digestion, cycloning, separation and
clarification. In the separation zone the palm oil is separated from the aqueous phase that arises
from washings in the digestion zone; the aqueous phase then passes to the clarifying zone where
more oil is skimmed off the bulk phase.
The resulting POME consists of various suspended components including cell walls, organelles,
short fibres, a spectrum of carbohydrates ranging from hemicelluloses to simple sugars, a range
of nitrogen compounds from proteins to amino acids, free organic acids and assembly of minor
organic and mineral constituents.' In appearance the POME sludge is viscous brown or grey and
has an average total solid content of about 50 000 mg/dm-3. However, in trying to recover the
POME further, it becomes diluted to a net average solid concentration of 20 000 mg/dm-3. The
sludge has a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of 15 000-30 000 mg/dm-3. The BOD is an
indication of the level of atmospheric pollution that could arise when the POME is allowed to
degrade biologically. Table 1 gives the various characteristics of a POME discharge from a
typical palm oil mill such as that sited at the Nigerian Institute for Palm Oil Research (NIFOR)
near Benin, Nigeria.
This table shows that POME contains dissolved mineral materials, suspended solids and
organic acids such that with some chemical process treatments POME could be made useful as
fertiliser material.

2.2. POME treatment methods

Because of its high organic content POME has a high potential to cause environmental pollution,
thus the effectiveness of any designed treatment plant or scheme would best be measured by the

Table I . Constituents and properties of palm oil mill raw effluent from a
tvpicdl Nigerian mill (NIFOR mill)
Pa ramc ters
~~~

~~~

~~~

RdngC"
~~~~~

Colour
PH
Oil
Alkalinity
Biochcmical oxygcn dcmand (BOD)
Chemical oxygcn demand (COD)
Volalilc acids ( V A )
Total solids (TS)
Volatile solids (VS)
Suspcndcd solids (SS)
Nitrogcn:
Organic
Ammonia
Phosphorus
Potassiu in
Magnesium

Calcium
Sodium
Manganese
Iron
Zinc
Copper
All values are in mg dm
Source: O j u k w u . '
"

1s

Dirty
3.(M4.S
18 O(&52 OOO
27(M50
22 500-38 O()O
42 OINkXI 3(X)
21 0(!-.5700
37 X(ML71 HM)
3 I Zo(k.56 7OU
12 7(W51 cnn,
67(k%H)

17-31
1 In-1.56

142G2165
2 1 s-360
231-395
26-63
I .7-3.8
62- 1 30
1 &2. I
1 &1.5

' cxccpt pH.

J. 0.Edcwor

214

degree of reduction in the BOD or COD of the POME, which indirectly quantify the amount of
the organic matter in the wastes.
Reliable data for POME treatments are obtainable in POME Limitation Standards currently
stipulated by the Directorate of Environment (DOE) of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,
which has the responsibility of determining industrial pollution limitation standards in Malaysia,
and to enforce such standards under the Malaysian environmental quality act of 1974. But no
such criteria apply to Nigerian mills which do not undertake treatment of their POME.
The systematic pollution control approach used in Malaysia involved a progressive cut-back on
the quantity of pollutants discharged by the palm oil industry and this was achieved by the
imposition of a four-generation set of effluent limitation standards or permissible levels.
However detailed research work has made it possible to formulate a new set of standards or
permissible levels as shown in Table 2.
The effective reduction in the BOD level of POME is thus the best approach to curtailing the
polluting potential of the effluent. Several options and/or processes are open for use in the
treatment of POME. These include (i) aerobic biodegradation, (ii) anaerobic biodegradation,
(iii) chemical treatment, (iv) decanting and drying of the effluent. The choice and subsequent
design of a particular option and/or process depends on the achievable degree of effectiveness of
treatment as well as other factors such as the size of the oil mill producing the effluent, ultimate
mode of discharge, economics of establishment, operation and maintenance facilities, level of
supervision required and anticipated economic benefits.
2.3. Variable factors in POME degradation
The raw POME effluent from NIFOR mill (Table 1) is essentially acidic with pH values of
3.0-4.5. The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) varies between 22 500 and 38 000 rng/dm-.'
while the chemical oxygen demand (COD) varies between 42 000 and 81 300 mg/dm-j. A
minimum of 2100 mg/dm-3 and maximum of 5700 m g / d ~ n -were
~ obtained for its volatile acids as
acetic acid while the total alkalinity expressed as CaC03 ranged between 270 and 650 rng/dm-.'.
A mean total oil content of 2.8% by weight was obtained in the analysis of the POME.
Thus in choosing a process best suited to the treatment of POME (with the exception of the
decanting and drying process) one considers the following factors: (a) the ratio of volatile acids to
total alkalinity (VA/TA) and (b) pH values during the process of acclimatisation or growth of
biological cultures required for degradation in the final aerobic or anaerobic digestion process.
The acclimatisation process, in this case, is done by adding some cultured species to small

Table 2. Palm oil mill effluent standards for watercourse discharge effective from 1
July 1982

Parameter

Standard E

Standard F

1 July 1982-

1 January 19x4 and

December 1983

thereafter
~~~~~~

Biochemical oxygen demand

(BOD, 3-day, 30C) (mgldm-')
Chemical oxygen demand
(COD) (mg/dm-')
Total solids (mgldm-')
Suspended solids (mg/dm-3)
Oil and grease (mgldm-')
Ammoniaeal nitrogen (mg/dm - 3 )
Total nitrogen (mgldm-')
PH
Temperature ("C)

250

100 (soy

400

400

SO
1so"
300"

SO
1o(r
200"
5.0-9.0

5.cL9.0
45

45

This additional limit is the arithmetic mean value determined on the basis of a
minimum of four samples taken at least once a week for four consecutive wccks.
* Value on filtered sample.
Source: Unpublished data from DOE in Kuala Lumpur, Malavsia.

Treatmentmethodsfor POME

215

quantities of POME over a period of time. Studies carried out by Ojukwu' showed that the
optimal values required at this stage were a VA/TA ratio of less than 0.2 and a pH value of
7.2-7.6 after about 30 days of start-up of the process. Steady decrease in the volatile acids
content was recorded after about 21 days, giving a final value of 350 m g / d ~ n -after
~ 30 days. The
significance of this decrease in volatile acids, relative to alkalinity, is that the microbial cultures,
required for the digestion process, will have a longer operational life in a more alkaline medium
than an acidic one.
At the end of the acclimatisation process (during which enough cultures must have been
grown) the actual anaerobic digestion was commenced. Bulk quantities of fresh POME were
mixed with the cultured specimens and the mixture allowed to stand for some days (retention
time). Here again the VA/TA ratios were monitored closely together with pH value
measurements. An additional parameter monitored was the COD variation with retention time.
Three modes of digestion were used to effect the POME decay: (i) the batch pond digestion
mode, in which POME was kept in a pond in the ground over a number of days and the above
parameters measured, (ii) the single-stage continuous pond digestion mode in which POME was
passed through the pond with a rather slow throughput to allow for decay; the variant to this
mode, the two-stage continuous flow mode, in which partly digested POME is passed to another
pond similar to the first, and the use of a constructed tank to effect the digestion. In both the
single-stage and two-stage continuous pond modes, sampling of the variables was done at specific
positions chosen in the ponds. Table 3 gives results of variations of parameters with retention
times. These include the VA/TA ratios, COD reduction and reduction efficiencies of the various
modes and the pH values of the digestion media.
The data reveal that after a 10-day retention time (higher days not chosen because of
diminishing efficiencies with increase in days) the batch pond digestion mode gave a COD

Table 3. Digestion (COD removal) data obtained for various removal modes
VARA
ratios
observed

Total COD
in mgdm-' (and COD
reduction efficiency
in %)

pH values
obtained
in treated

0.42
0.47
0.19
0.23

13 100 (-)
3 100 (76)
2 940 (76)
2 730 (79)

7.2
7.3
7.5
7.6

(b) Single-stage continuous digestion mode

0
0.18
10
0.16
15
0.11
20
0.10
0.09
25
30
0.08

61 OOO (-)
3 782 (93.8)
3 355 (94.5)
2 684 (95.6)
1891 (96.9)
1769 (97.1)

7.2
7.1
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.3

(c) Two-stages continuous digestion mode

0
0.06
0.05
7
10
0.04
1s
0.04

76 543 (-)
3 444 (95.5)
3 010 (96.0)
2 602 (96.6)

7.6
7.3
7.3
7.3

54 510 (-)
3 488 (93.6)
2 344 (95.7)
1 no0 (96.7)
1 472 (97.3)
1 254 (97.7)

7.3
7.3
7.5
7.0
6.9
6.8

Number of days
bulk POME is retained

in digester together with

cultured organism
(a) Batch pond digestion mode
0

n
10
12

(d) Tank digester mode of digestion

0
10

1s
20
25
30
Source: Ojukwu.'

0.15
0.13
0.11
0.24
0.33
0.26

POME

J. 0. Edewor

216

removal efficiency of 76%, pH value of 7.5 and a VA/TA ratio of 0.19. The single-stage
continuous digestion mode gave values of 93.8% efficiency, pH value of 7.1 VA/TA ratio of
0.16. The two-stage variant of this mode gave data that are not too varied for periods between 7
and 15 days. Average COD removal efficiency was about 96%. The tank digester mode gave
figures of 93.6% efficiency, pH of 7.3 and VAlTA of 0.15.
3. Discussion
3.1. Choice of optimal mode of anaerobic treatment
The data given in Table 3, show that the ratios of volatile acids to total alkalinity (VA/TA) in all
digesters were similar and generally below 0.2. This value of 0.2 made for optimal efficiency of
cultures and consequently this ratio was closely monitored and adjusted by the addition of
calcium carbonate (CaCo3) whenever the acid content was observed to increase, i.e. when the
ratio VAlTA increased. Maintenance of a steady ratio resulted in maintenance of the pH value
of the digestion medium in the range 7.1-7.5. However, clearly these two parameters did not
give an acceptable means of discriminating between the performance of various digesters.
In terms of COD removal (Table 3) the two-stage pond system appears to offer relatively high
efficiency in comparison with other digesters, but other factors must be considered including
building and maintenance costs.
The single-stage pond is easily the cheapest mode to build and maintain. The two-stage pond mode
is also easy to build but rather more complex to run and maintain because of the valves and piping
required. The tank digester is the most expensive to build but easier to run and maintain than the
other two. Thus there is conflict between capital investments on the one hand and operating and
maintenance costs on the other. If one considers the ease of controlling atmospheric pollution, the
tank digester is most easily controlled, thus if the optimum requirements for costs, pollution control
and COD reduction efficiency'are to be met then the choice would appear to be between the tank
digester and single-stage pond systems.
The economic analysis of Ojukwu' showed (a) the costs of building and maintaining these two
types of digester, (b) the anticipated financial benefits that could accrue from the degradation
processes, e.g. generation of biogas and (c) the net economic recovery of the alternatives.
Details of the economic considerations are not given here but summarised values are given in
Table 4.

Table 4. Economic analyses of POME anaerobic treatment modes

Capital costs" of
treatment system ( # )
(19x2 price Icvels)

Modes of POME

treatment
~~

~~

Cumulative operational
and maintenance costa"
o f rystcm ( W ) (19x2 price
levels)
~

~~

Net economic recobcry 0 1

mode showing break-cvcn
year and cash tlow at end oi
ycar
~~

~.

Tank digester mode with resultant

sludge fed directly to palm trees
as fertiliser. Generated bhgdS
stored for usage

95 232

12 YO0

Breii k-cvcn year =7

Net cash tlow
(2nd year)=#3Z hXO

Single-stage anaerobic mode with

similar sludge feed as above

92 648

6 S(XI

Break-evcn ycar=b
Net cash !low=WI3 OX0

Tank digester mode with resultant

sludge further treated aerobically
and then discharged as waste
water

132 132

46 xoo

Break-cvcn ycar=h
Net cash !low
(6th year)=#21 5x0

Single-stage mode with similar

treatment to sludge a s above

129 448

40 400

Break-even ycar
quite indctcrmin;itc

Source: Ojukwu.'
Costs arc based on annual POME throughput of 290 000' by volume.

Treatment methods for POME

217

The tank digester, with the resultant treated sludge being fed directly to the palm trees as
fertiliser, gave a break-even time of 2 years for a potentially commercial plant, a quick net
economic recovery ability. At the end of this break-even period a net cash flow of almost
N23000 would be realised for an initial capital investment of W95 000 and 2-year operational and
maintenance costs of #26 000. The other options do not present such viable economic prospects
and hence the tank digester mode is suggested as being the optimal mode for anaerobic
treatment of POME. This mode is able to produce an average of 2.38 m3 of biogas, for every m3
of effective volume of tank digester treated each day (Edewor, unpublished), i.e. biogas
generation per day is 2.38 m3 m-3 of digester effective volume and the calorific value of each m3
generated biogas is equivalent to 0.65 litre of diesel oil.
3.2. Other methods of treating POME
As mentioned earlier chemical treatment, aerobic degradation and decantinddrying are all
alternative methods of treating POME. Economic factors do not favour the chemical treatment
approach for a country such as Nigeria that currently imports most of her chemicals but may be a
feasible option should adequate petrochemical industries develop. The aerobic degradation
approach is considered a waste though capital investments are relatively lower than those for
anaerobic digestion systems. Products obtainable by this mode are usually carbon dioxide, some
oxides of nitrogen and sulphur and resultant treated sludge. Investments are low, by the same
token, benefits are also low.
The decantingldrying approach is more or less a purely physical one. The POME is passed
through filter beds where the solids are trapped and collected in drying units where the solids are
finally rid of water and packaged as fertiliser materials; in economic terms this method roughly
approximate to the anaerobic digestion method. Edewor (unpublished) estimates capital
investments to be in the region of W20 000 for a unit handling about 193 000 m3 volume of
POME per annum at 1982 price levels. The capital costs quoted in Table 4 are based on a POME
handling capacity of 290 000 m3 per annum; operational and maintenance costs are put at
another W11 OOO per annum. Equilibrating volume-cost values, the decanteddryer unit would
have an effective capital cost of W24 000 and an effective operation and maintenance cost of
#11000 per annum. In comparison with the net economic recoveries of other modes (Table 4) one
can project that a break-even situation might occur after about 3 years.

4. Conclusions

For any operational of manufacturing enterprise meant for commercial purposes net economic
benefits are usually the primary factors used to determine the viability or otherwise, of such an
enterprise. Thus, in the case of POME treatments, one would like to assess the various modes of
treatment by their economic appeal. The decanteddrier system seems to offer most appeal and
with its quick break-even economic data would appear to offer economic advantages to oil mills
in Nigeria wishing to engage in POME recovery and recycling. The main by-product will be dried
fertilisers of the type N-P-K, Mg. Another attractive but more expensive alternative would be the
tank digester with a break-even situation of 2 years and main products as biogas and fertilisers of
type P-K, Mg. For a community that is not capable of building a tank digester, the single-stage
anaerobic pond mode is suggested. However the situation here will be one of a break-even
period of 6 years and main products as biogas and P-K, Mg fertiliser.
Whatever mode of treatment is chosen by either the oil mill or the local community the basic
parameters to consider, for purposes of optimisation, are the chemical oxygen demand, COD,
reduction efficiency, the pH of degrading POME media and the volatile acid-total alkalinity
ratios of the media. The only exception to this is the decanteddrier unit that depends solely on
physical operations of separation and drying.
For the anaerobic digestion modes considered it is suggested that an optimal level of treatment
would be that of VAiTA ratio of less than 0.2, and pH range of 7.1-7.5. This level of operation

218

1.0.Edcwor

will give results of 76-93.5% of COD removal efficiency, depending on the mode of treatment
chosen. In terms of total considerations, the tank digester mode, with an efficiency of 93.5% is
considered optimal. However, if simple drying is required then the decanteddrier mode is clearly
the most effective choice.
Reference
1. Ojukwu, 0.N. (1983) MSc thesis, University of Lagos.