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Allison Flores
Professor Greg McClure
Writing 39C
August 10, 2016
A historical review of scientific literature on killer whale cognition and the issue on captivity
Killer whales are the largest of species in the dolphin family, weighing about six tons and having
a length of twenty-three to thirty-two feet long (National Geographic). Not only are these marine
mammals the largest of the family they are also one of the smartest. As Kevin Spears writes,
Killer Whales have the second-biggest brains among all ocean mammals, weighing as much as
15 pounds (Spear 1). As author Simmonds writes, most intelligent animals (Simmonds 1).
These animals are so intelligent and it is not doing them any good as a result of being in
captivity. Since 1961, killer whales have been taken away from their family and left in captivity.
Today there are 56 killer whales who are held in captivity. 23 killer whales who are wildcaptured and 33 who are captive-born (Orca Project 2). All of these killer whales are in 12
different parks located in 8 different countries (Orca Project). The purpose of this paper is to
show the cognitive abilities of killer whales and the problems with killer whale captivity and to
offer solutions to these problems. The problems that will be discussed in this paper are the health
issues that affect the killer whales as a result of being held captive as well as to show how killer
whales behavior changes in captivity. There have been some solutions that have been proposed,
but nothing has yet been put into effect to solve this problem. One specific bill that has been
proposed, is called The Orca Welfare and Safety Act. This bill was proposed by California State
Assembly Member Richard Bloom which makes it illegal to hold killer whales in captivity or to
use wild-caught and captive-bred whales for performances or entertainment purposes (Kretzer).

As Steven Pinker writes, a psychologist at Harvard University, and author of The Stuff of
Thought states, It would be perverse to deny consciousness to mammals (Kruger). I will depict
different scientific studies, specifically those showing examples of killer whales behaviors like
self-recognition and the ability of learning different imitations. This type of research began in the
late 1900s, and I will begin this review from more recent studies that were done in 2000. I will
talk about how killer whales showed self-recognition through the mirror-induced contingency
checking test and then will be identifying how killer whales have the ability to learn imitative
learning. These behaviors show that killer whales do have cognitive abilities and how these
abilities are hindered for them because some whales are in captivity.
Donald R. Griffin and Gayle B. Speck, authors of the Animal Cognition Review: New evidence
of animal consciousness, show how most animals experience at least simple levels of
consciousness (Griffin and Speck 5).

Natsoulas, a professor at the University of California

Davis, studies the meaning of consciousness. Natsoulas defines consciousness as, the state or
facility of being mentally conscious or aware of anything (Griffin and Speck 6). By following
this definition, Griffin, who was an American professor of zoology and did researcher in animal
behavior, animal navigation, acoustic orientation and sensory biophysics, and Speck who also
studies animal consciousness as well as writes about animal rights, shows how animals are
conscious by studying three different methods. Griffin and Speck begin by looking for
correlations of consciousness at the brain level. Then they look at challenges that animals have
not been genetically programmed to be prepared for. Lastly, they look at animal communication.
For example, Griffin and Speck provide the example of how apes showed an increased ability to
use gestures or keyboard symbols to answer questions or to ask for things. Griffin and Speck also
show the example of how honey bees have shown gestural communication which helps them to

make important groups decisions. (Griffin and Speck 6). Griffin and Speck depict the different
methods that were used to show consciousness in animals through examples provided in their
article. Another example of killer whales behavior that shows they have the ability of cognition,
is a study of killer whales behavior in front of a mirror. Their behavior in front of the mirror
showed how they have the cognitive abilities that are needed for self-recognition. This research
was done in 2001 in the article called, Mirror image processing in three marine mammal
species: killer whales, false killer whales, and California sea lions, written by scientist F.Delfour
and K. Marten. Through the mirror self-recognition model, it tested the existence of a cognitive
ability. It was testing to see if animals or individuals understand mirrored information. As animal
researcher Anderson writes, To recognize its own mirror image an in individual may need a
representation of itself; it may be aware of its own existence and process the ability to monitor its
own mental states: it may experience perceptual and reflective consciousness (Delfour and
Marten 1). From this quote it shows how the killer whales must show cognitive abilities because
they are capable of understanding the mirror test. Five killer whales were tested, three females
and two males. One of the whales dorsal fins was injured on the males, so the whale dropped out
of the study. This was conducted in the following way. Three times a day data was collected.
One of the window was made into a one-way mirror which the camcorder was placed. Whales
were mark-tested on the males before they were exposed to the mirror, where as the females
were exposed to the mirror before they got the mark test. A mark test is when the whole rostrum
of the killer whales was rubbed with antiseptic ointments (Delfour and Marten 3). What the
results showed as in figure one shows, is that when the whales were showed the mirror (window
with the mirror) or the window (which is the same window just without the mirror) they spent
more time when they saw the mirror, where as if they didnt see the mirror. Also, when the

whales saw the mirror some would move their head, open their mouth, show their tongue and
play with the fish. As the authors write, The killer whale responded to the mirror by displaying
contingency checking behaviors (Delfour and
Marten 4). From this quote it is clear that the killer
whales were capable of fully understanding what
was happening when they were looking at the
mirror. In this review, it shows how killer whales
are able to recognize itself in front of a mirror showing self-consciousness.
Another way killer whales show that they have cognition is through their behavior of imitative
learning. In the article, Experimental evidence for action imitation in killer whales, published in
the journal Animal Cognition, shows three ways in which killer whales were capable of learning
how to imitate. The whales were able to imitate 18 different behaviors. For the whales to be
tested, one trainer was needed to indicate to the demonstrator and other trainer was needed to
give the commands to the killer whales. The three phases that the killer whales were tested on
was copying the command while responding to the gesture based command copy (Do that).
Phase 2 involved testing the subjects response to the trainers copy command. In phase 3 the
killer whales were tested with behaviors that the killer whales had never been exposed too. When
the killer whales performed a correct response, they were given fish and voice reinforcement
signals. Before the 8th trial all three subjects copied 100% of the demonstrators behavior. The
results also showed that the killer whales copied 100% of the untrained behaviors. More
recognition needs to be given to killer whales showing that they do have cognitive abilities and
action needs to be taken to help these whales escape from captivity.

To help end killer whale captivity a bill has been proposed called The Orca Welfare and Safety
Act which would not only make it illegal to keep killer whales captives, but to also make it
illegal for having these whales used for entertainment purposes. This bill will bring so much
justice for these whales if it is passed. I believe that this is the best bill possible for these whales
because not only will it end captivity it will help all those whales who have been used for the
entertainment. Also if the bill passes, it would force SeaWorld San Diego to rehabilitate the orcas
to hopefully transfer them to protected ocean sanctuaries (PETA). Another benefit of this bill is
that it would ban SeaWorlds artificial insemination of captive killer whales with in the state as
well as blocking other orcas semen from other states (PETA). With all these benefits that will
come for the killer whales if this bill is passed, it is only going to help save these whales and
provide them with a better life. Following the problems that I have presented below, this bill is
the only solution that could help save these whales.
The first issue with killer whale captivity is the way their health is affected. As written in the
journal Elsevier, the article called, Assessment of current dietary intake of organochlorine
contaminants and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in killer whales through direct determination
in a group of whales in captivity, shows the effect of how killer whales food is contaminated
and how it is affects their life. The killer whales are being exposed to a specific pollutant called
persistent organic pollutants (POPs). POPs is a toxic chemical that is resistant to degradation in
the environment and biota (Formigraro 2). There are variant forms of POPs called
organochlorhiorne pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). The effect that POP has on the killer whales is that it can cause
reproductive impairment, immune-toxicity, immune suppressions, endocrine disruption and
skeletal abnormalities (Fossil and Marsili, 2). In this study conducted by these scientists on four

killer whales who were held in captivity all their food had some level of POP. As figure two
shows, all the chemical levels that are being put into
the killer whales mouth.
Another health issue that killer whales who are in
captivity have to deal with is the grueling amount of
stress. Stress is the experience of having intrinsic or
extrinsic demands that goes beyond an individual
respires to respond to those demands (Dantzer). As
written in the article, Sources of stress in captivity, published in the journal Science Direct by
authors Kathleen N. Morgan and Chris T. Tromborg write how animals who are held in fake
habitats experience challenges. The types of stress that these animals face are artificial lighting,
exposure to loud or aversive sound, bad odors, and uncomfortable temperature or substrates
(Morgan and Trombor). Other types of stress that these animals have to deal with are restricted
movements, reduced retreats space, forced proximity to humans, reduced feeling of opportunity
and abnormal social groups (Morgan and Trombor). What stress can do to the killer whales is
lead to short and long-term health issues. For example, their dorsal fin can collapse. It has been
shown that captive killer whales spend too much time on the surface of the water rather than in
the water. Also, they do not get the proper hydration from the frozen fish and these factors cause
their dorsal fin to collapse. This is just one of the health issues that killer whales have to deal
with due to their amount of stress in captivity.
Another factor that changes for killer whales who are in captivity is their behavior. Killer whales
become more violent and develop aggression because they have been taken away from their
families and social life. One example of killer whales aggression spiraling out of control was a

female orca at SeaWorld. This killer whale named Kandu V, bled to death after an artery at her
upper jaw was severed. This whales had done this herself when she collided with another whale
(Venture and Jett 2). A reason why this whale did this was because of an aggression toward the
other whale to show her place in the social hierarchy. Aggression that the whales have can also
lead them to having broken teeth. As the Orca Project states, Social strife and boredom
accompanying orca captivity also contributes to broken teeth. What the whales do to cause their
broken teeth is that they bite in the metal bars of the steel gates. They also will bite the concrete
pool corners and chew on the metal bars. What this does to the whale is that pieces of their teeth
will be found at the pool and the pulp of these teeth have been chipped or broken. I the pulp is
not taken care of and it starts to decay, it causes a cavity which leads to food plugging. Now this
affects the immune system of the orca and could cause an infection.
With all the problems that killer whales are dealing with in captivity, there now have been many
organizations trying to help improve this situation for these animals. For example the World
Cetacean Alliance (WCA), represents a worldwide community of scientists and non government
organizations that work together to protect cetaceans and their habitats (Born Free). Another
group called Global Welfare Guidance For Animals In Tourism (ABTA), tries to make sure that
all animals, wild, domestic, captive or free that business meet minimum requirements for good
animal practice standards (Born Free). However, although these groups are in the right direction
they have not yet improved the issue will killer whales in captivity. Also, SeaWorld had just
announced to the world that they will end their orca breeding as well as their theatrical programs.
This one huge step for the killer whales that are at SeaWorld. As Brian Clark Howard writes,
SeaWorld will replace its shows with new, inspiring, natural orca encounters emphasizing
orca enrichment, exercise and overall health (National Geographic). Not only is SeaWorld

ending their breeding, but from by this quote they are even going as far as to make the whales
that they have left to feel like they are in their natural habitat. Although this is one step that has
been taken, to end killer whale captivity it is not the best because it does not account for all of
the other killer whales who are not at SeaWorld and there is now a way that all these problems
can be resolved, pass the bill. There has been a new bill that has been proposed that could make a
huge impact to save these whales and which I believe is the best solution to solve this issue.

The new bill that has been proposed, is called, The Orca Welfare and Safety Act which is the best
solution to end killer whale captivity. There are so many areas that this bill will cover that will
benefit the killer whales. This bill was introduced from a California State Assembly Member
Richard Bloom which he says that it would make it illegal to hold killer whales in captivity as
well as using a wild-caught or captive-bred orca for
performances or entertainment reasons (PETA 1).
Something else that the bill would do as Michelle
Kretzer writes, The bill would also put a damper on
SeaWorlds breeding operation by banning artificial
insemination of captive killer whales within the state and
blocking the import of orca semen from other states
(PETA 1). From this quote it is evident that this is the
best solution to end killer whale captivity. Not only will
it make killer whale captivity illegal it will also make all the practices that people are performing
on the whales illegal. One more reason to pass this bill is that if it passes SeaWorld San Diego
will need to rehabilitate the orcas and then release them to the wild if they are ready or move
them to protected ocean sanctuaries. Based on everything that this bill has to offer it needs to be
passed to end this injustice that some killer whales are going through right now. As members
from People For The Ethical Treatment Of Animals write, The bill has the potential to end the
deep injustice of exhibitions of captive marine life. Coming from those who advocate for
animal rights also believe that this is the best way to help end killer whale captivity.
Another solution that could help end killer whale captivity is getting the message out there
through the use of social media. Social media is a powerful tool in the 21 st century that has had a

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big impact for what one is advocating. Clay Shirkey, an American writer, consultant and teacher
for the social and economic effects of the technologies on the internet states on his TED Talk
called How Social Media Can Make History states, the internet is the first medium in history
that has native support for groups and conversations at the same time. In his video Shirkey
emphasizes how large of an impact that social media has on the world. He states, media is
global, social, ubiquitous and cheapformer consumers are now producers. This quote is
relevant for social media campaigns because my fellow peers and I created a mini social media
campaign to to encourage people to take action in ending killer whale captivity. Through this
campaign many forms of social media were used to get the message out there. For example,
twitter we used twitter to tweet about the issues with killer whale captivity as well as to offer
solutions to killer whale captivity. We tweeted links to different articles and videos to give people
some visual information on this issue. We also used Wix to create our own website. On these two
forms of social media websites people would like or retweet our tweets and a lot of people
visited our websites. I have found that social media was a way to attract peoples attention and
get them following me on our campaign.
On the opposing side one may not think that killer whale captivity is an issue for many reasons.
Once reason one would think that killer whale captivity is not a problem is that they say that
these are just another animal they do not have feelings. I would have to say that this is so wrong
because researched has proved that killer whales do have feelings. As Thomas White, a
philosophy professor from Loyola Marymount University writes, they are alive, aware of their
environment, have emotions, have distinct personalities, exhibit self control and treat others with
respect or ethical consideration (Scientific American). From this quote, it is evident that animals
do have feelings and know what is happening to them. Another reason people might argue for

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why this is not an issue is that killer whales is that holding them in captivity is the only way they
could ever see them up close. Although this is semi true, if one wants to see a killer whale up
close their living conditions need to be changed and have them in a place that is similar as if they
were in the wild.
In conclusion, killer whales are intelligent species that show they have cognitive abilities, whos
life is being taken from them as a result of being held in captivity. These whales suffer so much
problems and the only solution to end these problems is to pass the bill The Orca Welfare and
Safety Act. Take action and help save these amazing creatures.

Works Cited
Abramson, Jos Z., Victoria Hernndez-Lloreda, Josep Call, and Fernando Colmenares.
"Experimental Evidence for Action Imitation in Killer Whales (Orcinus Orca)." Animal
Cognition Anim Cogn16.1 (2012): 11-22. Web.

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Bradford, Alina. "Orcas: Facts About Killer Whales." LiveScience. TechMedia Network, n.d. Web. 02
Aug. 2016.
Deecke, V.b, J.k.b Ford, and P. Spong. "Dialect Change in Resident Killer Whales:
Implications for Vocal Learning and Cultural Transmission." Animal Behaviour 60.5
(2000): 629-38. Web.
Deecke, Volker B., John K.b. Ford, and Peter J.b. Slater. "The Vocal Behaviour of Mammaleating Killer Whales: Communicating with Costly Calls." Animal Behaviour 69.2 (2005):
395-405. Web.
Delfour, F., and K. Marten. "Mirror Image Processing in Three Marine Mammal Species: Killer
Whales (Orcinus Orca), False Killer Whales (Pseudorca Crassidens) and California Sea
Lions (Zalophus Californianus)." Behavioural Processes 53.3 (2001): 181-90. Web.
Formigaro, Costanza, Luis A. Henrquez-Hernandez, Annalisa Zaccaroni, Manuel Garcia-Hartmann,
Mara Camacho, Luis D. Boada, Manuel Zumbado, and Octavio P. Luzardo. "Assessment of
Current Dietary Intake of Organochlorine Contaminants and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
in Killer Whales (Orcinus Orca) through Direct Determination in a Group of Whales in
Captivity." Science of The Total Environment 472 (2014): 1044-051. Web.
Griffin, Donald R., and Gayle B. Speck. "New Evidence of Animal Consciousness." Animal
Cognition 7.1 (2004): 5-18. Web.
"Keto and Tilikum Express the Stress of Orca Captivity." The Orca Project. N.p., 20 Jan. 2011. Web. 03
Aug. 2016.
"Killer Whales (Orcas), Killer Whale Pictures, Killer Whale Facts - National Geographic." National
Geographic. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Aug. 2016.

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Kluger,Jeffrey. Intelligence. Time: The Animal Mind. 14 July. 2016:6-19. Print
Simmonds, Mark Peter. "Into the Brains of Whales." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 100.1-2
(2006): 103-16. Web.
Spear, Kevin. "How Smart Are Killer Whales? Orcas Have 2nd-biggest Brains of All Marine Mammals." How
Smart Are Killer Whales? Orcas Have 2nd-biggest Brains of All Marine Mammals. N.p., n.d. Web. 02
Aug. 2016.
"The Fate of Captive Orcas." WDC, Whale and Dolphin Conservation. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Aug. 2016.
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SeaWorld Comments. N.p., 08 Apr. 2014. Web. 11 Aug. 2016.

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