Chapter 1

Macromolecules

Learning Objective
1. Discuss some biologically important chemical
groups.
2. Explain the structure of water and describe the
properties of water and its importance.
3. Formation of macromolecules from monomers.
4. Describe the general structure of amino acids and
group them based on their side chains.
5. Discuss the classification of protein in term of
levels of organization, structure, composition and
functions.

6. Describe the synthesis of disaccharides and

polysaccharides.
7. Describe the structure and function of starch,
glycogen and cellulose.
8. State the types of lipid.
9. Describe the synthesis and structure of
fat/triglycerol.

10. Functions of lipid.

11. Structures and functions nucleic acids.
12. State the types and functions of DNA and
RNA.

Overview
Carbon: The Backbone of Life
A cell consists of 7095% water, the remaining are
mostly carbon-based compounds.
Carbon has supreme ability to form large, complex,
and diverse molecules.
Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and lipids are all
composed of carbon atoms bonded to one another
and to other atoms: (H, O, N, S, P).

An atom
Nucleus
Protons (+ charge)
determine element
Neutrons (no charge)
determine isotope

+
+

Atom

Electrons ( charge
form negative cloud
and determine
chemical behavior

CHEMICAL BONDS
Molecules are groups of atoms held together in a stable
association. Eg: .
Compounds are molecules containing more than one type of
element. Eg: .
Atoms are held together in molecules or compounds by
chemical bonds.

of interaction
Bond &Basisinteraction

Name

Non covalent bonds

Covalent bond

Sharing of electron pairs

Ionic bond

Attraction of opposite charges

Hydrogen bond

Between partially positive

hydrogen atom and partially
negative atom in polar covalent
bonds

Hydrophobic interaction /
hydrophobic exclusion

Forcing of hydrophobic portion of

molecules together when placed in
water

Van der Waals attraction

Weak attraction between atoms

due to opposite polarized electron
clouds

Strength

strong

weak

: COVALENT BOND

CHEMICAL BOND 1

A covalent bond is the sharing of a pair of valence

electrons by two atoms.
Results in no net charge, satisfies octet rule, and no

Strength of a covalent bond depends on the number of

shared electrons.
Biological compounds that are composed of more than
2 atoms may share electrons with 2 or more atoms.
9

1. In each hydrogen
atom, the single
electron is held in its
orbital by its attraction
to the proton in the
nucleus.

2. When two hydrogen

atoms approach each
other, the electron of
each atom is also
attracted to the proton
in the other nucleus.

3. The two electrons

become shared in a
covalent bond, forming
an H2 molecule.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Is an atoms affinity or attraction for electrons.
The more electronegative an atom is, the more strongly
it pulls shared electrons toward itself.
..
Two hydrogen atoms share one pair of electrons: H H
both atoms have the same electronegativity
= equal sharing of electrons
...
between the oxygen and two hydrogen atoms of H2O molecule
O atom is more electronegative than H atom
= unequal sharing of electrons
12

Polar & nonpolar molecule

: IONIC BOND

CHEMICAL BOND 2

Formed by the attraction of oppositely charged ions.

.of electrons forms ions

Na atom loses an electron to become Na+
Cl atom gains an electron to become Cl
Opposite charges attract so that Na+ and Cl
remain associated as an ionic compound
Electrical attraction of molecules can
disrupt forces holding ions together.

14

: Hydrogen bond

Chemical bond 3

A hydrogen bond
forms when a
hydrogen atom
covalently bonded to
one electronegative
atom ..is also
attracted to another
electronegative atom

H has partial positive

charge
O and N with partial
negative charge

d+

dWater (H2O)

d+
Hydrogen bond

d-

d+

d+
Ammonia (NH3)

d+

Chemical bond 4

: Hydrophobic interaction

Interaction between nonpolar molecules in

water (polar solvent)

: Van der Waals Interactions

Chemical bond 5

Van der Waals interactions are attractions between

molecules that are .as a result of
these charges

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Chemical reactions involve the formation or
breaking of chemical bonds.
Atoms shift from one molecule to another
without any change in number or identity of
atoms.
Reactants = original molecules
Products = molecules resulting from reaction

2 H2

O2
Reactants

Reaction

2 H2O
Products

19

all living organisms

require water more than
any other substances.

WATER

Water property:
Polar covalent bonds in water molecules
result in hydrogen bonding
The water molecule
is a
:
The opposite ends
have opposite partial
charges.
Polarity allows water
molecules to form
..
with each other.

FOUR OF WATERS PROPERTIES THAT

FACILITATE AN ENVIRONMENT FOR
LIFE:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Cohesive of water molecules

Moderation of temperature by water
Floating of ice on liquid water
The solvent of life

1. Cohesion of Water Molecules

Collectively, hydrogen bonds hold water molecules
together, a phenomenon called cohesion.
Cohesion helps the against
gravity in plants.
.. is an attraction between
different substances, for example, between water
and plant cell walls. or water molecules stick to
other polar molecules by hydrogen bonding. (pg:
95)

Helps resist the

downward pull
of gravity.

Helps hold
together
the column
of water

 ..is a measure of how hard it is to

break the surface of a liquid
Water has an unusually high surface tension due to
hydrogen bonding between the molecules at the airwater interface and to the water below. (pg: 96)
The collective strength
of hydrogen bonds
allows this raft spider
to walk on the surface
of a pond.

2. Moderation of Temperature by Water

Water can absorb or release a large amount of heat
with only a slight change in its own temperature.
Water has a high .. High
amount of heat must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of
water to change its temperature by 1C
This stabilizes internal temperature of organisms.
Also stabilizes temperature of oceans and lakes.
(pg: 96)

2. Moderation of Temperature by Water

Evaporation is transformation of a substance from liquid
to gas.
Heat of vaporization is the heat a liquid must absorb for
1 g to be converted to gas. Water has high heat of
vaporization.
As a liquid evaporates, its remaining surface cools, a
process called evaporative cooling.

Evaporative cooling of water helps stabilize temperatures

in organisms and bodies of water.

3. Floating of Ice On Liquid Water

Ice floats in liquid water because hydrogen bonds in
ice are more .., making ice less
dense.
Water reaches its greatest density at 4C.
If ice sank, all bodies of water would eventually
freeze solid, making life impossible on Earth.
(pg:98)

4. The Solvent of Life

A solution is a liquid that is a homogeneous mixture of
substances.
A solvent is the dissolving agent of a solution.
The solute is the substance that is dissolved.
An aqueous solution is one in which water is the solvent
.

Even large polar molecules such as proteins can dissolve

in water if they have .. (pg:98)

When an ionic
compound is
dissolved in water,
each ion is
surrounded by a
sphere of water
molecules called a
hydration shell.

Isomers
Isomers are compounds with the same
molecular formula but different structures and
properties:
Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of
their atoms.
Geometric isomers / Cis-trans isomers have the same
covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements.
Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each
other.

The Chemical Groups Most Important in

the Processes of Life
Functional groups are the components of
organic molecules that are most commonly
involved in ..
The . and .. of
functional groups give each molecule its unique
properties. (pg:113)

The seven functional groups that are most

important in the chemistry of life:

Hydroxyl group
Carbonyl group
Carboxyl group
Amino group
Sulfhydryl group
Phosphate group
Methyl group

MACROMOLECULES
. built by linking monomers.
small, similar chemical subunits.

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting
of only .. and ...
Many organic molecules, such as fats, have
hydrocarbon components.
Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that
release a large amount of ..

The Molecules of Life

All living things are made up of four classes of
large biological molecules:
carbohydrates,
lipids,
proteins,
and
.
Within cells, small organic molecules are joined
together to form larger molecules.
Macromolecules are large molecules composed
of thousands of covalently connected atoms.
Molecular structure and function are
inseparable.

Macromolecules are polymers, built

from monomers
A polymer is a long molecule consisting of
many similar building blocks.
These small building-block molecules are called
monomers.
Three of the four classes of lifes organic
molecules are polymers:
.

Nucleic acids

THE SYNTHESIS AND BREAKDOWN OF

POLYMERS
A condensation reaction or more specifically a
. reaction occurs when two
monomers bond together through the loss of a
.. molecule.
Polymers are disassembled to monomers by
, a reaction that is essentially
the reverse of the dehydration reaction.

Carbohydrates
include sugars and the polymers of
sugars

SUGARS
Four groups of carbohydrates are:

1. Monosaccharides
-The simplest carbohydrates ( simple sugars).
2. Disaccharides
-Are double sugars.
-Consisting of 2 monosaccharides joined by a
...

SUGARS
3. Oligosaccharides
-Small chains of monosaccharides
(monosaccharides)
4. Polysaccharides
-Complex sugars.
-Polymers composed of many sugar building
blocks.

Sugars (Monosaccharides)
Monosaccharides have molecular formulas that
are usually multiples of CH2O.
.. (C6H12O6) is the most common
monosaccharide.
Monosaccharides are classified by
The location of the carbonyl group (as or
).
The number of carbons in the carbon skeleton.

Sugars (Monosaccharides)
Though often drawn as linear skeletons, in
aqueous solutions many sugars form
...
Monosaccharides serve as a for cells
and as raw material for ..

SUGARS (MONOSACCHARIDES)
Monosaccharide properties;

have a sweet taste

can be crystallized
are due to hydroxyl group attached to C
atoms and form H bonds with water
molecule
have . properties

SUGARS (MONOSACCHARIDES)

The ring from glucose can exist as or .

i. -glucose : The position of OH at C1 is
..the plane of the ring.
ii. -glucose : The position of OH at C1 is
.. the plane of the ring.

Disaccharides
A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration
reaction joins two monosaccharides.

This
covalent
bond
..linkage.
Characteristics
- .
- Sweet tasting
- Can be crystallized

is

called

Oligosaccharides
Monosaccharides can be linked together to form
small chains termed oligosaccharides.
Each oligosaccharides may contain 3 to 14
monosaccharides.
Oligosaccharides may be found attached to:
i. proteins
forming ..
ii. lipids
forming .

Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have
.. and roles.
The structure and function of a polysaccharide are
determined by its sugar monomers and the
. of glycosidic linkages.
Polysaccharides are generally .and not
sweet in taste.
Polysaccharides are important as food storage and
building materials for the cell or the whole organism.
Example: starch, glycogen and cellulose, chitin and
murein.

Starch
Starch, a storage polysaccharide of ..,
consists entirely of glucose monomers.
Plants store surplus starch as granules within
. and other ...
Because glucose is a major cellular fuel, starch
represents stored energy.

STARCH

Starch is made up of 2 components:

i. Amylose:
- A ..polymer of -glucose
units linked together by -1,4 glycosidic bonds.
ii. Amylopectin:
- A .polymer
- Each branch of amylopectin is a short chain, made
up of many glucose subunits linked together
through -1,4 glycosidic bonds.
- are linked together through -1,6
glycosidic bonds.

Glycogen
Glycogen is a
...

storage

polysaccharide

in

Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen

mainly in liver and muscle cells.
in water.
The structure is similar to amylopectin but it is a
. made from glucose &
with more branches.

Cellulose
The polysaccharide cellulose is a major component
of the tough of plant cells.

Like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose, but the

glycosidic linkages differ.
The difference is based on two ring forms for
glucose: alpha () and beta ().

CELLULOSE

Cellulose
is
composed
of
chains
of
glucose
monomers linked together by -1,4-glycosidic
bonds.

Cellulose chains run to one

another.

In starch, all glucose monomers

are in the same
orientation.

In cellulose, all
-glucose
monomers are
upside down
with respect to
its neighbours

 Polymers with glucose are .

Polymers with glucose are ...

In straight structures, H atoms on one strand can bond with

OH groups on other strands.
Parallel cellulose molecules held together this way are
grouped into microfibrils, which form strong building
materials for plants.

Chitin
Chitin, another structural polysaccharide, is
found in the exoskeleton of arthropods.
Chitin also provides structural support for the
of many fungi.

MUREIN (PEPTIDOGLYCAN)
A polysaccharide.

Component of .........
cell wall.
Consist of polysaccharides
cross linked with amino
acids.
83

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids
The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is
programmed by a unit of inheritance called a
.

Genes consist of DNA, a nucleic acid made of

monomers called ..

The Roles of Nucleic Acids

There are two types of nucleic acids:
Deoxyribonucleic acid (..)
Ribonucleic acid (..)

DNA provides directions for its own replication.

DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA)
and, through mRNA, controls protein synthesis.
Protein synthesis occurs in .

The Structure of Nucleic Acids

Nucleic
acids
.

are

polymers

called

Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called

...
Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a
pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.

The portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate

group is called a

Nucleotide Monomers
Nucleoside = nitrogenous base + sugar.

There are two families of nitrogenous bases:

Pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, and uracil) have a single sixmembered ring.

Purines (adenine and guanine) have a six-membered ring

fused to a five-membered ring.

In DNA, the sugar is ; in RNA, the

sugar is ..
Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate group.

Nucleotide Polymers
Nucleotide polymers are linked together to build a
polynucleotide.
Adjacent nucleotides are joined by covalent bonds
that form between the .group on the 3
carbon of one nucleotide and the on
the 5 carbon on the next.
These links create a of sugar-phosphate
units with nitrogenous bases as appendages.
The sequence of bases along a DNA or mRNA polymer
is unique for each gene.

The DNA Double Helix

A DNA molecule has two polynucleotides spiraling
around an imaginary axis, forming a ..
In the DNA double helix, the two backbones run in
.. 5 3 directions from each other, an
arrangement referred to as .
One DNA molecule includes many genes.

The nitrogenous bases in DNA pair up and form

hydrogen bonds: adenine (A) always with ,
and guanine (G) always with . This is
called complementary base pairing

 Phosphodiester bond
Bond between adjacent
nucleotides
Formed between the
phosphate group of
one nucleotide and the
3 OH of the next
nucleotide

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

PO4

Base

CH2
O

C
O

The chain of
nucleotides has a
..orientation

Phosphodiester
bond

O
Base

CH2
O

The backbone is
negatively charged due
to a negative charge
on each
.

OH

Proteins
Are monomers of amino acids

Amino Acid Monomers

Amino acids are organic molecules
..and . groups.

with

Amino acids differ in their properties due to

differing side chains, called .. groups.

 The R group of amino acids can vary in:

structure
shape
charge (positive, negative or neutral),
affinity with water and the reactivity with other molecules.

There are . amino acids which occur

naturally in the proteins of organisms.
The various combinations of 20 different
amino acids produce a great variety of
different proteins containing between
hundreds to few thousand amino acids.
101

Amino Acids

Amino Acids

Amino Acids

 Amino acids . molecules (have

both . and . groups).
In water its amino group (base) is ionised into
NH3+ then acidic group is ionised into COO(dipolar ion).
Molecules with amphoteric properties can
function as ..- resist any change in
pH and try to maintain the pH.
105

 When dissolves in water, amino

acids
dissociate
to
form
.
(bipolar)amino ionised into NH3+,
whereas acidic group is ionised
into COO All these amino acids contain a
basic amine group, which can act
as a .., and an
acidic carboxylic acid group,
which
an
act
as
a
.

The COOH donates a proton to

the
NH2
group,
forming
a zwitterion, in an internal acidbase reaction.
107

Amino Acids

108

 Essential amino acids are amino acids that

cannot be made in the body must be included
in the diet.
Non-essential amino acids can be synthesized
from other amino acids in the body.
Protein found in milk, eggs, meat and fish (rich
with essential a.acids) termed as 1st class
protein.

Plant protein less essential amino acids

second class amino acids.
109

Amino Acid Polymers

Amino acids are linked by . bonds.
A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids.

Polypeptides range in length from a few to more

than a thousand monomers.
Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of
amino acids.

Four Levels of Protein Structure

The primary structure of a protein is its unique
.
Secondary structure, found in most proteins, consists
of . and . in the polypeptide chain.
Tertiary structure is determined by
among various side chains (R groups).
Quaternary structure results when a protein consists of
..

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Primary Structure,
Specific linear sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide chain.
The sequence of amino acids is determined by the
genetic code carried in the molecule
in the nucleus.
This sequence is unique for a particular protein.
A . or . of even 1 amino
acid in the primary structure can affect the
structure & function of the protein.

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Secondary Structure,
Proteins that have segments of their polypeptide
chains repeatedly coiled or folded,
These coils & folds are the result of
. between the repeating
constituents of the polypeptide backbone.
2 types of secondary structures:
- helix . form
- pleated sheet form

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Four Levels of Protein Structure

helix:
The
.
is coiled to form
helical structure.
H bond is between
carbonyl O of one
amino acid and H
of amino group for
amino acids ahead.

Four Levels of Protein Structure

pleated sheet :
.. polypeptide chains are arranged parallel
to each other & are held together by hydrogen bonds.
The polypeptide chains become folded.
Has high resistance to stretching.
It is strong but flexible.

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Tertiary structure is determined by interactions
between R groups, rather than interactions
between backbone constituents.
These interactions between R groups include
hydrogen bonds, .., hydrophobic
interactions, and interactions.

Strong covalent bonds called

.may reinforce the proteins
structure.

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Quaternary
structure
.
macromolecule.

form

results
one

Collagen is a protein consisting of

three polypeptides coiled like a rope.
Hemoglobin is a .. protein
consisting of four polypeptides: two alpha and
two beta chains.

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Some common methods used to group

proteins are based on:
Structure
- Globular proteins
- Fibrous proteins
Composition
- Simple proteins
- Conjugated proteins

Functions
- Structure
- Catalysts
- Signals
- Movement
- Defense
- Storage

Protein Structure
Fibrous protein

Globular protein

Long parallel polypeptide chains

Coiled & folded into globular shape

Polypeptide chains form helical structure

or pleated sheets, held by hydrogen bond

Globular structure held by hydrogen

bond, ionic bonds, hydrophobic
interactions, disulfide linkages

Composed of secondary structure,

important in carrying its function as
structural and supporting protein.
- Stable structure
- Insoluble in water

Composed of tertiary (and) quaternary

structure.- - determines its metabolic
functions.
- Relatively unstable structure
- Soluble in water
- Can form colloidal suspension

Repetitive regular amino acid sequences

Irregular amino acid sequences

Examples: keratin, collagen, elastin,

fibroin(silk protein)

Examples: hemoglobin, myoglobin,

antibodies, enzymes, some hormones

Simple & Conjugated Protein

Proteins can also be classified according to
their ...
a) Simple proteins
b)Conjugated proteins

Simple & Conjugated Protein

Simple proteins
consists only of ..
do not contain any other substance
Examples:
- Albumins : egg albumin, serum albumin
- Globulins : antibodies, fibrinogen
- Histones : protein associated with DNA
- Scleroprotein : keratin, collagen in connective
tissues

Simple & Conjugated Protein

Conjugated proteins
contain protein & . material
(prosthetic group)
The prosthetic group : plays an important role
in the functioning of the protein

Denaturation of Protein
In addition to primary structure, physical and
chemical conditions can affect structure.
Alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature,
or other environmental factors can cause a protein
to unravel.
This loss of a proteins native structure is called
..
A denatured protein is biologically inactive.

Lipid

Lipid
Lipids are the one class of large biological
molecules that do not form .
Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
3 important groups of lipids are

. (fats and oils)

Other group of lipid waxes (water proof).

 The unifying feature of lipids is having little or

no affinity for water.
Lipids are .. because they
consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form
non-polar covalent bonds.
Dissolve in organic solvents such as acetone,
ether, chloroform and alcohol.

135

1. Fats and Oils (Triglycerides)

Fats and oils are . (condensation of one molecule
glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acids by an
).
Also known as esterification (involve alcohol &acids).
Glycerol + 3 fatty acids = Triglycerides
Glycerol is a ..with a hydroxyl group
attached to each carbon.

A fatty acid consists of a group attached to a long

carbon skeleton.
136

 One water molecule is removed for each

fatty acid joined to the glycerol.

 Fats separate from water

because water molecules form hydrogen
bonds with each other and exclude the fats.
Fatty acids vary in length (number of carbons)
and in the number and locations of double
bonds.

139

140

Saturated Fat
Saturated
fatty
acids
have
the
.. of hydrogen atoms
possible and no double bonds.
Example: stearic acid.
..molecules.

141

142

Unsaturated Fat
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more
...
Ex: oleic acid and linolenic acid.
.. molecule (due to one or more
double bonds). Still can accept one more
hydrogen atom.
143

144

 Fats made from saturated fatty acids are called

saturated fats, and are . at room
temperature.

Most animal fats are saturated.

Fats made from unsaturated fatty acids are called
unsaturated fats or oils, and are .. at room
temperature.
Plant
fats
and
fish
..

fats
145

are

usually

 A diet rich in saturated fats may contribute to

cardiovascular disease through plaque deposits .
. is the process of converting
unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen.
Hydrogenating vegetable oils also creates unsaturated
fats with trans double bonds.
These trans fats may contribute more than saturated fats
to cardiovascular disease.
147

2. Phospholipids
In a phospholipid, two fatty acids and a
phosphate group are attached to .
The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the
phosphate group and its attachments form a
hydrophilic head.

 When phospholipids are added to water, they

self-assemble into a .., with the
hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior.
The structure of phospholipids results in a
bilayer arrangement found in cell membranes.
Phospholipids are the major component of all
cell membranes.

151

WATER

WATER

3. Steroids
Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton
consisting of ..
., an important steroid, is a
component in animal cell membranes.
Steroid are classified as lipids due to their insolubility
in water and solubility in non polar solvents.

153

Type

Function

Description

Uses

Fats

Respiratory substrate

Released energy
when oxidised

Butter

For energy storage

Excess energy is
stored in the form of
fat

As heat (thermal) and

electrical insulator

Fat deposited as
adipose tissue
(heat insulator)
Fat acts as an
electrical insulator
(myelin sheath of
nerve cells)

To protect internal organs

Fat provides support

(abdomen)and
protection
(kidney)
155

Type

Function

Description

Uses

Oils

For energy storage

Long-term energy storage in

plants and seeds

Cooking oils

Phospholipids

A component of
plasma membrane

Involved in formation of cells

Non-stick pan
spray

Important component of plasma

Providing structural membrane, nuclear membrane
support
and the myelin sheath

Steroids

Precursor for
steroid hormones

All steroid hormones are

synthesized from cholesterol

Medicines

156