Contents

Editorial

Relationships between Personal Responsibility,

Emotional Intelligence, and Self-Esteem in
Adolescents and Young Adults
A Mergler, F H Spencer, & W Patton

Extra-Curricular Involvement and

Self-Regulation in Children

Self-Assessments of Skills in Adult

Educational and Vocational Guidance

Cyber-Bullying in Australian Schools:

Profiles of Adolescent Coping and Insights
for School Practitioners

Not Just Idle Time: Adolescents Developmental

Experiences Provided by Structured and
Unstructured Leisure Activities

A Carroll & N Purdie

19

J A Athanasou

36

J Lodge & E Frydenberg

45

B D Abbott & B L Barber

59

Perceptions of the Teaching Behaviours of Academics

and Facilitating Student Learning: A Qualitative Study
of Tertiary Students Instructional Metacognitive Knowledge

T V Bowles

82

van der Ark, A. L., Croon, M. A., & Sijtsma K. (Eds.). (2005).
New developments in categorical data analysis for the social and
behavioural sciences. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
P Grimbeek

105

Book Review

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

ISSN 0816 5122

The Australian Educational and

Developmental Psychologist

In keeping with its over two decade history, the Australian Educational and
Developmental Psychologist (AEDP LV DQ RIFLDO MRXUQDO RI 7KH $XVWUDOLDQ
3V\FKRORJLFDO6RFLHW\,WLVSULPDULO\SXEOLVKHGIRUPHPEHUVRIWKH&ROOHJH
RI(GXFDWLRQDODQG'HYHORSPHQWDO3V\FKRORJLVWV,WSXEOLVKHVSHHUUHYLHZHG
DUWLFOHV DQG UHSRUWV WKDW PHHW FULWHULD RI VFLHQWLF YDOXH WR HGXFDWLRQDO
RU GHYHORSPHQWDO SV\FKRORJ\ PHWKRGRORJLFDO ULJRU DQG SV\FKRORJLFDO
UHOHYDQFH7KHHGLWRULDOSURFHVVPLQLPDOO\UHTXLUHVEOLQGDXWKRUPDVNHG
GRXEOHUHIHUHHG DVVHVVPHQW RI PDQXVFULSWV &OHDU FRPPXQLFDWLRQ DQG
VWDQGDUGSV\FKRORJLFDOVW\OHRIZULWLQJDQGSUHVHQWDWLRQDUHDQLPSRUWDQW
IRFXV RI WKLV MRXUQDO WR HQVXUH DFDGHPLF DQG SURIHVVLRQDO DFFHSWDQFH DQG
VXSSRUW
3XEOLVKHG PDQXVFULSWV LQ WKH AEDP LQFOXGH HPSLULFDO ZRUN WKDW
DGYDQFHVWKHSUDFWLFHEDVHSURIHVVLRQDODQDO\VLVDQGUHYLHZVRILQWHUHVWWR
SUDFWLWLRQHUV6SHFLDOLVVXHVDUHDIHDWXUHDQGSURSRVDOVIRUVSHFLDOLVVXHVDUH
LQYLWHG&DVHVWXGLHVRIV\VWHPDWLFGDWDJDWKHULQJDQGDSSURDFKWRWUHDWPHQW
DSSOLFDWLRQV RI ZLWKLQVXEMHFW H[SHULPHQWDO GHVLJQ IRUPDO HYDOXDWLRQV RI
WKHUDS\DQGRWKHUPDWHULDORIUHOHYDQFHWRWKHRU\DQGSUDFWLFHRIHGXFDWLRQDO
DQGGHYHORSPHQWDOSV\FKRORJLVWVDUHZHOFRPHG$SDUWLFXODUHIIRUWLVPDGH
WRSXEOLVK$XVWUDOLDQGDWDKRZHYHUSDSHUVIURPLQWHUQDWLRQDODXWKRUVDUH
ZHOFRPH
,WLVWKHUHVSRQVLELOLW\RIWKHHGLWRURIWKHAEDPWRSURYLGHRSSRUWXQLW\
IRU FRPPHQWDU\ RQ SURIHVVLRQDOO\ VLJQLFDQW PDWWHUV IURP WLPH WR WLPH
,QYLWDWLRQV PD\ EH H[WHQGHG WR VHUYH WKLV SXUSRVH ,QIRUPDWLRQ DERXW
JUDGXDWH WKHVHV LQ GRPDLQV RI HGXFDWLRQDO DQG GHYHORSPHQWDO VWXG\ PD\
EHSXEOLVKHG6RPH&ROOHJHEXVLQHVVPD\EHFRQYH\HGWRWKHPHPEHUVKLS
WKURXJKWKLVPHGLXP$OWKRXJKSXEOLVKHGE\WKH$XVWUDOLDQ3V\FKRORJLFDO
6RFLHW\ WKLV MRXUQDO PDLQWDLQV HGLWRULDO LQGHSHQGHQFH PDQXVFULSWV DUH
DFFHSWHG RQ WKH EDVLV RI WKHLU VFKRODUO\ PHULW DQG WKH\ UHHFW WKH SURIHV
VLRQDO YLHZV RI WKHLU DXWKRUV 7KHUH LV QR LPSOLFDWLRQ RU H[SHFWDWLRQ WKDW
WKHVHYLHZVDUHHQGRUVHGE\WKH$XVWUDOLDQ3V\FKRORJLFDO6RFLHW\
,Q OLQH ZLWK SUHYLRXV SUDFWLFH DOO VXEPLVVLRQV DUH LQGHSHQGHQWO\ EOLQG
UHYLHZHGE\WZRUHYLHZHUVDQGWKHHGLWRU
Terry Bowles PhD
Editor

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Editorial

,DPSOHDVHGWRLQWURGXFHDYHU\GLYHUVHUDQJHRISDSHUVWKDWUHSUHVHQWWKH
EUHDGWKRIWKHPDWHULDODSSURSULDWHIRUWKHAustralian Educational and Developmental Psychologist.,QOLQHZLWKWKHLQWHQWRIUHFHQWSROLFLHVLQSDUWLFXODU
WKH5HVHDUFK4XDOLW\)UDPHZRUNWKHSDSHUVSUHVHQWHGLQWKLVLVVXHDUHYHU\
UHOHYDQWDQGKDYHVWURQJDSSOLFDELOLW\WRWKHHOGRI(GXFDWLRQDO3V\FKRORJ\
7KHUVWWZRSDSHUVGHDOZLWKLPSRUWDQWLVVXHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHSHUVRQDO
UHVSRQVLELOLW\ DQG VHOIUHJXODWLRQ RI \RXQJ SHRSOH 0HUJOHU 6SHQFHU DQG
3DWWRQ VKRZ WKH LPSRUWDQW DVVRFLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ SHUVRQDO UHVSRQVLELOLW\
HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH DQG VHOIHVWHHP ZKLFK DUH DVSHFWV RI GHYHORSPHQW
RIWHQ FRPSURPLVHG E\ RXU GHVLUH WR SURWHFW DGROHVFHQWV ,Q D VLPLODU HOG
WKH SDSHU RQ VHOIUHJXODWLRQ LQ FKLOGUHQ E\ &DUUROO DQG 3XUGLH VKRZV WKH
LPSRUWDQFH RI H[WUDFXUULFXODU LQYROYHPHQW LQ GHYHORSLQJ VHOIUHJXODWLRQ
7KHIWKSDSHUE\$EERWWDQG%DUEHUFRQWLQXHVWKHLPSRUWDQWH[SORUDWLRQ
RI UHFUHDWLRQDO DFWLYLWLHV LQ SDUWLFXODU VWUXFWXUHG DQG XQVWUXFWXUHG OHLVXUH
DFWLYLWLHV6WUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVZHUHIRXQGWRRIIHUDGROHVFHQWVPRUHRSSRU
WXQLWLHV WR GHYHORS LQLWLDWLYH WKDQ XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV %\ FRQWUDVW
XQVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUHZDVVXJJHVWHGWREHEHQHFLDOLQRIIHULQJDGROHVFHQWV
WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ IRU PRUH LQLWLDWLYH DQG LGHQWLW\ GHYHORSPHQW 7KH SDSHU
E\ $VVRFLDWH 3URIHVVRU -DPHV $WKDQDVRX IURP WKH )DFXOW\ RI (GXFDWLRQ
8QLYHUVLW\RI7HFKQRORJ\6\GQH\LVSRVVLEO\WKHODVWEHIRUH-DPHVUHWLUHV
,PSRUWDQWO\ WKLV PDUNV RQH RI PDQ\ SDSHUV DQG DFWLYLWLHV WKDW -DPHV KDV
FRPSOHWHGLQVXSSRUWLQJWKHAEDPDQGWKH$36VLQFH,WLVRXUJUHDW
SOHDVXUHWRKDYHEHHQDVVRFLDWHGZLWK-DPHVDQGZHJUDWHIXOO\DSSUHFLDWH
KLVJHQHURXVSUHYLRXVDQGFXUUHQWVXSSRUWIRUWKHAEDPSDUWLFXODUO\DVD
PHPEHURIWKH(GLWRULDO%RDUG+LVSDSHULVLPSRUWDQWEHFDXVHLWSURYLGHV
LQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKHLVVXHRIWKHDFFXUDF\RIVHOISHUFHSWLRQLQDUDQJHRI
HGXFDWLRQDOYRFDWLRQDODQGJHQHUDOVNLOOV:KLOH$WKDQDVRXVSDSHUEHJVWKH
TXHVWLRQKRZDFFXUDWHO\GRUHVSRQGHQWVHVWLPDWHWKHLURZQSHUIRUPDQFH"
WKHSDSHUE\%RZOHVDVNVZKDWGRVWXGHQWUHVSRQGHQWVNQRZRIKRZWKH\
OHDUQ" ,Q WKLV TXDOLWDWLYH SDSHU VWXGHQWV ZHUH DVNHG ZKDW DFDGHPLFV GR
WRIDFLOLWDWHOHDUQLQJDQGKRZVWXGHQWVNQRZWKDWWKLVZRUNV,PSRUWDQWO\
VWXGHQWV KDG D UDQJH RI UHVSRQVHV OLQNLQJ NQRZOHGJH RI WKH HIIHFWLYHQHVV
RI DFDGHPLF DFWLYLW\ ZLWK RXWFRPHV IRU VWXGHQWV EXW PDQ\ VWXGHQWV GLG
QRWRUFRXOGQRWVWDWHZKDWZDVHIIHFWLYHDERXWWKHLQXHQFHRIDFDGHPLFV
7KH SDSHU E\ /RGJH DQG )U\GHQEHUJ H[WHQGV FRSLQJ LQWR WKH LQWHUVHFWLRQ
RIEXOO\LQJDQGF\EHUDFWLYLW\,PSRUWDQWO\WKHLUQGLQJVVKRZWKHFRSLQJ
VW\OHV RI YXOQHUDEOH DGROHVFHQWV DQG SURYLGH PDWHULDO IRU VFKRRO SUDFWL
WLRQHUVWRDSSO\ZKHQDVVLVWLQJ\RXQJSHRSOHZKRDUHDWKLJKULVNRIQHJDWLYH
RXWFRPHV)LQDOO\*ULPEHHNSURYLGHVDUHYLHZRIDWH[WWKDWDGGUHVVHVWKH

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

GLIFXOWLVVXHRIDQDO\VLVRIFDWHJRULFDOGDWD,WLVSOHDVLQJWRVHHWKDWLQWKLV
HGLWLRQZHDUHDGGUHVVLQJVRPHRIWKHPRVWFRPSOH[SV\FKRORJLFDOPHWKRG
RORJLFDO DQG VWDWLVWLFDO LVVXHV UHOHYDQW IRU UHVHDUFKHUV LQ (GXFDWLRQDO DQG
'HYHORSPHQWDO3V\FKRORJ\LQDSUDFWLFDODQGSRVLWLYHPDQQHU
Terry Bowles PhD
Editor

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

A Mergler, F H Spencer and W Patton

Queensland University of Technology, Australia

Relationships between Personal Responsibility,

Emotional Intelligence, and Self-Esteem in
Adolescents and Young Adults
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationships between personal
responsibility, emotional intelligence and self-esteem in adolescents and young adults
and explore the psychometric properties of the Personal Responsibility Questionnaire.
One hundred and fifty high school students and 186 university students completed
self-report questionnaires examining personal responsibility, emotional intelligence and
self-esteem. Results revealed that older students reported higher levels of personal
responsibility, emotional intelligence and self-esteem than the Year 11 students.
The Personal Responsibility Questionnaire was found to significantly correlate with
emotional intelligence and self-esteem suggesting strong construct validity.
Keywords: personal responsibility, emotional intelligence, self-esteem, adolescence,
university students, MANOVA.

3HUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\KDVUHFHLYHGLQFUHDVLQJDWWHQWLRQLQUHFHQW\HDUV5HHYHV
2YHUZKHOPLQJO\WKLVDWWHQWLRQKDVIRFXVHGRQWKHWUHQGLQVRFLHW\WRUHIXVH
DFFRXQWDELOLW\IRURQHVFKRLFHVDQGEODPHRWKHUVIRURQHVVLWXDWLRQ'RKHUW\
2IWHQSROLWLFLDQVDQGWKHPHGLDWDUJHWDGROHVFHQWVDVWKHJURXSPRVWOLNHO\
WR ODFN SHUVRQDO UHVSRQVLELOLW\ DQG EHKDYH DFFRUGLQJO\ 5HHYHV  5HFHQW
UHVHDUFKKRZHYHUKDVKLJKOLJKWHGWKDWWKHDGROHVFHQWEUDLQPD\QRWEHGHYHORS
PHQWDOO\UHDG\WRXQGHUWDNHWKHFRPSOH[FRJQLWLRQVUHTXLUHGWRFRQWUROLQWHQVH
HPRWLRQDODURXVDODQGLQKLELWLQDSSURSULDWHEHKDYLRXUDOUHVSRQVHV$QGHUVRQ
$QGHUVRQ1RUWKDP-DFREV &DWURSSD%ODNHPRUH &KRXGKXU\
+RRSHU /XFLDQD &RQNOLQ  <DUJHU  3DXV  %HIRUH DGXOWV GHPDQG
WKDW DGROHVFHQWV GLVSOD\ SHUVRQDOO\ UHVSRQVLEOH EHKDYLRXU UHVHDUFK QHHGV WR
H[DPLQH ZKHWKHU VXFK DQ H[SHFWDWLRQ LV GHYHORSPHQWDOO\ DSSURSULDWH IRU WKH
DGROHVFHQWDJHJURXS

Adolescent Cognitive and Moral Development

3LDJHW  JHQHUDWHG D VWDJHEDVHG XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI FRJQLWLYH GHYHORSPHQW
FHQWUHG RQ WKH EHOLHI WKDW SHRSOH GHYHORS JUHDWHU FRJQLWLYH FRPSOH[LW\ DV WKH\
SURJUHVV VHTXHQWLDOO\ WKURXJK VWDJHV 7KH QDO VWDJH IRUPDO RSHUDWLRQV RFFXUV
GXULQJ DGROHVFHQFH DQG DOORZV IRU HQRUPRXV FKDQJH LQ DGROHVFHQW WKRXJKW

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

5LFKDUGVRQLQFOXGLQJDQDELOLW\WRWKLQNDEVWUDFWO\DERXWUHDODQGLPDJLQHG
LGHDVGLIIHUHQWLDWHEHWZHHQZKDWRQHEHOLHYHVDQGWKHEHOLHIVRIRWKHUVDQGWKLQN
WKURXJKDOWHUQDWHUHDOLWLHVDQGFRQVLGHUWKHQRWLRQRIUHDOLW\LWVHOI*XOORWD$GDPV
0DUNVWURP$VWKHFRJQLWLYHDELOLW\RISHRSOHGHYHORSVVRWRRGRHVWKH
SRWHQWLDOIRULQFUHDVLQJO\FRPSOH[PRUDOUHDVRQLQJ.RKOEHUJ
.RKOEHUJGHYHORSHGDKLHUDUFKLFDOVWDJHPRGHORIPRUDOGHYHORSPHQW
ZKLFK WKHRULVHG WKDW PRUDO UHDVRQLQJ DW KLJKHU VWDJHV ZDV VXSHULRU WR WKDW DW
ORZHU VWDJHV .RKOEHUJV YLHZ RI PRUDOLW\ HPEUDFHG D FRQVWUXFWLYLVW XQGHU
VWDQGLQJ RI PRUDO GHYHORSPHQW KLJKOLJKWLQJ WKH DFWLYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ RI D
VXFFHVVLRQRIFRJQLWLYHVWUXFWXUHVHDFKDEOHWRUHVROYHFRQLFWVDQGFRQWUDGLF
WLRQVSURGXFHGE\SUHYLRXVZD\VRIWKLQNLQJDERXWPRUDOLVVXHV7KHLQGLYLGXDO
LVVHHQDVDFWLYHO\VHOHFWLQJHQYLURQPHQWVDQGDFWLQJXSRQWKRVHHQYLURQPHQWV
DQGWKHLURZQFRJQLWLYHVWUXFWXUHVWRUHDFKDSSURSULDWHPRUDOGHFLVLRQV

Older Adolescents and Adults

2OGHUDGROHVFHQWVDJHGWRDQGDGXOWVDJHGDQGDERYHXVXDOO\KDYH
JUHDWHU NQRZOHGJH WKDQ \RXQJHU SHRSOH %\UQHV  +RZHYHU WKH\ DOVR
GHPRQVWUDWHDQDGYDQFHGDELOLW\WRRUJDQLVHDQDO\VHUHWDLQDQGUHHFWRQWKLV
NQRZOHGJH&ROOLQV*OHDVRQ 6HVPD7KHSUHIURQWDOFRUWH[LVWKHDUHDRI
WKHEUDLQWKDWKDVEHHQLGHQWLHGDVWKHNH\DUHDLQZKLFKFRPSOH[FRRUGLQDWHG
WKRXJKW SURFHVVHV RFFXU &DVH\ 7RWWHQKDP /LVWRQ  'XUVWRQ  7KHVH
SURFHVVHVDUHWHUPHGH[HFXWLYHIXQFWLRQV$QGHUVRQHWDODQGLQFOXGH
WKH VNLOOV RI VHOHFWLYH DWWHQWLRQ ZRUNLQJ PHPRU\ GHFLVLRQPDNLQJ YROXQWDU\
UHVSRQVHLQKLELWLRQJRDOVHWWLQJDQGFRJQLWLYHFRQWURORIEHKDYLRXU%ODNHPRUH
&KRXGKXU\%UDYHU %DUFK.UDZF]\N7KXVWKHSUHIURQWDO
FRUWH[VHUYHVDVWKHJRYHUQRURIFRJQLWLRQDQGDFWLRQ6WHLQEHUJS
'XULQJ DGROHVFHQFH WKHUH LV FRQFHQWUDWHG FKDQJH LQ WKH SUHIURQWDO FRUWH[
DQGHQKDQFHGFRQQHFWLYLW\RFFXUVEHWZHHQWKHSUHIURQWDOFRUWH[DQGRWKHUEUDLQ
DUHDV 6WHLQEHUJ  7KLV PDWXUDWLRQ RI WKH EUDLQ HQDEOHV D ZLGH DUUD\ RI
FRJQLWLYHPHFKDQLVPVWRFRRUGLQDWHZKLFKDOORZVIRUWKHVRSKLVWLFDWHGWKLQNLQJ
LGHQWLHGE\3LDJHWDQG.RKOEHUJ7KHVHGHYHORSPHQWVDSSHDUWR
SURPRWH D VHOIDZDUH VHOIJXLGHG DQG VHOIPRQLWRULQJ V\VWHP RI FRQVFLRXV
FRQWURO .HDWLQJ  S $GROHVFHQWV SDUWLFXODUO\ ODWH DGROHVFHQWV DUH
H[SHFWHG WR GHPRQVWUDWH PDWXUH DGXOWOLNH EHKDYLRXU VXFK DV WKH H[SHFWDWLRQ
WKDWWKH\ZLOOPDNHZLVHFKRLFHVDQGWDNHUHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUWKHPVHOYHV+DFNHU
 ,Q RUGHU WR GR VR KRZHYHU DGROHVFHQWV PXVW EH DEOH WR FRQWURO WKHLU
EHKDYLRXUDQGHPRWLRQDOUHVSRQVHV5HFHQWVWXGLHVRIWKHEUDLQXVLQJVWUXFWXUDO
PDJQHWLF UHVRQDQFH LPDJLQJ 05, KDYH IRXQG WKDW WKH SUHIURQWDO FRUWH[
FRQWLQXHVWRGHYHORSGXULQJDGROHVFHQFHDQGLQWRHDUO\DGXOWKRRG%ODNHPRUH
 &KRXGKXU\  *LHGG HW DO  3DXV  6RZHOO HW DO  6RZHOO
7KRPSVRQ7HVVQHU 7RJD7KHFRQWLQXHGGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHEUDLQDQG
LQSDUWLFXODUWKHSUHIURQWDOFRUWH[WKURXJKRXWDGROHVFHQFHDQGLQWRDGXOWKRRG
LQGLFDWHVWKDWDGROHVFHQWVPD\RQO\EHDEOHWRDSSO\WKHH[HFXWLYHIXQFWLRQVWRD
FHUWDLQGHJUHHDQGXQGHUFHUWDLQFRQGLWLRQV$QGHUVRQHWDO
6WXGLHVKDYHIRXQGWKDWDGROHVFHQWVDUHPRUHOLNHO\WKDQDGXOWVWRPDNHSRRU

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

FKRLFHV'LDPRQG+RRSHUHWDO0XQDNDWD <HU\VSDUWLFX

ODUO\ ZKHQ XQGHU LQWHQVH HPRWLRQDO DURXVDO 'DKO  (PRWLRQ UHJXODWLRQ
WKHDELOLW\WRLGHQWLI\H[SUHVVFRQWURODQGPRGXODWHRQHVIHHOLQJV'DYLGVRQ
3XWQDP /DUVRQEHFRPHVPRUHVRSKLVWLFDWHGDVWKHVRFLRHPRWLRQDO
FRPSRQHQWVRIWKHSUHIURQWDOFRUWH[GHYHORS5RVVR<RXQJ)HPLD <XUJHOXQ
7RGG  7KH LQXHQFH RI HPRWLRQV RQ EHKDYLRXUDO FRQWURO KDV UHFHLYHG
LQFUHDVLQJUHVHDUFKDWWHQWLRQLQWKHODVWGHFDGH'DPDVLRDQG6WHLQEHUJ
SURSRVHVWKDWWKHUHDOOLIHEHKDYLRXURIDGROHVFHQWVLVODUJHO\LQXHQFHG
E\ WKHLU IHHOLQJV .XSIHU DQG :RRGZDUG  QRWH WKDW WKH HQRUPRXV HIIRUW
UHTXLUHGWRDFFRPSOLVKEHKDYLRXUDOFRQWUROLVQRWFRQVLVWHQWO\HPSOR\HGGXULQJ
DGROHVFHQFHDQG*LHGGKLJKOLJKWVWKDWWKHDUHDRIWKHEUDLQEHOLHYHGWR
FRQWUROLPSXOVHVDQGZHLJKFRQVHTXHQFHVRIGHFLVLRQVGRHVQRWPDWXUHXQWLOD
SHUVRQLVLQWKHLUHDUO\V
6RFLHW\ H[SHFWV JUHDWHU DZDUHQHVV PRUDO VHQVLWLYLW\ DQG SHUVRQDO UHVSRQVL
ELOLW\ IURP ROGHU DGROHVFHQWV (QWHULQJ WKHLU QDO \HDUV RI VFKRROLQJ EHFRPLQJ
HOLJLEOHIRUDGULYHUVOLFHQFHDQGSUHSDULQJWRHQWHUHLWKHUWHUWLDU\HGXFDWLRQRU
WKHZRUNIRUFHJHQHUDWHVDQH[SHFWDWLRQIURPWKHUHVWRIWKHFRPPXQLW\WKDWROGHU
DGROHVFHQWVDQG\RXQJDGXOWVZLOOEHJLQWRGHPRQVWUDWHDJUHDWHUGHSWKRISHUVRQDO
DQG VRFLDO DZDUHQHVV *ODVVHU  DUJXHV WKDW DV DGROHVFHQWV DUH FRJQLWLYHO\
FDSDEOH RI VRSKLVWLFDWHG UHDVRQLQJ WKH\ PXVW EH XOWLPDWHO\ UHVSRQVLEOH IRU WKH
FKRLFHVWKH\PDNH,QOLJKWRIWKHEUDLQLPDJLQJUHVHDUFKUHYLHZHGKRZHYHURXU
H[SHFWDWLRQ RI FRQVLVWHQWO\ PDWXUH DQG UHVSRQVLEOH EHKDYLRXU IURP DGROHVFHQWV
PD\EHLQDSSURSULDWH)XUWKHUUHVHDUFKQHHGVWRH[SORUHVRSKLVWLFDWHGSURFHVVHV
DQGFRQFHSWVVXFKDVWKHH[HUFLVHRISHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\PRUHFORVHO\

Previous Studies Examining Personal Responsibility

3UHYLRXVUHVHDUFKRQSHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\LVH[WUHPHO\OLPLWHGDQGWKHZD\
LQZKLFKSHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\KDVEHHQGHQHGDQGRSHUDWLRQDOLVHGLQWKHVH
VWXGLHV LV RIWHQ GLIIHUHQW $ VWXG\ ZLWK FKLOGUHQ DJHG IRXU WR  \HDUV RSHUD
WLRQDOLVHGSHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\DVWKHQXPEHURIFDQGLHVFKLOGUHQGRQDWHGWR
DVLFNFKLOGGHSHQGHQWRQWKHOHYHORIUHVSRQVLELOLW\WKDWZDVDVVLJQHGWRWKHP
0DUX\DPD)UDVHU 0LOOHU5HVXOWVVKRZHGWKDWFKLOGUHQGRQDWHGPRUH
FDQGLHVZKHQWKH\ZHUHPDGHLGHQWLDEO\UHVSRQVLEOHIRUGRQDWLRQDPRXQW
'HYOLQLQYHVWLJDWHGZKHWKHUXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVWDNHSHUVRQDOUHVSRQ
VLELOLW\IRUWKHLUOHDUQLQJRSHUDWLRQDOLVHGDVWKHDFWLYHZLOOLQJQHVVRIVWXGHQWVWR
HQKDQFHWKHLUNQRZOHGJHWKURXJKWKHLURZQHIIRUWV,QUHVSRQVHWRWKHTXHVWLRQ
Tell me how you think your learning could be improved? one third of participants
OLVWHGFKDQJHVLQWKHLURZQEHKDYLRXUVDQGRUDWWLWXGHVWKDWLQXHQFHGVWXG\DQG
OHDUQLQJ7KLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJRISHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\KLJKOLJKWVDZLOOLQJQHVV
RISHRSOHWRKROGWKHPVHOYHVDFFRXQWDEOHIRUWKHLURZQDFWLRQV

Related Constructs
7KH ODFN RI FOHDU GHQLWLRQV LQ WKH OLWHUDWXUH IRU SHUVRQDO UHVSRQVLELOLW\ DQG LWV
OLPLWHGHPSLULFDOEDVHSURPSWHGUHFHQWUHVHDUFKE\0HUJOHU6SHQFHUDQG3DWWRQ
SDSHUVXEPLWWHGZKLFKVRXJKWWRGHVFULEHSHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\DQGWRLGHQWLI\

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

LWV FRPSRQHQWV 7KHVH DXWKRUV GHQHG SHUVRQDO UHVSRQVLELOLW\ DV WKH DELOLW\ WR
LGHQWLI\ DQG UHJXODWH RQHV RZQ WKRXJKWV IHHOLQJV DQG EHKDYLRXU DORQJ ZLWK D
ZLOOLQJQHVVWRKROGRQHVHOIDFFRXQWDEOHIRUWKHFKRLFHVPDGHDQGWKHVRFLDODQG
SHUVRQDO RXWFRPHV JHQHUDWHG 0HUJOHU HW DO 0HUJOHU HW DO GUHZ RQ UHODWHG
FRQVWUXFWVIURPUHOHYDQWOLWHUDWXUHWRJHQHUDWHSRWHQWLDOFRPSRQHQWVRIWKHSHUVRQDO
UHVSRQVLELOLW\ YDULDEOH 3UHYLRXV UHVHDUFK KDV H[DPLQHG RXU ZLOOLQJQHVV WR KROG
RXUVHOYHVRUH[WHUQDOIDFWRUVUHVSRQVLEOHIRURXURXWFRPHVORFXVRIFRQWURORXU
VHQVHRISRZHUDQGFRQWUROWRDFWRQWKHZRUOGDQGDFKLHYHRXUJRDOVSHUVRQDO
DJHQF\DQGVHOIHIFDF\WKHOLNHOLKRRGWKDWZHZLOOUHHFWXSRQRXUFKRLFHVDQG
VWUDWHJLHV VHOIUHJXODWLRQ DQG RXU DELOLW\ WR UHJXODWH XQGHUVWDQG DQG FRQWURO
RXU HPRWLRQV HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH :H PD\ H[SHFW WR QG WKHVH FRQVWUXFWV
SDUWLFXODUO\ UHOHYDQW WR DQ H[DPLQDWLRQ RI SHUVRQDO UHVSRQVLELOLW\ $V VXFK DQG
GXHWRWKHSDXFLW\RIZRUNGHPRQVWUDWLQJDFRQFHSWXDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJRISHUVRQDO
UHVSRQVLELOLW\UHODWHGFRQVWUXFWVDUHDOVRH[DPLQHGLQWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\
(PRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH LV D FRQFHSW GHYHORSHG E\ 0D\HU DQG 6DORYH\ 
WKDW LQYROYHV WKH LQWHUSOD\ RI HPRWLRQDO H[SHULHQFH DQG FRJQLWLYH SURFHVVHV
0D\HUDQG6DORYH\GHQHGHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHDVWKHDELOLW\WRSHUFHLYH
DFFXUDWHO\ DSSUDLVH DQG H[SUHVV HPRWLRQ WKH DELOLW\WRDFFHVVDQGRUJHQHUDWH
IHHOLQJV ZKHQ WKH\ IDFLOLWDWH WKRXJKW >DQG@ WKH DELOLW\ WR XQGHUVWDQG HPRWLRQ
DQGHPRWLRQDONQRZOHGJHS%DVHGRQWKHWKHRUHWLFDOPRGHORIHPRWLRQDO
LQWHOOLJHQFHGHYHORSHGE\6DORYH\DQG0D\HUHPSKDVLVZDVJLYHQWRWKH
FRJQLWLYH FRPSRQHQWV RI HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH DQG HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH LV
FRQFHSWXDOLVHGLQWHUPVRISRWHQWLDOIRULQWHOOHFWXDODQGHPRWLRQDOJURZWK
5HVHDUFK ZLWK DGXOWV KDV VKRZQ SRVLWLYH FRUUHODWLRQV EHWZHHQ OHYHOV RI
VHOIHVWHHP DQG OHYHOV RI HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH 6FKXWWH 0DORXII 6LPXQHN
0F.HQOH\  +ROODQGHU  7KXV LW LV LQWHUHVWLQJ WR FRQVLGHU ZKHWKHU WKH
VDPHUHODWLRQVKLSDPRQJWKHVHYDULDEOHVZRXOGEHIRXQGZLWKDGROHVFHQWVDQG
ZKDW UHODWLRQVKLS H[LVWV EHWZHHQ SHUVRQDO UHVSRQVLELOLW\ DQG ERWK VHOIHVWHHP
DQGHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHLQDGROHVFHQWVDQGDGXOWV

The Present Study

$V UHFHQW EUDLQ GHYHORSPHQW UHVHDUFK VKRZV WKDW FRJQLWLRQ DQG HPRWLRQDO
DZDUHQHVV DQG FRQWURO FRQWLQXH WR GHYHORS WKURXJKRXW DGROHVFHQFH DQG LQWR
HDUO\ DGXOWKRRG WKH SUHVHQW VWXG\ VHHNV WR LQYHVWLJDWH ZKHWKHU WKHUH DUH
VXEVWDQWLDOGHYHORSPHQWDOGLIIHUHQFHVLQSHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\DQGHPRWLRQDO
LQWHOOLJHQFH EHWZHHQ DGROHVFHQWV KLJK VFKRRO VWXGHQWV DQG DGXOWV XQLYHUVLW\
VWXGHQWV $GGLWLRQDOO\ WKH SUHVHQW VWXG\ VHHNV WR HPSLULFDOO\ DVFHUWDLQ DQ\
SRVVLEOHUHODWLRQVKLSVWKDWPD\H[LVWEHWZHHQSHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\HPRWLRQDO
LQWHOOLJHQFHDQGVHOIHVWHHP)LQDOO\WKHSUHVHQWVWXG\VHHNVWRH[SORUHIXUWKHU
WKHSV\FKRPHWULFSURSHUWLHVRIWKH3HUVRQDO5HVSRQVLELOLW\4XHVWLRQQDLUH

Method
Participants
+LJKVFKRROSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHF M \HDUVWXGHQWVIURPDSXEOLF
KLJKVFKRROLQWKHVRXWKHDVWHUQSDUWRI4XHHQVODQG$XVWUDOLD7KHVFKRROZDV

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

VXEXUEDQDQGEDVHGLQDPHGLXPVL]HGFLW\$OOSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHDJHGEHWZHHQ
\HDUVRIDJHM 0RGH 
8QLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHF M VWXGHQWVVWXG\LQJD
%DFKHORURI(GXFDWLRQGHJUHHDWDQ$XVWUDOLDQXQLYHUVLW\$OOSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUH
DJHGEHWZHHQDQG\HDUVRIDJHM 0RGH 
Measures
Personal responsibility
7KH3HUVRQDO5HVSRQVLELOLW\4XHVWLRQQDLUH0HUJOHU6SHQFHU 3DWWRQSDSHU
VXEPLWWHGLVDLWHPPHDVXUHWKDWH[SORUHVDVSHFWVRISHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\
7KHTXHVWLRQQDLUHXWLOLVHVD/LNHUWVFDOHIRUPHDVXUHPHQWZLWK1EHLQJstrongly
disagree and 4EHLQJstrongly agree.3DUWLFLSDQWVDUHDVNHGWRFLUFOHWKHUHVSRQVH
WKDW DSSHDUV WUXH RI WKHP PRVW RI WKH WLPH ([DPSOH LWHPV LQFOXGH I can
choose how I behave and I am usually willing to admit my mistakes3V\FKRPHWULF
DQDO\VHVXQGHUWDNHQE\0HUJOHUHWDOKDYHVKRZQWKH3HUVRQDO5HVSRQVLELOLW\
4XHVWLRQQDLUHWRFRQVLVWRIWZRIDFWRUVHDFKZLWKUREXVWLQWHUQDOFRQVLVWHQF\
IDFWRU6HOIFRQWURORIHPRWLRQDQGWKRXJKWV_ LWHPVIDFWRU6HOI
FRQWURORIEHKDYLRXU_ LWHPV)RUWKHSXUSRVHVRIWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\
WKHIDFWRUVZLOOEHUHIHUUHGWRDVVXEVFDOHV
Emotional intelligence
7KH(PRWLRQDO,QWHOOLJHQFH6FDOH6FKXWWHHWDOLVDLWHPTXHVWLRQ
QDLUH GHVLJQHG WR PHDVXUH DQ LQGLYLGXDOV FXUUHQW OHYHO RI HPRWLRQDO
LQWHOOLJHQFH E\ DVVHVVLQJ WKHLU DELOLW\ WR PRQLWRU DQG GLVFULPLQDWH DPRQJ
RQHV RZQ DQG RWKHUV HPRWLRQV 3DUWLFLSDQWV UDWH KRZ DSSURSULDWH HDFK
VWDWHPHQWLVWRWKHPRQDIRXUSRLQWVFDOHZLWK1EHLQJstrongly disagree to 4
EHLQJ strongly agree. ([DPSOHLWHPVLQFOXGHEmotions are one of the things that
make my life worth living and I am aware of my emotions as I experience them
,QWHUQDOFRQVLVWHQF\IRUWKHHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHPHDVXUHKDVEHHQUHSRUWHG
at _   6FKXWWH HW DO  :LWK UHJDUG WRFRQYHUJHQWYDOLGLW\6FKXWWH
HW DO  UHSRUWHG WKDW WKH HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH VFDOH ZDV SRVLWLYHO\
FRUUHODWHGZLWKWKHSRVLWLYHVXEVFDOHVRIWKH7UDLW0HWD0RRG6FDOHVXFKDV
DWWHQWLRQ FODULW\ DQG PRRG UHSDLU DQG QHJDWLYHO\ UHODWHG WR SHVVLPLVP DV
PHDVXUHG E\ WKH SHVVLPLVP VFDOH RI WKH /LIH 2ULHQWDWLRQ 7HVW GHSUHVVLRQ
DV PHDVXUHG E\ WKH =XQJ 'HSUHVVLRQ VFDOH DQG LPSXOVLYLW\ DV PHDVXUHG
E\WKH%DUUDWW,PSXOVLYHQHVV6FDOH5HVHDUFKE\&LDUURFKL&KDQDQG%DMJDU
GHPRQVWUDWHGWKDWWKH(PRWLRQDO,QWHOOLJHQFH6FDOHLVDSSURSULDWHIRU
XVHZLWKDGROHVFHQWV
Self-esteem
7KH5RVHQEHUJ6HOI(VWHHP6FDOH5RVHQEHUJLVDLWHPTXHVWLRQQDLUH
WKDWSURYLGHVDJOREDOPHDVXUHRIVHOIZRUWK7KHTXHVWLRQQDLUHXWLOLVHVD/LNHUW
VFDOHIRUPHDVXUHPHQWZLWK1EHLQJstrongly agree and 4EHLQJstrongly disagree.
7KXVDKLJKVFRUHRQWKLVPHDVXUHLQGLFDWHVDKLJKOHYHORIVHOIHVWHHP3DUWLFL
SDQWV DUH DVNHG WR FLUFOH WKH UHVSRQVH WKDW DSSHDUV WUXH RI WKHP PRVW RI WKH

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

WLPH ([DPSOH LWHPV LQFOXGH I feel that I have a number of good qualities and
At times I think I am no good at all 7KLV VFDOH KDV EHHQ IRXQG WR KDYH JRRG
UHOLDELOLW\ZLWKD&URQEDFKVDOSKDRI&LDUURFKLHWDODQGRQHZHHN
WHVWUHWHVWUHOLDELOLW\RI)OHPLQJ &RXUWQH\7KLVVFDOHKDVGHPRQ
VWUDWHGSRVLWLYHFRUUHODWLRQVZLWKRWKHUPHDVXUHVRIVHOIHVWHHPDQGQHJDWLYH
FRUUHODWLRQV ZLWK PHDVXUHV RI PDODGMXVWPHQW DQG XQKHDOWK\ SHUIHFWLRQLVP
)OHPLQJ &RXUWQH\5RVHQEHUJ6WXPSI 3DUNHU
Procedure
7KHKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWVFRPSOHWHGDOOTXHVWLRQQDLUHVGXULQJDIRUPFODVVDQG
WKH XQLYHUVLW\ VWXGHQWV FRPSOHWHG WKHP GXULQJ D ZHHNO\ WXWRULDO 7KH FODVV
WHDFKHUXQLYHUVLW\ WXWRU ZKR KDG EHHQ SURYLGHG ZLWK LQVWUXFWLRQV UHJDUGLQJ
WKH SURWRFRO DGPLQLVWHUHG WKH TXHVWLRQQDLUHV $SSURSULDWH HWKLFDO SURFHGXUHV
ZHUHIROORZHG

Results
Data screening
7KHLQLWLDOUHVSRQVHVZHUHDQDO\VHGIRUDQ\DEQRUPDOLWLHVLQUHODWLRQWRRXWO\LQJ
DQGPLVVLQJGDWD$QXPEHURIRXWOLHUVZHUHLGHQWLHGDQGGHOHWHGWKHPLVVLQJ
GDWD ZHUH IRXQG WR KDYH QR SDUWLFXODU SDWWHUQ DQG ZHUH UHSODFHG LQ WKH GDWD
VHWE\HVWDEOLVKLQJWKHLWHPPHDQIRUHDFKLWHPDQGLQVHUWLQJWKHVHLQWKHSODFH
RI WKH PLVVLQJ YDOXHV 7DEDFKQLFN  )LGHOO  $V HDFK TXHVWLRQQDLUH KDG
LWHPV WKDW ZHUH QHJDWLYHO\ VFRUHG LW ZDV QHFHVVDU\ WR UHFRGH WKHVH LWHPV LH
a 1 strongly disagreeEHFDPHD4 strongly agree and a 2 disagreeEHFDPHD3 agree)
&RDNHV  6WHHG  2QFH GRQH LQGLYLGXDO VWXGHQW UHVSRQVHV WR DOO LWHPV
RQ HDFK TXHVWLRQQDLUH ZHUH DGGHG WR JHQHUDWH WRWDO VFRUHV IRU WKH VHOIFRQWURO
RI HPRWLRQV DQG WKRXJKWV VXEVFDOH WKH VHOIFRQWURO RI EHKDYLRXU VXEVFDOH
HPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHDQGVHOIHVWHHP
Statistical Assumptions
,QLWLDOO\ H[WHQVLYH GDWD VFUHHQLQJ ZDV XQGHUWDNHQ WR GHWHFW SUREOHPV ZLWK
VNHZQHVV DQG NXUWRVLV :KLOH VRPH YDULDEOHV VKRZHG VOLJKW VNHZQHVV WUDQV
IRUPLQJWKHPGLGQRWLPSURYHWKHGLVWULEXWLRQDQGWKHUHIRUHWKHRULJLQDOGDWD
ZDV XVHG +DLU $QGHUVRQ 7DWKDP  %ODFN  1R WUDQVIRUPDWLRQV ZHUH
UHTXLUHGWRPHHWWKHDVVXPSWLRQRIQRUPDOLW\
Age and gender differences
,Q WKH DGROHVFHQW JURXS tWHVWV UHYHDOHG QR VLJQLFDQW GLIIHUHQFHV IRU DQ\ RI
WKH YDULDEOHV PHDVXUHG E\ JHQGHU ,Q DGGLWLRQ 0$129$ UHVXOWV VKRZHG QR
VLJQLFDQWGLIIHUHQFHVIRUHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHVHOIHVWHHPRUWKHWZRSHUVRQDO
UHVSRQVLELOLW\VXEVFDOHVE\DJH$VVXFKDJHDQGJHQGHUZHUHFRPELQHGLQWRWKH
RQH<HDUVWXGHQWVDPSOHIRUVXEVHTXHQWDQDO\VHV
6LPLODUO\LQWKHXQLYHUVLW\JURXStWHVWVUHYHDOHGQRVLJQLFDQWGLIIHUHQFHV
IRU DQ\ RI WKH YDULDEOHV PHDVXUHG E\ JHQGHU ,Q DGGLWLRQ 0$129$ UHVXOWV
VKRZHGQRVLJQLFDQWGLIIHUHQFHVIRUHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHVHOIHVWHHPRUWKH

10

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

WZRSHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\VXEVFDOHVE\DJH$JHDQGJHQGHUZHUHWKHUHIRUH
FRPELQHGLQWRWKHRQHXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVDPSOHIRUVXEVHTXHQWDQDO\VHV
Reliability of the Measures
([DPLQLQJ&URQEDFKVDOSKDWKHPHDVXUHVVKRZHGUHDVRQDEOHOHYHOVRILQWHUQDO
FRQVLVWHQF\ IRU WKH WZR JURXSV RI SDUWLFLSDQWV 7KH UHOLDELOLW\ RI WKH VHOIFRQWURO
RIHPRWLRQVDQGWKRXJKWVVXEVFDOHZDVDOSKD IRUKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWVDQG
DOSKD IRUXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWV)RUWKHVHOIFRQWURORIEHKDYLRXUVXEVFDOHWKH
UHVXOWV ZHUH KLJK ZLWK WKH KLJK VFKRRO VWXGHQWV UHOLDELOLW\ DOSKD   DQG WKH
XQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVDOSKD 7KHUHOLDELOLW\OHYHOVZHUHKLJKIRUWKHHPRWLRQDO
LQWHOOLJHQFHPHDVXUHIRUWKHKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWVDOSKD DQGIRUXQLYHUVLW\
VWXGHQWVDOSKD 7KHVHOIHVWHHPPHDVXUHVKRZHGDKLJKOHYHORIUHOLDELOLW\
IRUXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVDOSKD EXWQRWIRUWKHKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWVDOSKD 
,WDSSHDUHGWKDWLWHP2QWKHZKROH,DPVDWLVHGZLWKP\VHOIGLGQRW
FRQWULEXWHWRWKHVFDOHVUHOLDELOLW\DQGLIGHOHWHGWKHUHOLDELOLW\ZRXOGEHKLJKHUDW
DOSKD )RUWKHSXUSRVHVRIWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\WKHSXEOLVKHGVHOIHVWHHPPHDVXUH
ZLWKLWHPVZDVXWLOLVHGIRUUHDVRQVRIVWDQGDUGLVDWLRQDQGFRQVLVWHQF\
Means
7DEOH  VKRZV WKH FDOFXODWHG PHDQV DQG VWDQGDUG GHYLDWLRQV IRU WKH <HDU 
DQG8QLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVIRUVHOIFRQWURORIHPRWLRQVDQGWKRXJKWVVHOIFRQWURO
RI EHKDYLRXU HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH DQG VHOIHVWHHP 7KH UHVXOWV VKRZHG
GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ WKH PHDQV IRU WKH WZR JURXSV ZLWK ROGHU SDUWLFLSDQWV
UHSRUWLQJ KLJKHU VFRUHV RQ HDFK YDULDEOH 7KH VHOIHVWHHP YDULDEOH VKRZHG
SDUWLFXODUO\ODUJHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHWZRJURXSVZLWKWKHPHDQVFRUHIRU
DGXOWVEHLQJWKUHHWLPHVKLJKHUWKDQWKHVWDQGDUGGHYLDWLRQRQWKHPHDQVFRUH
IRUDGROHVFHQWV
Means Compared
0$129$ ZDV FKRVHQ WR DQDO\VH WKH GDWD DV LW DOORZV IRU WKH FRPSOH[LW\ RI
FRPSDULQJ D QXPEHU RI GHSHQGHQW YDULDEOHV VHOIFRQWURO RI HPRWLRQV DQG
WKRXJKWV VHOIFRQWURO RI EHKDYLRXU HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH DQG VHOIHVWHHP
E\VWXGHQWJURXS<HDUDQG8QLYHUVLW\7KHPXOWLYDULDWHUHVXOWVVKRZHGD
VLJQLFDQW GLIIHUHQFH E\ VWXGHQW JURXS F    p   SDUWLDO HWD
VTXDUHG 
7KHXQLYDULDWHUHVXOWVVKRZHGVLJQLFDQWGLIIHUHQFHVIRUHDFKRIWKHGHSHQGHQW
YDULDEOHVE\DJHJURXSVHOIFRQWURORIHPRWLRQVDQGWKRXJKWVF 
pSDUWLDOHWDVTXDUHG VHOIFRQWURORIEHKDYLRXUF p
SDUWLDOHWDVTXDUHG HPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHF p
SDUWLDOHWDVTXDUHG DQGVHOIHVWHHPF pSDUWLDOHWD
VTXDUHG 
Correlations between constructs
7DEOHVKRZVWKHFRUUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHYDULDEOHVIRUERWKJURXSVRISDUWLFL
SDQWV0RVWFRUUHODWLRQVVKRZHGVOLJKWWRPRGHUDWHSRVLWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSVDURXQG

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

11

Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations on each Variable for Year 11

(n=150) and University Students (n=186)
Year 11 Students

Uni Students

SD

SD

Personal Responsibility (self-control

of emotions and thoughts) *

50.3

5.8

53.1

4.7

Personal Responsibility (self-control

of behaviour)*

33.2

5.1

37.2

Emotional Intelligence*

96.1

9.8

99.2

8.8

Self-Esteem*

26.9

3.9

36.1

4.2

Note: * = significant differences at p <.05 level.

WRZKLOHVHOIFRQWURORIHPRWLRQDQGWKRXJKWVDQGHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFH
VKRZHGDYHU\JRRGSRVLWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSLQWKH<HDUVDPSOH7KLVVWURQJ
FRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQVHOIFRQWURORIHPRWLRQVDQGWKRXJKWVDQGHPRWLRQDOLQWHO
OLJHQFH ZDV H[SHFWHG DV ERWK YDULDEOHV PHDVXUH VLPLODU FRQFHSWV RI HPRWLRQDO
DZDUHQHVVDQGFRQWURO2QO\RQHFRUUHODWLRQZDVQRQVLJQLFDQW
Correlations between two developmental groups compared
,QRUGHUWRGHWHUPLQHZKHWKHUDQ\RIWKH<HDUDQG8QLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWFRUUHOD
WLRQV ZHUH VLJQLFDQWO\ GLIIHUHQW IURP HDFK RWKHU WKH DERYH FRUUHODWLRQV ZHUH
FRPSDUHGXVLQJD)LVKHUrWRzWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ)UHHG5\DQ +HVVZKLFK
SURYLGHV D FRPSDULVRQ WKDW FDQ GHWHUPLQH VWDWLVWLFDOO\ VLJQLFDQW GLIIHUHQFHV
EHWZHHQ WZR FRUUHODWLRQDO UHVXOWV 7KH UHVXOWV VKRZHG D VLJQLFDQW GLIIHUHQFH
EHWZHHQWKHFRUUHODWLRQVE\<HDUDQG8QLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVIRUVHOIFRQWURORI
HPRWLRQV DQG WKRXJKWV DQG HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH ZLWK WKH FRUUHODWLRQ EHLQJ
VWURQJHUIRUWKH<HDUVWXGHQWJURXSDVZHOODVVHOIFRQWURORIEHKDYLRXUDQG
HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH ZLWK WKH FRUUHODWLRQ EHLQJ VWURQJHU IRU WKH 8QLYHUVLW\
VWXGHQWJURXSVHH7DEOH
Multiple Regressions
7ZRVLPXOWDQHRXVPXOWLSOHUHJUHVVLRQDQDO\VHVXWLOLVLQJHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFH
DV WKH GHSHQGHQW YDULDEOH DQG VHOIFRQWURO RI HPRWLRQV DQG WKRXJKWV DQG VHOI
FRQWURORIEHKDYLRXUDVLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHVVKRZHGWKDWIRU<HDUVWXGHQWV
DQG 8QLYHUVLW\ VWXGHQWV UHVSHFWLYHO\ VHOIFRQWURO RI HPRWLRQV DQG WKRXJKWV LV
WKH PDLQ H[SODQDWRU\ YDULDEOH IRU HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH EHWD   DQG 
IROORZHGE\VHOIFRQWURORIEHKDYLRXUEHWD DQG)RU<HDUVWXGHQWV
WKH FRHIFLHQW RI GHWHUPLQDWLRQ 52 ZDV  LQGLFWLQJ WKDW WKH YDULDEOHV
H[SODLQHGRIWKHYDULDQFHLQHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHWKHDGMXVWHG52ZDV
)RU8QLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVWKHFRHIFLHQWRIGHWHUPLQDWLRQ52ZDVLQGLFDWLQJ

12

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Table 2. Correlations between Constructs and Fisher R-to-Z

Transformations for Both Groups (Year 11 Students n=150; University
Students n=186)
Correlated Variables

Student
Group

r values

PR (self-control of emotions and

thoughts) and PR(self-control of
behaviour)

Year 11

.33* (150)

.62

ns

Uni

.39* (186)

PR (self-control of emotions
and thoughts) and EI*

Year 11

.71* (150)

3.17

<.05

Uni

.49* (186)

PR (self-control of emotions and

thoughts) and SE

Year 11

.35* (150)

.41

ns

Uni

.31* (186)

PR (self-control of behaviour) and EI*

Year 11

.10 (150)

Uni

.32* (186)

2.09

<.05

Year 11

.30* (150)

Uni

.32* (186)

.20

ns

Year 11

.38* (150)

Uni

.44* (186)

.65

ns

PR (self-control of behaviour) and SE

EI & SE

Note: * significant correlation at p<.05.

WKDW WKH YDULDEOHV H[SODLQHG  RI WKH YDULDQFH LQ HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH WKH
DGMXVWHG 52 ZDV  7KHVH UHVXOWV VKRZ WKDW HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH LV PDLQO\
SUHGLFWHG E\ VHOIFRQWURO RI HPRWLRQV DQG WKRXJKWV DQG WKDW WKLV SUHGLFWLRQ LV
VWURQJHUIRU<HDUVWXGHQWVWKDQ8QLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWV

Discussion
2OGHU VWXGHQWV UHSRUWHG KLJKHU PHDQ VFRUHV RQ HDFK RI WKH VXEVFDOHV RI
SHUVRQDO UHVSRQVLELOLW\ DQG IRU HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH DQG VHOIHVWHHP WKDQ
WKH <HDU  VWXGHQWV 7KHVH GDWD VXJJHVW D GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SODQDWLRQ IRU
WKHVH FRQVWUXFWV DQ H[SODQDWLRQ VXSSRUWHG E\ WKH GHYHORSPHQWDO WKHRULVWV LQ
WHUPV RI DGROHVFHQWV FRJQLWLYH GHYHORSPHQW &ROOLQV HW DO  3LDJHW 
5LFKDUGVRQDQGWKHJURZLQJERG\RIUHVHDUFKLQGLFDWLQJWKDWHPRWLRQDO
DQG EHKDYLRXUDO GHYHORSPHQW FRQWLQXHV WR RFFXU WKURXJKRXW DGROHVFHQFH DQG
LQWR\RXQJDGXOWKRRG%ODNHPRUH &KRXGKXU\*LHGGHWDO3DXV
 6RZHOO HW DO  6RZHOO HW DO  2I SDUWLFXODU LQWHUHVW LV WKH ODUJH
GLIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH WZR JURXSV LQ VHOIHVWHHP ZLWK \RXQJ DGXOWV GHPRQ
VWUDWLQJ VLJQLFDQWO\ KLJKHU OHYHOV RI VHOIHVWHHP WKDQ DGROHVFHQWV 6HOIHVWHHP
PD\EHDIIHFWHGQHJDWLYHO\LQODWHDGROHVFHQFHDV\RXQJSHRSOHIDFHPDQ\DQG

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

13

YDULHGOLIHFKDQJHVXQGHUWDNLQJWKHQDO\HDUVRIFRPSXOVRU\VFKRROLQJOHDYLQJ
VFKRROORRNLQJIRUZRUNDQGVHHNLQJXQLYHUVLW\SODFHPHQW7KLVLQVWDELOLW\DQG
H[SRVXUH WR XQIDPLOLDU VLWXDWLRQV PD\ OHDG ROGHU DGROHVFHQWV WR IHHO XQFHUWDLQ
DQGLQVHFXUH$VWKH\HQWHU\RXQJDGXOWKRRGVHOIHVWHHPPD\ULVHDVLQGLYLGXDOV
JDWKHUDVHQVHRIZKRWKH\DUHLQWKHVHQHZVLWXDWLRQVDQGEHJLQWRVHWWOHLQWR
WKLVVWDJHRIOLIH'HVSLWHSUHYLRXVUHVHDUFKLGHQWLI\LQJVWURQJSRVLWLYHFRUUHOD
WLRQVEHWZHHQOHYHOVRIVHOIHVWHHPDQGHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHLQDGXOWV6FKXWWH
HWDOWKHFXUUHQWVWXG\GLGQRWQGDVLJQLFDQWFRUUHODWLRQZLWKDGXOWV
RUDGROHVFHQWV
7KHSUHVHQWVWXG\SURYLGHVIXUWKHUSV\FKRPHWULFVXSSRUWIRUWKHUHOLDELOLW\
DQG YDOLGLW\ RI WKH 3HUVRQDO 5HVSRQVLELOLW\ 4XHVWLRQQDLUH ZLWK DGHTXDWH
PHDVXUHVRILQWHUQDOFRQVLVWHQF\DQGFRQVWUXFWYDOLGLW\,QSDUWLFXODUJLYHQWKH
GHDUWK RI DQ\ SUHYLRXV GHQLWLRQDO DQG HPSLULFDO ZRUN RQ SHUVRQDO UHVSRQ
VLELOLW\ DV D SV\FKRORJLFDO FRQVWUXFW WKH SUHVHQW GDWD VXSSRUW LWV FRQFHSWXDO
UHODWLRQVKLSZLWKWKHFRQVWUXFWVRIHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHDQGVHOIHVWHHP
,QWHUHVWLQJO\VHOIFRQWURORIHPRWLRQVDQGWKRXJKWVZDVDVWURQJHUSUHGLFWRURI
HPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHIRU\HDUVWXGHQWVWKDQXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWV7KLVQGLQJ
LV IXUWKHU HYLGHQFH RI D GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SODQDWLRQ IRU SHUVRQDO UHVSRQVLELOLW\
DQG PD\ VXJJHVW WKDW VHOIFRQWURO RI EHKDYLRXU LV GHYHORSHG ODWHU WKDQ VHOI
FRQWURORIHPRWLRQVDQGWKRXJKWV
5HFHQW EUDLQ GHYHORSPHQW UHVHDUFK LQGLFDWHV WKDW WKH DUHDV RI WKH EUDLQ
UHVSRQVLEOHIRUHPRWLRQDODQGEHKDYLRXUDOFRQWUROGRLQGHHGFRQWLQXHWRGHYHORS
WKURXJKRXW DGROHVFHQFH DQG LQWR DGXOWKRRG %ODNHPRUH  &KRXGKXU\ 
*LHGG  6RZHOO HW DO  :LWK WKLV XQGHUVWDQGLQJ LW LV H[SHFWHG WKDW
DGXOWV ZRXOG VFRUH KLJKHU RQ WKHVH YDULDEOHV GXH WR JUHDWHU PDWXUDWLRQ RI WKH
FRJQLWLYHVWUXFWXUHV$GGLWLRQDOO\DGROHVFHQWVWHQGWRQGLWKDUGHUWRFRQWURO
DQGRYHUULGHWKHLUHPRWLRQVZKHQPDNLQJGHFLVLRQVWKDQGRDGXOWV'DKO
DQG 6WHLQEHUJ  DUJXHV WKDW HYHQ ZLWK D FOHDU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH ULVNV
LQYROYHG DGROHVFHQWV ZLOO FKRRVH WR HQJDJH LQ GDQJHURXV DFWLYLWLHV 7KXV WKH
QRWLRQWKDWDGROHVFHQWVVWUXJJOHPRUHWKDQDGXOWVWRUHJXODWHDQGFRQWUROWKHLU
HPRWLRQV DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ WKHLU EHKDYLRXU DSSHDUV WR EH VXSSRUWHG LQ WKH
FXUUHQW VWXG\ ZLWK \RXQJ DGXOWV GHPRQVWUDWLQJ JUHDWHU HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH
DQGSHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\WKDQDGROHVFHQWV
)XUWKHUHYLGHQFHRIYDOLGLW\RIWKH3HUVRQDO5HVSRQVLELOLW\4XHVWLRQQDLUHLV
SURYLGHGE\LWVDELOLW\WRGLVFULPLQDWHEHWZHHQ\RXQJHUDQGROGHUDGROHVFHQWV
'HVSLWH WKH JURZLQJ DZDUHQHVV RI FRQWLQXHG EUDLQ GHYHORSPHQW WKURXJKRXW
DGROHVFHQFH DQG LQWR \RXQJ DGXOWKRRG WKHUH LV D OLPLWHG DPRXQW RI UHVHDUFK
WKDWH[DPLQHVGHYHORSPHQWDOGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHVHWZRJURXSV7KLVPDNHV
WKH3HUVRQDO5HVSRQVLELOLW\4XHVWLRQQDLUHSDUWLFXODUO\XVHIXOIRUIXWXUHUHVHDUFK
WKDWVHHNVWRH[SORUHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQJURXSVLQHPRWLRQDODQGEHKDYLRXUDO
FRQWURODQGDZDUHQHVV
7KHUHDUHDQXPEHURIOLPLWDWLRQVZLWKWKHFXUUHQWVWXG\WKDWPXVWEHQRWHG
3DUWLFLSDQWVZHUHODUJHO\ZKLWHPLGGOHFODVVDGROHVFHQWVDQG\RXQJDGXOWVDQG
DVVXFKWKHUHVXOWVDUHQRWJHQHUDOLVDEOHWRGLIIHULQJSRSXODWLRQV$GGLWLRQDOO\
FURVVVHFWLRQDOGDWDGRHVQRWDOORZIRUDQLQGHSWKH[DPLQDWLRQRIFKDQJHVZLWKLQ

14

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

HDFK LQGLYLGXDO SDUWLFLSDQW ,Q RUGHU WR GHWHUPLQH WKH GHYHORSPHQWDO QDWXUH
RI WKH FRQVWUXFWV PRUH WKRURXJKO\ LW ZRXOG EH XVHIXO WR XQGHUWDNH D ORQJLWX
GLQDOH[DPLQDWLRQRIDGROHVFHQWVDVWKH\PDWXUH'RLQJVRZRXOGHQKDQFHRXU
XQGHUVWDQGLQJRIZKHQ\RXQJSHRSOHDUHPRUHOLNHO\WRHPEUDFHWKHLUSHUVRQDO
UHVSRQVLELOLW\DQGGHYHORSWKHLUHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHDQGVHOIHVWHHP
7KH FXUUHQW VWXG\ DGGV WR RXU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH DELOLW\ RI DGROHVFHQWV
DQG \RXQJ DGXOWV WR WDNH UHVSRQVLELOLW\ IRU WKHLU WKRXJKWV IHHOLQJV DQG
EHKDYLRXU 'XH WR UHFHQW EUDLQ GHYHORSPHQW UHVHDUFK VWXGLHV WKDW H[DPLQH
GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ WKHVH WZR JURXSV LQ DUHDV RI HPRWLRQDO DZDUHQHVV DQG
EHKDYLRXUDOFRQWUROFRQWULEXWHWRRXUJURZLQJXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIFRQWLQXDOEUDLQ
GHYHORSPHQWWKURXJKRXWDGROHVFHQFH0RUHUHVHDUFKLVQHHGHGWKDWH[SORUHVWKLV
GHYHORSPHQWWRKHOSWHDVHRXWZKDWOHYHORISHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\DGROHVFHQWV
VKRXOGEHH[SHFWHGWRWDNHIRUWKHLUFKRLFHVDQGEHKDYLRXU7KHDEVROXWHGHDUWK
RIDQ\ZRUNRQDFRQVWUXFWRISHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\SUHYHQWVDQ\FRQQHFWLRQ
ZLWK DQ HPSLULFDO OLWHUDWXUH KRZHYHU LWV FORVH FRQQHFWLRQ ZLWK DQ DGROHVFHQW
GHYHORSPHQWDOOLWHUDWXUHDQGVRFLHWDOLPSHUDWLYHVVXJJHVWVWKDWWKLVLVDQDUHDRI
WKHRUHWLFDOFRQFHSWXDODQGHPSLULFDOZRUNZKLFKUHVHDUFKHUVQHHGWRHPEUDFH
7KHSUHVHQWVWXG\KDVPDGHDQLPSRUWDQWEHJLQQLQJ

Acknowledgements
:HZRXOGOLNHWRWKDQNWKHIROORZLQJSHRSOHIRUWKHLULQYDOXDEOHDVVLVWDQFHZLWK
WKLVVWXG\$YHU\ELJWKDQN\RXWRWKHKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWVWHDFKHUVJXLGDQFH
FRXQVHOORUV \HDUOHYHO FRRUGLQDWRUV VFKRRO DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ VWDII XQLYHUVLW\
VWXGHQWV DQG XQLYHUVLW\ WXWRUV ZKR HLWKHU SDUWLFLSDWHG LQ RU DVVLVWHG ZLWK WKH
TXHVWLRQQDLUHFRPSOHWLRQ<RXUVXSSRUWIRUWKLVUHVHDUFKKDVPDGHLWSRVVLEOH
:HZRXOGDOVROLNHWRWKDQN'U%ULDQ+DQVIRUGIRUKLVLGHDVDQGFRPPHQWV

References
$QGHUVRQ9$$QGHUVRQ31RUWKDP(-DFREV5 &DWURSSD&
'HYHORSPHQWRIH[HFXWLYHIXQFWLRQVWKURXJKODWHFKLOGKRRGDQGDGROHVFHQFH
LQDQ$XVWUDOLDQVDPSOHDevelopmental Neuropsychology, 20
%ODNHPRUH 6  &KRXGKXU\ 6  'HYHORSPHQW RI WKH DGROHVFHQW EUDLQ
,PSOLFDWLRQV IRU H[HFXWLYH IXQFWLRQ DQG VRFLDO FRJQLWLRQ Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, 47
%UDYHU 7 6  %DUFK ' 0  $ WKHRU\ RI FRJQLWLYH FRQWURO DJLQJ
FRJQLWRQDQG QHXURPRGXODWLRQ Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 26,

%\UQHV-3&RJQLWLYHGHYHORSPHQWGXULQJDGROHVFHQFH,Q*5$GDPV
 0 ' %HU]RQVN\ (GV Blackwell handbook of adolescence SS 
2[IRUG%ODFNZHOO3XEOLVKLQJ/WG
&DVH\ % - 7RWWHQKDP 1 /LVWRQ &  'XUVWRQ 6  ,PDJLQJ WKH
GHYHORSLQJ EUDLQ :KDW KDYH ZH OHDUQHG DERXW FRJQLWLYH GHYHORSPHQW"
Trends in Cognitive Science, 9
&LDUURFKL-&KDQ$<& %DMJDU-0HDVXULQJHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFH
LQDGROHVFHQWVPersonality and Individual Differences, 31

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

15

&RDNHV6- 6WHHG/*SPSS : Analysis Without Anguish : Version 11.0

for Windows4XHHQVODQG-RKQ:LOH\ 6RQV
&ROOLQV : $ *OHDVRQ 7  6HVPD $  ,QWHUQDOL]DWLRQ DXWRQRP\
DQG UHODWLRQVKLSV 'HYHORSPHQW GXULQJ DGROHVFHQFH ,Q - ( *UXVHF  /
.XF]\QVNL(GVParenting and childrens internalization of values: A handbook
of contemporary theory.SS1HZ<RUN-RKQ:LOH\ 6RQV,QF
'DKO 5 (  $GROHVFHQW EUDLQ GHYHORSPHQW $ SHULRG RI YXOQHUDELOLWLHV
DQGRSSRUWXQLWLHVAnnual New York Academy of Science, 1021
'DPDVLR$The Feeling of What Happens1HZ<RUN+DUFRXUW%UDFH
'DYLGVRQ5-3XWQDP.0 /DUVRQ&/'\VIXQFWLRQLQWKHQHXUDO
FLUFXLWU\RIHPRWLRQUHJXODWLRQ$SRVVLEOHSUHOXGHWRYLROHQFHScience, 289,

'HYOLQ07DNLQJUHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUOHDUQLQJLVQWHYHU\WKLQJDFDVHIRU
GHYHORSLQJ WHUWLDU\ VWXGHQWV FRQFHSWLRQV RI OHDUQLQJ Teaching in Higher
Education, 7
'LDPRQG $  (YLGHQFH IRU WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI GRSDPLQH IRU SUHIURQWDO
FRUWH[ IXQFWLRQV HDUO\ LQ OLIH Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of
London, 351
'RKHUW\%%ODPHVRFLHW\UVWReason, 30
)OHPLQJ - 6  &RXUWQH\ % (  7KH GLPHQVLRQDOLW\ RI VHOIHVWHHP ,,
+LHUDUFKLFDOIDFHWPRGHOIRUUHYLVHGPHDVXUHPHQWVFDOHVJournal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 46
)UHHG015\DQ-0 +HVV5.Handbook of Statistical Procedures
and their Computer Applications to Education and the Behavioral Sciences 1HZ
<RUN0DFPLOODQ
*LHGG - 1  6WUXFWXUDO PDJQHWLF UHVRQDQFH LPDJLQJ RI WKH DGROHVFHQW
EUDLQAnnual New York Academy of Science, 1021
*LHGG-1%OXPHQWKDO--HIIULHV12&DVWHOODQRV);/LX+ =LMGHQERV
$%UDLQGHYHORSPHQWGXULQJFKLOGKRRGDQGDGROHVFHQFH$ORQJLWX
GLQDO05,VWXG\Nature Neuroscience, 2
*ODVVHU :  Choice Theory: A New Psychology of Personal Freedom. 1HZ
<RUN+DUSHU&ROOLQV3XEOLVKHUV
*XOORWD73$GDPV*5 0DUNVWURP&$The Adolescent Experience
WKHG6DQ'LHJR$FDGHPLF3UHVV
+DFNHU'-$QH[LVWHQWLDOYLHZRIDGROHVFHQFHJournal of Early Adolescence,
14
+DLU-)-$QGHUVRQ5(7DWKDP5/ %ODFN:&Multivariate
Data Analysis with ReadingsWKHG1HZ-HUVH\3UHQWLFH+DOO,QF
+RRSHU & - /XFLDQD 0 &RQNOLQ 0  <DUJHU 5 6  $GROHVFHQWV
SHUIRUPDQFHRQWKH,RZD*DPEOLQJ7DVN,PSOLFDWLRQVIRUWKHGHYHORSPHQW
RI GHFLVLRQ PDNLQJ DQG YHQWURPHGLDO SUHIURQWDO FRUWH[ Developmental
Psychology, 40
.HDWLQJ ' 3  &RJQLWLYH DQG EUDLQ GHYHORSPHQW ,Q 5 0 /HUQHU  /
6WHLQEHUJ(GVHandbook of adolescent psychologyQGHGSS1HZ
-HUVH\-RKQ:LOH\ 6RQV

16

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

.RKOEHUJ /  0RUDO VWDJHV DQG PRUDOL]DWLRQ 7KH FRJQLWLYH GHYHORS
PHQWDODSSURDFK,Q7/LFNRQD(GMoral development and behaviour: Theory,
research, and social issues.SS1HZ<RUN+ROW5LQHKDUW :LQVWRQ
.RKOEHUJ /  Essays on Moral Development: The Philosophy of Moral
Development. Moral Stages and the Idea of Justice9RO6DQ)UDQFLVFR+DUSHU
DQG5RZ
.UDZF]\N'&&RQWULEXWLRQVRIWKHSUHIURQWDOFRUWH[WRWKHQHXUDOEDVLV
RI KXPDQ GHFLVLRQPDNLQJ Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 26 

.XSIHU ' -  :RRGZDUG + 5  $GROHVFHQW GHYHORSPHQW DQG WKH
UHJXODWLRQ RI EHKDYLRU DQG HPRWLRQ Annual New York Academy of Science,
1021
0DUX\DPD * )UDVHU 6 &  0LOOHU 1  3HUVRQDO UHVSRQVLELOLW\ DQG
DOWUXLVPLQFKLOGUHQJournal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42
0D\HU - '  6DORYH\ 3  7KH LQWHOOLJHQFH RI HPRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH
Intelligence, 17
0D\HU-' 6DORYH\3:KDWLVHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFH",Q36DORYH\ 
'-6OX\WHU(GVEmotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational
implicationsSS1HZ<RUN%DVLF%RRNV
0HUJOHU$*6SHQFHU)+ 3DWWRQ:SDSHUVXEPLWWHG'HYHORSPHQWRID
PHDVXUHRISHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUDGROHVFHQWVJournal of Adolescence
0XQDNDWD <  <HU\V % (  $OO WRJHWKHU QRZ :KHQ GLVVRFLDWLRQV
EHWZHHQNQRZOHGJHDQGDFWLRQGLVDSSHDUPsychological Science, 12
3DXV 7  0DSSLQJ EUDLQ PDWXUDWLRQ DQG FRJQLWLYH GHYHORSPHQW GXULQJ
DGROHVFHQFHTrends in Cognitive Science, 9
3LDJHW-The Moral Judgement of the Child1HZ<RUN+DUFRXUW%UDFH
3LDJHW-The Equilibration of Cognitive Structures&KLFDJR8QLYHUVLW\RI
&KLFDJR3UHVV
5HHYHV5:K\HYHU\RQHLVWDONLQJDERXWUHVSRQVLELOLW\New Statesman,
17
5LFKDUGVRQ.Models of Cognitive Development(DVW6XVVH[3V\FKRORJ\
3UHVV/WG
5RVHQEHUJ0Society and the Adolescent Self-Image3ULQFHWRQ1-3ULQFHWRQ
8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
5RVVR,0<RXQJ$')HPLD/$ <XUJHOXQ7RGG$&RJQLWLYH
DQG HPRWLRQDO FRPSRQHQWV RI IURQWDO OREH IXQFWLRQLQJ LQ FKLOGKRRG DQG
DGROHVFHQFHAnnual New York Academy of Science, 1021
6DORYH\3 0D\HU-'(PRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHImagination, Cognition,
and Personality, 9
6FKXWWH160DORXII-0+DOO/(+DJJHUW\'-&RRSHU-7*ROGHQ
& - HW DO  'HYHORSPHQW DQG YDOLGDWLRQ RI D PHDVXUH RI HPRWLRQDO
LQWHOOLJHQFHPersonality and Individual Differences, 25
6FKXWWH160DORXII-06LPXQHN00F.HQOH\- +ROODQGHU6
&KDUDFWHULVWLFHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHDQGHPRWLRQDOZHOOEHLQJCognition and
Emotion, 16

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

17

6RZHOO(53HWHUVRQ%67KRPSVRQ30:HOFRPH6(+HQNHQLXV$/
7RJD$:0DSSLQJFRUWLFDOFKDQJHDFURVVWKHOLIHVSDQNature
Neuroscience, 6
6RZHOO(57KRPSVRQ307HVVQHU.' 7RJD$:0DSSLQJ
FRQWLQXHGEUDLQJURZWKDQGJUD\PDWWHUGHQVLW\UHGXFWLRQLQGRUVDOIURQWDO
FRUWH[,QYHUVHUHODWLRQVKLSGXULQJSRVWDGROHVFHQWEUDLQPDWXUDWLRQJournal
of Neuroscience, 21
6WHLQEHUJ/&RJQLWLYHDQGDIIHFWLYHGHYHORSPHQWLQDGROHVFHQFHTrends
in Cognitive Science, 9
6WXPSI+ 3DUNHU:'$KLHUDUFKLFDODQDO\VLVRISHUIHFWLRQLVPDQG
LWVUHODWLRQVWRSHUVRQDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVPersonality and Individual Differences,
28
7DEDFKQLFN % *  )LGHOO / 6  Using Multivariate Statistics UG HG
1HZ<RUN+DUSHU&ROOLQV&ROOHJH3XEOLVKHUV

Address for correspondence

$PDQGD0HUJOHU
7KH+HDOWK)DFXOW\
6FKRRORI3V\FKRORJ\DQG&RXQVHOOLQJ
4XHHQVODQG8QLYHUVLW\RI7HFKQRORJ\
*32%R[%ULVEDQH
4/'

18

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

A Carroll

The University of Queensland

N Purdie

Australian Council for Educational Research

Extra-Curricular Involvement
and Self-Regulation in Children

Abstract
The present research investigated the relationship between extra-curricular involvement
(ECI) and self-regulated behaviours in 8 to 9 year old children, and identified sex,
location, and socio-economic status (SES) differences in their ECI and self-regulatory
behaviours. 550 children from 44 schools in Queensland and New South Wales,
Australia completed the Child Self-Regulatory Process Inventory and questions
about their ECI. Nearly 90% of students were involved in at least one extra-curricular
activity with the mean number of activities being 1.27. Girls and urban children
were significantly more involved in school-based extra-curricular activities than their
male and rural counterparts; there were no significant differences among SES groups.
Urban children and children in the high SES group reported significantly greater
involvement for non-school based activities. For the three self-regulation strategies,
girls scored significantly higher than boys. Moreover, children in the high ECI group
reported significantly greater use of self-regulation strategies than children in the low
ECI group and were more efficacious-persistent than children in both the low and
medium ECI groups. Implications of findings are discussed in light of the need for
quality extra-curricular programs, especially in terms of emotional climate and selfdirected activities.
Keywords: extra-curricular involvement, school based activities, non-school based
activities, self-regulation, children

6WXGHQWLQYROYHPHQWLQH[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHVKDVEHHQWKHWRSLFRIVFLHQWLF
LQWHUHVWIRURYHUWKUHHGHFDGHV7KHLPSRUWDQFHRIVXFKLQYROYHPHQWLVSXUSRUWHG
DVUDQJLQJIURPKLJKO\YDOXDEOHLQWHUPVRIDFDGHPLFDFKLHYHPHQWHJ&RRSHU
9DOHQWLQH1\H /LQGVD\(FFOHV %DUEHU)UHGULFNV (FFOHV
HGXFDWLRQDO DVSLUDWLRQV HJ 6SDG\  /DUVRQ  9HUPD  SURVRFLDO
EHKDYLRXU HJ /DQGHUV  /DQGHUV  /DUVRQ +DQVHQ  0RQHWD 
DQGVDWLVIDFWLRQZLWKOLIHHJ*LOPDQ+ROODQG $QGUHWRKDYLQJ
GHWULPHQWDO HIIHFWV FRQFHUQLQJ WKH SUHVVXUH H[HUWHG RQ \RXQJ SHRSOH WR H[FHO
QRWRQO\DWDFDGHPLFVEXWDOVRDWPXOWLSOHH[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHV/XWKDU 

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

19

'$YDQ]R  2I VSHFLDO FRQFHUQ KDV EHHQ ZKHWKHU FKLOGUHQ DUH JURZLQJ
XS WRR HDUO\ ZLWK OLYHV WKDW DUH WRR VWUXFWXUHG 5RGULTXH] :LJHOG  (FFOHV

5HVHDUFKHUV KDYH DOVR UHYHDOHG WKDW H[WUDFXUULFXODU SDUWLFLSDWLRQ OHDGV
DPRQJVW RWKHU WKLQJV WR IHHOLQJV RI FRQWURO RYHU RQHV OLIH 7KDW LV SDUWLFL
SDWLRQ LQ H[WUDFXUULFXODU PD\ DOVR OHDG VWXGHQWV WR DFTXLUH QHZ VNLOOV LQ WKH
DUHDV RI RUJDQL]DWLRQ SODQQLQJ DQG WLPH PDQDJHPHQW DQG WR LPSURYH VHOI
GLVFLSOLQHDQGPRWLYDWLRQ+ROODQG $QGUH3UHYLRXVVWXGLHVKRZHYHU
KDYH IRFXVVHG SUHGRPLQDQWO\ RQ KLJK VFKRROV VWXGHQWV DQG IHZ VWXGLHV KDYH
LQYHVWLJDWHG WKH DVVRFLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ H[WUDFXUULFXODU LQYROYHPHQW (&,
DQG \RXQJHU FKLOGUHQV VHOIUHJXODWHG EHKDYLRXU 6XFFHVVIXO VHOIUHJXODWRUV
HQJDJH LQ EHKDYLRXUV VXFK DV JRDO VHWWLQJ PRQLWRULQJ RUJDQLVLQJ DQG WUDQV
IRUPLQJ UHKHDUVLQJ DQG PHPRULVLQJ DQG NHHSLQJ UHFRUGV WR HQKDQFH WKHLU
SHUIRUPDQFH 7KH VNLOOV RI VHOIUHJXODWLRQ EHJLQ WR HPHUJH HDUO\ LQ FKLOGKRRG
DQGDUHVKDSHGE\FKLOGUHQVH[SHULHQFHVDVZHOODVWKHLUWHPSHUDPHQW0DVWHQ
&RDWVZRUWK,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHUROHWKDW(&,PD\SOD\
LQ WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI VHOIUHJXODWRU\ EHKDYLRXU IURP DQ HDUO\ DJH 7KH DLPV
of the present research, therefore, were to investigate the participation rates of
FKLOGUHQ LQ H[WUDFXUULFXODU DFWLYLWLHV DQG WR H[SORUH WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ
(&,DQGVHOIUHJXODWRU\VWUDWHJLHVRIFKLOGUHQ0RUHRYHUVH[ORFDWLRQDQGVRFLR
HFRQRPLF VWDWXV GLIIHUHQFHV ZHUH FRQVLGHUHG LQ UHODWLRQ WR FKLOGUHQV (&, DQG
VHOIUHJXODWLRQ

Self-Regulation
$FFRUGLQJWRVRFLDOFRJQLWLYHWKHRU\WKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVHOIUHJXODWLRQLVUHODWHG
to personal, environmental, and behaviouralIDFWRUVWKDWRSHUDWHVHSDUDWHO\EXWLQWHU
GHSHQGHQWO\%DQGXUD,QRWKHUZRUGVVHOIUHJXODWLRQFRPSULVHVDVHWRI
VNLOOVWKDWHQDEOHVFKLOGUHQWRFRQWUROWKHPVHOYHVLQQXPHURXVZD\VLQFOXGLQJ
WKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIVWUDWHJLHVVXFKDVJRDOVHWWLQJWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWDVN
SHUVLVWHQFH DQG VHOIHIFDF\ DQG WKH H[HFXWLRQ RI FRPSOLDQFH RU EHKDYLRXUDO
FRQWURO0DVWHQ &RDWVZRUWK
&KLOGUHQ ZKR DUH HIIHFWLYH VHOIUHJXODWHG OHDUQHUV KDYH GHPRQVWUDWHG D
FDSDFLW\WRXVHWKHLQIRUPDWLRQWKH\JDWKHUDERXWWKHLUSHUIRUPDQFHDQGDGMXVW
WKHLUDFWLRQVDQGJRDOVWRDFKLHYHRSWLPXPUHVXOWV6FKXQN =LPPHUPDQ
=HLGQHU %RHNDHUWV  3LQWULFK  7KRVH ZKR DUH XQDEOH WR EH UHVSRQVLYH
WR WKHLU OHDUQLQJ DUH RIWHQ XQGHUDFKLHYHUV ZKR DFW LPSXOVLYHO\ KDYH ORZHU
DFDGHPLFJRDOVDUHOHVVSHUVLVWHQWDQGDUHGLVRUJDQLVHG=LPPHUPDQ
&HQWUDOWRWKHSURFHVVHVRIVHOIUHJXODWLRQDUHLQGLYLGXDOVMXGJPHQWVDERXW
WKHLUVHOIUHJXODWRU\DELOLWLHV%DQGXUD6FKXQNFRPPRQO\UHIHUUHG
to as VHOIHIFDF\ EHOLHIV 6HOIHIFDF\ FDQ EH GHYHORSHG LQ IRXU ZD\V WKURXJK
PDVWHU\ RI VNLOOV LQFOXGLQJ RYHUFRPLQJ IDLOXUHV DQG DFKLHYLQJ JRDOV WKURXJK
VRFLDO PRGHOOLQJ E\ VRFLDO SHUVXDVLRQ DQG E\ DFFXUDWHO\ UHDGLQJ RQHV RZQ
SK\VLFDODQGHPRWLRQDOVWDWHV6HOIHIFDF\FDQDIIHFWWKHDFKLHYHPHQWRIJRDOV
WKURXJK WKH ZD\ RQH WKLQNV WKH FKDOOHQJHV RQH FRPPLWV WR WKH ZD\V SHRSOH
GHDOZLWKVWUHVVDQGGHSUHVVLRQDQGWKHFKRLFHVSHRSOHPDNH%DQGXUD

20

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

7KHVHOIHIFDF\EHOLHIVWKDW\RXQJSHRSOHKDYHDERXWWKHLUDFDGHPLFVRFLDODQG
VHOIUHJXODWRU\FDSDELOLWLHVKDYHEHHQVKRZQWRSUHGLFWDFDGHPLFDFKLHYHPHQWV
DV ZHOO DV DJJUHVVLYH DQWLVRFLDO DQG GHOLQTXHQW EHKDYLRXUV %DQGXUD D
E$GROHVFHQWVZKRGRXEWWKHLUFDSDFLWLHVIRUVHOIUHJXODWLRQRIDFDGHPLF
DQGVRFLDOVXFFHVVDUHPRUHOLNHO\WRORZHUWKHLUDFDGHPLFJRDOVDUHPRUHSURQH
WRIHHOLQJVRIIXWLOLW\DQGGHSUHVVLRQDQGDUHPRUHOLNHO\WRHQJDJHLQDQWLVRFLDO
DQGSUREOHPEHKDYLRXUV%DQGXUDE
2I WKH VHOIUHJXODWRU\ SURFHVVHV VKRZQ WR EH IXQGDPHQWDO WR VXFFHVVIXO
IXQFWLRQLQJ LQ VRFLHW\ DUH FRPSOLDQFH DQG SURVRFLDO EHKDYLRXU 0DVWHQ 
&RDWVZRUWK  &RQYHUVHO\ LQDGHTXDWH VHOIFRQWURO LV D PDMRU GHWHUPLQDQW
RISUREOHPEHKDYLRXU:LOVRQ +HUUQVWHLQ7KHVHVNLOOVHPHUJHDV\RXQJ
DVWZR\HDUVRIDJHDQGWKHLUIDLOXUHWRGHYHORSPD\VHULRXVO\FRPSURPLVHODWHU
VRFLDOFRPSHWHQFHDWVFKRRODQGZLWKSHHUV)RUH[DPSOHWKHLQDELOLW\WRFRQWURO
HPRWLRQVKDVEHHQOLQNHGWRGLVUXSWLYHDQGDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRXUDWKRPHDQG
LQWKHFODVVURRPDQGLUULWDELOLW\GLIFXOWWHPSHUDPHQWDQGQHJDWLYHHPRWLRQDO
UHDFWLYLW\DUHFRPPRQDPRQJWKRVHPDQLIHVWLQJWKHVHSUREOHPV
7KHFRPPHQFHPHQWRIVFKRROSURYLGHVQHZFKDOOHQJHVDQGH[SHFWDWLRQVIRU
FKLOGUHQ ZLWK WKRVH ZKR KDYH GHYHORSHG VHWV RI VNLOOV PRWLYDWLRQV DQG VHOI
FRQWUROEHLQJDEOHWRIDFLOLWDWHOHDUQLQJDQGUHODWLRQVKLSVPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\WKDQ
WKRVH ZKR KDYH VHOIUHJXODWLRQ GLIFXOWLHV 0DVWHQ  &RDWVZRUWK  $Q
DUHDZKHUHFKLOGUHQPD\KDYHWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRHQKDQFHWKHLUVHOIUHJXODWRU\
FRPSHWHQFLHVLVLQUHJDUGWRH[WUDFXUULFXODULQYROYHPHQW\HWOLWWOHUHVHDUFKKDV
EHHQ FRQGXFWHG WR H[DPLQH WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ (&, DQG VHOIUHJXODWRU\
VWUDWHJLHVRI\RXQJFKLOGUHQ

Extra-Curricula Involvement
([WUDFXUULFXODU DFWLYLWLHV SURYLGH D PHDQV RI UHOD[DWLRQ DQG IXQ IRU HYHU\RQH
DQG KDYH EHHQ VXJJHVWHG WR KDYH SDUWLFXODU SURWHFWLYH EHQHWV IRU \RXQJ
SHRSOH +ROODQG  $QGUH  ([WUDFXUULFXODU LQYROYHPHQW LQ WKH SUHVHQW
SDSHUUHIHUVWRERWKVFKRROEDVHGDQGQRQVFKRROEDVHGDFWLYLWLHV6FKRROEDVHG
DFWLYLWLHVDUHWKRVHRUJDQLVHGDQGVXSSRUWHGE\VFKRRODQGJHQHUDOO\RFFXURQ
VFKRROJURXQGVZKLOHQRQVFKRROEDVHGDFWLYLWLHVDUHQRWGLUHFWO\RUJDQLVHGE\
VFKRROVEXWE\FRPPXQLW\VSRUWLQJDVVRFLDWLRQVRUWKHOLNHDQGDUHRIIHUHGE\
QRQVFKRROEDVHGSURIHVVLRQDOVFRPPXQLW\JURXSVUHOLJLRXVFHQWUHVRU\RXWK
RUJDQL]DWLRQV)HOGPDQ 0DWMDVNR6WUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVKDYHHVWDEOLVKHG
VWDQGDUGVRISHUIRUPDQFHDUHVXSHUYLVHGE\DQDGXOWZLWKDFRDFKRUPHQWRURU
OHDGHUUHTXLUHHIIRUWDQGHQDEOH\RXQJSHRSOHWRH[SUHVVWKHLURZQLGHQWLWLHVRU
LQWHUHVWVWKURXJKHQJDJHPHQW7KHVHLQFOXGHDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVVSRUWDUWGUDPD
PXVLF GHEDWLQJ VFRXWV DQG JXLGHV 8QVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV KDYH QR VWUXFWXUH
DUHJHQHUDOO\XQVXSHUYLVHGDQGDUHQRWGHPDQGLQJHJZDWFKLQJWHOHYLVLRQ
$OWKRXJK WKHUH KDV EHHQ UHVHDUFK FRQGXFWHG RQ WKH UROH RI (&, GXULQJ
WKH DGROHVFHQW \HDUV VXUSULVLQJO\ OLWWOH DWWHQWLRQ KDV EHHQ GHGLFDWHG WR (&, LQ
FKLOGUHQ $FFRUGLQJ WR WKH $XVWUDOLDQ %XUHDX RI 6WDWLVWLFV  PLOOLRQ FKLOGUHQ
LQ$XVWUDOLDDJHGYHWR\HDUVSDUWLFLSDWHGLQVSRUWRXWVLGHRIVFKRROKRXUV
LQ WKH  PRQWKV IURP $SULO  WR $SULO  ZLWK WKH PRVW SRSXODU VSRUW

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

21

EHLQJ VZLPPLQJ IROORZHG E\ VRFFHU FLWHG LQ YDQ GHQ 1LHXZHQKRI  2I
WKH UHVHDUFK RQ DGROHVFHQW LQYROYHPHQW )HOGPDQ DQG 0DWMDVNR  IRXQG
WKDWRIDGROHVFHQWVLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVZHUHLQYROYHGLQDWOHDVWRQHVFKRRO
EDVHGH[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLW\/LNHZLVH0DKRQH\6FKZHGHUDQG6WDWWLQ
UHSRUWHGWKDWDSSUR[LPDWHO\WKUHHTXDUWHUVRI\HDUROGVLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV
SDUWLFLSDWHLQVWUXFWXUHGVFKRROEDVHGDFWLYLWLHVLQFOXGLQJVSRUWLQJWHDPV
PXVLF GUDPD RU GHEDWLQJ  DFDGHPLF FOXEV  DQG YRFDWLRQDO FOXEV
 6SRUWLQJ DFWLYLWLHV KDYH JHQHUDOO\ EHHQ IRXQG WR EH WKH PRVW SRSXODU
DFWLYLWLHV $OWKRXJK UHVHDUFK KDV GHPRQVWUDWHG WKDW LQFUHDVHG DFWLYLW\ SDUWLFL
SDWLRQKRXUVSHUZHHNKDVSRVLWLYHEHQHWVRQDWWLWXGHWRVFKRROVRFLDODQG
DFDGHPLFVHOIFRQFHSWDEVHQWHHLVPDQGDFDGHPLFDFKLHYHPHQW*LOPDQ
RWKHUVKDYHIRXQGWKDWWKHUHDSSHDUVWREHDQDFWLYLW\OLPLWRUXSSHUWKUHVKROG
RIDFWLYLW\LQYROYHPHQWJUHDWHUWKDQKRXUVSHUZHHNDWZKLFKWLPHSDUWLF
LSDWLRQ PD\ VHUYH WR KDYH GHWULPHQWDO HIIHFWV 0DUVK  .OHLWPDQ  =LOO
1RUG /RRPLV
$FFRUGLQJ WR (FFOHV DQG %DUEHU  H[WUDFXUULFXODU DFWLYLWLHV SURYLGH
ZD\V IRU \RXQJ SHRSOH WR H[SUHVV WKHPVHOYHV XQGHUVWDQG WKHPVHOYHV EHWWHU
H[SORUH DQG DIUP WKHLU XQLTXH LGHQWLWLHV JHQHUDWH VRFLDO UHODWLRQVKLSV DQG
KXPDQ FDSLWDO DQG SURYLGH FKDOOHQJHV RSSRUWXQLWLHV DQG VXFFHVVHV EH\RQG
DFDGHPLF SXUVXLWV (&, SURPRWHV D VHQVH RI HQJDJHPHQW ZLWK VFKRRO )LQQ
0DKRQH\0DKRQH\ &DLUQVDQGVWXGHQWVHQJDJHGLQH[WUD
FXUULFXODU DFWLYLWLHV KDYH EHHQ IRXQG WR EH PRUH OLNHO\ WR UHPDLQ DW VFKRRO WR
FRPSOHWH<HDU%DUEHU(FFOHV 6WRQH,QDVWXG\RIWLPHXVHSDWWHUQV
=LOO HW DO  IRXQG WKDW \RXQJ SHRSOH ZKR ZHUH HQJDJHG LQ RQH WR IRXU
KRXUVRIH[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHVSHUZHHNZHUHOHVVOLNHO\WRGURSRXWRIVFKRRO
0RUHRYHU0DUVKDQG.OHLWPDQGHPRQVWUDWHGDUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ(&,
DQGSRVWVHFRQGDU\HGXFDWLRQZKHUHE\VWXGHQWVFRPSOHWHGIXUWKHUVWXGLHV
$UHYLHZRIWKHOLWHUDWXUHRQ(&,LQVHFRQGDU\VFKRROVLQWKH86FRQGXFWHG
LQWKHVE\+ROODQGDQG$QGUHUHYHDOHGWKDWSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQH[WUD
FXUULFXODU DFWLYLWLHV ZDV JHQHUDOO\ SRVLWLYHO\ FRUUHODWHG ZLWK D QXPEHU RI
SHUVRQDOLW\ DQG VRFLDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV VSHFLFDOO\ VHOIHVWHHP UDFLDO UHODWLRQV
LQYROYHPHQWLQVRFLDODFWLYLWLHVLQ\RXQJDGXOWKRRGPDOHDFDGHPLFDELOLW\DQG
JUDGHV HGXFDWLRQDO DVSLUDWLRQV IHHOLQJ RI FRQWURO RYHU RQHV OLIH DQG ORZHU
GHOLQTXHQF\ UDWHV /HVV HYLGHQFH ZDV DYDLODEOH KRZHYHU WR VXJJHVW WKDW (&,
FDXVHV VXFK SRVLWLYH RXWFRPHV EHFDXVH RI WKH QXPEHU RI LQGLYLGXDO YDULDEOHV
HJ VH[ 6(6 ORFDWLRQ WKDW VHUYH WR LQXHQFH WKH UHODWLRQVKLS 0RUHRYHU LW
PD\EHWKHDFWXDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQUDWKHUWKDQWKHDFWLYLW\LWVHOIWKDWKDVSRVLWLYH
EHQHWV
7KHUHVXOWVRIVWXGLHVFRQGXFWHGLQWKHSDVW\HDUVVLQFHWKH+ROODQGDQG
$QGUH  UHYLHZ KDYH EHHQ PL[HG KRZHYHU ZLWK VRPH QGLQJV GHPRQ
VWUDWLQJ H[WUDFXUULFXODU SDUWLFLSDWLRQ WR EH OLQNHG WR QHJDWLYH DGROHVFHQW
SHUVRQDOLW\ RXWFRPHV DQG PRUH ULVN\ VRFLDO EHKDYLRXU )HOGPDQ  0DWMDVNR
 ,W KDV EHHQ IRXQG WKDW WKHUH LV D SRVLWLYH EHQHW RQ SV\FKRORJLFDO ZHOO
EHLQJ ZKHQ DFWLYLWLHV W WKH WDOHQW OHYHOV RI LQGLYLGXDOV EXW WKLV LV UHYHUVHG
ZKHQ \RXQJ SHRSOH IHHO WRR PXFK FKDOOHQJH LQ WKHLU DFWLYLW\ )UHGULFNV HW DO

22

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

+DQVHQ/DUVRQ 'ZRUNLQ0RUHRYHUVWXGHQWVZKRIDLOWRDFKLHYH

VXFFHVV LQ DFWLYLWLHV IHHO DOLHQDWHG IURP VFKRRO SDUWLFXODUO\ ZKHQ SUHVVXUH WR
SDUWLFLSDWHLVKLJK*UDEH6RPHUHVHDUFKHUVKDYHH[DPLQHGLVVXHVUHODWHG
WRSUHVVXUHWRSHUIRUPDQGDFKLHYHLQVSRUWLQJDFWLYLWLHV,QDVWXG\E\5RGULTXH]
:LJHOGDQG(FFOHVRI\RXQJFKLOGUHQVVSRUWSDUWLFLSDWLRQLWZDVIRXQG
WKDW ZKHQ SDUHQWV IRFXVHG WRR PXFK RQ SHUIRUPDQFH FKLOGUHQ ZKR ZHUH QRW
SHUIRUPLQJZHOOORVWLQWHUHVWLQFRQWLQXLQJWRSDUWLFLSDWH
0RUHUHFHQWO\UHVHDUFKHUVKDYHDUJXHGWKDWWRXQGHUVWDQGH[WUDFXUULFXODU
SDUWLFLSDWLRQ RI \RXQJ SHRSOH LW LV LPSRUWDQW WR H[DPLQH ERWK WKH GLUHFW DQG
LQGLUHFW HIIHFWV RI SDUWLFLSDWLRQ DQG WR H[DPLQH WKH OLQNV EHWZHHQ SHUVRQ DQG
HQYLURQPHQWDO YDULDEOHV *LOPDQ 0H\HUV  3HUH]  ([WUDFXUULFXODU
LQYROYHPHQWKDVEHHQYLHZHGLQWHUPVRIWKHLQWHUUHODWHGQHVVRIWKHVHDFWLYLWLHV
ZLWK RWKHU GHYHORSPHQWDO FRQWH[WV 7KDW LV H[WUDFXUULFXODU DFWLYLWLHV DUH QRW
LVRODWHG EXW HPEHGGHG LQ VFKRROV DQG QHLJKERXUKRRGV DQG DUH LQXHQFHG E\
SDUHQWVDQGIULHQGV)HOGPDQ 0DWMDVNR$OWKRXJKWKHSXUSRVHRIWKH
SUHVHQW SDSHU GRHV QRW FRQVLGHU DOO RI WKH PHGLDWLQJ LQXHQFHV LW UHFRJQLVHV
WKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKHVHFRQWH[WVLQVKDSLQJWKHFKLOGUHQVFKRLFHVDQGGHFLVLRQV
WRHQJDJHLQVSHFLFDFWLYLWLHV7KHSUHVHQWUHVHDUFKVWUHVVHVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRI
GHWHUPLQLQJKRZGLIIHUHQFHVLQLQGLYLGXDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVQDPHO\VH[6(6DQG
ORFDWLRQPRGHUDWHFKLOGUHQVH[SHULHQFHVRIH[WUDFXUULFXODUSDUWLFLSDWLRQ

Factors Associated with ECI

Sex Differences
6H[GLIIHUHQFHVDUHLPSRUWDQWIDFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRSDWWHUQVRIH[WUDFXUULFXODU
DFWLYLW\DQGPD\LQGHHGPRGHUDWHWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQDFWLYLW\SDUWLFLSDWLRQ
DQGHGXFDWLRQDORXWFRPHV3UHYLRXVUHVHDUFKRQDGROHVFHQWVKDVIRXQGWKDWZKLOH
JLUOV SDUWLFLSDWH LQ PRUH H[WUDFXUULFXODU DFWLYLWLHV WKDQ ER\V ER\V JHQHUDOO\
SDUWLFLSDWH LQ PRUH VSRUWV DFWLYLWLHV JLUOV DUH PRUH LQYROYHG LQ DFDGHPLFV DUW
SURMHFWVDQGVRFLDODFWLYLWLHV+RIIHUWK -DQNXQLHQH0DKRQH\&DLUQV 
)DUPHU3RVQHU 9DQGHOO$FFRUGLQJWR+ROODQGDQG$QGUH
D VLJQLFDQW SRVLWLYH UHODWLRQVKLS H[LVWV EHWZHHQ H[WUDFXUULFXODU SDUWLFLSDWLRQ
DQGVHOIHVWHHPVFRUHVIRUER\VEXWQRWIRUJLUOV,QSDUWLFXODULWKDVEHHQIRXQG
WKDW LQ PDOHV (&, GRHV KDYH D GLUHFW SRVLWLYH UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK HGXFDWLRQDO
DWWDLQPHQWLQGHSHQGHQWRI6(6DQGDFDGHPLFDELOLW\2WWR $OZLQ
Socio-Economic Status (SES)
*HQHUDOO\ VSHDNLQJ IDPLO\ 6(6 KDV EHHQ GHPRQVWUDWHG WR DFW DV D PHGLDWLQJ
IDFWRULQLQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHUHODWLRQVKLSVRIH[WUDFXUULFXODUSDUWLFLSDWLRQ+ROODQG
$QGUHDQGKDVEHHQVKRZQWRFRUUHODWHSRVLWLYHO\ZLWK(&,2WWR
%R\VIURPORZHU6(6IDPLOLHVKDYHEHHQIRXQGWREHQHWWKHPRVWHVSHFLDOO\LQ
WHUPV RI HGXFDWLRQDO DVSLUDWLRQV 5HVHDUFK UHYHDOHG WKDW ER\V IURP ORZHU 6(6
ZKR SDUWLFLSDWHG LQ VSRUW KDG KLJKHU DFDGHPLF DVSLUDWLRQV 6SDG\  DQG
ZHUHPRUHLQYROYHGLQVFKRROOLIH:LOOHPVWKDQWKRVHER\VIURPORZHU
6(6IDPLOLHVZKRGLGQRWSDUWLFLSDWH3DUHQWVZLWKKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQDOOHYHOVDQG
LQFRPHWHQGWRLQXHQFHWKHLUFKLOGUHQWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQHGXFDWLRQDOO\EHQHFLDO

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

23

DFWLYLWLHVDQGFDQSD\IRUPRUHH[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHVWKDQFDQSDUHQWVZLWK
ORZHUHGXFDWLRQDQGLQFRPHOHYHOV+RIIHUWK -DQNXQLHQH&KLOGUHQIURP
ORZHU6(6EDFNJURXQGVKRZHYHUKDYHERWKWKHPRVWWRJDLQIURP(&,LQWHUPV
RIHGXFDWLRQDORSSRUWXQLW\DQGWKHOHDVWDFFHVVWR(&,
Rural and Urban Students
)OHWFKHU (OGHU DQG 0HNRV  VWDWHG WKDW LQYROYHPHQW LQ D EURDG UDQJH RI
IRUPDOFRPPXQLW\DFWLYLWLHVPD\EHHVSHFLDOO\LPSRUWDQWLQUXUDODUHDVVXIIHULQJ
HFRQRPLF KDUGVKLS UHVXOWLQJ IURP ORQJWHUP GURXJKW 7UDGLWLRQDOO\ UXUDO
FRPPXQLWLHV DUH QRWHG IRU KLJK OHYHOV RI FRPPXQLW\ HQJDJHPHQW $FFRUGLQJ
WR(LW]HQVSRUWLQSDUWLFXODUSOD\VDUROHLQUXUDOFRPPXQLWLHV3HRSOHLQ
UXUDOFRPPXQLWLHVUHO\KHDYLO\RQWKHSK\VLFDODQGVRFLDOVXSSRUWRIIULHQGVDQG
QHLJKERXUVDQGVRFLDOERQGVIRUPHGWKURXJKFRPPXQLW\DFWLYLWLHVEHQHWVWKH
UHVLGHQWVE\VWUHQJWKHQLQJVRFLDOWLHV)OHWFKHUHWDO(VWDEOLVKPHQWRIWLHV
ZLWKWKHORFDOFRPPXQLW\WKURXJKLQYROYHPHQWLQFRPPXQLW\DFWLYLWLHVVXFKDV
VSRUWLQJWHDPVPD\FRQWULEXWHWRDQGHQKDQFHWKHOLNHOLKRRGRI\RXQJSHRSOH
FKRRVLQJWRUHPDLQLQWKHLUUXUDOFRPPXQLWLHVZKLFKLVHVVHQWLDOWRWKHRQJRLQJ
VWDELOLW\LQFRXQWU\DUHDV(OGHU &RQJHULQSUHVV
3DWWHUQVRIH[WUDFXUULFXODUSDUWLFLSDWLRQDWYDULRXVGHYHORSPHQWDOVWDJHVDUH
VWLOOXQDFFRXQWHGIRULQUHFHQWUHVHDUFK)HOGPDQ 0DWMDVNR7KHSUHVHQW
UHVHDUFKLQYHVWLJDWHVWKHSDUWLFLSDWLRQUDWHVRIWR\HDUROGFKLOGUHQLQH[WUD
FXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHVDQGH[SORUHVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ(&,DQGVHOIUHJXODWRU\
VWUDWHJLHVRIWKHVHFKLOGUHQ0RUHRYHUVH[ORFDWLRQDQGVRFLRHFRQRPLFVWDWXV
GLIIHUHQFHVDUHFRQVLGHUHGLQUHODWLRQWRFKLOGUHQV(&,DQGVHOIUHJXODWLRQ

Method
Participants
$WRWDORI<HDUVWXGHQWVDJHGWR\HDUVIURPVFKRROVSDUWLFLSDWHGLQ
WKHSUHVHQWUHVHDUFK6FKRROVZHUHVHOHFWHGWRSURYLGHDGLYHUVLW\RIHFRQRPLF
FLUFXPVWDQFHV DQG DQ DSSUR[LPDWHO\ HTXDO EDODQFH RI PDOHV DQG IHPDOHV 2I
WKH VFKRROV  ZHUH ORFDWHG LQ WKH PHWURSROLWDQ DUHD DQG  ZHUH ORFDWHG LQ
UXUDODUHDV7KHVDPSOHFRPSULVHGER\VDQGJLUOVZLWK
FKLOGUHQOLYLQJLQXUEDQDUHDVDQGFKLOGUHQOLYLQJLQUXUDODQG
UHJLRQDO FRPPXQLWLHV 2I WKH SDUWLFLSDQWV  OLYHG ZLWK ERWK SDUHQWV 
 OLYHG RQO\ ZLWK WKHLU PRWKHU   RQO\ ZLWK WKHLU IDWKHU   ZLWK
WKHLUPRWKHUDQGSDUWQHUDQGZLWKWKHLUIDWKHUDQGSDUWQHU2IWKH
SDUWLFLSDQWV   ZHUH RQO\ FKLOGUHQ DQG  FKLOGUHQ  ZHUH ERUQ
LQ $XVWUDOLD $ VRFLRHFRQRPLF VWDWXV 6(6 VFRUH ZDV GHULYHG IURP FRPELQHG
DQQXDO IDPLO\ LQFRPH HVWLPDWHV VHH -RQHV  0F0LOODQ  :KHQ WKLV
LQIRUPDWLRQ ZDV PLVVLQJ HLWKHU IDWKHUV RU PRWKHUV RFFXSDWLRQ ZHUH XVHG ,Q
WKH DEVHQFH RI WKLV LQIRUPDWLRQ IRU HLWKHU SDUHQW OHYHO RI HGXFDWLRQ LI VWDWHG
ZDVXVHGDQGLIWKLVLQIRUPDWLRQZDVPLVVLQJWKHQWKHDYHUDJH6(6RIWKHRWKHU
FKLOGUHQLQWKHUHOHYDQWVFKRROZDVXVHG7REHFODVVLHGLQWKHORZ6(6JURXS
WKHFRPELQHGIDPLO\LQFRPHZDVOHVVWKDQ7REHFODVVLHGLQWKHPLGGOH
6(6JURXSWKHFRPELQHGIDPLO\LQFRPHZDVEHWZHHQDQGDQG

24

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

IRUWKHKLJK6(6JURXSWKHLQFRPHZDVJUHDWHUWKDQ:LWKLQWKHVDPSOH
RIVWXGHQWVZHUHIURPDORZ6(6EDFNJURXQGZHUHIURPDPHGLXP6(6
EDFNJURXQGDQGZHUHIURPDKLJK6(6EDFNJURXQG
Instruments
The Child Self-Regulatory Process Inventory
6HOIUHJXODWLRQ ZDV FRQFHSWXDOLVHG DV D SURFHVV LQYROYLQJ D VWUDWHJLF DFWLRQ
LQFOXGLQJ JRDO VHWWLQJ SODQQLQJ VHOIPRWLYDWLQJ VHOIPRQLWRULQJ DQG VHOI
HYDOXDWLQJ=LPPHUPDQEWDVNSHUVLVWHQFHDQGHIFDF\%DQGXUD
DQGFEHKDYLRXUDOFRQWURO%DUNOH\7KHUHZHUHLWHPVRIZKLFKZHUH
DGDSWHG IURP WKH Strategies for Self-Regulated Learning Survey 3XUGLH  +DWWLH
  ZHUH PRGLHG IURP WKH Social Responsibility Questionnaire +DUULV 
7ULYHGL  6DELQL  DQG  ZHUH GHYHORSHG E\ WKH DXWKRUV IRU WKH SUHVHQW
UHVHDUFK SXUSRVHV $ PD[LPXPOLNHOLKRRG IDFWRU DQDO\VLV ZLWK GLUHFW REOLPLQ
URWDWLRQLQGLFDWHGWKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKUHHGLVWLQFWIDFWRUVDVSUHGLFWHG:HODEHOOHG
WKHVHIDFWRUVDV6WUDWHJLF$FWLRQLWHPV_ 3HUVLVWHQFH(IFDF\LWHPV
_  DQG %HKDYLRXUDO &RQWURO  LWHPV _  ([DPSOHV RI LWHPV IURP WKH
6WUDWHJLF $FWLRQ IDFWRU LQFOXGH Before we have a test at school, I think about what
I should learn; When I do well in my schoolwork, I give myself a reward. ([DPSOH
LWHPVRIWKH3HUVLVWHQFH(IFDF\IDFWRULQFOXGH Even when my school work is boring,
, NHHS RQ ZRUNLQJ XQWLO , KDYH QLVKHG :KHQ , DPJLYHQ D WDVN ,VWLFNWRLWHYHQLI
something I would rather do comes along.([DPSOHLWHPVRIWKH%HKDYLRXUDO&RQWURO
IDFWRU LQFOXGH 0\ WHDFKHU RIWHQ FRPSODLQV EHFDXVH , GRQW QLVK P\ ZRUN , ORVH
my temper when things dont go my way6FRUHVIRUHDFKIDFWRUZHUHFDOFXODWHGE\
VXPPLQJWKHLWHPVFRUHVDQGGLYLGLQJE\WKHQXPEHURILWHPV
Extra-Curricular Involvement
$PHDVXUHVLPLODUWRWKDWXVHGE\%DUEHU(FFOHVDQG6WRQHZDVXVHGWR
DVVHVV (&, 6WXGHQWV ZHUH DVNHG ZKHWKHU WKH\ ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ DQ\ FOXEV RU
JURXSVERWKLQDQGRXWVLGHVFKRRO,IVWXGHQWVLQGLFDWHGWKH\ZHUHLQYROYHGWKH\
ZHUHWKHQDVNHGWRFKHFNZKLFKDFWLYLWLHVWKH\ZHUHLQYROYHGLQIURPDOLVWRI
YHFDWHJRULHVIRUVFKRROVSRUWLQJPXVLFGUDPDDUWRWKHUDQGYHFDWHJRULHV
IRURXWRIVFKRROVSRUWLQJPXVLFGUDPDVFRXWVJXLGHVRWKHU6HSDUDWHVFKRRO
DQGQRQVFKRRO(&,VFRUHVZHUHFRPSXWHGEDVHGRQSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQRQHRUPRUH
DFWLYLWLHVZLWKLQHDFKFDWHJRU\$EUHDGRISDUWLFLSDWLRQVFRUHZDVFRPSXWHGE\
FRPELQLQJVFKRRODQGQRQVFKRRO(&,VFRUHV
Procedure
3ULRU WR GDWD FROOHFWLRQ HWKLFDO FOHDUDQFH DQG DSSURYDO WR FRQGXFW UHVHDUFK
ZDV REWDLQHG IURP WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ (WKLFDO 5HVHDUFK &RPPLWWHHV (GXFDWLRQ
4XHHQVODQGDQG&DWKROLF(GXFDWLRQ7KHXUEDQDQGUXUDOORFDWLRQVZHUHEDVHGLQ
VRXWKHDVW4XHHQVODQGDQGQRUWKHUQ1HZ6RXWK:DOHV7KHJHQHUDOFRQYHQWLRQ
LVWRWUHDWDQDUHDZLWKDSRSXODWLRQPRUHWKDQDVDPHWURSROLWDQRUXUEDQ
DUHD 'XQVLUH  %DOGZLQ  &RQYHUVHO\ QRQPHWURSROLWDQ RU UXUDO DUHDV
KDYHEHHQFKDUDFWHULVHGDVKDYLQJSRSXODWLRQVOHVVWKDQSHRSOH

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

25

7KHSULQFLSDOVRIDQXPEHURISULPDU\VFKRROVWKURXJKRXWVRXWKHDVW4XHHQVODQG
DQGQRUWKHUQ1HZ6RXWK:DOHVZHUHDSSURDFKHGDQGJDYHSHUPLVVLRQWRXQGHUWDNH
WKHUHVHDUFK$FRQVHQWIRUPDQGLQIRUPDWLRQVKHHWSHUWDLQLQJWRWKHSXUSRVHDQG
QDWXUHRIWKHVWXG\ZHUHVHQWKRPHZLWKVWXGHQWVLQHDFK<HDUFODVVLQHDFKRIWKH
VFKRROV7KHVWXGHQWVDQGWKHLUSDUHQWVZHUHUHTXLUHGWRJLYHFRQVHQWWRSDUWLFLSDWH
4XHVWLRQQDLUHVZHUHGLVWULEXWHGWRVWXGHQWVLQJURXSVRIDSSUR[LPDWHO\DQGZHUH
FRPSOHWHGGXULQJFODVVWLPH6WXGHQWVZHUHLQIRUPHGDERXWWKHQDWXUHRIWKHVWXG\
DQGDVVXUHGRIFRQGHQWLDOLW\DQGDQRQ\PLW\E\WKHUHVHDUFKHUSULRUWRWKHGLVVHP
LQDWLRQRIWKHVFDOHV6WXGHQWVZHUHUHTXHVWHGWRFRPSOHWHWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUHXQGHU
H[DPFRQGLWLRQVZLWKRXWSHHUGLVFXVVLRQLQWKHSUHVHQFHRIDWOHDVWRQHUHVHDUFKHU
DQG RQH VFKRRO VWDII PHPEHU 6WXGHQWV ZKR ZHUH LGHQWLHG E\ VFKRRO SHUVRQQHO
DVH[SHULHQFLQJOLWHUDF\GLIFXOWLHVFRPSOHWHGWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUHVLQVPDOOJURXSV
ZKHUHWKHUHVHDUFKHUUHDGHDFKLWHPDORXGDQGDVVLVWHGZLWKUHFRUGLQJRIUHVSRQVHV
ZKHUHQHFHVVDU\7KHTXHVWLRQQDLUHVWRRNDSSUR[LPDWHO\PLQXWHVWRFRPSOHWH

Results
Extra-Curricular Involvement Rates
1HDUO\  RI VWXGHQWV ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ DW OHDVW RQH H[WUDFXUULFXODU DFWLYLW\
7KHWRWDOQXPEHURIW\SHVRIDFWLYLWLHVWKDWWKHFKLOGUHQSDUWLFLSDWHGLQUDQJHG
IURP  WR  7KH PHDQ QXPEHU RI WRWDO W\SHV RI DFWLYLWLHV ZDV  SD  
PHGLDQ PRGH 
School ECI
2I WKH SDUWLFLSDQWV  ZHUH QRW LQYROYHG LQ DQ\ VFKRRO H[WUDFXUULFXODU
DFWLYLWLHV ZKLOH  ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ RQH DFWLYLW\  ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ
WZRDFWLYLWLHVZHUHLQYROYHGLQWKUHHDFWLYLWLHVZHUHLQYROYHGLQIRXU
DFWLYLWLHVDQGZHUHLQYROYHGLQYHDFWLYLWLHV
Non-School ECI
2IWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHQRWLQYROYHGLQDQ\QRQVFKRROH[WUDFXUULFXODU
DFWLYLWLHV ZKLOH  ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ RQH DFWLYLW\  ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ
WZRDFWLYLWLHVZHUHLQYROYHGLQWKUHHDFWLYLWLHVDQGZHUHLQYROYHGLQ
IRXUDFWLYLWLHV
Breadth of Participation ECI
,QWRWDORIWKHVDPSOHZDVQRWLQYROYHGLQDQ\H[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHV
ZKLOHZHUHLQYROYHGLQRQHDFWLYLW\ZHUHLQYROYHGLQWZRDFWLYLWLHV
 ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ WKUHH DFWLYLWLHV  ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ IRXU DFWLYLWLHV
 ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ YH DFWLYLWLHV  ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ VL[ DFWLYLWLHV DQG
ZHUHLQYROYHGLQVHYHQDFWLYLWLHV
Sex, Location, and SES Differences in Extra-Curricular Involvement
7DEOHSURYLGHVWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIWKHFKLOGUHQVSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQH[WUDFXUULFXODU
DFWLYLWLHVE\VH[ORFDWLRQDQG6(6,WDOVRLQGLFDWHVZKHUHWKHUHDUHVLJQLFDQW
GLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHJURXSVXVLQJWKHFKLVTXDUHWHVW

26

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

27

105

Other

19.4

7.6

4.6

12.9

57.3

76.7

12.2

4.2

4.4

36.3

28.4

63.1

31*

20

13

27

164*

199

32

5*

4*

50*

79

132*

Boys

12.3

7.9

5.2

10.7

61.5

78.3

12.7

6.2

1.6

19.9

31.5

52.2

74*

21

12

43

146*

218

34

18*

20*

147*

75

212*

Girls

25.6

7.3

4.2

14.9

50.5

75.2

11.7

2.0

6.9

50.5

25.8

72.6

111

20.8

49

8.2
205

51.0
21

32

15.5

7.3

1.9

15

4
#

73

26

55#

7.3

15#

105
#

271#

17

2.9
70.9

17

20

1.9
#

130

32.4

146#

4
#

67

43
#

228#

Urban

55.5

Location

116#

Rural

a per cents are within each nominated category.

* indicates significant sex differences using chi-square analysis.
#
indicates significant location differences using chi-square analysis.

indicates significant SES differences using chi-square analysis.

41

Scouts

Note:

25

Drama

66

Other

70

23

Art

310

24

Drama

Music

197

Music

Sport

154

Sport

417

344

School

Non-school

Total

Activity

Sex

Table 1. Childrens Extra-Curricular Involvement by Sex, Location, and SES

21.8

7.8

6.3

16.4

61.2

80.2

14.6

5.1

6.0

38.8

33.1

67.9

17

11

68

98

17

40

49

92

Low

61

11.6

20

14

33

160

214

32

10

16

116

66

174

Med

7.5

1.4

4.8

46.3

65.8

11.3

4.7

3.3

26.7

32.7

16.9

21.9

7.2

5.0

11.9

57.6

76.7

11.6

3.6

5.8

42.0

23.9

31.9

SES

27

10

30

82

105

17

41

39

78

High

23.3

8.6

7.8

25.9

70.7

90.5

14.7

5.2

2.6

35.3

33.6

14.3

:LWKUHJDUGWRVH[GLIIHUHQFHVJLUOVZHUHLQYROYHGLQVLJQLFDQWO\PRUHVFKRRO
EDVHGDFWLYLWLHVWKDQER\VM DQGUHVSHFWLYHO\F p
7KHUHZDVQRVLJQLFDQWGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQJLUOVDQGER\VLQWKHQXPEHURIQRQ
VFKRRODFWLYLWLHVM DQGUHVSHFWLYHO\F p,QDGGLWLRQ
SURSRUWLRQDWHO\ PRUH JLUOV WKDQ ER\V ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ DW OHDVW RQH VFKRROEDVHG
DFWLYLW\JLUOVDQGER\VGLGQRWGLIIHUVLJQLFDQWO\LQWKHLULQYROYHPHQWLQDWOHDVW
RQH QRQVFKRRO DFWLYLW\ 2I WKH VFKRROEDVHG DFWLYLWLHV JLUOV DQG ER\V GLG QRW
GLIIHU DFFRUGLQJ WR WKHLU LQYROYHPHQW LQ VSRUWLQJ DFWLYLWLHV RU RWKHU QRQVSHFLHG
DFWLYLWLHVEXWVLJQLFDQWO\PRUHJLUOVWKDQER\VZHUHLQYROYHGLQPXVLFGUDPDDQG
DUW DFWLYLWLHV 2I WKH QRQVFKRRO DFWLYLWLHV VLJQLFDQWO\ PRUH ER\V WKDQ JLUOV ZHUH
LQYROYHGLQVSRUWLQJDFWLYLWLHVDQGVLJQLFDQWO\PRUHJLUOVWKDQER\VZHUHLQYROYHG
LQRWKHUQRQVSHFLHGDFWLYLWLHVHJFKHVVFOXEGHEDWLQJFRRNLQJ*LUOVDQGER\V
GLGQRWGLIIHULQWKHLULQYROYHPHQWLQPXVLFGUDPDDQGVFRXWVJXLGHV
2YHUDOO XUEDQ FKLOGUHQ ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ VLJQLFDQWO\ PRUH VFKRROEDVHG
DFWLYLWLHV WKDQ UXUDO FKLOGUHQ M  DQG  UHVSHFWLYHO\ F    p <
 DQG LQ PRUH QRQVFKRRO DFWLYLWHV M   DQG  UHVSHFWLYHO\ F 
  p   ,Q DGGLWLRQ SURSRUWLRQDWHO\ PRUH XUEDQ FKLOGUHQ WKDQ UXUDO
FKLOGUHQ ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ DW OHDVW RQH VFKRROEDVHG DFWLYLW\ DQG LQ DW OHDVW RQH
QRQVFKRRO DFWLYLW\ 2I WKH VFKRROEDVHG DFWLYLWLHV XUEDQ DQG UXUDO FKLOGUHQ GLG
QRW GLIIHU LQ WKHLU LQYROYHPHQW LQ PXVLF RU DUW DFWLYLWLHV EXW VLJQLFDQWO\ PRUH
XUEDQFKLOGUHQWKDQUXUDOFKLOGUHQZHUHLQYROYHGLQVSRUWGUDPDDQGRWKHUQRQ
VSHFLHGDFWLYLWLHV2IWKHQRQVFKRRODFWLYLWLHVVLJQLFDQWO\PRUHXUEDQWKDQUXUDO
FKLOGUHQZHUHLQYROYHGLQVSRUWPXVLFDQGGUDPD8UEDQDQGUXUDOFKLOGUHQGLG
QRWGLIIHULQWKHLULQYROYHPHQWLQVFRXWJXLGHVRURWKHUQRQVSHFLHGDFWLYLWLHV
7KHUHZHUHQRVLJQLFDQWGLIIHUHQFHVDPRQJVWORZPHGLXPDQGKLJK6(6
JURXSVRYHUDOOLQWKHDPRXQWRILQYROYHPHQWLQVFKRROEDVHGDFWLYLWLHVM 
DQGUHVSHFWLYHO\F p!7KHJURXSVGLGGLIIHUVLJQL
FDQWO\LQWKHDPRXQWRILQYROYHPHQWLQQRQVFKRRODFWLYLWLHVZLWKDOOSDLUZLVH
FRPSDULVRQVEHLQJVLJQLFDQWM DQGIRUORZPHGLXPDQGKLJK
6(6JURXSVUHVSHFWLYHO\F p,QDGGLWLRQWKHUHZHUHQR
VLJQLFDQWGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHSURSRUWLRQVRIORZPHGLXPDQGKLJK6(6
FKLOGUHQZKRZHUHLQYROYHGLQDWOHDVWRQHVFKRROEDVHGDFWLYLW\SURSRUWLRQDWHO\
PRUHKLJKWKDQPHGLXPWKDQORZ6(6FKLOGUHQZHUHLQYROYHGLQDWOHDVWRQHQRQ
VFKRRODFWLYLW\2IWKHVFKRROEDVHGDFWLYLWLHVWKHRQO\VLJQLFDQWGLIIHUHQFHZDV
IRUPXVLFZLWKWKHKLJKDQGPHGLXP6(6JURXSVVKRZLQJJUHDWHULQYROYHPHQW
WKDQ WKH ORZ 6(6 JURXS 2I WKH QRQVFKRRO DFWLYLWLHV WKH 6(6 JURXSV GLIIHUHG
VLJQLFDQWO\ LQ DOO VSHFLF DFWLYLWLHV H[FHSW IRU LQYROYHPHQW LQ 6FRXWV 3URSRU
WLRQDWHO\PRUHKLJKWKDQPHGLXPWKDQORZ6(6FKLOGUHQZHUHLQYROYHGLQVSRUW
DQGPXVLF6LJQLFDQWO\KLJKHUSURSRUWLRQVRIKLJKDQGPHGLXP6(6FKLOGUHQ
ZHUHLQYROYHGLQGUDPDDQGRWKHUQRQVSHFLHGDFWLYLWLHV
Sex, Location and SES Differences in Self-Regulatory Behaviour
:HXVHGD0$129$WRH[SORUHVH[ORFDWLRQDQG6(6GLIIHUHQFHVLQFKLOGUHQV
VHOIUHJXODWRU\ EHKDYLRXU DV UHSUHVHQWHG E\ WKHLU 6WUDWHJLF $FWLRQ 7DVN
3HUVLVWHQFH(IFDF\DQG%HKDYLRXUDO&RQWUROVFRUHV7KHUHZHUHQRVLJQLFDQW

28

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

PXOWLYDULDWHLQWHUDFWLRQHIIHFWV%DVHGRQWKH:LONVODPEGDFULWHULRQWKHUHZHUH
VLJQLFDQWPXOWLYDULDWHPDLQHIIHFWVIRUVH[F pDQG6(6F
 pEXWQRWIRUORFDWLRQF p!
7RIXUWKHUH[DPLQHWKHVHVLJQLFDQWPXOWLYDULDWHPDLQHIIHFWVZHFRQGXFWHG
VHSDUDWH VH[  DQG 6(6  ; VHOIUHJXODWRU\ EHKDYLRXU  $129$V 7KH
XQLYDULDWHPDLQHIIHFWIRU6(6ZDVQRWVLJQLFDQWIRUDQ\RIWKHVHOIUHJXODWRU\
EHKDYLRXUV 7KHUH ZDV D VLJQLFDQW XQLYDULDWH VH[ HIIHFW IRU HDFK RI WKH VHOI
UHJXODWRU\ EHKDYLRXUV6WUDWHJLF $FWLRQ F    p   7DVN
3HUVLVWHQFH(IFDF\ F    p   DQG %HKDYLRXUDO &RQWURO F
 p,QHDFKLQVWDQFHJLUOVVFRUHVZHUHVLJQLFDQWO\KLJKHUWKDQ
WKH ER\V VFRUHV DOWKRXJK GLIIHUHQFHV ZHUH VPDOO DV LQGLFDWHG E\ HWD VTXDUHG
VWDWLVWLFVDQGUHVSHFWLYHO\
Relationship between ECI and Self-Regulatory Behaviour
7R LQYHVWLJDWH WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ (&, DQG WKH WKUHH VHOIUHJXODWLRQ
VXEVFDOHV ZH UVW FDWHJRULVHG FKLOGUHQ DV KLJK PHGLXP RU ORZ SDUWLFLSDWRUV
RQ WKH EDVLV RI WKHLU %UHDGWK RI 3DUWLFLSDWLRQ (&, VFRUH 7KRVH FKLOGUHQ ZKR
ZHUH KDOI D VWDQGDUG GHYLDWLRQ DERYH WKH PHDQ ZHUH WKH KLJK JURXS 
WKRVHZKRZHUHKDOIDVWDQGDUGGHYLDWLRQEHORZWKHPHDQZHUHWKHORZJURXS
DQGWKRVHFKLOGUHQZLWKLQKDOIDVWDQGDUGGHYLDWLRQRIWKHPHDQZHUH
WKHPHGLXPJURXS
$129$ ZDV FRQGXFWHG ZLWK WKH (&, JURXS YDULDEOH VHUYLQJ DV WKH
LQGHSHQGHQW YDULDEOH DQG WKH WKUHH VHOIUHJXODWLRQ VXEVFDOHV 6WUDWHJLF $FWLRQ
7DVN 3HUVLVWHQFH(IFDF\ DQG %HKDYLRXUDO &RQWURO VHUYLQJ DV WKH GHSHQGHQW
YDULDEOHV 7KHUH ZHUH VLJQLFDQW GLIIHUHQFHV IRU 6WUDWHJLF $FWLRQ F   
pDQG7DVN3HUVLVWHQFH(IFDF\F  pEXWQRWIRU
%HKDYLRXUDO&RQWUROF p!
3RVWKRFWHVWVXVLQJWKH6FKHIIHSURFHGXUHUHYHDOHGWKDWWKHFKLOGUHQLQWKH
KLJK(&,JURXSUHSRUWHGVLJQLFDQWO\JUHDWHU6WUDWHJLF$FWLRQWKDQFKLOGUHQLQWKH
ORZ(&,JURXS&KLOGUHQLQWKHKLJKJURXSZHUHDOVRPRUHHIFDFLRXVSHUVLVWHQW
WKDQ FKLOGUHQ LQ ERWK WKH ORZ DQG PHGLXP (&, JURXSV 7DEOH  SURYLGHV WKH
PHDQVIRUHDFKRIWKH(&,JURXSVRQHDFKRIWKHWKUHHVHOIUHJXODWRU\VWUDWHJLHV
Table 2. Means and Standard Deviations (in brackets) of Self-Regulatory
Behaviours According to Their Level of ECI
Low ECI group Medium ECI group High ECI group
Strategic Action

2.87 (.53)a

2.97 (.52)b

3.02 (.53)b

Task Persistence and Efficacy

3.00 (.56)a

3.20 (.51)b

3.24 (.50)c

Behavioural Control

3.06 (.56)a

3.08 (.55)a

3.17 (.48)a

Note: Means within rows having no letter in their subscripts

in common differ at p < .05 using the Scheff method.

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

29

Discussion
7KH SUHVHQW UHVHDUFK LV WKH UVW RI LWV NLQG WR H[DPLQH WKH H[WUDFXUULFXODU
SDUWLFLSDWLRQUDWHVRI$XVWUDOLDQSULPDU\VFKRROFKLOGUHQDQGWRLQYHVWLJDWHWKH
UHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ(&,DQGVHOIUHJXODWLRQLQFKLOGUHQ
7KHUHVXOWVRIWKHDQDO\VHVUHYHDOHGWKDWQHDUO\RIWKHVDPSOHZDVLQYROYHG
LQDWOHDVWRQHH[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLW\ZLWKWKHPHDQQXPEHURIDFWLYLWLHVEHLQJ
7KHVHQGLQJVDUHOHVVWKDQWKDWUHSRUWHGLQWZRVWXGLHVZLWKDGROHVFHQWV
LQ WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV *LOOPDQ  =LOO HW DO  ,Q WHUPV RI VFKRROEDVHG
DFWLYLWLHVRIWKHVDPSOHZDVLQYROYHGLQDWOHDVWRQHDFWLYLW\OHVVWKDQZDV
IRXQGLQD86VDPSOHRIDGROHVFHQWV)HOGPDQ 0DWMDVNRZKHUHE\
RIWKHDGROHVFHQWVZHUHLQYROYHGLQDWOHDVWRQHH[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLW\3HUKDSV
WKLVPD\EHDJHUHODWHGLQWKDWDVFKLOGUHQDJHWKH\EHFRPHPRUHLQYROYHGLQ
DFWLYLWLHV 6LPLODUO\ FRPSDUHG WR D VWXG\ FRQGXFWHG E\ 0DKRQH\ 6FKZHGHU
DQG 6WDWWLRQ  RI WKH VFKRROEDVHG H[WUDFXUULFXODU DFWLYLWLHV RI $PHULFDQ
DGROHVFHQWV SULPDU\ VFKRRO FKLOGUHQ LQ WKH SUHVHQW VWXG\ ZHUH OHVV LQYROYHG
,QWHUHVWLQJO\WKRXJKWKH\ZHUHOHVVLQYROYHGLQVFKRROEDVHGVSRUWLQJDFWLYLWLHV
EXWPRUHLQYROYHGLQPXVLFDUWDQGGUDPD
,QWHUPVRIVH[GLIIHUHQFHVJLUOVZHUHVLJQLFDQWO\PRUHLQYROYHGLQVFKRRO
EDVHG DFWLYLWLHV WKDQ ER\V ZLWK JLUOV VLJQLFDQWO\ PRUH LQYROYHG LQ PXVLF
GUDPDDQGDUWWKDQER\V7KHUHZHUHQRVH[GLIIHUHQFHVRYHUDOOIRULQYROYHPHQW
LQ QRQVFKRRO EDVHG (&, DOWKRXJK ER\V ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ VLJQLFDQWO\ PRUH
VSRUWLQJ DFWLYLWLHV DQG JLUOV ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ VLJQLFDQWO\ PRUH QRQVSHFLHG
DFWLYLWLHVHJJXLGHV6LPLODUWUHQGVIRXQGLQWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\ZHUHUHYHDOHG
LQSUHYLRXVUHVHDUFKRQDGROHVFHQWV0DKRQH\HWDOWKDWKDVIRXQGJLUOVWR
EHPRUHLQYROYHGLQDFDGHPLFVDUWDQGVRFLDODFWLYLWLHV3UHYLRXVUHVHDUFKDOVR
VXSSRUWVWKHSUHVHQWQGLQJVWKDWER\VDUHLQYROYHGLQPRUHVSRUWLQJDFWLYLWLHV
+RIIHUWK -DQNXQLHQH0DKRQH\HWDO3RVQHU 9DQGHOO
8UEDQ FKLOGUHQ ZHUH VLJQLFDQWO\ PRUH LQYROYHG LQ ERWK VFKRROEDVHG
DQG QRQVFKRRO EDVHG DFWLYLWLHV WKDQ UXUDO FKLOGUHQ ZLWK XUEDQ FKLOGUHQ EHLQJ
VLJQLFDQWO\ PRUH LQYROYHG LQ VSRUW GUDPD DQG RWKHU QRQVSHFLHG DFWLYLWLHV
HJFKHVVVFRXWVJXLGHV7KLVVXSSRUWVSUHYLRXVUHVHDUFKWKDWVXJJHVWVWKDW
UHVRXUFHV PD\ EH PRUH OLPLWHG LQ UXUDO FRPPXQLWLHV )OHWFKHU HW DO  2I
LQWHUHVWLQWKHSUHVHQWUHVHDUFKZDVWKDWZKLOHWKHUHZDVRQO\RQHGLIIHUHQFHLQ
WHUPV RI VFKRROEDVHGDFWLYLW\ LQYROYHPHQW RI FKLOGUHQIURP6(6JURXSVZLWK
PRUHKLJKDQGPHGLXP6(6LQYROYHGLQPXVLFWKDQORZ6(6FKLOGUHQFKLOGUHQ
LQWKHKLJKDQGPHGLXP6(6JURXSVGLVSOD\HGJUHDWHURYHUDOOLQYROYHPHQWLQDOO
QRQVFKRROEDVHGDFWLYLWLHVH[FHSWIRU6FRXWV
$QH[DPLQDWLRQRIVH[ORFDWLRQDQG6(6GLIIHUHQFHIRUVHOIUHJXODWLRQUHYHDOHG
WKDWWKHRQO\GLIIHUHQFHZDVIRUVH[ZKHUHE\JLUOVVFRUHGVLJQLFDQWO\KLJKHURQ
DOOWKUHHVHOIUHJXODWRU\PHDVXUHV,QWHUPVRIWKHLPSDFWRIOHYHORILQYROYHPHQW
RQ VHOIUHJXODWLRQ FKLOGUHQ ZKR KDG WKH KLJKHVW OHYHOV RI (&, UHSRUWHG VLJQL
FDQWO\ JUHDWHU 6WUDWHJLF $FWLRQ WKDQ FKLOGUHQ LQ WKH ORZ (&, JURXS &KLOGUHQ LQ
WKH KLJK (&, JURXS ZHUH DOVR PRUH HIFDFLRXVSHUVLVWHQW WKDQ FKLOGUHQ ERWK LQ
WKHORZDQGPHGLXP(&,JURXSV,WDSSHDUVIURPWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\WKDW(&,KDV
SRVLWLYHEHQHWVWRFKLOGUHQLQWHUPVRIWKHLUVHOIUHJXODWLRQDOWKRXJKWKHOHYHOVRI

30

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

EHQHWVPD\EHPRGHUDWHGE\IDFWRUVVXFKDVVH[DQG6(6$SDWKDQDO\VLVRU6(0
LVUHTXLUHGWRWHDVHWKHVHUHODWLRQVKLSVRXWIXUWKHU7KHUHLVHYLGHQFHIURPVRPH
UHVHDUFKWKDW(&,DPRQJVWDGROHVFHQWVLVDEXIIHUWRHQJDJHPHQWLQDQWLVRFLDORU
ULVNWDNLQJDFWLYLWLHV%DUEHUHWDO=LOOHWDO2XUUHVXOWVLQGLFDWHWKDW
HQJDJHPHQWLQ(&DFWLYLWLHVZDVQRWDVVRFLDWHGZLWKEHKDYLRXUDOFRQWURO
$ VWUHQJWK RI WKH FXUUHQW UHVHDUFK KDV EHHQ LQ OLQH ZLWK WKH VXJJHVWLRQ
PDGH E\ )HOGPDQ DQG 0DWMDVNR  WR XQSDFN SDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQWR VSHFLF
FDWHJRULHV VXFK DV VSRUW DUW DQG GUDPD UDWKHU WKDQ WR SODFH DOO (&, LQWR RQH
XQLWDU\ FDWHJRU\ 7KHUH LV D QHHG IRU IXWXUH VWXGLHV WR H[DPLQH WKH TXDOLW\ RI
H[WUDFXUULFXODUSURJUDPVIRUERWKVFKRROEDVHGDQGQRQVFKRROEDVHGDFWLYLWLHV
(FFOHV%DUEHU6WRQH +XQW/RQJLWXGLQDOGDWDVHWVWKDWKDYHWUDFNHG
DGROHVFHQWVLQWRDGXOWKRRGKDYHSURYLGHGXQLTXHRSSRUWXQLWLHVWRH[DPLQHWKH
H[WHQWDQGHIIHFWVRI(&,DFURVVWKHOLIHFRXUVH,WPD\EHWKDWH[DPLQLQJHDUO\
DWWLWXGHVWR(&,ZLOOLQXHQFHIXWXUHGHYHORSPHQWDORXWFRPHV$OVRH[DPLQLQJ
FRQWLQXLW\LQSDUWLFLSDWLRQKDVEHJXQWRSDLQWDSLFWXUHDFURVVWKHOLIHVSDQ:KLOH
WKHUHKDYHEHHQORQJLWXGLQDOVWXGLHVFRPPHQFLQJLQHDUO\DGROHVFHQFHYHU\OLWWOH
KDVWUDFHGWKHHDUO\GHYHORSPHQWDO\HDUVIURPSUHVFKRRORQZDUGV'DWDVHWVWKDW
DUH UHSUHVHQWDWLYH RI ODUJH FRPPXQLWLHV DQG FRXQWULHV DUH QHHGHG WR H[DPLQH
WKHHIIHFWVRIFRQVLVWHQWSDUWLFLSDWLRQRYHUWLPHDQGZLOOEHDEOHWRDGGUHVVWKH
LVVXHDVWRZKHWKHUWKHUHDUHFULWLFDOSRLQWVLQWKHHDUO\\HDUVWKDWDUHSDUWLFXODUO\
EHQHFLDOWRIXQFWLRQLQJ
7KHUHDUHDQXPEHURIPRGHUDWRUDQGPHGLDWRUYDULDEOHVVRPHRIZKLFKKDYH
EHHQWDNHQLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQLQWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\WRDFFRXQWIRUWKHEHQHWVRI
SDUWLFLSDWLRQ 1HYHUWKHOHVV IXWXUH UHVHDUFK RQ WKH (&, RI FKLOGUHQ VKRXOG SD\
SDUWLFXODUDWWHQWLRQWRKRZDFWLYLWLHVDUHPHDVXUHGDQGWKHFRPPLWPHQWUHTXLUHG
E\FKLOGUHQIRUHQJDJHPHQWLQVRPHDFWLYLWLHV6LPSO\FRXQWLQJWKHQXPEHURI
DFWLYLWLHV PD\ QRW SURYLGH D FRPSOHWH SLFWXUH RI LQYROYHPHQW )RU H[DPSOH
DWKOHWLFVRUVZLPPLQJPD\LQYROYHWKUHHWUDLQLQJVHVVLRQVSHUZHHNZLWKFORVH
VXSHUYLVLRQE\DFRDFKZKHUHDVDKLVWRU\FOXEPD\RQO\KDYHPRQWKO\PHHWLQJV
ZLWK KLJK WXUQRYHU UDWHV :HLJKWLQJ DFWLYLW\ LQYROYHPHQW PD\ DOVR SURYLGH D
PRUH LQIRUPHG XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH LPSDFW RI H[WUDFXUULFXODU DFWLYLWLHV RQ
FKLOGUHQ7KDWLVDFRPELQDWLRQRIVSRUWDQGDUWGUDPDPD\EHPRUHEHQHFLDO
WKDQVSRUWDORQH
:KDW LV LQWHUHVWLQJ LV WKH LPSRUWDQFH HPHUJLQJ RI FRQWH[WXDO IDFWRUV RI
(&, DQG WKHLU LQXHQFH WR SURPRWH RU KLQGHU GHYHORSPHQWDO RXWFRPHV )RU
H[DPSOH(&,PD\SOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQWKHOLYHVRIFKLOGUHQZKHQWKH\DUH
ZLWKRXWVXSSRUWLYHSHHUDQGDGXOWUHODWLRQVKLSVODFNIHHOLQJVRIEHORQJLQJQHVV
WR VRFLDO JURXSV KDYH OLWWOH H[SRVXUH WR SRVLWLYH UROH PRGHOV DQG QRUPV LQ
QHLJKERXUKRRGVDQGIULHQGVDQGDUHZLWKRXWLQWHJUDWLRQRIFRQWH[WVIDPLO\
VFKRROQHLJKERXUKRRGSHHUV7KHVHFKLOGUHQPD\EHDWJUHDWHVWULVNIRUSRRU
GHYHORSPHQWDO RXWFRPHV DQG WKHUHIRUH PD\ KDYH WKH PRVW EHQHW LQ (&,
7RWKLVHQGWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\KDVSURYLGHGWKHLQLWLDOLPSHWXVIRUH[DPLQLQJ
(&,LQFKLOGUHQ:KDWLVQRZQHHGHGLVWKHH[DPLQDWLRQRIRWKHULQXHQFLQJ
YDULDEOHVWRGHWHUPLQHWKHLPSDFWWKDWWKHDPRXQWTXDOLW\DQGFRQWH[WRI(&,
KDVRQFKLOGUHQVGHYHORSPHQWDORXWFRPHV

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

31

Acknowledgements
7KHUHVHDUFKUHSRUWHGLQWKLVSDSHUZDVVXSSRUWHGE\WKH$XVWUDOLDQ5HVHDUFK
&RXQFLO 'LVFRYHU\ *UDQW 6FKHPH :H DUH LQGHEWHG WR WKH SULQFLSDOV WHDFKHUV
DQGVWXGHQWVRIWKHVFKRROVZKRSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKLVUHVHDUFKSURMHFW:HZRXOG
OLNHWRWKDQN-XOLH%RZHUZKRDVVLVWHGLQDOOSKDVHVRIWKHUHVHDUFK

References
%DQGXUD$Social foundations of thought and action: A social-cognitive theory.
(QJOHZRRG&OLIIV1-3UHQWLFH+DOO
%DQGXUD $ D 6HOIHIFDF\ LQ FKDQJLQJ VRFLHWLHV 1HZ <RUN &DPEULGJH
8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
%DQGXUD $ E Multifaceted scale of mechanisms of moral disengagement
8QSXEOLVKHGWHVW6WDQIRUG8QLYHUVLW\6WDQIRUG&$
%DQGXUD$6HOIHIFDF\7KHH[HUFLVHRIFRQWURO1HZ<RUN:+)UHHPDQ
%DQGXUD $  Banduras social cognitive theory [videorecording]: An introduction.6DQ/XLV2ELVSR&$'DYLGVRQ)LOPV
%DUEHU%/(FFOHV-6DQG6WRQH05:KDWHYHUKDSSHQHGWRWKHMRFN
WKH EUDLQ DQG WKH SULQFHVV" <RXQJ DGXOW SDWKZD\V OLQNHG WR DGROHVFHQW
DFWLYLW\ LQYROYHPHQW DQG VRFLDO LGHQWLW\ Journal of Adolescent Research, 16,

%DUNOH\5ADHD and the nature of self-control.*XLOIRUG3UHVV1HZ<RUN
&RRSHU+9DOHQWLQH-&1\H%DQG/LQGVD\--5HODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ
YHDIWHUVFKRRODFWLYLWLHVDQGDFDGHPLFDFKLHYHPHQWJournal of Educational
Psychology, 91
'XQVLUH0DQG%DOGZLQ68UEDQUXUDOFRPSDULVRQVRIGULQNGULYLQJ
EHKDYLRXU DPRQJ ODWH WHHQV D SUHOLPLQDU\ LQYHVWLJDWLRQ Alcohol and
Alcoholism, 34
(FFOHV-6DQG%DUEHU%/6WXGHQWFRXQFLOYROXQWHHULQJEDVNHWEDOORU
PDUFKLQJEDQG:KDWNLQGRIH[WUDFXUULFXODULQYROYHPHQWPDWWHUV" Journal
of Adolescent Research, 14,
(FFOHV -6 %DUEHU %/ 6WRQH 0 DQG +XQW -  ([WUDFXUULFXODU
DFWLYLWLHVDQGDGROHVFHQWGHYHORSPHQWJournal of Social Issues, 59

(LW]HQ'6$WKOHWLFVLQWKHVWDWXVV\VWHPRIPDOHDGROHVFHQWV$UHSOLFDWLRQ
RI&ROHPDQV7KH$GROHVFHQW6RFLHW\Adolescence, 10,
(OGHU *+ -U DQG &RQJHU 5' LQ SUHVV Children of the land: Adversity and
success in rural America. &KLFDJR8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJR3UHVV
)HOGPDQ$)DQG0DWMDVNR-/7KHUROHRIVFKRROEDVHGH[WUDFXUULFXODU
DFWLYLWLHV LQ DGROHVFHQW GHYHORSPHQW $ FRPSUHKHQVLYH UHYLHZ DQG IXWXUH
GLUHFWLRQVReview of Educational Research, 75
)LQQ -'  :LWKGUDZLQJ IURP VFKRRO Review of Educational Research, 59

)OHWFKHU$&(OGHU*+DQG0HNRV'3DUHQWDOLQXHQFHVRQDGROHVFHQW
LQYROYHPHQWLQFRPPXQLW\DFWLYLWLHVJournal of Research on Adolescence, 10


32

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

)UHGULFNV-$OIHOG/LUR&-+UXGD/=(FFOHV-63DWULFN+DQG5\DQ$0
$TXDOLWDWLYHH[SORUDWLRQRIDGROHVFHQWVFRPPLWPHQWWRDWKOHWLFVDQG
WKHDUWV Journal of Adolescent Research, 17
)UHGULFNV- (FFOHV-6,VH[WUDFXUULFXODUSDUWLFLSDWLRQDVVRFLDWHGZLWK
EHQHFLDO RXWFRPHV" &RQFXUUHQW DQG ORQJLWXGLQDO UHODWLRQV Developmental
Psychology, 42
*LOPDQ57KHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQOLIHVDWLVIDFWLRQVRFLDOLQWHUHVWDQG
JUHTXHQF\RIH[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHVDPRQJDGROHVFHQWVWXGHQWJournal of
Youth and Adolescence, 30,
*LOPDQ50H\HUV-DQG3HUH]/6WUXFWXUHGH[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHV
DPRQJ DGROHVFHQWV )LQGLQJV DQG LPSOLFDWLRQV IRU VFKRRO SV\FKRORJLVWV
Psychology in the Schools, 41
*UDEH06FKRROVL]HDQGWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIVFKRRODFWLYLWLHVAdolescence,

+DQVHQ '0 /DUVRQ 5: 'ZRUNLQ -%  :KDW DGROHVFHQWV OHDUQ
LQ RUJDQL]HG \RXWK DFWLYLWLHV $ VXUYH\ RI VHOIUHSRUWHG GHYHORSPHQWDO
H[SHULHQFHVJournal of Research on Adolescence, 13
+DUULV '%  $ VFDOH IRU PHDVXULQJ DWWLWXGHV RI VRFLDO UHVSRQVLELOLW\ LQ
FKLOGUHQJournal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 55
+RIIHUWK6/DQG-DQNXQLHQH=/LIHDIWHUVFKRROEducational Leadership,
58
+ROODQG $  $QGUH 7  3DUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ H[WUDFXUULFXODU DFWLYLWLHV
LQ VHFRQGDU\ VFKRRO :KDW LV NQRZQ ZKDW QHHGV WR EH NQRZQ" Review of
Educational Research, 57
-RQHV ) /  0F0LOODQ -  6FRULQJ RFFXSDWLRQDO FDWHJRULHV IRU VRFLDO
UHVHDUFK $ UHYLHZ RI FXUUHQW SUDFWLFH ZLWK $XVWUDOLDQ H[DPSOHV Work,
Employment and Society, 15
/DQGHUV'0 /DQGHUV'06RFLDOL]DWLRQYLDLQWHUVFKRODVWLFDWKOHWLFV
,WVHIIHFWVRQGHOLQTXHQF\Sociology of Education, 51
/DUVRQ5:+DQVHQ'0 0RQHWD*'LIIHULQJSUROHVRIGHYHORS
PHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVDFURVVW\SHVRIRUJDQL]HG\RXWKDFWLYLWLHVDevelopmental
Psychology, 42
/DUVRQ 5:  9HUPD 6  +RZ FKLOGUHQ DQG DGROHVFHQWV VSHQG WLPH
DFURVVWKHZRUOG:RUNSOD\DQGGHYHORSPHQWDORSSRUWXQLWLHVPsychological
Bulletin, 125,
/XWKDU66 '$YDQ]R.&RQWH[WXDOIDFWRUVLQVXEVWDQFHXVH$VWXG\
RIVXEXUEDQDQGLQQHUFLW\DGROHVFHQWVDevelopment and Psychopathology,

0DKRQH\-/6FKRROH[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLW\SDUWLFLSDWLRQDVDPRGHUDWRU
LQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIDQWLVRFLDOSDWWHUQVChild Development, 71
0DKRQH\ -/ DQG &DLUQV 5%  'R H[WUDFXUULFXODU DFWLYLWLHV SURWHFW
DJDLQVWHDUO\VFKRROGURSRXW"Developmental Psychology, 33
0DKRQH\ -/ &DLUQV %'DQG )DUPHU 7: 3URPRWLQJLQWHUSHUVRQDO
FRPSHWHQFHDQGHGXFDWLRQDOVXFFHVVWKURXJKH[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLW\SDUWLFL
SDWLRQJournal of Educational Psychology, 95

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

33

0DKRQH\ -/ 6FKZHGHU $(  6WDWWLQ +  6WUXFWXUHG DIWHUVFKRRO

DFWLYLWLHVDVDPRGHUDWRURIGHSUHVVHGPRRGIRUDGROHVFHQWVZLWKGHWDFKHG
UHODWLRQVWRWKHLUSDUHQWVJournal of Community Psychology, 30
0DUVK+ .OHLWPDQ66FKRRODWKOHWLFSDUWLFLSDWLRQ0RVWO\JDLQZLWK
OLWWOHSDLQJournal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 25
0DVWHQ $6  &RDWVZRUWK -'  7KH GHYHORSPHQW RI FRPSHWHQFH LQ
IDYRXUDEOHDQGXQIDYRXUDEOHHQYLURQPHQWV/HVVRQVOHDUQWIURPUHVHDUFKRQ
VXFFHVVIXOFKLOGUHQAmerican Psychologist, 53
2WWR/%([WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHVDQGDVSLUDWLRQVLQWKHVWDWXVDWWDLQPHQW
SURFHVV5XUDO6RFLRORJ\
2WWR/% $OZLQ')$WKOHWLFVDVSLUDWLRQVDQGDWWDLQPHQWVSociology
of Education, 42
3RVQHU-. 9DQGHOO'/$IWHUVFKRRODFWLYLWLHVDQGWKHGHYHORSPHQW
RIORZLQFRPHXUEDQFKLOGUHQ$ORQJLWXGLQDOVWXG\Developmental Psychology,
35
3XUGLH 1  +DWWLH -  The Strategies for Self-Regulated Learning Survey.
8QSXEOLVKHGPDQXVFULSW
5RGULTXH] ' :LJHOG $  (FFOHV -  &KDQJLQJ FRPSHWHQFH
SHUFHSWLRQVFKDQJLQJYDOXHV,PSOLFDWLRQVIRU\RXWKVSRUWJournal of Applied
Sport Psychology, 15
6FKXQN'+*RDOVHWWLQJDQGVHOIHIFDF\GXULQJVHOIUHJXODWHGOHDUQLQJ
Educational Psychologist, 25
6FKXQN '+  =LPPHUPDQ %-  6RFLDO RULJLQV RI VHOIUHJXODWRU\
FRPSHWHQFHEducational Psychologist, 32
6SDG\:*/DPHQWIRUWKHOHWWHUPDQ(IIHFWVRISHHUVWDWXVDQGH[WUD
FXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHVRQJRDOVDQGDFKLHYHPHQWAmerican Journal of Sociology,
75
7UHYHGL 1  6DELQL -  9ROXQWHHU ELDV VH[XDOLW\ DQG SHUVRQDOLW\
Archives of Sexual Behavior, 27
9DQ GHQ 1LHXZHQKRI /  &URVVLQJ WKH OLQH The Weekend Australian
Magazine2FWREHU
:LOOHPV (  6HQVH RI REOLJDWLRQ WR KLJK VFKRRO DFWLYLWLHV DV UHODWHG WR
VFKRROVL]HDQGPDUJLQDOLW\RIVWXGHQWChild Development, 38,
:LOVRQ-4 +HUUQVWHLQ5-Crime and human nature.1HZ<RUN6LPRQ
DQG6FKXVWHU
=HLGQHU0%RHNDHUWV0 3LQWULFK356HOIUHJXODWLRQ'LUHFWLRQVDQG
FKDOOHQJHVIRUIXWXUHUHVHDUFK,Q0%RHNDHUWV353LQWULFKDQG0=HLGQHU
(GVHandbook of self-regulation SS6DQ'LHJR&$$FDGHPLF3UHVV
=LOO11RUG&: /RRPLV/6Adolescent time use, risky behavior, and
outcomes: An analysis of national data. 5RFNYLOOH0':HVWDW
=LPPHUPDQ%-$WWDLQLQJVHOIUHJXODWLRQ$VRFLDOFRJQLWLYHSHUVSHFWLYH
,Q 0 %RHNDHUWV 3 5 3LQWULFK DQG 0 =HLGQHU (GV Handbook of selfregulationSS1HZ<RUN$FDGHPLF3UHVV
=LPPHUPDQ %-  Dimensions of academic self-regulation: A conceptual
framework for education. ,Q '+ 6FKXQN DQG %- =LPPHUPDQ (GV 6HOI

34

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

UHJXODWLRQRIOHDUQLQJDQGSHUIRUPDQFH,VVXHVDQGHGXFDWLRQDODSSOLFDWLRQV
SS+LOOVGDOH1-/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV,QF

Addresses for correspondence

$&DUUROO
6FKRRORI(GXFDWLRQ
8QLYHUVLW\RI4XHHQVODQG
%ULVEDQH
4/'
(PDLODFDUUROO#XTHGXDX
13XUGLH
$XVWUDOLDQ&RXQFLOIRU(GXFDWLRQDO5HVHDUFK
3URVSHFW+LOO5G
3ULYDWH%DJ&DPEHUZHOOO
9,&
(PDLOSXUGLH#DFHUHGXDX

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

35

J A Athanasou

University of Technology, Sydney

Self-Assessments of Skills in an Adult

Educational and Vocational Guidance

Abstract
Self-ranking of results on tests of reading, strength, dexterity, and grip in educational
and vocational guidance were compared with test performance for 49 adults
undergoing educational and vocational guidance. Only some self-rankings were
significantly correlated with the ranking of the standardised results. There were no
influences of age, gender or years of schooling on self-ranking but there were marked
inter-individual differences in the accuracy of self-assessment.The results have implications for the use of self-assessment in an educational context.
Keywords: self-assessment, self-estimate, self-ranking, vocational guidance

Self-assessment
7KH VHOIDVVHVVPHQW DSSURDFK LQ HGXFDWLRQ DQG JXLGDQFH LQYROYHV LQGLYLGXDOV
EHFRPLQJ WKH GLUHFW VRXUFH RI LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW WKHLU NQRZOHGJH YDOXHV
LQWHUHVWVVNLOOVDQGDELOLWLHVVHH$WKDQDVRX(VSHFLDOO\LQWKRVHFRQWH[WV
ZKHUH WKHUH LV DQ DGYDQWDJH LQ UHSRUWLQJ KRQHVWO\ 0LVFKHO  FRQWHQGHG
WKDWZKDWWKHSHUVRQWHOOVXVGLUHFWO\WXUQVRXWWREHDVYDOXDEOHDQLQGH[DV
DQ\RWKHUPRUHGLUHFWVLJQS0RUHRYHUWKHRULHVRIVHOISHUFHSWLRQKDYH
ORQJ SURSRVHG WKDW SHRSOH FDQ RIWHQ EH DFFXUDWH SDUWLFLSDQW REVHUYHUV RI WKHLU
RZQEHKDYLRXUHJ'XYDO :LFNOXQG
7KHUHLVVRPHprima facieVXSSRUWIRUWKHDFFXUDF\RIVHOIDVVHVVPHQWVDFURVV
DUDQJHRILQWHUHVWVDSWLWXGHVDQGDELOLWLHVHJ$WKDQDVRX$WKDQDVRX 
&RRNVH\  6KUDXJHU  2VEHUJ  0DEH DQG :HVW  XQGHUWRRN D
PHWDDQDO\VLVRIWKHOLWHUDWXUHDQGIRXQGWKDWWKHDYHUDJHFRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQ
VHOIUDWLQJV DQG DELOLWLHV ZDV  ,Q DQ HDUO\ VWXG\ $WKDQDVRX  LQYHVWL
JDWHGWKHVHOIUDWLQJVRIPDOHDQGIHPDOHYRFDWLRQDOJXLGDQFHFOLHQWVRQJHQHUDO
LQWHOOLJHQFH YHUEDO QXPHULFDO VSDWLDO IRUP SHUFHSWLRQ DQG FOHULFDO DSWLWXGHV
IURPWKHGeneral Aptitude Test Battery+HUHSRUWHGWKDWWKHVL]HRIWKHPD[LPXP
FDQRQLFDOFRUUHODWLRQLQGLFDWHGVRPHRYHUODSEHWZHHQVHOIUDWLQJVDQGWHVW
VFRUHVRIWKHVHVDPHDSWLWXGHV7KHUHZDVDOVRHYLGHQFHWKDWWKHDELOLW\WRVHOI
DVVHVVPD\LWVHOIYDU\IURPSHUVRQWRSHUVRQ
7KH SUHYDLOLQJ YLHZ LQ HGXFDWLRQDO SV\FKRORJ\ SUDFWLFH KDV EHHQ WKDW D
VWDQGDUGLVHG WHVW SURYLGHV WKH PRVW DXWKRULWDWLYH HYLGHQFH RI DQ DELOLW\ HJ

36

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

*URWK0DUQDW6HOIDVVHVVPHQWLVVHHQDVWDQWDPRXQWWRVXEMHFWLYLW\DQG
LQWURVSHFWLRQ7KLVYLHZDSSOLHVWRVHOIDVVHVVPHQWRIRQHDELOLW\UDWKHUWKDQWKH
RYHUDOOSDWWHUQRIDSHUVRQVDELOLWLHV

Vocational assessment
*RWWIUHGVRQ  DGYRFDWHG WKH DVVHVVPHQW RI DELOLWLHV IRU FDUHHU FKRLFH DQG
SURSRVHGDKLHUDUFK\ZLWKJHQHUDODELOLWLHVDWWKHDSH[6WUDWXP,,,ZLWKEURDG
IDFWRUV VXFK DV YHUEDO UHDVRQLQJ VSDWLDO UHDVRQLQJ RU PHPRU\ DQG OHDUQLQJ
6WUDWXP,,FRPSULVLQJWKHPLGGOHOD\HUDQGVSHFLFDELOLWLHVVXFKDVUHDGLQJ
OLVWHQLQJ YHUEDO FRPSUHKHQVLRQ YLVXDOLVDWLRQ YLVXDO PHPRU\ PHPRU\ VSDQ
DVVRFLDWLYH PHPRU\ PDLQWDLQLQJMXGJLQJ UK\WKP TXDQWLWDWLYH UHDVRQLQJ RU
H[SUHVVLRQDO XHQF\ PDNLQJ XS WKH ORZHVW OHYHO RI WKH KLHUDUFK\ *RWWIUHGVRQ
 S  KRZHYHU GLG QRW HPSKDVLVH VWDQGDUGLVHG WHVWLQJ DQG VWDWHG ,
VHH QR QHHG WR DXWRPDWLFDOO\ DGPLQLVWHU WHVWV RI FRJQLWLYH DELOLWLHV 7KH EURDG
6WUDWD,,DQG,,,DELOLWLHVDUHXVHGDQGWHVWHGVRIUHTXHQWO\GXULQJWKHKLJKVFKRRO
DQGFROOHJH\HDUVWKDWVWXGHQWVKDYHJHQHUDOO\DFFXPXODWHGDODUJHVHWRIURXJK
LQGLFDWRUVIRUWKHPS7KHYDOXHRIKHUFODVVLFDWLRQLVWKDWLWOHDGVWR
WKH K\SRWKHVLV WKDW VHOIDVVHVVPHQW DFFXUDF\ PD\ YDU\ DFURVV WKH OHYHOV 7KLV
VWXG\ IRFXVHV RQ 6WUDWXP , WKDW LV WKH VSHFLF DELOLWLHV WKDW DUH LPSRUWDQW IRU
PDQ\FRXUVHVDQGRFFXSDWLRQV0RUHRYHUWHVWLQJLVQRWDOZD\VDYDLODEOHWRFRYHU
WKHIXOOUDQJHRIRFFXSDWLRQDORUZRUNUHOHYDQWDELOLWLHVDQG3UHGLJHUKDV
UHFRPPHQGHG WKDW DELOLW\ VHOIHVWLPDWHV FDQ RIIHU EHQHWV IRU FDUHHU SODQQLQJ
+HOLVWHGZRUNUHODWHGDELOLWLHVRIZKLFKWKHUHZHUHWHVWVDYDLODEOHIRUVHYHQ
5HDGLQJ 1XPHULFDO /DQJXDJH XVDJH 6SDWLDO SHUFHSWLRQ &OHULFDO SHUFHSWLRQ
0HFKDQLFDO UHDVRQLQJ DQG 6FLHQWLF 7KHUH ZHUH HLJKW DELOLWLHV IRU ZKLFK
WHVW HVWLPDWHV ZHUH FRQVLGHUHG VHOGRP DYDLODEOH &UHDWLYHOLWHUDU\ &UHDWLYH
DUWLVWLF 0DQXDO GH[WHULW\ 0HHWLQJ SHRSOH +HOSLQJ RWKHUV 6DOHV /HDGHUVKLS
DQG 2UJDQL]DWLRQ  S  6XFK VHOIDVVHVVPHQW LV HVSHFLDOO\ DSSOLFDEOH
WR DGXOWV ZKR KDYH H[SHULHQFHV RI WKH HLJKW DELOLWLHV OLVWHG E\ 3UHGLJHU RU WKH
ORZHU 6WUDWXP DELOLWLHV RXWOLQHG E\ *RWWIUHGVRQ ,Q SODLQ ODQJXDJH WKH\ PLJKW
ZHOOKDYHDFRUUHFWLGHDRIZKDWWKH\DUHEHVWDWDQGZRUVWDWGRLQJ

Rationale and aims

7KHPDLQDLPRIWKLVUHVHDUFKLVWRH[DPLQHWKHYDOLGLW\RIDGXOWVHOIDVVHVVPHQW
SURFHGXUHV IRU D VHW RI UHOHYDQW DELOLWLHV LQ YRFDWLRQDO JXLGDQFH E\ FRPSDULQJ
WKLV ZLWK WHVW UHVXOWV 7KH UHVHDUFK TXHVWLRQV ZHUH D DUH WKHUH GLIIHUHQFHV LQ
VHOIDVVHVVPHQWRIDELOLW\LQGLIIHUHQWGRPDLQVVXFKDVSK\VLFDODELOLWLHVYHUVXV
HGXFDWLRQDO DELOLWLHV VXFK DV UHDGLQJ" E DUH WKH FRUUHODWLRQV EHWZHHQ VHOI
DVVHVVPHQWVLQ D JXLGDQFH VLPLODU WR WKRVH REWDLQHGLQHDUOLHUVWXGLHVVXFKDV
0DEH :HVW"FWRZKDWH[WHQWDUHWKHUHLQGLYLGXDOGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKH
DELOLW\ WR VHOIDVVHVV" DQG G GR IDFWRUV VXFK DV DJH VH[ RU OHYHO RI VFKRROLQJ
DIIHFWWKHDELOLW\WRVHOIDVVHVV"
7KLV VWXG\ ZDV FDUULHG RXW ZLWKLQ WKH FRQWH[W RI DGXOW HGXFDWLRQDO DQG
YRFDWLRQDO JXLGDQFH ,W LQFOXGHV ERWK SK\VLFDO DQG HGXFDWLRQDO VNLOOV DV WKHVH
DUH UHOHYDQW WR WKH SHUIRUPDQFH RI PDQ\ WUDGHV VHPLVNLOOHG DQG XQVNLOOHG

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

37

RFFXSDWLRQV 7KH VNLOOV VHOHFWHG LQFOXGHG EDFNOHJ SXOO VWUHQJWK JULS VWUHQJWK
PDQXDO GH[WHULW\ LQ WKH IRUP RI H\HKDQG FRRUGLQDWLRQ DQG UHDGLQJ VNLOOV 2Q
WKHEDVLVRIWKHHDUOLHUUHVHDUFKLWZDVH[SHFWHGDWKDWSHRSOHVKRXOGEHDEOH
WRVHOIDVVHVVDFFXUDWHO\EWKDWWKHDELOLW\WRVHOIDVVHVVDFFXUDWHO\LVFRQVWDQW
DFURVVGRPDLQVRUDELOLWLHVFWKDWVHOIDVVHVVPHQWYDULHVDFURVVLQGLYLGXDOVDQG
LVLQGHSHQGHQWRIVRFLRGHPRJUDSKLFIDFWRUV
7KH UHDVRQ WKDW VHOIDVVHVVPHQWV VKRXOG EH HPEUDFHG LQ HGXFDWLRQDO
SV\FKRORJ\ LV WKDW WKH\ SURYLGH LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW KRZ SHRSOH SHUFHLYH WKHLU
SHUIRUPDQFHDFURVVDUDQJHRIPXOWLSOHDELOLWLHV7KH\DUHXVHIXOEHFDXVHIRUWKH
PRVW SDUW WKH\ DUH SRVLWLYHO\ UHODWHG WR DFWXDO WHVW VFRUHV DOEHLW QRW SHUIHFWO\
)URPDWHFKQLFDOVWDQGSRLQWVHOIHVWLPDWHVDOVRDYRLGWKHP\ULDGRISV\FKRPHWULF
SUREOHPVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWHVWFRQVWUXFWLRQDLPHGDWSURYLGLQJXQLGLPHQVLRQDO
PHDVXUHVRIODWHQWWUDLWVIXUWKHUPRUHWKH\FLUFXPYHQWWKHDUGXRXVSURFHVVRI
QRUPUHIHUHQFLQJ LQ HGXFDWLRQDO DQG YRFDWLRQDO SV\FKRORJ\ 6HOIDVVHVVPHQWV
VKRXOGEHHPEUDFHGHVSHFLDOO\LQWKRVHFRQWH[WVLQZKLFKWKHUHLVQRUHDVRQIRU
GHFHSWLRQ 6HOIHVWLPDWHV DUH LQKHUHQWO\ HFRQRPLFDO ERWK IURP WKH VWDQGSRLQW
RI FRQVWUXFWLRQ DQG DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ 7KH\ DUH DOVR XVHUIULHQGO\ DQG UHDGLO\
DFFHSWHG E\ FOLHQWV HVSHFLDOO\ ZKHQ FRPSDUHG WR KRXUV RI UHOHQWOHVV SV\FKR
ORJLFDO DVVHVVPHQW 6HOIDVVHVVPHQW DOVR KDV GLDJQRVWLF YDOXH DV LQ WKH FDVH RI
SHUVRQV ZKRVH HVWLPDWHV DUH DW YDULDQFH ZLWK UHDOLW\ WKHLU SDVW DFKLHYHPHQWV
RUWKHLUWHVWVFRUHV$OWKRXJKPDQ\SV\FKRORJLVWVPD\KDYHDPRUELGIHDURID
VLQJOH LWHP IRU DVVHVVPHQWSXUSRVHV ZKHQ VHOIDVVHVVPHQWVDUHLQWKHIRUPRI
UDWLQJPXOWLSOHDELOLWLHVWKH\PD\PLPLFWKHPRUHHVWDEOLVKHGPHDVXUHV,WLVQRW
FOHDUKRZHYHUZKHWKHUDGXOWVDUHDEOHWRUDQNWKHLUDELOLWLHVDVZHOODVWKH\FDQ
UDWHWKHP7KLVVWXG\LQYHVWLJDWHVWKHXVHRIVHOIUDQNLQJRIPXOWLSOHDELOLWLHVLQ
DQDSSOLHGVHWWLQJDQGLQDJXLGDQFHFRQWH[WZKHUHWKHUHLVEHQHWLQSURYLGLQJ
DFFXUDWHLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWRQHVHOI

Method
Participants
7KH SDUWLFLSDQWV LQ WKLV VWXG\ FRPSULVHG  PDOHV DQG  IHPDOH YRFDWLRQDO
JXLGDQFHFOLHQWVDJHGWRDWWHQGLQJDQHGXFDWLRQDOYRFDWLRQDODVVHVVPHQW
7KH PHGLDQ OHYHO RI VFKRROLQJ ZDV <HDU  7KH\ ZHUH DGXOWV XQGHUJRLQJ DQ
DVVHVVPHQW IROORZLQJ LQMXU\ RU GLVDELOLW\ ZLWK D YLHZ WR FRQVLGHULQJ IXUWKHU
YRFDWLRQDO HGXFDWLRQ RU WUDLQLQJ RSWLRQV 7KH UDQJH RI GLVDELOLWLHV LQFOXGHG
DSODVWLF DQDHPLD EUDLQ GDPDJH FLUFXODWRU\ GLVHDVH VXUJLFDO GDPDJH KHDULQJ
ORVV PHQWDO GLVRUGHU QHUYRXV V\VWHP GLVHDVH VLJKW ORVV DQG YDULRXV PXVFX
ORVNHOHWDOGLVRUGHUV
Instruments and procedure
3DUWLFLSDQWV XQGHUZHQW D VHULHV RI VWDQGDUGLVHG ZRUNUHODWHG DVVHVVPHQWV
FRPSULVLQJWKHJamarYHSRVLWLRQKDQGJULSG\QDPRPHWHU/DID\HWWH,QVWUXPHQW
Purdue Pegboard 7LIQLafayette back-leg pull strength dynamometer
/DID\HWWH ,QVWUXPHQW  0DWKLRZHW]  DQG WKH UHDGLQJ WHVW IURP WKH
Wide Range Achievement Test-3:LONLQVRQ7KHWHVWVZHUHDGPLQLVWHUHGLQ

38

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

WKHDERYHRUGHU7HVWUHWHVWUHOLDELOLW\FRHIFLHQWVIRUWKHSHJERDUGUDQJHGIURP
WRVSOLWKDOIUHOLDELOLWLHVRIWRIRUWKHUHDGLQJWHVWDQGJULSVWUHQJWK
UHOLDELOLWLHV RI  WR  VHH 0DWKLRZHW]  7LIQ  :LONLQVRQ 
3DUWLFLSDQWV DOVR UDQNHG WKHLU DELOLW\ IURP EHVW WR ZRUVW LQ HDFK RI WKHVH IRXU
DUHDV XVLQJ D FDUGVRUW SURFHGXUH Work Ability Card-Sort  $WKDQDVRX 
7KHFDUGVRUWOLVWVWKHDELOLW\DQGKDVDEULHIGHVFULSWLRQRQWKHUHYHUVHVLGHIRU
IXUWKHUH[SODQDWLRQ7KHRUGHURISUHVHQWDWLRQRIVHOIDVVHVVPHQWZDVYDULHG
SULRUWRDQGIROORZLQJWKHVWDQGDUGLVHGDVVHVVPHQW$FRS\RIWKHFDUGVRUW
LQVWUXPHQWLVDYDLODEOHIURPWKHDXWKRUXSRQUHTXHVW
Analysis
7KH UDZ VFRUHV IURP WKH IRXU DVVHVVPHQWV ZHUH UVW FRPSDUHG ZLWK WKH
VHOIUDQNLQJV 7KHQ WKH UDZ VFRUHV IURP WKH DVVHVVPHQWV ZHUH FRQYHUWHG WR
standardised zVFRUHVLQRUGHUWRSODFHWKHPRQDFRPPRQVFDOHDQGWKHQWKH\
ZHUHUDQNHGIURPKLJKHVWWRORZHVWIRUHDFKSHUVRQ7KHVHUDQNHGzVFRUHVZHUH
WKHQFRPSDUHGZLWKWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVRZQUDQNLQJVIURPWR7KLVPHDQWWKDW
HDFKSHUVRQKDGDSUROHRIDELOLWLHVIURPWRDVUDZVFRUHVDQGVWDQGDUGLVHG
VFRUHVDVZHOODVWKHVHOIUDQNLQJVRIWKHVDPHDELOLWLHVIURPWR
,QDGGLWLRQDPHDVXUHRIWKHGLVFUHSDQF\EHWZHHQWKHSUROHRIDVVHVVPHQW
UDQNLQJVDQGVHOIUDQNLQJVZDVREWDLQHGXVLQJWKHVTXDUHG(XFOLGHDQGLVWDQFH
PHDVXUH 'VTXDUHG '2 6NLQQHU 7KLV LV D PHDVXUH RI SUROH VLPLODULW\
WKDWLQFOXGHVWKHGLIIHUHQFHLQHOHYDWLRQWKHVKDSHDQGVFDWWHURIWKHWZRSUROHV
,QVKRUWLWDQDO\VHGZKHWKHUWKHSUROHRIDVVHVVPHQWUDQNLQJVGLIIHUHGIURPWKH
VHOIUDQNLQJV IRU HDFK SHUVRQ ZLWK D '2 RI ]HUR LQGLFDWLQJ QR GLIIHUHQFH LQ WKH
SUROHVDQGD'2RILQGLFDWLQJDPD[LPXPGLIIHUHQFHLQSUROHV

Results
Are there differences in self-assessment of ability in different domains such
as physical abilities versus educational abilities such as reading? (situational
factors)
$VDZKROHWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHDYHUDJHLQWKHLUJULSVWUHQJWKPDQXDOGH[WHULW\
DQGUHDGLQJSHUIRUPDQFHEXWEHORZDYHUDJHLQEDFNOHJSXOOVWUHQJWKZKLFKLV
XQGHUVWDQGDEOHJLYHQWKDWVRPHKDGYDULRXVPXVFXORVNHOHWDOLQMXULHV0RVW
SDUWLFLSDQWVDELOLWLHVZHUHUDQNHGDURXQGUDQJHWRDQGWKHVHOIDVVHVVPHQW
UDQNLQJVRIJULSVWUHQJWKEDFNOHJSXOOVWUHQJWKUHDGLQJDQGPDQXDOGH[WHULW\
ZHUHDOVRDURXQGWRVHH7DEOH
Are the correlations similar to those obtained in earlier studies?
7KH FRUUHODWLRQV EHWZHHQ VHOIDVVHVVPHQWV DQG DFWXDO XQWUDQVIRUPHG UHVXOWV
UDQJHG IURP  WR  VHH 7DEOH  DQG ZHUH EURDGO\ FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK WKH
UHVXOWV RI WKH PHWDDQDO\VLV E\ 0DEH DQG :HVW  7KH FRUUHODWLRQV ZLWK
VHOIDVVHVVPHQWVZHUHVXEVWDQWLDOO\KLJKHUDQGQHJDWLYHDIWHUWKHVWDQGDUGLVHGz
VFRUHVIURPWKHDVVHVVPHQWVZHUHUDQNHG7KHFRQYHUVLRQWRDVWDQGDUGLVHGVFRUH
DQGWKHQIXUWKHUUDQNLQJWKHUHVXOWVSURYLGHGVXEVWDQWLDOJDLQLQGHWHUPLQLQJWKH
UDQNRUGHULQJRIDELOLWLHV7KLVPHDQWWKDWWKHVHLQGLYLGXDOVZHUHQRWQHFHVVDULO\

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

39

Table 1. Results from assessments

Domain

Median

Median
rank of
score

Median
rank of selfassessment

Grip strength

42kg (average)

Back-leg pull
strength

125lb (below average)

Manual dexterity 15 components in 30 seconds (average)

Reading

42 words (approx. junior high

school level)

Note: the self-assessment ranged from 1 (highest) to 4 (lowest).

Table 2. Correlations between self-assessment and results

Domain

Raw scores

Ranked z-scores

-.24

-.92

Back-leg pull strength

.42

-.92

Manual dexterity

.10

-.78

-.02

-.82

Grip strength

Reading

Note: The direction of the negative correlations in column 3 arises from the selfassessment ranging from 1 (highest) to 4 (lowest).

DGHSWDWHVWLPDWLQJWKHLUUDZVFRUHRQDQDVVHVVPHQWEXWWKH\ZHUHH[WUHPHO\
DFFXUDWHLQEHLQJDEOHWRGHWHUPLQHWKHUDQNRUGHULQJRIWKHLUDELOLWLHV
5HDOLVWLFDOO\VHOIDVVHVVPHQWVGLGDFFRXQWIRUDVXEVWDQWLDOSURSRUWLRQRIWKH
variance in the ranked zVFRUHV :KHQ RQH WDNHV DFFRXQW RI D PHDVXUHPHQW
IDFWRUV VXFK DV VXEMHFWLYH GLIFXOWLHV LQ DFKLHYLQJ D FRPPRQ VFDOLQJ DQG
E DOORZLQJ IRU XQUHOLDELOLW\ LQ ERWK VHWV RI PHDVXUHV WKHQ WKH H[WHQW RI WKH
UHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQVHOIUDQNLQJVDQGDVVHVVPHQWUHVXOWVLVPXFKKLJKHUWKDQ
PLJKWKDYHEHHQH[SHFWHGEDVHGRQUDQNHGVFRUHV
To what extent are there individual differences in the ability to self-assess?
,QWKLVVDPSOHRIWKHUHZHUHVXEVWDQWLDOLQGLYLGXDOGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHYDOXH
RI'2DVDQLQGLFDWRURISUROHGLVVLPLODULW\$WWKHVDPHWLPHVHOIDVVHVVPHQW
DFFXUDF\ LV LWVHOI IDLUO\ QHJDWLYHO\ VNHZHG VHH )LJXUH  ZLWK PRVW YDOXHV
RI '2 LQ WKH PLGGOH WR KLJK UDQJH ZKHUHDV RQH PLJKW KDYH H[SHFWHG WKDW

40

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

VHOIDVVHVVPHQWZDVIDLUO\QRUPDOO\GLVWULEXWHGOLNHPRVWRWKHUSV\FKRORJLFDO
SKHQRPHQD ,Q )LJXUH  IUHTXHQF\ LV WKH QXPEHU RI SHUVRQV )RXU SDUWLFL
SDQWVKDGSUROHVZKLFKZHUHLGHQWLFDOEXWDWWKHRWKHUH[WUHPHWKHUHZHUH
 SDUWLFLSDQWV ZKR KDG WKH PD[LPXP GLIIHUHQFH LQ SUROHV 2YHUDOO  RXW
RIWKHLQ)LJXUHWKHWZROHIWKDQGFROXPQVLQ)LJXUHKDGTXLWHKLJK
OHYHOV RI VLPLODULW\ LH '2 OHVV WKDQ  EHWZHHQ WKHLU DELOLW\ SUROHV ,Q
UHDOLW\RQO\DIHZDGXOWVZHUHTXLWHDGHSWDWUHFRJQLVLQJWKHLUVWUHQJWKVDQG
ZHDNQHVVHV

20

Frequency

15

10

0
0

10
D-squared

15

20

Figure 1. D2 values between self-assessments and ranked standardised

results.
Note: D2 ranges from 0 (a high level of self-assessment ability) to 20 (a low level of selfassessment ability.

Do factors such as age, sex or level of schooling affect the ability to selfassess?
7KHUHZHUHQRVXEVWDQWLDOLQXHQFHVRIDJHJHQGHURU\HDUVRIVFKRROLQJLQWKH
DELOLW\WRVHOIDVVHVV7KHFRUUHODWLRQVZHUHIRUDJHIRUJHQGHUZLWK
RQO\DPLQRULQXHQFHIRU\HDUVRIVFKRROLQJ7KHUHZDVQRVWDWLVWLFDOO\
VLJQLFDQWGLIIHUHQFHt QVLQWKHPHDQ'2YDOXHIRUPDOHVM 
SD FRPSDUHGZLWKIHPDOHVM SD 7KHUHZHUHQRXQLIRUP
FKDUDFWHULVWLFV DPRQJVW WKRVH ZLWK SHUIHFW SUHGLFWLRQ RI WKHLU SUROH )LQDOO\
WKHUH ZDV QR VWDWLVWLFDOO\ VLJQLFDQW GLIIHUHQFH t   QV LQ WKH PHGLDQ
'2YDOXHIRUWKRVHZKRFRPSOHWHGWKHVHOIDVVHVVPHQWUVWM SD 

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

41

FRPSDUHG ZLWK WKRVH ZKR FRPSOHWHG WKH VHOIDVVHVVPHQW DIWHU WKH WHVWLQJ M
SD 7KDWLVWKHRUGHURISUHVHQWDWLRQKDGQRPDMRUHIIHFWLQWKLV
FRQWH[W

Discussion and Conclusion

$OWKRXJK WKH SUHVHQW VWXG\ FRQUPV WKDW D PLQRULW\ RI DGXOWV KDG LPSOLFLW
NQRZOHGJHDERXWWKHLUGLYHUVHDELOLWLHVWKHQGLQJVDOVRKLJKOLJKWVRPHSRWHQWLDO
IRU VHOIDVVHVVPHQW LQ DGXOW HGXFDWLRQ DQG JXLGDQFH 7\SLFDOO\ VWXGLHV RI VHOI
DVVHVVPHQWKDYHFRQVLGHUHGSUHGLFWLQJSHUIRUPDQFHRQDVLQJOHPHDVXUHDVLQJOH
WHVW UHVXOW SHUIRUPDQFH LQ D VLQJOH DELOLW\ RU VNLOO 7KLV LV SUREDEO\ UHODWLYHO\
HDVLHUEXWOHVVPHDQLQJIXOWKDQDVNLQJVRPHRQHWRVHOIUDQNDUDQJHRIDELOLWLHV
<HWSHRSOHQHHGWRGHFLGHZKDWWKH\DUHEHVWDWGRLQJDQGWKH\PDNHVXEMHFWRU
FRXUVHFKRLFHVEDVHGRQWKHLUSHUFHSWLRQVRIWKHLUOLNHO\DELOLW\DQGVXFFHVV
:KLOH PDQ\ SV\FKRORJLVWV PLJKW EH LQWHUHVWHG LQ VHOIDVVHVVPHQWV DW WKH
PRUH DEVWUDFW OHYHO RI 6WUDWXP ,, RU 6WUDWXP ,,, VXFK DV WKH VHOIUDQNLQJ RI
JHQHUDO LQWHOOLJHQFH YHUEDO UHDVRQLQJ TXDQWLWDWLYH DELOLW\ RU VSDWLDO DSWLWXGHV
LQDOOOLNHOLKRRGWKHUHLVPXFKWREHJDLQHGERWKWKHRUHWLFDOO\DQGLQDSUDFWLFDO
VHQVHE\IRFXVLQJRQPRUHFRQFUHWHVNLOOVDQGDFKLHYHPHQWV7KHSUHVHQWVWXG\
ZDV XVHIXO EHFDXVH LW IRFXVHG RQ GLPHQVLRQV ZKLFK KDG SUDFWLFDO VLJQLFDQFH
IRU ZRUN DQG VWXG\ 7RXVLJQDQW  'HV0DUFKDLV  DQG DELOLWLHV DW ZKDW
*RWWIUHGVRQFDOOHG6WUDWXP,WKDWLVVRPHVSHFLFDELOLWLHVQHFHVVDU\IRU
HYHU\GD\OLIH7KHVHDUHDOOUHSUHVHQWHGLQJHQHUDODSWLWXGHWHVWEDWWHULHVLQFDUHHU
JXLGDQFHDQGHYHQLQQHXURSV\FKRORJLFDODVVHVVPHQWV1RFODLPZDVPDGHWKDW
WKHIRXUVNLOOVHYDOXDWHGLQWKLVVWXG\DUHFRPSUHKHQVLYHEXWWKH\DUHFHUWDLQO\
UHSUHVHQWDWLYHDUHDVRISHUIRUPDQFHFI3UHGLJHU
6HOIDVVHVVPHQW DELOLW\ ZDV GHSHQGHQW XSRQ WKH FRQWHQW DUHD DQG LV QRW
XQLIRUPVHH6KUDXJHU 2VEHUJ2QWKLVRFFDVLRQSK\VLFDOVWUHQJWKVZHUH
VOLJKWO\ HDVLHU WR UDQN WKDQ UHDGLQJ RU GH[WHULW\ 7KLV PD\ UHHFW WKH IDFW WKDW
UHDGLQJ LV D FRPSOH[ VNLOO DQG GH[WHULW\ LV UHODWLYHO\ DEVWUDFW LQ LWV FRQFHSWLRQ
FRPSDUHGWRSK\VLFDOVWUHQJWK0RUHRYHUSK\VLFDOVWUHQJWKRUODFNRILWZRXOG
KDYHEHHQREYLRXVWRWKRVHZLWKPXVFXORVNHOHWDOGLVRUGHUVZKRFRPSULVHGVRPH
 RI WKH SDUWLFLSDQWV LQ WKLV VWXG\ 7KLV QGLQJ RI VHOIDVVHVVPHQW YDULDWLRQ
DFURVVHOGVRUVXEMHFWVLVLPSRUWDQWEHFDXVHVRPHSV\FKRORJLFDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFV
HJ SHUFHSWXDO RU FRJQLWLYH VNLOOV ZRXOG SUREDEO\ EH UHODWLYHO\ XQNQRZQ WR
PDQ\FOLHQWV,WDOVRUDLVHVWKHLVVXHRIWKHLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQODUJHLQGLYLGXDO
GLIIHUHQFHV LQ WKH DELOLW\ WR VHOIDVVHVV DQG WKH QDWXUH RI VRPH GRPDLQV ,W LV
SRVVLEOHWKDWWKHUHLVDIXUWKHULQWHUDFWLRQHIIHFWEHWZHHQVHOIDVVHVVPHQWDELOLW\
DQGWKHGRPDLQVRILQWHUHVWVLQFHLWZDVHYLGHQWWKDWVHOIDVVHVVPHQWDFFXUDF\
YDULHGDOOWKHZD\IURPSHUIHFWWRHQWLUHO\LPSHUIHFWDELOLW\WRVHOIDVVHVV
7KH OLPLWDWLRQV RI WKLV VWXG\ UHODWH WR PHDVXUHPHQW IDFWRUV ,W LV GLIFXOW
WR VWDQGDUGLVH YDULHG DVVHVVPHQW UHVXOWV HJ VWUHQJWK YHUVXV UHDGLQJ RQ D
VLQJOHPHDQLQJIXOGLPHQVLRQ,QWKLVVWXG\zVFRUHVZHUHXVHGEXWWKLVLVRQO\
D WHPSRUDU\ VROXWLRQ 5DQNLQJ WKH VFRUHV LV DOVR D FUXGH PHDVXUH EXW LW GRHV
KDYHUHOHYDQFHEHFDXVHSHRSOHGRWKLQNLQWHUPVRIZKDWDP,EHVWDWGRLQJ"
3RVVLEO\UDWLQJVRUGLUHFWHVWLPDWHVRIUHVXOWVPLJKWDOVREHWULDOOHG

42

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

7KHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKLVVWXG\LVWKDWLWIRFXVHGLQSDUWRQDQLQWUDLQGLYLGXDO
FRPSDULVRQ WKDW SURYLGHG SDUWLDO HYLGHQFH RI WKH XWLOLW\ RI VHOIDVVHVVPHQW IRU
DGXOWHGXFDWLRQDQGWUDLQLQJ,WDGGVIXUWKHUHYLGHQFHWRWKHQGLQJVRI0DEH
DQG:HVWDQG6KUDXJHUDQG2VEHUJXVLQJDGLIIHUHQWFRKRUWWKDQ
W\SLFDOFROOHJHVWXGHQWVRUHPSOR\HHVLQRUJDQLVDWLRQDOVHWWLQJV,QPDQ\ZD\V
WKLVVWXG\UHSOLFDWHVWKHW\SLFDODSSOLFDWLRQRIVHOIDVVHVVPHQWVDQGDUJXHVWKDW
VSHFLF DELOLWLHV VXFK DV WKRVH FDWHJRULVHG DV 6WUDWXP , E\ *RWWIUHGVRQ 
GHVHUYHJUHDWHUFRQVLGHUDWLRQ7KHJLVWRIWKLVSDSHULVWKDWUDQNLQJDJURXSRI
DELOLWLHVRIIHUVDUHDVRQDEOHDOWHUQDWLYHWRWLPHFRQVXPLQJWHVWLQJRIVRPHDGXOWV
WKH FKDOOHQJH LV WR GHYHORS VWDQGDUGLVHG VHOIDVVHVVPHQW SURFHGXUHV WKDW KDYH
ZLGHDSSOLFDWLRQDFURVVHGXFDWLRQDODQGYRFDWLRQDOVHWWLQJV

Acknowledgements
7KH KHOSIXO FRPPHQWV RI WKUHH DQRQ\PRXV UHYLHZHUV DUH JUDWHIXOO\ DFNQRZO
HGJHG 3UHSDUDWLRQ RI WKLV SDSHU ZDV VXSSRUWHG LQ SDUW E\ D JUDQW IURP WKH
8QLYHUVLW\RI7HFKQRORJ\6\GQH\$QHDUOLHUYHUVLRQRIWKLVSDSHUZDVSUHVHQWHG
DW 3RVW&RPSXOVRU\ (GXFDWLRQ DQG 7UDLQLQJ &RQIHUHQFH *ULIWK 8QLYHUVLW\
*ROG&RDVW

References
$WKDQDVRX - $  Inter-relationships between self-estimates of aptitudes and
tested abilities on the GATB (5,& 'RFXPHQW 5HSURGXFWLRQ 6HUYLFH 1R
('
$WKDQDVRX-$,VVXHVLQXVLQJVHOIHYDOXDWLRQVLQDGXOWHGXFDWLRQDQG
WUDLQLQJAustralian Journal of Adult Learning, 45
$WKDQDVRX-$Work Ability Card Sort6\GQH\8QLYHUVLW\RI7HFKQRORJ\
6\GQH\
$WKDQDVRX-$ &RRNVH\5:6HOIHVWLPDWHVRIYRFDWLRQDOLQWHUHVWV
Australian Psychologist, 28
'XYDO6 :LFNOXQG5$A theory of objective self-awareness1HZ<RUN
$FDGHPLF3UHVV
*RWWIUHGVRQ / 6  7KH FKDOOHQJH DQG SURPLVH RI FRJQLWLYH FDUHHU
DVVHVVPHQWJournal of Career Assessment, 11
*URWK0DUQDW*Handbook of psychological assessment+RERNHQ1--RKQ
:LOH\ 6RQV
/DID\HWWH ,QVWUXPHQW  Adult Back and Leg Dynamometer KWWSZZZ
ODID\HWWHLQVWUXPHQWFRP5HWULHYHG0D\
0DEH3$ :HVW6*9DOLGLW\RIVHOIHYDOXDWLRQRIDELOLW\$UHYLHZ
DQGPHWDDQDO\VLVJournal of Applied Psychology, 67
0DWKLRZHW] 9  &RPSDULVRQ RI 5RO\DQ DQG -DPDU G\QDPRPHWHUV IRU
PHDVXULQJJULSVWUHQJWKOccupational Therapy International, 9
0LVFKHO:2QWKHIXWXUHRISHUVRQDOLW\PHDVXUHPHQWAmerican Psychologist, 32
3UHGLJHU'-&DUHHUSODQQLQJYDOLGLW\RIVHOIHVWLPDWHVDQGWHVWHVWLPDWHV
RIZRUNUHOHYDQWDELOLWLHVThe Career Development Quarterly, 52,

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

43

6KUDXJHU -6  2VEHUJ 70  7KH UHODWLYH DFFXUDF\ RI VHOISUHGLFWLRQV
DQGMXGJPHQWVE\RWKHUVLQSV\FKRORJLFDODVVHVVPHQWPsychological Bulletin,
90
6NLQQHU + $ 'LIIHUHQWLDWLQJ WKH FRQWULEXWLRQRIHOHYDWLRQVFDWWHUDQG
VKDSHLQSUROHVLPLODULW\Educational and Psychological Measurement, 38

7LIQ-Purdue Pegboard&KLFDJR6FLHQFH5HVHDUFK$VVRFLDWHV
7RXVLJQDQW0 'HV0DUFKDLV-($FFXUDF\RIVWXGHQWVHOIHYDOXDWLRQ
DELOLW\ FRPSDUHG WR WKHLU RZQ SHUIRUPDQFH LQ D SUREOHPEDVHG OHDUQLQJ
PHGLFDOSURJUDP$FRUUHODWLRQVWXG\ Advances in Health Sciences Education,
7,
:LONLQVRQ*6Wide Range Achievement Test: Third Edition:LOPLQJWRQ
'(:LGH5DQJH

Address for correspondence

-DPHV$$WKDQDVRX
)DFXOW\RI(GXFDWLRQ
8QLYHUVLW\RI7HFKQRORJ\6\GQH\
32%R[%URDGZD\
16:

44

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

J Lodge and E Frydenberg

The University of Melbourne

Cyber-Bullying in Australian Schools:

Profiles of Adolescent Coping and Insights
for School Practitioners

Abstract
Cyber-bullying has emerged as the latest permutation of school bullying. The growing
number and the level of severity of cyber-bullying call for our educators, researchers,
administrators, and authorities to take action. But before we can tackle this problem, a
better understanding of the issue and how we can best support students is necessary.
This study of 652 young people aged 11-17 years from Melbourne independent
and state government schools, provides data on bullying that uses information and
communication technologies (cyber-bullying), general bullying, and overall patterns of
coping. Results revealed significant gender and school differences -- with girls from
independent schools reporting more cyber-bullying problems. These findings contrast
with those of real-world (general) school bullying. Further analyses suggest that young
people who are persistently victimised have most likely exhausted their strategies
for responding. Of note, apprehensive and avoidant coping profiles exemplified girls
reporting greater levels of cyber-bullying while boys reporting cyber-bullying problems
were characterized by apprehensive, but active coping actions.The findings offer clear
avenues of support for school practitioners and may also facilitate the identification
of young people who are at high risk for negative outcomes.
Keywords: cyber-bullying, adolescent coping

Somebody found out my email password and took advantage of that [They]
hacked in and changed my names and sent rude emails to all my friends so that
they hated me.
0DOHDJHG\HDUV
$OWKRXJKPDQ\WHDFKHUVDQGDGPLQLVWUDWRUVQRZUHFRJQL]HWKHSUREOHPRIVFKRRO
EXOO\LQJ IHZ DUH DZDUH WKDW VWXGHQWV DUH EHLQJ KDUDVVHG WKURXJK HOHFWURQLF
FRPPXQLFDWLRQ%HUDQ /L3DUDOOHOWRWKLVODFNRIDZDUHQHVVE\VFKRRO
SURIHVVLRQDOV UHVHDUFKHUV KDYH \HW WR H[DPLQH WKH QDWXUH RI F\EHUEXOO\LQJ
LQFOXGLQJ KRZ VWXGHQWV DUH FRSLQJ %URDGHU LQYHVWLJDWLRQV RQ FRSLQJ LQGLFDWH
WKDWDGROHVFHQWVW\SLFDOO\XWLOL]HPRUHWKDQRQHVWUDWHJ\LQUHVSRQVHWRGHPDQGV
)U\GHQEHUJ  /HZLV  7KHUHIRUH LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW WKH RYHUDOO SDWWHUQV

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

45

RIFRSLQJZLWKFRQFHUQVVXFKDVF\EHUEXOO\LQJPD\EHPRUHUHOHYDQWWRVFKRRO
SUDFWLWLRQHUVWKDQGDWDUHJDUGLQJLQGLYLGXDOFRSLQJVWUDWHJLHV7KHJHQHUDODLPV
RIWKHVWXG\ZHUHWZRIROG)LUVWO\WKHVWXG\VRXJKWWRGHVFULEHWKHSUHYDOHQFH
RI SHHU YLFWLPLVDWLRQ WKDW XVHV LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ WHFKQRORJLHV
F\EHUEXOO\LQJ DQG UHDOZRUOG JHQHUDO EXOO\LQJ LQ D VDPSOH RI DGROHVFHQW
ER\V DQG JLUOV 6HFRQGO\ WKURXJK VHJPHQWDWLRQ SURFHGXUHV WKH VWXG\ VRXJKW
WRLGHQWLI\PHDQLQJIXOW\SRORJLHVRIFRSLQJHPSOR\HGE\DGROHVFHQWVWKDWFRXOG
EH XVHG WR GLVWLQJXLVK \RXQJ SHRSOH H[SHULHQFLQJ F\EHUEXOO\LQJ DQG RWKHU
EXOO\LQJSUREOHPVIURPWKHLUSHHUV

Cyber-Bullying
$PRQJWKHLQIRUPDWLRQDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQVWHFKQRORJLHV,&7VEHLQJHPEUDFHG
E\\RXQJSHRSOHWRGD\DUH(PDLOVLQVWDQWPHVVDJLQJ,0VKRUWPHVVDJHVHUYLFH
606 PXOWLPHGLD PHVVDJLQJ VHUYLFH 006 :HE ORJV %ORJV SHUVRQDO ZHE
VLWHV FKDW URRPV GLVFXVVLRQ ERDUGV DQG RQOLQH SHUVRQDO SROOLQJ VLWHV 2QH LQ
IRXU \RXQJ SHRSOH LQ $XVWUDOLD UHSRUW WKDW WKH\ UHJXODUO\ XVH D PRELOH SKRQH
&RPPRQZHDOWK RI $XVWUDOLD  ZKLOH VHYHQ RXW RI  \RXQJ $XVWUDOLDQV
UHSRUW YLVLWLQJ RQOLQH FRPPXQLWLHV DW OHDVW RQFH HDFK PRQWK 6DWFKHOO 6LQJK
 =LF  7KHVH DUH DWWUDFWLYH KLJKO\ LQWHUDFWLYH WHFKQRORJ\ HQYLURQPHQWV
ZKLFKUHTXLUHVNLOOVWKDWZLOOXQGRXEWHGO\IRUPWKHEDVLVIRUVXFFHVVLQWKHVW
FHQWXU\)RUPDQ\\RXQJSHRSOHWKH\KDYHDOVREHFRPHDQLQWULFDWHSDUWRIWKHLU
VRFLDOEHLQJDZD\RIPDNLQJIULHQGVDQGH[SDQGLQJWKHLUXQGHUVWDQGLQJVRI
WKHPVHOYHV :KLOH LGHQWLW\ H[SORUDWLRQ DQG H[SHULPHQWDWLRQ LV D QRUPDO VWDJH
RIDGROHVFHQWGHYHORSPHQWWKHXVHRI,&7VDVSDUWRIWKLVSURFHVVSUHVHQWVQHZ
FKDOOHQJHVQDPHO\WKHLUXVHWRKDUDVVRUGHQLJUDWHRWKHUV
&\EHUEXOO\LQJ LV D IDLUO\ UHFHQW FRQFHSW DQG WKH UHVHDUFK H[SORULQJ LW LV
VWLOO LQ LWV LQLWLDO SKDVHV $FFRUGLQJ WR 1HOVRQ  F\EHUEXOO\LQJ LV RIWHQ
YHU\VHULRXVLQFOXGLQJVWDONLQJDQGGHDWKWKUHDWV,QDVXUYH\FRQGXFWHGLQ
%ULWDLQLQLWZDVIRXQGWKDWRQHLQIRXU\RXQJSHRSOHDJHGWR\HDUV
KDG EHHQ F\EHUEXOOLHG 1DWLRQDO &KLOGUHQV +RPH  6LPLODUO\ D VXUYH\
FRQGXFWHGLQ&DQDGDVKRZHGWKDWRQHTXDUWHURI\RXQJ&DQDGLDQ,QWHUQHWXVHUV
UHSRUWHG UHFHLYLQJ PHVVDJHV VD\LQJ KDWHIXO WKLQJV DERXW RWKHUV 0QHW 
$QDO\VLV RI FRPSXWHUPHGLDWHG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ HQYLURQPHQWV KDV UHYHDOHG
WH[WEDVHGQDPHFDOOLQJXVHRIFRDUVHODQJXDJHSURIDQLW\DQGSHUVRQDODWWDFNV
.LHVOHU 6SURXOO
7KHQDWXUHRIQHZWHFKQRORJ\PDNHVLWSRVVLEOHIRUF\EHUEXOO\LQJWRRFFXU
PRUH VHFUHWO\ VSUHDG PRUH UDSLGO\ DQG EH HDVLO\ SUHVHUYHG HJ FXWWLQJ DQG
SDVWLQJPHVVDJHV7H[WRULPDJHVPD\EHSRVWHGRQSHUVRQDOZHEVLWHVRUEORJVRU
PDWHULDOFDQEHWUDQVPLWWHGYLDHPDLOGLVFXVVLRQJURXSVPHVVDJHERDUGVRQOLQH
SHUVRQDOSROOLQJVLWHVFKDW,0RUE\XVLQJ606RU006RQPRELOHSKRQHV$V
WKLV EHKDYLRXU EHFRPHV UHFRJQL]HG DV D VLJQLFDQW SUREOHP UHVHDUFKHUV PXVW
SURYLGHLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWLWVRFFXUUHQFHWRLQIRUPDQGVXSSRUWHGXFDWRUVDQG
DGPLQLVWUDWRUV
<RXQJ SHRSOH ZKR DUH WKH YLFWLPV RI EXOO\LQJ RIWHQ H[SHULHQFH UHDO
VXIIHULQJ WKDW FDQ LQWHUIHUH ZLWK WKHLU VRFLDO DQG HPRWLRQDO GHYHORSPHQW DV

46

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

ZHOODVZLWKWKHLUVFKRROSHUIRUPDQFH-XYRQHQ *UDKDP,QD

\HDUROG1HZ=HDODQGWHHQDJHUZKRFRPPLWWHGVXLFLGHZDVUHSRUWHGO\WH[WHG
WRGHDWKDIWHUUHFHLYLQJOLWHUDOO\KXQGUHGVRIWKUHDWHQLQJ606PHVVDJHVIURP
SHHUV:LOVRQ$VWXG\LQWRWKHXVHRI,QWHUQHWFKDWURRPVLQ$XVWUDOLD
IRXQG WKDW  SHUFHQW RI DGROHVFHQWV DJHG  \HDUV H[SUHVVHG D QHHG IRU
SURIHVVLRQDO KHOS LQ GHDOLQJ ZLWK WKH SUREOHPV RI FKDW URRP XVH )OLQGHUV
8QLYHUVLW\  5HVHDUFK VXJJHVWV WKDW \RXQJ SHRSOH H[SHULHQFLQJ RWKHU
IRUPV RI SHHU YLFWLPLVDWLRQ DUH SURQH WR D ZLGH UDQJH RI QHJDWLYH KHDOWK
RXWFRPHV LQFOXGLQJ GHSUHVVLRQ DQG DQ[LHW\ LI WKH\ GR QRW UHFHLYH VXSSRUW
5LJE\  9LFWLPLVDWLRQ H[SHULHQFHV KDYH DOVR EHHQ UHODWHG WR ORZ VHOI
HVWHHPLQ\RXQJ$XVWUDOLDQDGROHVFHQWV/RGJH )HOGPDQLQSUHVV6WXGHQWV
ZLWK ORZ VHOIHVWHHP WHQG WR KDYH ORZ HGXFDWLRQDO DVSLUDWLRQV QHJDWLYH
DWWLWXGHV WR VFKRRO DQ[LHW\ GLIFXOWLHV ZLWK SHHU UHODWLRQV DQG VFRUH SRRUO\
RQFODVVURRPEHKDYLRXUVZKHQFRPSDUHGWRWKHLUSHHUVZLWKKLJKVHOIHVWHHP
+D\$VKPDQ YDQ.UDD\HQRRUG

Coping Patterns
&RSLQJLVDZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGFRQVWUXFWIRUGHVFULELQJDQGH[SODLQLQJWKHFRJQLWLYH
RUEHKDYLRXUDODFWLRQVWDNHQGXULQJWKHFRXUVHRIDVWUHVVIXOVLWXDWLRQ)U\GHQEHUJ
/HZLV&RSLQJUHVSRQVHVFDQDOWHUWKHHIIHFWRIDVWUHVVRURQLQGLYLGXDO
IXQFWLRQLQJE\LQFUHDVLQJRUGHFUHDVLQJWKHQHJDWLYHHIIHFWVRIVWUHVVRUVLQWXUQ
H[DFHUEDWLQJRUDOOHYLDWLQJUHODWHGSV\FKRORJLFDOGLVWUHVV&RPSDVHWDO
8QGHUVWDQGLQJ WKH ZD\V LQ ZKLFK \RXQJ SHRSOH FKDUDFWHULVWLFDOO\ FRSH ZLWK
SHHU EXOO\LQJ WKDW XVH LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ WHFKQRORJLHV DUH OLNHO\
WRKLJKOLJKWDYHQXHVIRUVXSSRUW
&RSLQJLVFRQVLGHUHGIXQGDPHQWDOWRDGROHVFHQWDGMXVWPHQWDQGZHOOEHLQJ
)RUH[DPSOHWKHXVHRIDFWLYHFRSLQJVWUDWHJLHVVXFKDVSUREOHPVROYLQJKDYH
EHHQOLQNHGWREHWWHUIXQFWLRQLQJZKHQFRPSDUHGWROHVVDFWLYHVWUDWHJLHVVXFK
DV GLVWUDFWLRQ &ODUNH  3UREOHPIRFXVHG FRSLQJ ZLVKIXO WKLQNLQJ DQG
IRFXVLQJRQWKHSRVLWLYHDVSHFWVRIDVLWXDWLRQKDYHEHHQIRXQGWREHDPRQJWKH
PRVWFRPPRQDFWLRQVHPSOR\HGE\$XVWUDOLDQDGROHVFHQWV)U\GHQEHUJ /HZLV
5HVXOWVRIFRSLQJVWXGLHVLQGLFDWHWKDWWKHXVHRIHPRWLRQIRFXVHGFRSLQJ
VWUDWHJLHVGHWHUPLQHVDGROHVFHQWDGMXVWPHQWPRUHVRWKDQWKHXVHRISUREOHP
IRFXVHGFRSLQJVWUDWHJLHV6KDSLUR /HYHQGRVN\6WUDWHJLHVWKDWIRFXVRQ
VROYLQJWKHSUREOHPDQGLQFOXGHSRVLWLYHFRJQLWLRQVKDYHDOVREHHQUHODWHGZLWK
OHVVHPRWLRQDOEHKDYLRXUDODQGVXEVWDQFHXVHSUREOHPV&RPSDVHWDO
7KHUHZHUHIRXUVSHFLFDLPVRIWKLVVWXG\
 7RDVVHVVWKHLQFLGHQFHRIF\EHUEXOO\LQJDQGUHDOZRUOGJHQHUDOEXOO\LQJ
DVUHSRUWHGE\DVDPSOHRIDGROHVFHQFHVDJHG\HDUV
 7RH[DPLQHJHQGHUDQGVFKRROGLIIHUHQFHVLQDGROHVFHQWVUHSRUWVRIF\EHU
EXOO\LQJDQGUHDOZRUOGJHQHUDOEXOO\LQJ
 8VLQJ FOXVWHU DQDO\VLV WHFKQLTXHV WR LGHQWLI\ PHDQLQJIXO W\SRORJLHV RI
DGROHVFHQWFRSLQJDQG
 7RFRPSDUHWKHFRSLQJSUROHVRIDGROHVFHQWVRQYLFWLPLVDWLRQH[SHULHQFHV
VRWKDWDUHDVLQZKLFKVWXGHQWVPD\QHHGVXSSRUWFDQEHLGHQWLHG

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

47

Method
Participants
$FRQYHQLHQFH VDPSOH RI  \RXQJ SHRSOH  PDOH IHPDOHDJHG 
years (M SD ZHUHGUDZQIURPWZRLQGHSHQGHQWn DQG
WKUHHVWDWHFRHGXFDWLRQDOJRYHUQPHQWVFKRROVn LQWKH0HOERXUQHPHWUR
SROLWDQDUHD)RUPRVWVWXGHQWSDUWLFLSDQWV$XVWUDOLDZDVWKHLUFRXQWU\RIELUWK
LQGHSHQGHQWJRYHUQPHQWZLWK$VLDUHSUHVHQWLQJWKHQH[WODUJHVW
RULJLQIRUVWXGHQWVLQGHSHQGHQWJRYHUQPHQW
Measures and Procedures
7KH GDWD ZHUH FROOHFWHG IURP TXHVWLRQQDLUHV DGPLQLVWHUHG LQ WKH VWXGHQWV
UHJXODU FODVVURRP VHWWLQJ $OO SDUWLFLSDQWV ZHUH UHTXLUHG WR REWDLQ SDUHQWDO
FRQVHQW'HPRJUDSKLFLQIRUPDWLRQFROOHFWHGLQFOXGHGVFKRROW\SHVFKRROJUDGH
JHQGHUDJHDQGFRXQWU\RIELUWK
Peer victimisation
$ QLQHLWHP VHOIUHSRUW TXHVWLRQQDLUH DOSKD   ZDV XVHG WR DVVHVV OHYHOV
RI SHHU YLFWLPLVDWLRQ 7KH LWHPV WDSSHG F\EHUEXOO\LQJ HJ UHFHLYLQJ QDVW\
PHVVDJHVIURPSHHUVYLDHPDLORU606DQGJHQHUDOEXOO\LQJH[SHULHQFHVZKLFK
LQFOXGHGSK\VLFDOEXOO\LQJHJDWWDFNVSURSHUW\GDPDJHVRFLDOEXOO\LQJHJ
H[FOXVLRQDQGYHUEDOEXOO\LQJHJWHDVLQJ2QDYHSRLQW/LNHUWW\SHVFDOH
(1 = never, 2 = less than once a term, 3 = several times a term, 4 = about once a week,
and 5 = everyday SDUWLFLSDQWV LQGLFDWHG KRZ RIWHQ WKH\ KDG H[SHULHQFHG HDFK
RIWKHEXOO\LQJEHKDYLRXUVIURPSHHUV+LJKHUVFRUHVLQGLFDWHGKLJKHUOHYHOVRI
SHHUYLFWLPLVDWLRQ
Coping actions
7KHAdolescent Coping Scale (ACS) Short Form )U\GHQEHUJ /HZLVZDV
XVHGWRDVVHVVFRSLQJDFWLRQV7KHVFDOHFRQVLVWVRILWHPVFRQVWLWXWLQJVW\OHV
RI FRSLQJ 3UREOHPVROYLQJ HJ Work at solving the problem to the best of my
ability5HIHUHQFHWR2WKHUVHJTalk to other people about my concern to help me
sort it outDQG1RQSURGXFWLYHFRSLQJHJWorry about what will happen to
me3DUWLFLSDQWVZHUHDVNHGWRLQGLFDWHKRZRIWHQWKH\XVHGHDFKRIWKHFRSLQJ
DFWLRQVXVLQJDSRLQWUHVSRQVHIRUPDW never do thisWR I do this a lot)7KH
$&6KDVHVWDEOLVKHGUHOLDELOLW\DQGYDOLGLW\)U\GHQEHUJ /HZLV

Results
Prevalence of Bullying
7KH H[WHQW RI ERWK F\EHUEXOO\LQJ DQG UHDOZRUOG JHQHUDO EXOO\LQJ LQ WKH
FXUUHQWVDPSOHZDVFKDUDFWHULVHGLQWZRZD\V)LUVWIUHTXHQFLHVZHUHFRPSXWHG
WRGHWHUPLQHZKHWKHUSDUWLFLSDQWVH[SHULHQFHGDQ\EXOO\LQJIURPSHHUV2IDOO
UHVSRQGHQWV  SHUFHQW n   UHSRUWHG VRPH IRUP RI EXOO\LQJ H[FOXGLQJ
F\EHUEXOO\LQJGXULQJWKHDFDGHPLF\HDUZKLOHSHUFHQWn UHSRUWHGWKDW
WKH\KDGEHHQWKHYLFWLPVRIF\EHUEXOO\LQJGXULQJWKHDFDGHPLF\HDU6HFRQG
IUHTXHQF\UDWHVIRUYLFWLPLVDWLRQZHUHFDOFXODWHGIRUERWKJHQHUDOEXOO\LQJDQG

48

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

F\EHUEXOO\LQJ )RU SDUWLFLSDQWV UHSRUWLQJ JHQHUDO EXOO\LQJ n   VRPH 

SHUFHQWUHSRUWHGIUHTXHQWseveral times a term or more often)EXOO\LQJIURPSHHUV
LQFOXGLQJ WHDVLQJ YHUEDO WKUHDWV UXPRXUV VRFLDO H[FOXVLRQ SK\VLFDO EXOO\LQJ
SURSHUW\GDPDJHDQGSHHUSUHVVXUH2IWKRVHUHSRUWLQJF\EHUEXOO\LQJn 
SHUFHQWLQGLFDWHGWKDWWKH\UHFHLYHGQDVW\PHVVDJHVIURPSHHUVYLDHPDLORU
606VHYHUDOWLPHVDWHUPRUPRUHRIWHQ
Gender and School Differences
Bullying
7RH[DPLQHJHQGHUDQGVFKRROGLIIHUHQFHVLQDGROHVFHQWVUHSRUWVRIF\EHUEXOO\LQJ
DQG UHDOZRUOG JHQHUDO EXOO\LQJ D EHWZHHQVXEMHFWV PXOWLYDULDWH DQDO\VLV RI
YDULDQFHZDVSHUIRUPHG*HQGHUDQGVFKRROW\SHLQGHSHQGHQWDQGVWDWHVFKRROV
ZHUHHQWHUHGDVWKHLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHV:LWKWKHXVHRI3LOODLV7UDFHFULWHULRQ
WKHUHZDVDVLJQLFDQWPDLQHIIHFWIRUJHQGHUF >@ pVFKRRO
type (F >@ pDQGDVLJQLFDQWLQWHUDFWLRQHIIHFWF >@ 
p0HDQVDQGVWDQGDUGGHYLDWLRQVDUHUHSRUWHGLQ7DEOH([DPLQDWLRQRI
XQLYDULDWHUHVXOWVIRUJHQGHUUHYHDOHGDVLJQLFDQWPDLQHIIHFWIRUJHQHUDOEXOO\LQJ
(F >@ pZLWKER\VUHSRUWLQJKLJKHUPHDQVFRUHVWKDQJLUOV
8QLYDULDWHUHVXOWVIRUVFKRROW\SHUHYHDOHGDVLJQLFDQWPDLQHIIHFWIRUERWKF\EHU
EXOO\LQJF >@ pDQGJHQHUDOEXOO\LQJF >@ p
,QGHSHQGHQWVFKRROSDUWLFLSDQWVUHSRUWHGKLJKHUPHDQVFRUHVRQF\EHUEXOO\LQJ
DQG UHDOZRUOG JHQHUDO EXOO\LQJ WKDQ GLG SDUWLFLSDQWV IURP VWDWH VFKRROV 7KH
LQWHUDFWLRQHIIHFWIRUF\EHUEXOO\LQJF >@ pZDVDOVRVLJQLFDQW
ZLWKJLUOVDWWHQGLQJLQGHSHQGHQWVFKRROVUHSRUWLQJKLJKHUPHDQVFRUHVIRUYLFWLPL
VDWLRQWKDWXVHVLQIRUPDWLRQDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQWHFKQRORJLHVWKDQER\VDWWHQGLQJ
LQGHSHQGHQWVFKRROVDQGJLUOVDQGER\VDWWHQGLQJVWDWHVFKRROV

Table 1. Means (SD) for cyber-bullying and real-world (general) bullying

by school type and gender
Independent schools (n = 346)

Cyber bullying
Real-world bullying

State schools (n = 303)

Boys

Girls

Total

Boys

Girls

Total

1.27
(.57)

1.48
(.78)

1.41
(.72)

1.18
(.63)

1.14
(.50)

1.16
(.56)

15.72
(4.98)

13.68
(4.76)

14.36
(4.92)

14.41
(5.69)

12.60
(4.41)

13.32
(5.03)

Note: *** p < .001, ** p < .01.

Coping
0XOWLYDULDWH DQDO\VLV RI YDULDQFH ZDV XVHG WR H[DPLQH JHQGHU GLIIHUHQFHV LQ
FRSLQJ7KHFRSLQJDFWLRQVZHUHHQWHUHGDVGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHV$VLJQLFDQW

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

49

PDLQHIIHFWZDVHYLGHQWF >@ p6LJQLFDQWXQLYDULDWHHIIHFWV

PHDQVDQGVWDQGDUGGHYLDWLRQVDUHUHSRUWHGLQ7DEOH*LUOVUHSRUWHGJUHDWHU
XVH RI FRSLQJ DFWLRQV UHODWLQJ WR VHHNLQJ VRFLDO VXSSRUW VRFLDO DFWLRQ WHQVLRQ
UHGXFWLRQVWUDWHJLHVDQGVHOIEODPH,QFRQWUDVWER\VWHQGHGWRXVHPRUHFRSLQJ
DFWLRQV WKDW LQYROYHG ZRUNLQJ KDUG WR VROYH WKH FRQFHUQ UHOD[LQJ GLYHUVLRQV
DQGSK\VLFDODFWLYLW\

Table 2. Coping action means, standard deviations, and significant

univariate tests for boys and girls
Boys ( n = 237)

Girls (n = 415)

Coping action

SD

SD

Social support

2.36

1.10

3.05

1.20

52.87***

Social action

1.95

1.08

2.13

1.12

4.12*

Tension reduction

2.19

1.27

2.78

1.38

29.25***

Self-blame

1.94

1.04

2.20

1.16

8.20**

Work hard

3.37

1.26

3.17

1.22

4.01*

Relax

3.33

1.36

3.00

1.29

9.36**

Physical activity

3.61

1.23

3.35

1.30

6.05*

Note: *** p < .001, ** p < .01, * p < .05.

Coping Patterns
&OXVWHUDQDO\VLVZDVXVHGWRH[DPLQHUHODWLRQVDPRQJSDWWHUQVRIFRSLQJDFWLRQV
7KURXJK VHJPHQWDWLRQ WKLV DQDO\VLV HQDEOHV WKH LGHQWLFDWLRQ RI PHDQLQJIXO
W\SRORJLHV &ODWZRUWK\%XLFN+DQNLQV:HLQPDQ +RUQH5HVSRQGHQWV
ZKR SURYLGH VLPLODU UHVSRQVHV RQ VHYHUDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RU EHKDYLRXUV DUH
JURXSHG WRJHWKHU SURYLGLQJ D JUHDWHU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI LPSRUWDQW VLPLODULWLHV
DQGGLIIHUHQFHV*LYHQWKDWJLUOVDQGER\VGLIIHULQWKHLUXVHRIFRSLQJDFWLRQV
ERWKFDWHJRULFDOVH[DQGFRQWLQXRXVYDULDEOHVFRSLQJDFWLRQVZHUHXVHGWR
IRUPWKHFOXVWHUV8VLQJD7ZR6WHS&OXVWHUPHWKRGDYHFOXVWHUVROXWLRQZDV
VXJJHVWHGDVPRVWDSSURSULDWHIRUWKHGDWD0HDQDFWLRQVFDOHVFRUHSDWWHUQVIRU
WKHYHFOXVWHUJURXSVDUHSUHVHQWHGLQ)LJXUH&OXVWHUJURXSVUDQJHGLQVL]H
IURPWRSDUWLFLSDQWV
7RIDFLOLWDWHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHSDWWHUQVRIWKHYHFOXVWHUJURXSVVFRUHVRQ
HDFKFRSLQJDFWLRQIRUHDFKJURXSZHUHH[DPLQHGZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRWKHRYHUDOO
PHDQV DQG VWDQGDUG GHYLDWLRQ RI WKH VFDOH 7KH WRWDO VDPSOH GLVWULEXWLRQ RQ
HDFKVFDOHZDVGLYLGHGLQWRWKLUGVDQGGHVFULEHGDVKLJKPRGHUDWHRUORZ$
KLJKVFRUHUHIHUVWRJURXSVFRUHVWKDWIDOOZLWKLQWKHXSSHUWKLUGRIWKHRYHUDOO
GLVWULEXWLRQRIVFRUHVUHSUHVHQWLQJWKRVHXVLQJWKHDFWLRQoften or a lot0RGHUDWH
UHIHUVWRJURXSVFRUHVWKDWIDOOZLWKLQWKHPLGGOHWKLUGRIWKHRYHUDOOGLVWULEXWLRQ

50

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Cluster 2

Cluster 1

Cluster 4

Cluster 3

Cluster 5

Mean

Physical

Relax

Prof. help

Positive focus

Spiritual

Keep to self

Blame self

Ignore

Social action

Not cope

Tension reduction

Wishful thinking

Friend support

Seek to belong

Worry

Work hard

Problem solve

Social support

Coping actions

Figure 1. Coping cluster profiles

LHXVHWKHFRSLQJDFWLRQsometimesZKLOHORZUHIHUVWRJURXSVFRUHVWKDWIDOO
ZLWKLQWKHORZHUWKLUGRIWKHRYHUDOOGLVWULEXWLRQUHSUHVHQWLQJWKRVHZKRXVHWKH
action never or a little7DEOHSURYLGHVDEULHIGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHFOXVWHUJURXSV
FRSLQJSDWWHUQV
Coping Patterns, Cyber-Bullying, and Real-World (General) Bullying
8VLQJ 0$129$ SRWHQWLDO FOXVWHU JURXS GLIIHUHQFHV RQ F\EHUEXOO\LQJ DQG
UHDOZRUOG JHQHUDO EXOO\LQJ H[SHULHQFHV ZHUH HYDOXDWHG ZKLOH FRQWUROOLQJ
IRUWKHHIIHFWRIVFKRROW\SH0HDQVVWDQGDUGGHYLDWLRQVDQGSRVWKRFWHVWVDUH
SUHVHQWHG LQ 7DEOH  $Q RYHUDOO VLJQLFDQW FOXVWHU JURXS HIIHFW ZDV IRXQG F
 p )ROORZXSSRVWKRFWHVWV7XNH\+6'LQGLFDWHGWKDW
&OXVWHUV $ DSSUHKHQVLYH DQG DYRLGDQW JLUOV DQG ' DSSUHKHQVLYH EXW DFWLYH
ER\VGLGQRWVLJQLFDQWO\GLIIHUIURPRQHDQRWKHURQJHQHUDODQGF\EHUEXOO\LQJ
H[SHULHQFHV+RZHYHU&OXVWHU$ZDVVLJQLFDQWO\GLIIHUHQWIURPDOORWKHUFOXVWHU
JURXSVRQJHQHUDODQGF\EHUEXOO\LQJZKLOH&OXVWHU'GLIIHUHGVLJQLFDQWO\IURP
&OXVWHU(UHOD[HGDFWLYHER\VRQF\EHUEXOO\LQJDQGIURPDOORWKHUJURXSVRQ
UHDOZRUOGJHQHUDOEXOO\LQJH[SHULHQFHV,QDGGLWLRQ&OXVWHU(UHSRUWHGVLJQLI

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

51

Table 3. Coping cluster descriptions for boys and girls

Brief cluster descriptions
Cluster A Apprehensive and avoidant girls
Cluster A (n = 124) contained girls characterized by high levels of coping actions such
as worry, tension reduction, and self-blame. They also tended to ignore concerns,
keep concerns from others, and were low in seeking professional help.
Cluster B Optimistic, relaxed, active girls
This was the largest cluster group (n = 161). Participants were girls characterized by
high levels of social support and problem-solving actions. They tend to work hard,
are optimistic, relaxed, and physically active.
Cluster C Moderately confident girls
This cluster group (n = 130) exemplified girls using moderated levels of social support
and problem-solving actions and low levels of avoidant and apprehensive actions,
such as ignoring concerns and self-blame.
Cluster D Apprehensive but active boys
Cluster D (n = 125) was characterized by boys with high scores on worry, wishful
thinking, keeping concerns to self, as well as moderate levels of ignoring, self-blame,
and not coping. The highest scores on seeking relaxing diversions and physical
activity also characterized this cluster group. Boys in this cluster focused on the
positive, worked hard, and used high levels of problem solving actions.
Cluster E Relaxed active boys
This cluster group (n =112) was characterized by boys with low scores on avoidant and
apprehensive actions, such as ignoring concerns, tension reduction and self-blame.
Additionally, the cluster group exhibited low scores on seeking support (friend, professional, and social), while scoring highly on relaxing and physical activities.

LFDQWO\KLJKHUPHDQVFRUHVRQJHQHUDOEXOO\LQJWKDQSDUWLFLSDQWVIURP&OXVWHU&
PRGHUDWHO\FRQGHQWJLUOV

Discussion
3HHUYLFWLPLVDWLRQXVLQJLQIRUPDWLRQDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQWHFKQRORJLHVDQGRWKHU
IRUPVRIEXOO\LQJDUHSUHYDOHQWDPRQJWKLVVDPSOH0RVWDGROHVFHQWVUHSRUWHG
WKDWWKH\KDYHH[SHULHQFHGVRPHEXOO\LQJIURPSHHUVGXULQJWKHDFDGHPLF\HDU
:KLOHRQHLQYH\RXQJSHRSOHLQWKHFXUUHQWVWXG\UHSRUWHGJHQHUDOSHHUEXOO\LQJ
several times a term or more oftenRQHLQWKUHHYLFWLPVRIF\EHUEXOO\LQJUHSRUWHG
IUHTXHQWKDUDVVPHQW7KLVPD\UHHFWWKHJUHDWHURSSRUWXQLW\WKDWLQIRUPDWLRQ
DQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQWHFKQRORJLHVSUHVHQWIRUEXOO\LQJRWKHUV<RXQJSHRSOHDUH
HQJDJLQJLQWKLVDFWLYLW\ERWKLQDQGRXWRIVFKRRO+RPH,QWHUQHWFRQQHFWLRQV
LQ $XVWUDOLD DUH KLJKHU DPRQJ IDPLOLHV ZLWK FKLOGUHQ DJHG  WR  \HDUV WKDQ

52

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Table 4. Cluster group means (SD) and HSD post-hoc tests for cyberbullying and real-world (general) bullying
Cluster groups
A
Appreh.
& avoid.
girls
Cyber bullying
Real-world
bullying

B
Optim.
active
girls

C
Mod.
Confid.
girls

D
Appreh.
& active
boys

E
Relaxed,
active
boys

1.55
(.96)a

1.24
(.51)a

1.22
(.51)a

1.35
(.75)b

1.09
(.34)a,b

15.63
(6.14)a

12.45
(3.62)a,b

11.83
(2.95)a,c

16.14
13.91
(5.99)b,c,d (4.36)a,c,d

21.07***
8.57***

Note: *** p < .001, ** p < .01. Means that share subscripts differ at p < .05 in the
Tukey honestly significant difference comparison.

DPRQJJHQHUDO$XVWUDOLDQ,QWHUQHWXVHUV&RPPRQZHDOWKRI$XVWUDOLD,Q

$XVWUDOLDQKRPHVEURDGEDQGSHQHWUDWLRQKDVLQFUHDVHGIROGIURPOHVVWKDQ
 SHUFHQW LQ  WR  SHUFHQW E\ -XQH  ZLWK WKH SURMHFWHG EURDGEDQG
SHQHWUDWLRQOLNHO\WRUHDFKSHUFHQWE\\HDUHQG3\UDPLGUHVHDUFK
2QFDPSXVVWXGHQWVKDYHDFFHVVWRWKHVFKRRO,QWHUQHWV\VWHP7KHSRUWDELOLW\
RIPRELOHSKRQHVDQGSHUVRQDOODSWRSVDOVRPHDQWKDW\RXQJSHRSOHQRZKDYH
ZLGHUDQJLQJDFFHVVWR,&7VERWKLQDQGRXWRIVFKRRO
,QWKLVVWXG\VWXGHQWVDWWHQGLQJLQGHSHQGHQWVFKRROVUHSRUWHGKLJKHUPHDQ
VFRUHVRQF\EHUEXOO\LQJWKDQGLGSDUWLFLSDQWVIURPVWDWHVFKRROV)XUWKHUPRUH
JLUOV DWWHQGLQJ LQGHSHQGHQW VFKRROV UHSRUWHG KLJKHU PHDQ VFRUHV RQ YLFWLPL
VDWLRQ WKDW XVHV LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ WHFKQRORJLHV WKDQ GLG ER\V
DWWHQGLQJ LQGHSHQGHQW VFKRROV DQG JLUOV DQG ER\V DWWHQGLQJ VWDWH VFKRROV
7KLVLVQRWVXUSULVLQJJLYHQWKDWSHUFHQWRIVWXGHQWVDWLQGHSHQGHQWVFKRROV
DUH IURP KLJK LQFRPH KRXVHKROGV FRPSDUHG ZLWK  SHUFHQW RI VWXGHQWV DW
$XVWUDOLDQJRYHUQPHQWVFKRROV$XVWUDOLDQ%XUHDXRI6WDWLVWLFV$%6,Q
$XVWUDOLDKLJKLQFRPHHDUQHUVDUHSHUFHQWPRUHOLNHO\WRXVHDPRELOHSKRQH
WKDQ ORZHU LQFRPH HDUQHUV 0F1DLU ,QJHQXLW\  %RWK PRELOH SKRQH DQG
,QWHUQHW DFFHVV LQ $XVWUDOLD DUH KLJKHU IRU KRXVHKROGV LQ WKH KLJKHVW LQFRPH
TXLQWLOH$%6)RUJLUOVHVSHFLDOO\WKHXVHRIWKHVHWHFKQRORJLHVLVOLNHO\
WRUHSUHVHQWDFHQWUDOSDUWRIWKHLUVRFLDOEHLQJDQLPSRUWDQWWRROIRUIULHQGVKLSV
DQGSHHUJURXSLQFOXVLRQDQGRQHWKDWVXEVHTXHQWO\LQFUHDVHVWKHLUOLNHOLKRRG
RIH[SHULHQFLQJF\EHUEXOO\LQJSUREOHPV)RUH[DPSOHJLUOVDJHGWR\HDUV
DUHPRUHOLNHO\WRXVHDPRELOHSKRQHIRUFRPPXQLFDWLQJZLWKIULHQGVDQGVHQG
VLJQLFDQWO\ PRUH 606 PHVVDJHV SHU ZHHN WKDQ GR ER\V $XVWUDOLDQ 3V\FKR
ORJLFDO6RFLHW\
2XU H[DPLQDWLRQ RI WKH UHODWLRQV DPRQJ SDWWHUQV RI FRSLQJ DFWLRQV XVHG
E\\RXQJSHRSOHLGHQWLHGGLVWLQFWW\SRORJLHVIRUERWKER\VDQGJLUOV)XUWKHU
DQDO\VLV RI UHVSRQGHQWV ZKR SURYLGHG VLPLODU UHVSRQVHV RQ VHYHUDO FRSLQJ

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

53

FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RU EHKDYLRXUV UHYHDOHG VLJQLFDQW JURXS GLIIHUHQFHV RQ ERWK

F\EHUEXOO\LQJ DQG UHDOZRUOG JHQHUDO EXOO\LQJ H[SHULHQFHV HYHQ DIWHU
FRQWUROOLQJIRUWKHHIIHFWRIVFKRROW\SH2ISDUWLFXODUQRWHZHUHJLUOVLGHQWLHG
DVDSSUHKHQVLYHDQGDYRLGDQWLQWKHLUVW\OHRIFRSLQJ7KHVHIHPDOHSDUWLFLSDQWV
(N PD\UHSUHVHQWDSDUWLFXODUO\KLJKULVNJURXSIRUQHJDWLYHRXWFRPHV
DVWKH\DOVRUHSRUWHGH[SHULHQFLQJWKHJUHDWHVWOHYHOVRIF\EHUEXOO\LQJ7KH\
H[KLELWHG KLJK OHYHOV RI FRSLQJ DFWLRQV UHHFWLQJ H[FHVVLYH ZRUU\ WHQVLRQ
UHGXFWLRQ LH XVH RI DOFRKRO RU FLJDUHWWHV DQG VHOIEODPH 7KH\ WHQGHG WR
LJQRUHWKHFRQFHUQZHUHLQFOLQHGWRNHHSWKHLUSUREOHPVIURPRWKHUVDQGZHUH
OHVVOLNHO\WRVHHNRXWSURIHVVLRQDOKHOSLQFOXGLQJKHOSIURPHLWKHUDWHDFKHU
RUVFKRROFRXQVHOORU
,W LV ZLGHO\ DFNQRZOHGJHG WKDW JHQHUDO EXOO\LQJ UHDOZRUOG FDQ UHVXOW LQ
ORQJWHUP SV\FKRORJLFDO KDUP LQFOXGLQJ ORZ VHOIHVWHHP GHSUHVVLRQ DQ[LHW\
ZLWKGUDZQ EHKDYLRXUV VFKRRO IDLOXUH DQG LQ VRPH FDVHV YLROHQFH RU VXLFLGH
&UDLJ  &RJJDQ %HQQHWW +RRSHU  'LFNLQVRQ  .XPSXODLQHQ
5DVDQHQ  3XXUD  /RGJH  )HOGPDQ LQ SUHVV 5LJE\  ,W LV OLNHO\
WKDWWKHKDUPFDXVHGE\F\EHUEXOO\LQJLVVLPLODURUHYHQPRUHVHYHUHDVJUHDWHU
DFFHVVWR,&7VFDQPHDQWKHUHLVRIWHQQRHVFDSHIRUWKRVHZKRDUHEHLQJF\EHU
EXOOLHGHLWKHUDWKRPHRUDWVFKRRO
,QWHUHVWLQJO\ WKH QGLQJV IRU ER\V H[SHULHQFLQJ F\EHUEXOO\LQJ SUREOHPV
VXJJHVW DQ DSSUHKHQVLYH EXW DFWLYH FRSLQJ SUROH :KLOH WKHVH ER\V VFRUHG
KLJKO\ RQ ZRUU\ ZLVKIXO WKLQNLQJ DQG NHHSLQJ FRQFHUQV WR VHOI WKH\ DOVR
HQJDJHGLQKLJKOHYHOVRIUHOD[LQJGLYHUVLRQVDQGSK\VLFDODFWLYLW\)XUWKHUPRUH
WKLVZDVFRPELQHGZLWKKLJKOHYHOVRIIRFXVLQJRQWKHSRVLWLYHZRUNLQJKDUG
DQG SUREOHP VROYLQJ DFWLRQV 7KH XQLTXHQHVV RI WKLV FRPELQDWLRQ RI FRSLQJ
DFWLRQV PD\ EH SDUWLFXODUO\ LPSRUWDQW DQG LW LV SRVVLEOH WKDW WKH KLJK XVH RI
SURGXFWLYH FRSLQJ DFWLRQV VXFK DV SRVLWLYH IRFXV ZRUNLQJ KDUG DQG SUREOHP
VROYLQJPD\VRPHZKDWRIIVHWWKHXVHRIOHVVSURGXFWLYHFRSLQJDFWLRQVVXFKDV
ZRUU\DQGZLVKIXOWKLQNLQJ,QJHQHUDODQRSWLPLVWLFUHOD[HGDQGDFWLYHPRGH
RIFRSLQJWHQGHGWRH[HPSOLI\VWXGHQWVLQWKHFXUUHQWVWXG\ZKRUHSRUWHGIHZHU
F\EHUEXOO\LQJ H[SHULHQFHV ,Q IDFW RSWLPLVP SUREOHP VROYLQJ DQG ZRUNLQJ
KDUG KDYH EHHQ LGHQWLHG DV FUXFLDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV IRU DGDSWLYH RXWFRPHV
&RPSDVHWDO6WXG\RIWKHSRWHQWLDOO\PRGHUDWLQJHIIHFWVRIWKHVHFRSLQJ
DFWLRQV RQ NQRZQ DGMXVWPHQW RXWFRPHV VXFK DV GHSUHVVLRQ DQ[LHW\ DQG ORZ
VHOIHVWHHPVHHPIUXLWIXODUHDVIRUIXUWKHULQYHVWLJDWLYHUHVHDUFKLQWKHDUHDRI
F\EHUEXOO\LQJ
$ QGLQJ RI SDUWLFXODU LQWHUHVW UHODWHG WR ERWK DSSUHKHQVLYH DQG DYRLGDQW
JLUOV DQG DSSUHKHQVLYH EXW DFWLYH ER\V :KLOH ERWK JURXSV UHSRUWHG H[SHUL
HQFLQJ KLJKHU PHDQ OHYHOV RI F\EHUEXOO\LQJ EHKDYLRXUV WKDQ GLG ER\V DQG
JLUOVZLWKRWKHUFRSLQJSUROHVWKHVHVWXGHQWVDOVRUHSRUWHGH[SHULHQFLQJPRUH
SUREOHPV ZLWK UHDOZRUOG JHQHUDO EXOO\LQJ 7KDW LV VWXGHQWV H[SHULHQFLQJ
F\EHUEXOO\LQJSUREOHPVZHUHDOVROLNHO\WREHH[SHULHQFLQJPRUHJHQHUDOUHDO
ZRUOGEXOO\LQJSUREOHPV,WVHHPVHQWLUHO\SODXVLEOHWKDWF\EHUEXOO\LQJPD\EH
UHODWHGWRLQVFKRROUHDOZRUOGEXOO\LQJ)RUWKLVUHDVRQLWZRXOGEHLPSRUWDQW
IRUVFKRRODXWKRULWLHVWRDQDO\VHERWKRQOLQHDVZHOODVUHDOZRUOGLQWHUDFWLRQV

54

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

ZKHQUHVSRQGLQJWRDUHSRUWRIF\EHUEXOO\LQJ:KLOHRXUQGLQJVVXJJHVWWKDW
DVWXGHQWZKRLVYLFWLPLVHGDWVFKRROPD\DOVREHH[SHULHQFLQJEXOO\LQJRQOLQH
LWLVDOVRSRVVLEOHWKDWRWKHUVZKRDUHYLFWLPLVHGDWVFKRROPD\EHVKDULQJWKHLU
GLVWUHVVRQOLQHRUSRVVLEO\UHWDOLDWLQJWKURXJKF\EHUEXOO\LQJ
)RUWKHPRVWSDUWWKHQGLQJVIURPWKLVVWXG\KLJKOLJKWWKHQHHGVRI\RXQJ
SHRSOHIRUSURIHVVLRQDOKHOSLQGHDOLQJZLWKERWKF\EHUEXOO\LQJDQGUHDOZRUOG
EXOO\LQJ2QHRIWKHELJJHVWFKDOOHQJHVLQGHDOLQJZLWK\RXQJSHRSOHZKRDUH
YLFWLPV LV UHFRJQLVLQJ WKH H[WHQW RI WKHLU GLVWUHVV $V HYLGHQFHG LQ WKLV VWXG\
\RXQJSHRSOHZKRDUHSHUVLVWHQWO\YLFWLPLVHGKDYHPRVWOLNHO\H[KDXVWHGWKHLU
VWUDWHJLHVIRUUHVSRQGLQJLQFOXGLQJVHHNLQJKHOS
+RZHYHU ZLWK FRSLQJ SRWHQWLDOO\ DPHQDEOH WR FKDQJH FOHDU DYHQXHV IRU
LQWHUYHQWLRQ DUH RIIHUHG &RJQLWLYHEHKDYLRXU LQWHUYHQWLRQV IRU H[DPSOH FDQ
GLUHFWO\ WHDFK FRSLQJ VNLOOV )RU JLUOV ZLWK DSSUHKHQVLYH DQG DYRLGDQW FRSLQJ
SUROHVGUDZLQJDWWHQWLRQWRWKHIXQFWLRQWKHVHFRSLQJDFWLRQVSURYLGHVXFKDV
WKHUHOHDVHRIHPRWLRQVDQGVKRUWWHUPGLVWUDFWLRQIURPFRQFHUQVZRXOGEHDQ
LPSRUWDQWUVWVWHS,QLQLWLDWLQJDVKLIWLQWKH\RXQJSHUVRQVVW\OHRIFRSLQJWKH
SUDFWLWLRQHUZRXOGEHDGYLVHGWREHJLQE\ZRUNLQJZLWKLQWKH\RXQJSHUVRQV
FXUUHQWPRGHRIFRSLQJ)RUH[DPSOHDSSUHKHQVLYHDQGDYRLGDQWJLUOVZKRXVH
DOFRKROWRUHGXFHWHQVLRQDQGGLVWUDFWWKHPVHOYHVIURPWKHLUFRQFHUQVFRXOGEH
HQFRXUDJHGWRUHSODFHWKLVZLWKDOHVVXQKHDOWK\DYRLGDQWFRSLQJVWUDWHJ\VXFK
DV JRLQJ WR D PRYLH RU HDWLQJ RXW ZLWK IULHQGV 6XFK DQ DSSURDFK LV OLNHO\ WR
IDFLOLWDWHWKHFKRLFHRIKHDOWKLHUIRUPVRIFRSLQJ
:KLOHWKHVHQGLQJVRIIHUDXQLTXHHPSLULFDOO\EDVHGPHDQVRIH[DPLQLQJ
DGROHVFHQWV UHSRUWHG XVH RI VHYHUDO FRSLQJ DFWLRQV DQG KDYH LPSOLFDWLRQV IRU
VFKRROSUDFWLWLRQHUVZRUNLQJZLWK\RXQJSHRSOHIXUWKHUDSSOLFDWLRQVWRFRSLQJ
LQWHUYHQWLRQ DUH DOVR VXJJHVWHG 'HYHORSLQJ D VSHFLF FRSLQJ VNLOO VHW WKDW LV
DSSOLFDEOHWRF\EHUEXOO\LQJIRUH[DPSOHLVOLNHO\WREHHVSHFLDOO\XVHIXO*URZLQJ
HYLGHQFHVXJJHVWVWKDWDGROHVFHQWDGMXVWPHQWFDQEHIDFLOLWDWHGRULQKLELWHGE\
WKH XVH RI SDUWLFXODU FRSLQJ VWUDWHJLHV RU FRSLQJ SUHIHUHQFHV &RPSDV HW DO
$VSHFLFFRSLQJVNLOOVHWZRXOGHQDEOHWKH\RXQJSHUVRQWR
 HYDOXDWHWKHEHQHWVRIUHPDLQLQJLQRUOHDYLQJRQOLQHFRPPXQLWLHV
 LGHQWLI\WKHQHHGWROHDYHRQOLQHVLWXDWLRQV
 UHHFWRQKLVRUKHURZQRQOLQHEHKDYLRXUV
 UHVSRQGLQDQDVVHUWLYHEXWQRWDJJUHVVLYHZD\DQG
 NQRZZKHQDQGKRZWRVHHNKHOSIURPDQDGXOW
3URYLGLQJ DVVLVWDQFH WR WKH YLFWLP WR UHEXLOG WKHLU FRSLQJ UHVRXUFHV DQG
WR SURWHFW WKHLU VDIHW\ LV SDUDPRXQW EXW QRW VXIFLHQW 6FKRROV DUH D FULWLFDO
HQYLURQPHQW IRU WKH GHYHORSPHQW DQG PDLQWHQDQFH RI YDOXHV DQG SHHU
UHODWLRQVKLSV DQG DV VXFK KDYH WKH SRWHQWLDO WR LPSDFW RQ ZKHWKHU DQG KRZ
F\EHUEXOO\LQJ PDQLIHVWV :KROH VFKRRO EXOO\LQJ DSSURDFKHV WKDW H[SOLFLWO\
LQFRUSRUDWHWKHUHVSRQVLEOHXVHRILQIRUPDWLRQDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQWHFKQRORJLHV
PD\RIIHUSURPLVHIRUIXWXUHHIIRUWVLQSUHYHQWLRQDQGHGXFDWLRQUHJDUGLQJWKLV
IRUPRIDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRXU
2QH QRWDEOH OLPLWDWLRQ RI WKLV VWXG\ LV WKDW LW ZDV FRQQHG WR H[DPLQLQJ D
KLJKHU RUGHU FRQFHSW RI F\EHUEXOO\LQJ LH EXOO\LQJ YLD ,QWHUQHW DQG PRELOH

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

55

SKRQH 1HZ WHFKQRORJLHV DUH HPHUJLQJ ZKLFK ZLOO FRQWLQXH WR SUHVHQW IUHVK
FKDOOHQJHV WR SDUHQWV DQG VFKRROV LQ VXSHUYLVLQJ \RXQJ SHRSOHV XVH RI ,&7V
)RUH[DPSOHZLWKWKHDGYHQWRIWKHQHZ*356DQG*PRELOHSKRQHQHWZRUNV
\RXQJSHRSOHZLOOSRWHQWLDOO\EHDEOHWRFKDWYLD,0VHQG606DQG0XOWLPHGLD
PHVVDJHV VXUI WKH ZHE DQG FKDW RQOLQH IURP DOPRVW DQ\ZKHUH +DYLQJ
HVWDEOLVKHGWKHSUHYDOHQFHRIF\EHUEXOO\LQJLWZRXOGQRZEHXVHIXOWRGLVWLQ
JXLVKLQJEHWZHHQVHYHUDOW\SHVLH7H[WPHVVDJHEXOO\LQJ3LFWXUH9LGHR&OLS
EXOO\LQJ>YLDPRELOHSKRQHFDPHUDV@3KRQHFDOOEXOO\LQJ(PDLOEXOO\LQJ&KDW
URRPEXOO\LQJ%XOO\LQJWKURXJKLQVWDQWPHVVDJLQJDQG%XOO\LQJYLDZHEVLWHV
$FOHDUHUPRUHVRSKLVWLFDWHGFRQFHSWXDODQGRSHUDWLRQDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJZRXOG
DOORZIRUDVHULHVRIPRUHH[SDQVLYHDQGFRPSUHKHQVLYHUHVHDUFKVWXGLHV)XWXUH
UHVHDUFK VKRXOG DOVR DLP WR LPSURYH WKH JHQHUDOLVDELOLW\ RI F\EHUEXOO\LQJ
UHVHDUFKE\LQFRUSRUDWLQJODUJHUPRUHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVDPSOHV
7KHUH LV DOVR D SUHVVLQJ QHHG IRU JUHDWHU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH HIIHFWV RI
F\EHUEXOO\LQJ 0DQ\ ,QWHUQHW XVHUV DUH VRFLDOO\ LVRODWHG 0HVFK  DQG
VRPHPD\HYHQORRNIRUSHHUVXSSRUWRQWKH,QWHUQHWWKDWLQFLWHVWKHPWRDFWRXW
LQ YLROHQFH DJDLQVW WKHLU EXOOLHV %HUDQ  /L  :LWK WKH JURZLQJ QXPEHU
DQGOHYHORIVHYHULW\RIF\EHUEXOO\LQJIXWXUHUHVHDUFKLVZDUUDQWHGLIZHDUHWR
GHYHORSDSSURSULDWHSUHYHQWLYHDQGLQWHUYHQWLRQVWUDWHJLHVWRHQVXUHWKHVDIHW\
DQGZHOOEHLQJRIDOOVWXGHQWV

References
$XVWUDOLDQ &RXQFLO IRU (GXFDWLRQDO 5HVHDUFK  Are students ready for a
technology-rich world?5HWULHYHG6HSWHPEHUIURPKWWSZZZDFHU
HGXDXUHVHDUFKSURMHFWVSLVD
$XVWUDOLDQ%XUHDXRI6WDWLVWLFVYear Book of Australia 2007FDWQR
$%6&DQEHUUD
$XVWUDOLDQ 3V\FKRORJLFDO 6RFLHW\  Psychosocial aspects of mobile phone
use among adolescents. 5HWULHYHG 6HSWHPEHU   IURP KWWSZZZ
SV\FKRORJ\RUJDX
%HUDQ7 /L4,V&\EHU+DUDVVPHQWD6LJQLFDQW3UREOHP"$5HSRUW
RQ&KLOGUHQV([SHULHQFHV&DOJDU\8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOJDU\
&ODUNH $  &RSLQJ ZLWK ,QWHUSHUVRQDO 6WUHVV DQG 3V\FKRVRFLDO +HDOWK
DPRQJ &KLOGUHQ DQG $GROHVFHQWV $ 0HWD$QDO\VLV Journal of Youth &
Adolescence, 35
&ODWZRUWK\ - %XLFN ' +DQNLQV 0 :HLQPDQ -  +RUQH 5  7KH
XVHDQGUHSRUWLQJRIFOXVWHUDQDO\VLVLQKHDOWKSV\FKRORJ\$UHYLHZBritish
Journal of Health Psychology, 10
&RJJDQ&%HQQHWW6+RRSHU5 'LFNLQVRQ3$VVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQ
EXOO\LQJDQGPHQWDOKHDOWKVWDWXVLQ1HZ=HDODQGDGROHVFHQWVInternational
Journal of Mental Health Promotion, 5
&RPPRQZHDOWKRI$XVWUDOLD.LGVRQOLQH#KRPH,QWHUQHWXVHLQ$XVWUDOLDQ
KRPHV $XVWUDOLDQ %URDGFDVWLQJ $XWKRULW\ DQG 1HW$OHUW /LPLWHG 6\GQH\
5HWULHYHG 6HSWHPEHU   IURP KWWSZZZQHWDOHUWQHWDX
.LGVRQOLQH#KRPH

56

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

&RPSDV%(&RQQRU6PLWK-.6DOW]PDQ+7KRPVHQ$+ :DGVZRUWK
0 (  &RSLQJ ZLWK VWUHVV GXULQJ FKLOGKRRG DQG DGROHVFHQFH
3UREOHPV SURJUHVV DQG SRWHQWLDO LQ WKHRU\ DQG UHVHDUFK 3V\FKRORJLFDO
%XOOHWLQ
&UDLJ:07KHUHODWLRQVKLSDPRQJEXOO\LQJYLFWLPL]DWLRQGHSUHVVLRQ
DQ[LHW\DQGDJJUHVVLRQLQHOHPHQWDU\VFKRROFKLOGUHQPersonality & Individual
Differences, 24
)OLQGHUV 8QLYHUVLW\  Chatrooms: Help needed. 0HGLD UHOHDVH 5HWULHYHG
6HSWHPEHUIURPKWWSZZZLQGHUVHGXDX"QHZV 
)U\GHQEHUJ( /HZLV5Manual: The Adolescent Coping Scale0HOERXUQH
$XVWUDOLDQ&RXQFLOIRU(GXFDWLRQDO5HVHDUFK
)U\GHQEHUJ( /HZLV5&RSLQJZLWKGLIIHUHQWFRQFHUQV&RQVLVWHQF\
DQG YDULDWLRQ LQ FRSLQJ VWUDWHJLHV XVHG E\ DGROHVFHQWV Australian Psychologist, 29
)U\GHQEHUJ (  /HZLV 5  $ UHSOLFDWLRQ VWXG\ RI WKH VWUXFWXUH RI WKH
DGROHVFHQW FRSLQJ VFDOH 0XOWLSOH IRUPV DQG DSSOLFDWLRQV RI D VHOIUHSRUW
LQYHQWRU\LQDFRXQVHOOLQJDQGUHVHDUFKFRQWH[WEuropean Journal of Psychological Assessment, 12
+D\,$VKPDQ$) YDQ.UDD\HQRRUG&(7KHLQXHQFHRIJHQGHU
DFDGHPLF DFKLHYHPHQW DQG QRQVFKRRO IDFWRUV XSRQ SUHDGROHVFHQW VHOI
FRQFHSWEducational Psychology, 18
-XYRQHQ- *UDKDP6(GVPeer harassment in school: The plight of the
vulnerable and victimized1HZ<RUN1<86*XLOIRUG3UHVV
.LHVOHU6 6SURXOO/*URXSGHFLVLRQPDNLQJDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQ
WHFKQRORJ\ Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 52, 

.XPSXODLQHQ.5DVDQHQ( 3XXUD.3V\FKLDWULFGLVRUGHUVDQGWKH
XVHRIPHQWDOKHDOWKVHUYLFHVDPRQJFKLOGUHQLQYROYHGLQEXOO\LQJAggressive
Behavior, 27
/RGJH- )HOGPDQ66,QSUHVV$YRLGDQWFRSLQJDVDPHGLDWRUEHWZHHQ
DSSHDUDQFHUHODWHGEXOO\LQJDQGVHOIHVWHHPLQ\RXQJ$XVWUDOLDQDGROHVFHQWV.
British Journal of Developmental Psychology.
0F1DLU,QJHQXLW\Australian kids consumer insights.5HWULHYHG6HSWHPEHU
IURPKWWSZZZPFQDLULQJHQXLW\FRPDX
0HVFK*66RFLDO5HODWLRQVKLSVDQG,QWHUQHW8VHDPRQJ$GROHVFHQWVLQ
,VUDHOSocial Science Quarterly, 82
0QHW  <RXQJ &DQDGLDQV LQ D :LUHG :RUOG0QHW 6XUYH\ 5HWULHYHG
6HSWHPEHUIURPKWWSZZZPHGLDDZDUHQHVVFDHQJOLVKVSHFLDOB
LQLWLDWLYHVVXUYH\VLQGH[FIP
1DWLRQDO &KLOGUHQV +RPH  3XWWLQJ 8 LQ WKH SLFWXUH 0RELOH %XOO\LQJ
6XUYH\>2QOLQH@5HWULHYHG6HSWHPEHUIURPKWWSZZZQFK
RUJXNLQIRUPDWLRQLQGH[SKS"L 
1HOVRQ 0  6FKRRO %XOOLHV *RLQJ +LJK 7HFK 5HWULHYHG -XO\ 

IURP
KWWSZZZFDQRHFD1HZV6WDQG/RQGRQ)UHH3UHVV
1HZVKWPO

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

57

2FKLOWUHH*6HOI&DUHIRU6FKRRO$JHG&KLOGUHQFamily Matters, 33


3\UDPLGUHVHDUFK  Australia: Whats in store for the broadband market?
5HWULHYHG 6HSWHPEHU   IURP KWWSZZZS\UDPLGUHVHDUFKFRP
SDBGHFBDXVW
5LJE\.3HHUYLFWLPL]DWLRQDWVFKRRODQGWKHKHDOWKRIVHFRQGDU\VFKRRO
VWXGHQWVBritish Journal of Educational Psychology, 69
6DWFKHOO&6LQJK6 =LF-3G multimedia content production as social
communication 3URFHHGLQJV RI WKH 2]&+, :ROORQJRQJ $XVWUDOLD 
1RY
6KDSLUR'/ /HYHQGRVN\$$$GROHVFHQWVXUYLYRUVRIFKLOGKRRG
VH[XDODEXVH7KHPHGLDWLQJUROHRIDWWDFKPHQWVW\OHDQGFRSLQJLQSV\FKR
ORJLFDODQGLQWHUSHUVRQDOIXQFWLRQLQJChild Abuse & Neglect, 23
:LOVRQ '  -XQH  7H[WV DQG 6WRQHV The Age 0HOERXUQH )DLUID[
1HZVSDSHUV,SS

Address for correspondence

'U-RGLH/RGJH
)DFXOW\RI(GXFDWLRQ
8QLYHUVLW\RI0HOERXUQH
9,&
(PDLOORGJH#XQLPHOEHGXDX

58

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

B D Abbott and B L Barber

School of Psychology, Murdoch University

Not Just Idle Time: Adolescents Developmental

Experiences Provided by Structured and
Unstructured Leisure Activities

Abstract
Investigation into positive youth development has led researchers to focus on the
context of leisure as one that provides youth with opportunities to develop the skills
and competencies desired for successful adulthood.This study surveyed 53 (14 males,
39 females, mean age 14.6) Western Australian high school students using an adapted
version of theYouth Experience Survey (YES) 2.0. Participants were asked to report their
perceived developmental experiences in both structured and unstructured activities
across 2 domains: identity work and initiative development. Structured activities were
found to offer adolescents more opportunities for the development of initiative than
unstructured activities. In addition more adult involvement was found to be associated
with higher levels of both identity work and initiative development experiences. No
differences were found in developmental experiences between different structured
activities. However comparisons among different unstructured activities suggest that
some forms of unstructured leisure may be particularly beneficial to youth development.
Unstructured activities such as hobbies and unstructured sports offered adolescents
more initiative and identity experiences than alternate unstructured activities such as
media use and communication activities. Results are discussed in reference to theories
of initiative development and the implications to the wider community.
Keywords: adolescents, leisure, initiative, identity, adult involvement

$GROHVFHQFH LV D SHULRG RI H[SORUDWLRQ JURZWK DQG WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI QHZ
FRPSHWHQFLHVWKDWUHDGLHVWKHLQGLYLGXDOIRULQWHJUDWLRQLQWRDGXOWKRRG/DUVRQ
 &RQFHQWUDWLRQ RQ WKH YDULRXV GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV LQ DGROHVFHQFH
WKDWDUHIDFLOLWDWLQJUDWKHUWKDQGHWULPHQWDOKDVOHDGWRWKHVWXG\RISRVLWLYH\RXWK
GHYHORSPHQW)UDVHU7KRPDV&{Wq 'HDNLQ/DUVRQ/DUVRQ+DQVHQ
0RQHWD:LWKLQWKLVHOGWKHUHLVDJURZLQJLQWHUHVWLQWKHFRQWH[WVWKDW
IDFLOLWDWH DGROHVFHQWV GHYHORSPHQW RI FRPSHWHQFLHV WKDW HQDEOH WKHP WR OLYH
SURGXFWLYHDQGVDWLVI\LQJOLYHVDV\RXWKVDQGDOVRDGXOWV)UDVHU7KRPDVHWDO
 $V D UHVXOW LQFUHDVLQJ IRFXV KDV EHHQ SODFHG RQ OHLVXUH DFWLYLWLHV DV DQ
LPSRUWDQWFRQWH[WIRUSRVLWLYH\RXWKGHYHORSPHQW(FFOHV%DUEHU6WRQH +XQW
.OHLEHU3DVVPRUH )UHQFK6KDZ.OHLEHU &DOGZHOO

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

59

7KURXJKRXWDGROHVFHQFHLQDVHDUFKIRULQFUHDVHGDXWRQRP\\RXWKSURJUHV
VLYHO\VSHQGPRUHWLPHLQXQVWUXFWXUHGDQGXQVXSHUYLVHGDFWLYLWLHVDZD\IURP
SDUHQWVDQGWKHLQXHQFHVLPSRVHGE\WKHP/DUVRQ 9HUPD5RXJKO\
RIDQDGROHVFHQWVZDNLQJKRXUVDUHGLVFUHWLRQDU\WKDWLVWKH\DUHQRWDFFRXQWHG
IRU E\ VFKRRO RU IDPLO\ DFWLYLWLHV /DUVRQ  9HUPD  3DVVPRUH  )UHQFK
 DOORZLQJ DGROHVFHQWV D JUHDW GHDO RI WLPH IRU SDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ DQ DUUD\ RI
OHLVXUHDFWLYLWLHV/HLVXUHDFWLYLWLHVSURYLGHDOWHUQDWLYHFRQWH[WVZKHUHDGROHVFHQWV
FDQ HVWDEOLVK VHOIGLUHFWHG DWWHQWLRQ FRQWURO DQG VHOIGLVFLSOLQH .OHLEHU 
$GROHVFHQWVDUHEHFRPLQJDFWLYHDJHQWVLQWKHLURZQGHYHORSPHQW'ZRUNLQ
/DUVRQ +DQVHQSDQGFRQWH[WVWKDWSURYLGH\RXWKZLWKWKHIUHHGRP
PRWLYDWLRQDQGVWLPXODWLRQWRWDNHFRQWURORYHUWKHLUGHYHORSPHQWKDYHEHFRPHD
IRFXVRILQYHVWLJDWLRQLQDGROHVFHQWGHYHORSPHQWDOUHVHDUFK6SHFLFDOO\VWUXFWXUHG
DQGXQVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUHDUHH[SORUHGDVGLVWLQFWFRQWH[WVSURYLGLQJ\RXWKZLWK
GLIIHUHQWGHYHORSPHQWDORXWFRPHVDQGH[SHULHQFHV6WUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVDUHWKRVH
FKDUDFWHULVHGE\DGXOWVXSHUYLVLRQZLWKHPSKDVLVRQVNLOOEXLOGLQJDQGVWUXFWXUH
RYHUDVSHFLFWLPHIUDPHWKHODFNRIWKHVHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVLQDQDFWLYLW\GHQHVLW
DVXQVWUXFWXUHG%RWKVWUXFWXUHGDQGXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVRIIHURSSRUWXQLWLHVWR
OHDUQDYDULHW\RIVNLOOVDQGNQRZOHGJHZLWKGLIIHUHQWDFWLYLWLHVSURYLGLQJGLVWLQFW
VHWVRIQRUPVYDOXHVJRDOVDQGH[SHULHQFHV+DQVHQ/DUVRQ 'ZRUNLQ
/DUVRQHWDO0DKRQH\/DUVRQ (FFOHV

Structured Leisure Activities

7KH PDMRULW\ RI DGROHVFHQW OHLVXUH UHVHDUFK KDV IRFXVHG RQ VWUXFWXUHG RU
RUJDQLVHG DFWLYLWLHV 7KHVH DFWLYLWLHV RIIHU SDUWLFLSDQWV D FKDOOHQJH DQG DQ
RSSRUWXQLW\WRGHYHORSDQGHQKDQFHSDUWLFXODUVNLOOVZLWKLQDFRQWH[WFKDUDF
WHULVHG E\ JXLGDQFH VXSHUYLVLRQ DQG GHYHORSPHQWDOO\EDVHG UXOHV DQG
H[SHFWDWLRQV.OHLEHU0DKRQH\/DUVRQ(FFOHV /RUG,QJHQHUDO
SDUWLFLSDWLRQLQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVLVYROXQWDU\DOWKRXJKWKH\XVXDOO\UHTXLUH
UHJXODU VFKHGXOHG SDUWLFLSDWLRQ IRU H[DPSOH PHHWLQJV RU WUDLQLQJ RYHU D
VSHFLFWLPHIUDPHVXFKDVDVHDVRQ
$NH\FKDUDFWHULVWLFRIVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVLVWKHJXLGDQFHDQGPRQLWRULQJ
SURYLGHG E\ DQ DGXOW WKURXJKRXW SDUWLFLSDWLRQ ,Q RUGHU IRU VXFK DGXOW
LQYROYHPHQWWREHIDFLOLWDWLYHLWQHHGVWRRIIHUVWUXFWXUHDQGPRQLWRULQJNHHSLQJ
\RXWK RQ WUDFN ZKLOVW DW WKH VDPH WLPH DOORZLQJ WKHP WR PDLQWDLQ WKHLU RZQ
VHOIGLUHFWLRQ DQG H[SORUH WKHLU LGHQWLW\ DQG FDSDELOLWLHV /DUVRQ +DQVHQ
 :DONHU  7KH PHUH SUHVHQFH RI DGXOWV LV QRW VXIFLHQW IRU IRVWHULQJ
SRVLWLYHGHYHORSPHQW)RUH[DPSOHUHVHDUFKLQ6ZHGHQ0DKRQH\6WDWWLQDQG
0DJQXVVRQ3HUVVRQ.HUU 6WDWWLQIRXQGDGROHVFHQWSDUWLFLSDWLRQ
LQ \RXWK FHQWUHV ZKHUH DGXOW VXSHUYLVLRQ ZDV ORZ DQG XQVWUXFWXUHG UHVXOWHG
LQ KLJKHU OHYHOV RI MXYHQLOH RIIHQGLQJ DQG QRUP EUHDNLQJ 7KXV FRPSDUHG WR
XQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVPD\EHPRUHEHQHFLDOWRDGROHVFHQW
GHYHORSPHQW
$JURZLQJERG\RIHYLGHQFHLQGLFDWHVDFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUH
DFWLYLWLHVDQGSRVLWLYHRXWFRPHV(FFOHVHWDO)UHGHULFNV (FFOHVD
E3DVVPRUH )UHQFK6KDZHWDOVXFKDVKLJKHUDFDGHPLF

60

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

DVSLUDWLRQV DQG SRVLWLYH VFKRRO DWWLWXGHV &RRSHU 9DOHQWLQH 1\H  /LQGVD\

'DUOLQJ&DOGZHOO 6PLWK0DKRQH\/RUG &DUU\ODVZHOO
DV ORZHU VFKRRO GURS RXW UDWHV LQ \RXWK FRQVLGHUHG WR EH DW ULVN 0DKRQH\
 &DLUQV  0F1HDO  6RPH RI WKH UHVHDUFK RQ VWUXFWXUHG OHLVXUH KDV
IRFXVHGRQFRPSDULVRQVEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWW\SHVRIDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVVSRUWVDQG
DUWVEDVHG DFWLYLWLHV DQG KDV IRXQG GLIIHUHQWLDO HIIHFWV GHSHQGLQJ RQ DFWLYLW\
W\SH(FFOHVHWDO+DQVHQHWDO/DUVRQHWDO
3DUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ DUWV DQG SHUIRUPDQFHEDVHG DFWLYLWLHV LV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK
SRVLWLYH RXWFRPHV VXFK DV D UHGXFHG ULVN IRU KLJK VFKRRO GURSRXW 0F1HDO
 $UWV DFWLYLWLHV ZKHQ FRPSDUHG WR RWKHU VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV DUH DOVR
DVVRFLDWHGZLWKSRVLWLYHH[SHULHQFHVVXFKDVLQLWLDWLYHGHYHORSPHQWDQGLGHQWLW\
ZRUN/DUVRQHWDOKLJKHUOHYHOVRIFRQFHQWUDWLRQDQGLQWULQVLFPRWLYDWLRQ
/DUVRQ  DQG KLJKHU VHOI NQRZOHGJH H[SHULHQFHV +DQVHQ HW DO 
+RZHYHUORZHUSRVLWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSH[SHULHQFHVWHDPZRUNDQGDGXOWQHWZRUNV
KDYHDOVREHHQIRXQGLQDUWVDQGSHUIRUPDQFHDFWLYLWLHV/DUVRQHWDO
6SRUWVSDUWLFLSDWLRQKDVEHHQDVVRFLDWHGZLWKKLJKHUDFDGHPLFDFKLHYHPHQW
DQG EHWWHU HGXFDWLRQDO RXWFRPHV %URK  (FFOHV HW DO  )UHGHULFNV 
(FFOHV D DQG UHGXFHG UDWHV LQ KLJK VFKRRO GURSRXW 0F1HDO  DQG
SUREOHPEHKDYLRXU)UDVHU7KRPDVHWDO+RZHYHUSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQVSRUWV
KDV DOVR EHHQ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK LQFUHDVHG ULVNV VXFK DV KLJKHU OHYHOV RI DOFRKRO
XVH (FFOHV HW DO  %DUEHU 6WRQH +XQW  (FFOHV  +RIIPDQ 
IHZHUSRVLWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSH[SHULHQFHV/DUVRQHWDODQGKLJKHUUDWHVRI
QHJDWLYHSHHULQWHUDFWLRQV+DQVHQHWDO0L[HGUHVXOWVKDYHEHHQIRXQG
IRU LGHQWLW\UHODWHG H[SHULHQFHV ZLWK VRPH UHVHDUFKHUV QGLQJ VSRUWV SURYLGH
ORZHU OHYHOV RI LGHQWLW\ ZRUN /DUVRQ HW DO  DQG RWKHUV QGLQJ VSRUWV
SURYLGHLGHQWLW\H[SHULHQFHVIRUIHPDOHVEXWQRWPDOHV6KDZHWDO

Structured Leisure in Australia

3DUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ VSRUWV DFWLYLWLHV LV UHSRUWHG E\ $XVWUDOLDQ DGROHVFHQWV DV D
IUHTXHQWOHLVXUHDFWLYLW\3DVVPRUH )UHQFKZLWKRI$XVWUDOLDQ\RXWK
SDUWLFLSDWLQJLQRUJDQLVHGVSRUWV$XVWUDOLDQ%XUHDXRI6WDWLVWLFV$%6,Q
$XVWUDOLD PDOHV UHSRUW D KLJKHU SDUWLFLSDWLRQ UDWH LQ VSRUW  WKDQ IHPDOHV
$%6ZKLFKLVFRQVLVWHQWZLWKJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVIRXQGLQLQWHUQD
WLRQDOUHVHDUFK/DUVRQ 9HUPD3DVVPRUH )UHQFK$PRQJ\RXWK
DJHG\HDUV:HVWHUQ$XVWUDOLDKDVWKHKLJKHVWSDUWLFLSDWLRQUDWHLQ$XVWUDOLD
LQRUJDQLVHGVSRUWV$%65RXJKO\RI$XVWUDOLDQ\RXWKVSHQG
VRPH RI WKHLU OHLVXUH WLPH SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ RUJDQLVHG DUWV DQG SHUIRUPDQFH
DFWLYLWLHV VXFK DV GDQFH VLQJLQJ GUDPD DQG SOD\LQJ D PXVLFDO LQVWUXPHQW
ZLWKPRUHIHPDOHVWKDQPDOHVFKRRVLQJVXFKDFWLYLWLHV$%6
:HVWHUQ$XVWUDOLDQDGROHVFHQWVDJHG\HDUVUHSRUWWKHKLJKHVWSDUWLFLSDWLRQ
UDWHLQDUWVDFWLYLWLHVDPRQJDOOVWDWHVRUWHUULWRULHV$%6

Unstructured Leisure Activities

$GROHVFHQWOHLVXUHLVRIWHQGHVFULEHGDQGLQYHVWLJDWHGLQWHUPVRIRUJDQLVHGRU
VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV +RZHYHU DGROHVFHQWV WKHPVHOYHV RIWHQ GHVFULEH OHLVXUH

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

61

LQWHUPVRIXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVVRFLDOLVLQJZLWKIULHQGVRUZDWFKLQJ
WHOHYLVLRQ790F0HHNLQJ8QVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUHUHIHUVWRDFWLYLWLHVWKDW
ODFN WKH VWUXFWXUHG JRDOV JXLGDQFH VXSHUYLVLRQ DQG PRQLWRULQJ WKDW FKDUDF
WHULVH VWUXFWXUHG OHLVXUH 3DUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ XQVWUXFWXUHG OHLVXUH LV VHOIGLUHFWHG
DQG SURYLGHV DGROHVFHQWV ZLWK WKH IUHHGRP WR FKDOOHQJH VRFLDOO\ FRQYHQWLRQDO
EHKDYLRXUVLQDQHQYLURQPHQWWKDWLVIUHHIURPWKHGLUHFWHYDOXDWLRQRISDUHQWV
RUDGXOWV.OHLEHU2VJRRG$QGHUVRQ 6KDIIHU
0XFK RI WKH FXUUHQW UHVHDUFK RQ SDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ XQVWUXFWXUHG OHLVXUH KDV
IRFXVHGRQWKHQHJDWLYHLQXHQFHVWKDWSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV
KDVRQDGROHVFHQWGHYHORSPHQW0DKRQH\HWDO6WDII0RUWLPHU 8JJHQ
8QVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUHKDVEHHQFRQVLGHUHGEDGOHLVXUHDQGLVDVVRFLDWHG
ZLWKQHJDWLYHGHYHORSPHQWDORXWFRPHVVXFKDVGHOLQTXHQF\DOFRKRODQGGUXJ
XVH DQG VH[XDO DFWLYLW\ LQ DGROHVFHQWV 2VJRRG HW DO  6WDII HW DO 
+RZHYHUDGROHVFHQWVUHSRUWVSHQGLQJPRUHRIWKHLUGLVFUHWLRQDU\WLPHLQXQVWUXF
WXUHGDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVVRFLDOLVLQJZLWKSHHUV/DUVRQ 9HUPDWKDQLQ
DFWLYLWLHV WKDW DUH DFKLHYHPHQW RU JRDO RULHQWDWHG 3DVVPRUH  )UHQFK 
7KHPDMRULW\RI$XVWUDOLDQ\RXWKUHSRUWVSHQGLQJPRVWRIWKHLUOHLVXUH
WLPH ZDWFKLQJ 79 RU YLGHRV SOD\LQJ FRPSXWHU JDPHV RU UHDGLQJ IRU SOHDVXUH
$%6  %HFDXVH DGROHVFHQWV SUHIHU XQVWUXFWXUHG OHLVXUH LW LV LPSRUWDQW
WR LQYHVWLJDWH WKH SRVLWLYH DV ZHOO DV WKH QHJDWLYH GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV
OLQNHGWRSDUWLFLSDWLRQ
7KHW\SHRIXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLW\FDQLQXHQFHWKHQDWXUHRIWKHRXWFRPHV
DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK SDUWLFLSDWLRQ )RU H[DPSOH ZDWFKLQJ 79 DQ DFWLYLW\ LQ ZKLFK
RI$XVWUDOLDQ\RXWKSDUWLFLSDWH$%6LQFUHDVHVPHQWDODQGSK\VLFDO
SDVVLYLW\GRHVQRWUHTXLUHVHOIUHJXODWHGDWWHQWLRQ/DUVRQ 9HUPDODFNV
LQYROYHPHQWDQGFKDOOHQJHLVQHJDWLYHO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKLGHQWLW\GHYHORSPHQWLQ
DGROHVFHQWPDOHV6KDZHWDODQGLVUHODWHGWRORZVHOIHVWHHPLQDGROHVFHQW
IHPDOHV7LJJHPDQQ+RZHYHUXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVVRFLDOLVLQJ
ZLWKIULHQGVKDYHEHHQDVVRFLDWHGZLWKKLJKHUUDWHVRILGHQWLW\ZRUNWKDQERWK
RUJDQLVHG VSRUWV DQG DUWV DFWLYLWLHV /DUVRQ HW DO  6RPH XQVWUXFWXUHG
DFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVKREELHVGUDZLQJFUHDWLYHZULWLQJPD\HQFRPSDVVFKDUDFWHU
LVWLFVVLPLODUWRVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVFKDOOHQJHDQGVNLOOHQKDQFHPHQW,Q
DGGLWLRQDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVOLVWHQLQJWRPXVLFZKLFKLQFUHDVHVGXULQJDGROHVFHQFH
FDQVHUYHSRVLWLYHIXQFWLRQVVXFKDVUHOD[DWLRQ/DUVRQ 9HUPD,QRUGHU
WRJDLQDPRUHFRPSUHKHQVLYHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHSRWHQWLDOFRQVWUXFWLYHUROH
RIXQVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUHLWLVQRWRQO\LPSRUWDQWWRLQYHVWLJDWHWKHVHDFWLYLWLHVDV
DZKROHEXWDOVRWRH[SORUHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHP

Developmental Experiences in Activities

7R HQKDQFH RXU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH EHQHWV RI YDULRXV OHLVXUH DFWLYLWLHV ZH
QHHG WR LQYHVWLJDWH PRUH WKDQ WKH RXWFRPHV OLQNHG WR GLIIHUHQW DFWLYLWLHV DQG
GHOYHLQWRDGHHSHUTXHVWLRQWKDWDVNVhow? and why?DFWLYLWLHVGLIIHU5HFHQWO\
WKHUH KDV EHHQ DQ LQFUHDVHG IRFXV RQ WKH GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV UHSRUWHG
E\SDUWLFLSDQWVLQGLIIHUHQWDFWLYLWLHV'ZRUNLQHWDO+DQVHQHWDO
/DUVRQHWDO

62

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

/DUVRQ DQG KLV FROOHDJXHV  +DQVHQ HW DO  KDYH GHYHORSHG
WKH <RXWK ([SHULHQFH 6XUYH\ <(6  D PHDVXUH XVHG WR PDS WKH GHYHORS
PHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV RI \RXWK SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ RUJDQLVHG DFWLYLWLHV +DQVHQ HW
DO/DUVRQHWDO7KHVXUYH\PHDVXUHVGHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHV
LQ  GRPDLQV LQWHUSHUVRQDO SHUVRQDO DQG QHJDWLYH H[SHULHQFHV VXJJHVWHG E\
DGROHVFHQWVWKHPVHOYHVWREHVDOLHQWH[SHULHQFHVRIIHUHGE\OHLVXUH'ZRUNLQHW
DO  7KH <(6  ,GHQWLW\ ZRUN DQG ,QLWLDWLYH VXEVFDOHV ZHUH FKRVHQ IRU
WKLVVWXG\DVWKH\PHDVXUH\RXWKVUHSRUWVRIWKHLURZQH[SHULHQFHVLQDFWLYLWLHV
RIIHULQJLQVLJKWLQWRZKDWWKH\PD\VHHDVEHQHWVRISDUWLFLSDWLRQ
Leisure & Identity
$GROHVFHQFH LQYRNHV D QHZ FDSDFLW\ IRU VHOIUHHFWLRQ UHVXOWLQJ LQ LGHQWLW\
LVVXHV EHFRPLQJ D SURPLQHQW IHDWXUH RI DGROHVFHQW GHYHORSPHQW (ULNVRQ
3DUWLFLSDWLRQLQSDUWLFXODUOHLVXUHDFWLYLWLHVPD\UHHFWDGROHVFHQWVVHOI
EHOLHIVDQGYDOLGDWHWKHLULGHQWLW\%DUEHUHWDO(FFOHVHWDO/HLVXUH
DFWLYLWLHVQRWRQO\SURYLGHDGROHVFHQWVZLWKWKHIUHHGRPWRH[SORUHDOWHUQDWLYH
RSWLRQVDOORZLQJWKHFUHDWLRQRUGLVFRYHU\RIGLIIHUHQWDVSHFWVRIWKHLULGHQWLW\
WKH\DOVRDOORZWKHH[SUHVVLRQRILGHQWLW\WRRWKHUVDQGWRRQHVHOI%DUEHUHWDO
 .OHLEHU  /HLVXUH LQ DGROHVFHQFH LV QRW RQO\ LQVWUXPHQWDO HQDEOLQJ
WKHGHYHORSPHQWDQGH[SORUDWLRQRIVNLOOVDQGNQRZOHGJHLWLVDOVRH[SUHVVLYH
SURYLGLQJDQRSSRUWXQLW\WRH[SUHVVWKHLQWHUHVWVYDOXHVDQGDELOLWLHVWKDWDIUP
DVRFLDODQGSHUVRQDOLGHQWLW\6WUXFWXUHGDQGXQVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUHFRQWH[WVPD\
LQYRNH DGROHVFHQWV WR UHHFW XSRQ DQG H[SORUH WKHLU LGHQWLW\ IURP GLIIHUHQW
SHUVSHFWLYHVKLJKOLJKWLQJXQLTXHSHUVRQDODELOLWLHVDQGHQFRXUDJLQJH[SORUDWLRQ
DQG UHHFWLRQ RQ GLVWLQFW DVSHFWV RI WKHPVHOYHV %HFDXVH XQVWUXFWXUHG OHLVXUH
DFWLYLWLHVDUHPRUHVHOIGLUHFWHGDQGDXWRQRPRXVDGROHVFHQWVPD\EHPRUHDEOH
WR H[SORUH WKHLU LGHQWLWLHV ZLWKLQ VXFK FRQWH[WV ,W ZDV WKHUHIRUH K\SRWKHVLVHG
WKDW DGROHVFHQWV ZLOO UHSRUW PRUH LGHQWLW\ ZRUN H[SHULHQFHV LQ XQVWUXFWXUHG
DFWLYLWLHVWKDQLQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV
Leisure & Initiative
7KHGHYHORSPHQWRILQLWLDWLYHLVSURSRVHGWREHDFHQWUDOTXDOLW\UHTXLUHGLQSRVLWLYH
DGROHVFHQWGHYHORSPHQW/DUVRQ,QGHYHORSLQJLQLWLDWLYHDSHUVRQDFTXLUHV
WKHFDSDFLW\WRGHYRWHHIIRUWWRZDUGVDFKLHYLQJDJRDODQGLQYROYHVWKHXVHRIVNLOOV
VXFKDVSODQQLQJWLPHPDQDJHPHQWSUREOHPVROYLQJDQGFRQWLQJHQF\WKLQNLQJ
RYHUDSHULRGRIWLPH/DUVRQ/DUVRQHWDO:LWKWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI
DEVWUDFWWKLQNLQJDQGK\SRWKHWLFRGHGXFWLYHUHDVRQLQJDGROHVFHQWVDUHEHJLQQLQJ
WRDFTXLUHWKHVNLOOVDQGFDSDELOLWLHVUHTXLUHGLQLQLWLDWLYHGHYHORSPHQW+RZHYHU
DGROHVFHQWV DUH UDUHO\ JLYHQ WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ WR HQJDJH LQ DFWLYLWLHV WKDW UHTXLUH
WKHP WR XVH WKH VNLOOV UHTXLUHG LQ WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI LQLWLDWLYH /DUVRQ 
6FKRRO DQG HPSOR\PHQW DFWLYLWLHV DUH OHVV OLNHO\ WR EH VHOIGLUHFWHG LQWULQVLFDOO\
PRWLYDWHGDQGGRQRWUHTXLUHWKHXVHRILQLWLDWLYH%DUEHUHWDO&RDWVZRUWK
HW DO  /DUVRQ  /HLVXUH DFWLYLWLHV VSHFLFDOO\ WKRVH LQYROYLQJ DGXOWV
VWUXFWXUHG SURYLGH DGROHVFHQWV ZLWK JXLGDQFH FKDOOHQJH DQG GHHS DWWHQWLRQ
DQG PRUH WLPH LQ VXFK DFWLYLWLHV PD\ HQKDQFH WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI LQLWLDWLYH

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

63

/DUVRQ  ,W ZDV WKHUHIRUH K\SRWKHVLVHG WKDW XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV ZRXOG
SURYLGHIHZHUH[SHULHQFHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKLQLWLDWLYHGHYHORSPHQWWKDQVWUXFWXUHG
DFWLYLWLHV $V DGXOW OHDGHUV UROHV LQYROYH SURYLGLQJ \RXWK ZLWK JXLGDQFH DQG
VWUXFWXUHLWZDVK\SRWKHVLVHGWKDWJUHDWHUDGXOWLQYROYHPHQWZRXOGEHDVVRFLDWHG
ZLWKKLJKHUOHYHOVRIGHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHV6LPLODUO\JLYHQWKHLQYROYHPHQW
RIDGXOWVLQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVPRUHSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHVHW\SHVRIDFWLYLWLHVZDV
K\SRWKHVL]HG WR EH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK KLJKHU OHYHOV RI GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV
FRPSDUHGWRSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV

Study Aims
7KH FXUUHQW UHVHDUFK LQYHVWLJDWHG WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ SDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ
ERWKVWUXFWXUHGDQGXQVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUHDFWLYLWLHVDQGSRVLWLYHGHYHORSPHQWDO
H[SHULHQFHV LQ :HVWHUQ $XVWUDOLDQ DGROHVFHQWV 7KHUH ZHUH VHYHUDO REMHFWLYHV
DGGUHVVHG 7R  GHVFULEH $XVWUDOLDQ DGROHVFHQW OHLVXUH DFWLYLWLHV  GHWHUPLQH
ZKHWKHUVWUXFWXUHGRUXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVRIIHUWKHLUSDUWLFLSDQWVPRUHGHYHO
RSPHQWDOO\ IDFLOLWDWLYH H[SHULHQFHV  LQYHVWLJDWH OHYHOV RI DGXOW LQYROYHPHQW
ZLWK H[SHULHQFHV  H[SORUH WKH SRVLWLYH H[SHULHQFHV SURYLGHG E\ XQVWUXF
WXUHGOHLVXUHDQGH[SORUHGLIIHUHQFHVDPRQJVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVDQGDPRQJ
XQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV$VGLIIHUHQWDFWLYLWLHVDUHFKDUDFWHULVHGE\GLIIHUHQWJRDOV
VNLOOVDQGLQYROYHPHQWLWZDVK\SRWKHVLVHGWKDWGLIIHUHQWVWUXFWXUHGWHDPVSRUWV
YV LQGLYLGXDO VSRUWV DQG XQVWUXFWXUHG VRFLDOLVLQJ YV ZDWFKLQJ 79 DFWLYLWLHV
ZRXOGSURYLGH\RXWKZLWKGLIIHUHQWSDWWHUQVRIH[SHULHQFHV
,QDQDWWHPSWWRDGGUHVVFRQIRXQGVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKVHOHFWLRQHIIHFWVWKHFXUUHQW
VWXG\XWLOLVHGDZLWKLQVXEMHFWGHVLJQJDWKHULQJGDWDRQERWKVWUXFWXUHGDQGXQVWUXF
WXUHGDFWLYLWLHVIRUHDFKVWXGHQW7KLVGHVLJQKHOSVWRUHGXFHWKHLVVXHVUDLVHGZKHQ
FRPSDULQJEHWZHHQVWXGHQWVZKRSDUWLFLSDWHLQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVZLWKWKRVHZKR
GRQRWJLYHQOLNHO\GLIIHUHQFHVLQPRWLYDWLRQDQGSHUVRQDOLW\RSSRUWXQLW\VWUXFWXUHV
DQGIDPLO\LQYROYHPHQWWKDWSURSHOOHGWKHPLQWRWKHLUDFWLYLW\6XFKDQDSSURDFK
PDNHVVXFKGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQDGROHVFHQWVOHVVLPSRUWDQWZKHQFRPSDULQJDQG
H[SODLQLQJWKHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQDFWLYLW\FRQWH[WV

Method
Participants
$ FRQYHQLHQFH VDPSOH RI VWXGHQWV LQ JUDGHV  ZDV UHFUXLWHG IURP D
JRYHUQPHQW FRHGXFDWLRQDO KLJK VFKRRO LQ 3HUWK :HVWHUQ $XVWUDOLD VHUYLQJ
PHWURSROLWDQ VHPLUXUDO DQG UXUDO DGROHVFHQWV 7KLV UHVXOWHG LQ D VDPSOH WKDW
FRQVLVWHGRIPDOHIHPDOHVWXGHQWVRIZKRPZHUHJUDGH
VWXGHQWVJUDGHVWXGHQWVJUDGHVWXGHQWVDQGJUDGH
VWXGHQWV3DUWLFLSDQWVZHUHDJHGEHWZHHQM SD WKHPHDQ
DJHZDVIRUPDOHVDQGIRUIHPDOHV
Materials
$SDJHVXUYH\ZDVXVHGWRPHDVXUHGHPRJUDSKLFLQIRUPDWLRQDFWLYLW\SDUWLF
LSDWLRQ DQG WKH GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV SURYLGHG E\ ERWK VWUXFWXUHG DQG
XQVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUHDFWLYLWLHV

64

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Demographic Background
'HPRJUDSKLF LQIRUPDWLRQ LQFOXGHG JHQGHU DJH DQG WKH JUDGH SDUWLFLSDQWV
ZHUHFXUUHQWO\FRPSOHWLQJ6(6ZDVPHDVXUHGXVLQJWZRFDWHJRU\LWHPVWKDW
DVNHG WKH KLJKHVW OHYHO RI HGXFDWLRQ UHFHLYHG E\ ERWK SDUHQWV primary schoolsome postgraduate university $ ODFN RI DZDUHQHVV RU NQRZOHGJH RI SDUHQWDO
DFDGHPLF DFKLHYHPHQW ZDV DFFRXQWHG IRU E\ D dont know/unsure RSWLRQ
$ KLJK SURSRUWLRQ RI SDUWLFLSDQWV ZHUH XQDZDUH RI WKHLU PRWKHUV  DQG
IDWKHUVKLJKHVWOHYHORIHGXFDWLRQ7KHPDMRULW\RISDUHQWVZHUHUHSRUWHG
WR KDYH FRPSOHWHG HLWKHU \HDU  JUDGXDWHG KLJK VFKRRO KDG D 7$)( TXDOL
FDWLRQRUWUDGHFHUWLFDWHPRWKHUVIDWKHUV2QO\RIERWKPRWKHUV
DQGIDWKHUVKDGHLWKHUFRPSOHWHGVRPHXQLYHUVLW\JDLQHGDXQLYHUVLW\GHJUHHRU
SRVWJUDGXDWHDZDUG7KLVGLVWULEXWLRQLQGLFDWHVWKDWWKHPDMRULW\RISDUWLFLSDQWV
ZHUHPHPEHUVRIIDPLOLHVZLWKDORZWRPHGLXPVRFLRHFRQRPLFVWDWXV6(6
Activity Participation
3DUWLFLSDQWV ZHUH JLYHQ D VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLW\ OLVW team sports, individual sports,
arts, dance, skill-based clubs, political clubs, volunteer, academic clubs, youth groups,
cultural clubsVLPLODUWRWKRVHXVHGLQSUHYLRXVUHVHDUFKHJ(FFOHVHWDO
%DUEHUHWDO/DUVRQHWDODQGDQXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLW\OLVWsocialising
with friends, sport, watching TV, computer games, hobbies, listening to music, exercising,
playing music, communication, internet use3DUWLFLSDQWVZHUHDVNHGWRLGHQWLI\DQG
VSHFLI\WKHDFWLYLWLHVLQZKLFKWKH\SDUWLFLSDWHG$QDGGLWLRQDORSWLRQRIother
ZDVJLYHQIRUHDFKFRQWH[WVWUXFWXUHGXQVWUXFWXUHGWRDOORZIRULQFOXVLRQRI
DFWLYLWLHVWKDWZHUHXQXVXDORUXQOLVWHG3DUWLFLSDQWVZHUHWKHQDVNHGWRVHOHFWD
VWUXFWXUHGDQGDQXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLW\LQZKLFKWKH\FRQVLGHUHGWKHPVHOYHVWR
EHWKHPRVWLQYHVWHGWDUJHWDFWLYLWLHV
Hours in Activity & Adult Involvement
3DUWLFLSDQWVUHSRUWHGWKHDPRXQWRIWLPHWKH\VSHQWHDFKZHHNSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQ
HDFK RI WKHLU WDUJHW DFWLYLWLHV ERWK VWUXFWXUHG DQG XQVWUXFWXUHG E\ VHOHFWLQJ
RQHRIIRXURSWLRQV1-4hrs, 5-8hrs, 9-12hrs or 12 or more hrs p/week3DUWLFLSDQWV
DOVRUHSRUWHGZKHWKHUWKHLUWDUJHWDFWLYLWLHVLQYROYHGDQDGXOWyes/no) and if so
KRZPXFKWLPHWKH\VSHQWLQWHUDFWLQJZLWKWKHDGXOWGXULQJWKHLUWDUJHWDFWLYLW\
(very little time, some of the timea lot of the timeRUthe whole time$QDGXOW
LQYROYHPHQWVFRUHEHWZHHQZDVJLYHQIRUHDFKDFWLYLW\FRQWH[W YHU\OLWWOH
WLPH WKHZKROHWLPHDQLQYROYHPHQWVFRUHRI]HURnot involved) was given
ZKHUHWDUJHWDFWLYLWLHVGLGQRWLQYROYHDQDGXOW
Developmental Experiences
'HYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVZHUHPHDVXUHGXVLQJLWHPVPHDVXULQJGHYHORS
PHQWDOH[SHULHQFHGRPDLQVLGHQWLW\ZRUNidentity exploration, LGHQWLW\UHHFWLRQ,
LWHPVHDFKDQGLQLWLDWLYHGHYHORSPHQWgoal setting, effort, problem solving and
time managementLWHPVHDFK7KHLWHPVZHUHIURPWKH<(6/DUVRQHWDO
+DQVHQHWDO6HH7DEOHIRUH[DPSOHLWHPVDQGGHVFULSWLYHV%RWK
GRPDLQVZHUHPHDVXUHGLQHDFKDFWLYLW\FRQWH[WVWUXFWXUHGDQGXQVWUXFWXUHG

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

65

Table 1. Developmental Experiences Domain Scales, Items and Descriptive

Statistics for Structured and Unstructured Activity Responses
Variables

Structured (N=37)
M

SD

Unstructured (N=47)
M

SD

Identity Work

2.7

.70

.79

2.5

.67

.72

Identity Exploration
Eg; Tried doing new things

2.8

.67

.54

2.6

.66

.38

Identity Reflection
Eg; Started thinking more
about my future because of
this activity

2.6

.89

.78

2.4

.89

.77

Initiative Development

2.8*

.64

.91

2.5*

.76

.91

Goal Setting
Eg; I set goals for myself
in this activity

2.8*

.78

.77

2.4*

.93

.83

Effort
Eg; I put all my energy into
this activity

3.1*

.77

.86

2.6*

.89

.79

Problem Solving
Eg; Observed how others
solved problems and learned
from them

2.6

.70

.66

2.4

.95

.87

Time Management
Eg; Learned about
organising time and not
procrastinating

2.7

.74

.79

2.5

.80

.81

*Mean difference is significant at .05 alpha level

8VLQJDSRLQWVFDOH QRWDWDOO \HVGHQLWHO\), participants rated their

GHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVGXULQJWKHLUFXUUHQWRUUHFHQWLQYROYHPHQWLQWKHLU
WDUJHWDFWLYLWLHV6FRUHVZHUHFDOFXODWHGIRUHDFKVXEVFDOHE\DYHUDJLQJDOOLWHPV
UHODWLQJWRWKDWGRPDLQ
5HOLDELOLW\ ZDV WHVWHG IRU DOO <(6  VFDOHV LQ HDFK DFWLYLW\ FRQWH[W XVLQJ
&URQEDFKV $OSKD $OWKRXJK WKH <(6  KDV EHHQ XVHG SULPDULO\ LQ WKH
H[SORUDWLRQRIRUJDQLVHGDFWLYLWLHV+DQVHQHWDOWKH<(6VXEVFDOH
UHOLDELOLW\ VFRUHV REWDLQHG VHH 7DEOH  LQ WKH FXUUHQW VWXG\ ZHUH JHQHUDOO\
FRPSDUDEOH WR SUHYLRXV UHVHDUFK +DQVHQ HW DO  IRU ERWK VWUXFWXUHG
 DQG XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV  2QH H[FHSWLRQ ZDV WKH LGHQWLW\
H[SORUDWLRQVXEVFDOHIRXQGWRKDYHWKHORZHVWUHOLDELOLW\ZKHQXVHGLQ
XQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV

66

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Open-ended Questions
3DUWLFLSDQWVZHUHDOVRDVNHGRSHQHQGHGTXHVWLRQVWRJDLQTXDOLWDWLYHLQIRUPDWLRQ
DERXWWKHLUDFWLYLW\SDUWLFLSDWLRQWhat do you like about this activity?, 2Why
have you chosen this activity over others?Are there any aspects of this activity you
dont enjoy? If so what are they and why?, and 4 If you had extra time available would
you participate more in this activity? Why or why not?7KHVHTXHVWLRQVUHODWHGWR
WKHDFWLYLW\WKHSDUWLFLSDQWVHOHFWHGLQHDFKFRQWH[WDVWKHLUWDUJHWDFWLYLW\
Procedure
7KURXJKFROODERUDWLRQZLWKDGPLQLVWUDWLRQDWSDUWLFLSDQWVKLJKVFKRROSDUWLFL
SDQWV ZHUH VXUYH\HG GXULQJ SK\VLFDO HGXFDWLRQ FODVVHV 7KH VXUYH\ WRRN
DSSUR[LPDWHO\  PLQXWHV WR FRPSOHWH 2QH ZHHN SULRU WR WKH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI
VXUYH\VSDUHQWDOLQIRUPDWLRQOHWWHUVDQGFRQVHQWIRUPVZHUHIRUZDUGHGYLDWKH
VWXGHQWVWRWKHSDUHQWVRIDOO\HDUDQGVWXGHQWVHQUROOHGLQFRUHRU
HOHFWLYHSK\VLFDOHGXFDWLRQXQLWV
2I WKH  SDUHQWDO FRQVHQW IRUPV GLVWULEXWHG  ZHUH UHWXUQHG DOO JLYLQJ
FRQVHQWDQGDUHVSRQVHUDWHRI6WXGHQWVZLWKSDUHQWDOFRQVHQWZHUHJLYHQ
D SHUVRQDO LQIRUPDWLRQ OHWWHU DQG FRQVHQW IRUP 2QO\ VWXGHQWV ZKR SURYLGHG
SDUHQWDO DQG SHUVRQDO FRQVHQW FRPSOHWHG VXUYH\V $OO VWXGHQWV ZLWK SDUHQWDO
FRQVHQWJDYHSHUVRQDOFRQVHQW
%HIRUH UHOLDELOLW\ FRXOG EH WHVWHG DQG VWDWLVWLFDODQDO\VHVSHUIRUPHGWKHUDZ
GDWD ZHUH H[DPLQHG 3DUWLFLSDQWV ZKR UHSRUWHG WKH VDPH UHVSRQVHV LQ  RU
PRUHRIWKHLWHPVZHUHH[FOXGHGIURPWKHDQDO\VHVDVWKHVHUHVSRQVHVVHHPHGWR
LQGLFDWHWKDWWKHVHSDUWLFLSDQWVIDLOHGWRUHVSRQGVHULRXVO\WRWKHVXUYH\LWHPV$VD
UHVXOWSDUWLFLSDQWVVXUYH\UHVSRQVHVZHUHH[FOXGHGIURPIXUWKHUDQDO\VHVZKLFK
UHVXOWHGLQDWRWDOVDPSOHVL]HRISDUWLFLSDQWVIRUVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLW\DQDO\VHV
IRUXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLW\DQDO\VHVDQGIRUUHSHDWHGPHDVXUHVDQDO\VHV

Results
Descriptive data on Australian adolescents leisure activities (N=53)
7ZHQW\ IRXU SHUFHQW N  RI WKH SDUWLFLSDQWV VXUYH\HG UHSRUWHG QRW SDUWLF
LSDWLQJ LQ DQ\ VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV 2I WKH SDUWLFLSDQWV ZKR GLG UHSRUW
SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ VWUXFWXUHG OHLVXUH  N  UHSRUWHG SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ  RU
PRUHGLIIHUHQWDFWLYLWLHV$OOSDUWLFLSDQWVUHSRUWHGVSHQGLQJOHLVXUHWLPHSDUWLFL
SDWLQJLQXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV$OPRVWDOOSDUWLFLSDQWVN UHSRUWHG
SDUWLFLSDWLQJLQRUPRUHGLIIHUHQWXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVGXULQJWKHLUOHLVXUH
WLPH7KHIROORZLQJEUHDNGRZQRIVWUXFWXUHGDQGXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVLVEDVHG
XSRQWKHVLQJOHWDUJHWDFWLYLWLHVFKRVHQE\SDUWLFLSDQWVIRUHDFKFRQWH[W
Structured Activities
7ZHQW\IRXUSHUFHQWN RISDUWLFLSDQWVUHSRUWHGWKDWWKH\GLGQRWSDUWLFLSDWH
LQDQ\VWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVDQGZHUHDVNHGWRJLYHH[SODQDWLRQVIRUWKHLUQRQ
SDUWLFLSDWLRQ 2QH SDUWLFLSDQW JDYH QR H[SODQDWLRQ KRZHYHU WKH UHPDLQLQJ 
JDYH H[SODQDWLRQV FDWHJRULVHG LQWR  WKHPDWLF FDWHJRULHV FRQVLVWLQJ RI WLPH
FRQVWUDLQWV HJ I dont have time in my day to play sport XQZLOOLQJQHVV WR

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

67

SDUWLFLSDWH HJ Cant be bothered RWKHU FRQVWUDLQWV HJ Coz the sports I
wanna do Im not aloud >VLF@DQGSOD\VXQVWUXFWXUHGVSRUWHJI bodyboard as
a sport, although its just a hobby, not serious+DOIN RISDUWLFLSDQWVUHSRUWHG
8QZLOOLQJQHVV WR 3DUWLFLSDWH DV DQ H[SODQDWLRQ 2QH TXDUWHU N  UHSRUWHG
WLPHFRQVWUDLQWVN UHSRUWHGRWKHUFRQVWUDLQWVDQGN UHSRUWHG
SOD\LQJXQVWUXFWXUHGVSRUWDVH[SODQDWLRQVIRUQRQSDUWLFLSDWLRQ7KRVHSDUWLFL
SDQWVWKDWUHSRUWHGSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVN ZHUHFRQFHSWXDOO\
JURXSHGLQWRDFWLYLW\FDWHJRULHV7KHPDMRULW\RIWKHVHVWXGHQWVUHSRUWHGEHLQJ
WKHPRVWLQYHVWHGLQHLWKHUWHDPVSRUWVN RULQGLYLGXDOVSRUWV
N  IROORZHG E\ SHUIRUPLQJ DUWV  N  DQG VNLOOEDVHG RU YROXQWHHU
JURXSVN 
Unstructured Activities
6HYHQ XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLW\ FDWHJRULHV ZHUH LGHQWLHG 7ZHQW\ WKUHH SHUFHQW
(N  RI SDUWLFLSDQWV UHSRUWHG EHLQJ WKH PRVW LQYHVWHG LQ VRFLDOLVLQJ ZLWK
IULHQGVIROORZHGE\VSHQGLQJWLPHRQKREELHVN )LIWHHQSHUFHQWRI
SDUWLFLSDQWV UHSRUWHG VSHQGLQJ WLPH LQ XQVWUXFWXUHG VSRUW N  DQG FRPPX
QLFDWLRQEDVHG DFWLYLWLHV 606 PRELOH XVH N  7KH OHDVW FRPPRQ DFWLYLWLHV
UHSRUWHGZHUHH[HUFLVLQJN OLVWHQLQJWRPXVLFN DQGPHGLDXVH
N 
Within-subject Comparisons Between Structured
and Unstructured Leisure Activity Contexts
7KH QH[W DQDO\VHV DUH SUHVHQWHG LQ VHYHUDO VWHSV )LUVW EHFDXVH WKH GHYHO
RSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFH FRQVWUXFWV IURP WKH <(6 DUH UHODWHG WKH\ DUH LQFOXGHG
WRJHWKHU LQ D PXOWLYDULDWH DQDO\VLV RI YDULDQFH $IWHU WKH PXOWLYDULDWH WHVW
H[DPLQLQJ GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ VWUXFWXUHG DQG XQVWUXFWXUHG FRQWH[WV IRU DOO
GHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVLVUHSRUWHGWKHXQLYDULDWHZLWKLQVXEMHFWVHIIHFWVDUH
UHSRUWHG IRU HDFK VFDOH VHSDUDWHO\ $  DFWLYLW\ FRQWH[W E\  GHYHORSPHQWDO
H[SHULHQFHV UHSHDWHG PHDVXUHV 0$129$ ZDV SHUIRUPHG QHVWLQJ D OHYHO
DFWLYLW\ FRQWH[W FRPSRQHQW ZLWKLQ VXEMHFWV 0$129$ UHVXOWV LQGLFDWHG D
VLJQLFDQWPXOWLYDULDWHHIIHFWEHWZHHQDFWLYLW\FRQWH[WV:LONVFULWHULRQ F
 p
)ROORZXSRQHZD\UHSHDWHGPHDVXUHV$129$VZHUHFRQGXFWHGWRFRPSDUH
WKH GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV IRU LGHQWLW\ ZRUN DQG LQLWLDWLYH GHYHORSPHQW
VHSDUDWHO\IRUVWUXFWXUHGDQGXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLW\FRQWH[WV7KHZLWKLQSHUVRQ
YDULDEOH ZDV WKH DFWLYLW\ FRQWH[W ZKLFK KDG  OHYHOV VWUXFWXUHG DQG XQVWUXF
WXUHG 1R VLJQLFDQW GLIIHUHQFHV ZHUH IRXQG EHWZHHQ SDUWLFLSDQWV UHSRUWV RI
LGHQWLW\ ZRUN H[SHULHQFHV LQ HLWKHU VXEVFDOH identity exploration or identity
UHHFWLRQ
$GROHVFHQWV UHSRUWHG VLJQLFDQWO\ KLJKHU OHYHOV RI LQLWLDWLYH H[SHULHQFHV
LQ VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV FRPSDUHG WR XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV VSHFLFDOO\ LQ WKH
DUHDVRIJRDOVHWWLQJF pDQGHIIRUWF p3UREOHP
VROYLQJ DQG WLPH PDQDJHPHQW H[SHULHQFHV ZHUH QRW VLJQLFDQWO\ GLIIHUHQW
EHWZHHQFRQWH[WV

68

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Adult Involvement
%LYDULDWHFRUUHODWLRQVZHUHXVHGWRWHVWWKHDVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWOHYHOVRI
DGXOWLQYROYHPHQWDQGWKHGHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVUHSRUWHGE\DGROHVFHQWVLQ
VWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVVHH7DEOHEHORZWKHGLDJRQDOIRUFRUUHODWLRQVFRHIFLHQWV
IRUVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV6LJQLFDQWSRVLWLYHFRUUHODWLRQVZHUHIRXQGEHWZHHQWKH
OHYHORIDGXOWLQYROYHPHQWDQGDOOGHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHGRPDLQVDQGVXE
VFDOHVLQGLFDWLQJWKDWPRUHDGXOWLQYROYHPHQWZDVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDGROHVFHQWV
UHSRUWLQJPRUHH[SHULHQFHVUHODWLQJWRLGHQWLW\ZRUNidentity exploration, identity
UHHFWLRQ DQG LQLWLDWLYH GHYHORSPHQW goal setting, effort, problem solving, time
management$OWKRXJKVHYHUDOSDUWLFLSDQWVUHSRUWHGVSHQGLQJWLPHZLWKDGXOWV
LQWKHLUXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVQRVLJQLFDQWFRUUHODWLRQVZHUHIRXQGEHWZHHQ
WKLVLQYROYHPHQWDQGWKHGHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVWKH\UHSRUWHGVHH7DEOH
DERYHWKHGLDJRQDOIRUFRUUHODWLRQFRHIFLHQWVIRUXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV
Time Spent in Activity
%LYDULDWHFRUUHODWLRQVZHUHDOVRXVHGWRWHVWZKHWKHUWKHIUHTXHQF\RISRVLWLYH
GHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVUHSRUWHGZDVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHDPRXQWRIWLPH
DGROHVFHQWVVSHQWSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQDFWLYLWLHV$VLJQLFDQWSRVLWLYHFRUUHODWLRQ
ZDVIRXQGEHWZHHQWKHKRXUVDGROHVFHQWVVSHQWLQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVDQG
WKH GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV WKH\ UHSRUWHG LQ DOO GRPDLQV VHH 7DEOH 
EHORZ WKH GLDJRQDO 7KLV LQGLFDWHV WKDW PRUH WLPH LQ VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV
ZDV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK KLJKHU OHYHOV RI LGHQWLW\ ZRUN H[SHULHQFHV identity
exploration, LGHQWLW\ UHHFWLRQ DQG LQLWLDWLYH GHYHORSPHQW goal setting, effort,
problem solving, time management +RZHYHU QR VLJQLFDQW FRUUHODWLRQV ZHUH
IRXQG EHWZHHQ WKH DPRXQW RI WLPH VSHQW E\ DGROHVFHQWV LQ XQVWUXFWXUHG

Table 2. Correlates between Hours per Week Spent in Activities, Adult

Involvement and Developmental Experiences Reported by Participants
Variables

1. Adult Involvement

-.20

.02

.01

.12

.09

.09

.06

2. Hours per week

.24

.25

.27

.13

.22

.19

.19

3. Identity Exploration

.44**

.35*

.45**

.44**

.37*

.57**

.40**

4. Identity Reflection

.45**

.52**

.59**

.58**

.63**

.52**

.33*

5. Goal Setting

.43**

.37*

.67**

.64**

.73**

.61**

.70**

6. Effort

.36*

.42*

.45**

.57**

.72**

.55**

.45**

7. Problem Solving

.33*

.40*

.34*

.56**

.74**

.72**

.48**

8. Time Management

.52**

.40*

.39*

.56**

.46**

.58**

.58**

* Significant at .05 alpha level ** Significant at .01 alpha level

Note: Items below the diagonal relate to structured activities, items above the
diagonal relate to unstructured activities.

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

69

DFWLYLWLHV DQG WKH GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV WKH\ UHSRUWHG VHH 7DEOH 

DERYHWKHGLDJRQDO
Comparisons Within Activity Contexts
Structured Activity Comparison
2QHZD\ EHWZHHQ JURXSV $129$V ZHUH FRQGXFWHG WR GHWHUPLQH ZKHWKHU
GLIIHUHQW VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV ZHUH OLQNHG WR GLIIHUHQW OHYHOV RI GHYHORSPHQWDO
H[SHULHQFHV7KHVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLW\FRQWH[WVZHUHXVHGDVWKH[HGIDFWRU1R
VLJQLFDQW GLIIHUHQFHV ZHUH IRXQG LQ DGROHVFHQWV GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFH
UHSRUWVEHWZHHQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLW\FDWHJRULHV
Unstructured Activity Comparisons
7KHXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVZHUHDOVRDQDO\VHGXVLQJRQHZD\EHWZHHQJURXSV
$129$V :KHQ WKH RPQLEXV WHVW ZDV VLJQLFDQW SDLUZLVH FRQWUDVWV ZHUH
FRQGXFWHG 7KH GHVFULSWLYH VWDWLVWLFV DQG DFWLYLW\ FRPSDULVRQV IRU HDFK GHYHO
RSPHQWDO GRPDLQ DQG VXEVFDOH DUH SUHVHQWHG LQ 7DEOH  5HVXOWV LQGLFDWHG
VLJQLFDQW LGHQWLW\ ZRUN GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLW\ FDWHJRULHV
([DPLQDWLRQRIWKHLGHQWLW\ZRUNVXEVFDOHVIRXQGWKDWDGROHVFHQWVUHSRUWVRI
LGHQWLW\H[SORUDWLRQH[SHULHQFHVZHUHQRWVLJQLFDQWO\GLIIHUHQWZKHQFRPSDUHG
DFURVVDFWLYLW\FDWHJRULHVKRZHYHUUHSRUWVRILGHQWLW\UHHFWLRQDFURVVDFWLYLWLHV
GLGGLIIHUVLJQLFDQWO\F p
3RVW KRF PXOWLSOH JURXS FRPSDULVRQV ZHUH FRQGXFWHG RQ WKH XQVWUXF
WXUHG DFWLYLW\ FDWHJRULHV XVLQJ WKH /HDVW 6LJQLFDQW 'LIIHUHQFH WHVW /6'
WR FRPSDUH DOO SRVVLEOH DFWLYLW\ SDLUV .ORFNDUV  6D[  6LJQLFDQWO\
JUHDWHULGHQWLW\UHHFWLRQH[SHULHQFHVZHUHUHSRUWHGIRUXQVWUXFWXUHGVSRUWV
DQG KREE\ DFWLYLWLHV WKDQ PHGLD XVH VRFLDOLVLQJ DQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQEDVHG
DFWLYLWLHV
5HVXOWV DOVR LQGLFDWHG VLJQLFDQW GLIIHUHQFHV LQ LQLWLDWLYH GHYHORSPHQW
H[SHULHQFHV DPRQJ XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV F   p 6LJQLFDQW
GLIIHUHQFHV ZHUH IRXQG LQ DGROHVFHQWV UHSRUWV RI JRDO VHWWLQJ H[SHULHQFHV
F pHIIRUWH[SHULHQFHVF pDQGSUREOHPVROYLQJ
H[SHULHQFHV F  p 1R VLJQLFDQW GLIIHUHQFHV ZHUH IRXQG LQ
DGROHVFHQWVUHSRUWVRIWKHVXEVFDOHWLPHPDQDJHPHQWF p!
Initiative-goal setting
$GROHVFHQWV UHSRUWHG VLJQLFDQWO\ PRUH JRDO VHWWLQJ H[SHULHQFHV LQ KREELHV
DQG XQVWUXFWXUHG VSRUW DFWLYLWLHV WKDQ LQ VRFLDOLVLQJ DFWLYLWLHV RU PHGLD XVH
6LJQLFDQWO\PRUHJRDOVHWWLQJH[SHULHQFHVZHUHDOVRUHSRUWHGE\DGROHVFHQWVLQ
H[HUFLVLQJDFWLYLWLHVFRPSDUHGWRWKRVHUHSRUWLQJRQPHGLDXVH&RPPXQLFDWLRQ
EDVHGDFWLYLWLHVZHUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKVLJQLFDQWO\IHZHUJRDOVHWWLQJH[SHULHQFHV
WKDQKREELHV
Initiative-effort
6LJQLFDQWO\PRUHHIIRUWH[SHULHQFHVZHUHUHSRUWHGLQKREELHVDQGXQVWUXFWXUHG
VSRUWVWKDQLQVRFLDOLVLQJDFWLYLWLHVDQGPHGLDXVH6LJQLFDQWO\ORZHUOHYHOVRI

70

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

HIIRUWH[SHULHQFHVZHUHUHSRUWHGE\DGROHVFHQWVLQPHGLDXVHDFWLYLWLHVFRPSDUHG
WR WKRVH LQ H[HUFLVLQJ DQG OLVWHQLQJ WR PXVLF &RPPXQLFDWLRQEDVHG DFWLYLWLHV
ZHUH DOVR DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK VLJQLFDQWO\ ORZHU UHSRUWV RI HIIRUW H[SHULHQFHV
FRPSDUHGWRKREE\DFWLYLWLHV
Initiative-problem solving
6LJQLFDQWO\PRUHSUREOHPVROYLQJH[SHULHQFHVZHUHUHSRUWHGLQKREELHVWKDQLQ
VRFLDOLVLQJDFWLYLWLHVPHGLDXVHFRPPXQLFDWLRQEDVHGDQGH[HUFLVLQJDFWLYLWLHV
$GROHVFHQWV LQ H[HUFLVLQJ DFWLYLWLHV DOVR UHSRUWHG VLJQLFDQWO\ IHZHU SUREOHP
VROYLQJH[SHULHQFHVWKDQDGROHVFHQWVZKRSOD\HGXQVWUXFWXUHGVSRUWV+RZHYHU
PRUH SUREOHP VROYLQJ H[SHULHQFHV ZHUH UHSRUWHG LQ XQVWUXFWXUHG VSRUWV WKDQ
VRFLDOL]LQJDFWLYLWLHV
2YHUDOO \RXWK UHSRUWHG PRUH LGHQWLW\ ZRUN DQG LQLWLDWLYH GHYHORSPHQW
H[SHULHQFHVLQXQVWUXFWXUHGVSRUWVDQGKREE\DFWLYLWLHVLQFRPSDULVRQWRRWKHU
XQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVPHGLDXVHDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQDFWLYLWLHV
Description of Open-Ended Responses
5HVSRQVHV WR RSHQHQGHG TXHVWLRQV ZHUH IRXQG WR GLIIHU PDUNHGO\ EHWZHHQ
FRQWH[WV VHH 7DEOH  IRU VDPSOH UHVSRQVHV :KHQ SDUWLFLSDQWV ZHUH DVNHG
ZKDW WKH\ OLNHG DERXW WKHLU WDUJHW VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLW\ WKH PDMRULW\ RI
UHVSRQGHQWVKLJKOLJKWHGUHDVRQVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKFKDOOHQJHHQMR\PHQW
DQGWQHVV:KHQDVNHGWKHVDPHTXHVWLRQDERXWXQVWUXFWXUHG
WDUJHWDFWLYLWLHVSDUWLFLSDQWVLQGLFDWHGUHDVRQVDOVRDVVRFLDWHGZLWKHQMR\PHQW
 +RZHYHU WKH DELOLW\ WR SURYLGH DGROHVFHQWV ZLWK IUHHGRP 
DQG UHOD[DWLRQ  ZHUH DOVR FRPPRQ UHDVRQV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK OLNLQJ DQ
DFWLYLW\
$GROHVFHQWV UHSRUWHG FKRRVLQJ WKHLU WDUJHW VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLW\ RYHU RWKHUV
IRU VHYHUDO UHDVRQV 6RPH DGROHVFHQWV FKRVH WKHLU DFWLYLW\ DV D GLUHFW UHVXOW RI
SDUHQWDOLQXHQFHRUSUHYLRXVKLVWRU\ZLWKWKHDFWLYLW\$GROHVFHQWVDOVR
UHSRUWHG FKRRVLQJ WKHLU WDUJHW DFWLYLW\ DV LW HQKDQFHG RU XWLOLVHG WKHLU DELOLWLHV
RUIRULWVDELOLW\WRFKDOOHQJHWKHP3DUWLFLSDWLRQLQGLIIHUHQWWDUJHW
XQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVKRZHYHUZDVLQXHQFHGE\WKHDELOLW\RIWKHVHDFWLYLWLHV
WRVDWLVI\GHVLUHVIRUHQMR\PHQWIUHHGRPDQGUHOD[DWLRQ
:KHQDVNHGDERXWWKHQHJDWLYHDVSHFWVRIWKHLUWDUJHWDFWLYLWLHVDGROHVFHQWV
reported the need for practice or training as a negative factor associated with
VWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVFRPPHQWLQJWKH\IRXQGWKLVDVSHFWRIWKHDFWLYLW\
ERULQJ $GROHVFHQWV DOVR UHSRUWHG QHJDWLYH LQWHUDFWLRQV ZLWK FRPSHWLWRUV
DQG WHDP PDWHV  DQG WKH SRVVLEOH ULVNV LQYROYHG DQG LQMXULHV 
WKDWFRXOGUHVXOWIURPSDUWLFLSDWLRQDVRWKHUXQHQMR\DEOHDVSHFWVRIVWUXFWXUHG
DFWLYLWLHV,QMXULHVZHUHYLHZHGDVQHJDWLYHGXHWRWKHLUDELOLW\WRSUHYHQWIXUWKHU
SDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHDFWLYLW\%RUHGRPZDVDQHJDWLYHDVSHFWRIXQVWUXF
WXUHG DFWLYLWLHV UHSRUWHG E\ DGROHVFHQWV ZLWK SDUWLFLSDQWV FRPPHQWLQJ WKDW
VXFK DFWLYLWLHV ZHUH QRW DEOH WR VXVWDLQ HQMR\PHQW RU FKDOOHQJH 8QVWUXFWXUHG
DFWLYLWLHV ZHUH DOVR DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK D QHHG WR VSHQG PRQH\  HLWKHU WR
LQLWLDWHRUPDLQWDLQSDUWLFLSDWLRQ

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

71

72

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

2.8

1.9

2.3

Problem solving

Time management

2.4

.72

.62

1.00

.98

.65

.74

SD

1.6

2.1
c

1.8a

1.5a,c

1.8
a

2.4

.69

.96

.19

.58

.69

.79

SD

Media Use
(n=4)

2.9

3.2
b

2.9b,c

2.9b,d

3.0
b

3.0

.80

.81

.66

.70

.81

.58

SD

Hobbies
(n=10)

2.1

2.5

3.0c

2.2

3.0
b

2.8

1.07

.79

.47

1.00

.98

.43

SD

Listening to
Music (n=4)

Unstructured Activity Categories (N=47)

Note: Means in the same row that do not share superscripts differ at p<.05.

.83

.86

a,c

b,c

3.2b,c

1.01

2.1a,c

Effort

2.8b,d

1.8a,c,d

Goal setting

.86

3.1

.83

2.0

Initiative Experiences

Reflection

Sport
(n=6)

2.6

.70

SD

2.3

Socialising
(n=12)

Exploration

Identity experiences

Variable

2.5

1.7

2.7

2.6d

2.5

2.7

.50

.86

.58

.63

.84

.36

SD

Exercising
(n=5)

2.4

2.1

2.0a,c

1.7a,c,d

1.9

2.5

.43

.76

.85

.78

.72

.77

SD

Communication
(n=6)

Table 3. The Developmental Experiences Reported by Participants in Different Unstructured Activity Categories (N=47)

Table 4. Example Responses to Qualitative Questions for both

Structured and Unstructured Activity Contexts
Question

Structured Activity Responses

Unstructured Activity Responses

1. What do you
like about this
activity?

Challenge
you have to work with your horse
to achieve your aim/goal and it feels
good when you achieve it

Relaxation
Calms me, I forget my problems,
It relaxes me, Its my away
timeits my happy place

Fun and Enjoyment

Its fun I like sports, Fun, get
adrenalin pump, get girls and good
friends

Freedom
Just being free, Its fun and you
can be stupid, you can do
whatever you want

Fitness
Its interesting and keeps you fit and
healthy

Fun
Being able to spend time with my
friends and having fun

Ability
I think Im good at it, Because its
fun and Im getting good at it

Enjoyment
Because I enjoy doing this more
than anything else

Challenge
It requires more skill, more focus,
teamwork and concentration

Freedom
Because I can talk to my friends
without leaving my room

Parental Influence
My whole family is involved in it
and its awesome

Relaxation
Because its my life and it makes me
feel mellow, Because its soothing

Practise
Practise!, warming up, its boring

Boredom
Sometimes gets boring because you
get over it

2. Why have
you chosen this
activity over
other activities?

3. Are there any

aspects of this
activity that you
do not enjoy? If
so, what are they
and why?

Risks
Injury (if obtained) because they
can keep you out of the game and
can be painful

Costs involved
I hate that everything needs cash
to done

Negative Interactions
The fighting that goes on, I do
not enjoy my teammates lacking the
enthusiasm I have
4. If you had
extra time
available would
you participate
more in this
activity? Why or
why not?

Yes-Improvement
Yes because more training the
better you get, Yes, to improve
my skills

Yes-Freedom
Yes, I spend most of my time at
school or working, these activities
give me freedom

Yes-Enjoyment
Yes because its heaps of fun and
I learn

Yes- Reduce Loneliness

I would rather be with my friends
than by myself

No-Satisfied
No, 9-12 hours is enough

Yes- Fun & Enjoyment

Example; Yes because its fun, Yes
because I enjoy it
No-Boredom/Satisfied
No, because I might get sick of
them and not enjoy it as much
anymore, No, because I spend a
lot of time on it already

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

73

3DUWLFLSDQWVZHUHDVNHGZKHWKHUWKH\ZRXOGVSHQGPRUHWLPHLIDYDLODEOH
LQ WKHLU WDUJHW DFWLYLW\ 5HVSRQVHV WR WKLV TXHVWLRQ YDULHG PDUNHGO\ EHWZHHQ
DFWLYLW\FRQWH[WV,QUHODWLRQWRWKHLUVWUXFWXUHGWDUJHWDFWLYLW\PDQ\DGROHVFHQWV
FRPPHQWHGWKDWWKH\wouldVSHQGPRUHWLPHLQWKHLUVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLW\ZLWK
GRLQJVRWRHQKDQFHRULPSURYHWKHLUVNLOOVDQGDELOLWLHVDQGGRLQJ
VRIRUIXQDQGHQMR\PHQW9HU\IHZSDUWLFLSDQWVUHSRUWHGWKDWWKH\ZRXOGQRW
SDUWLFLSDWH PRUH LQ WKHLU VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLW\ N  KRZHYHU WKRVH ZKR GLG
FRPPHQWHGWKDWWKHWLPHWKH\VSHQWZLWKLQWKHDFWLYLW\ZDVDGHTXDWH
0DQ\ DGROHVFHQWV FRPPHQWHG WKDW WKH\ ZRXOG not SDUWLFLSDWH PRUH LQ
WKHLUXQVWUXFWXUHGWDUJHWDFWLYLW\RIWKHVHSDUWLFLSDQWVIHOWVDWLVHGZLWK
WKHLU FXUUHQW DPRXQW RI SDUWLFLSDWLRQ DQG  IHOW WKDW PRUH SDUWLFLSDWLRQ
ZRXOGLQFUHDVHWKHOLNHOLKRRGRIH[SHULHQFLQJERUHGRP+RZHYHUWKRVHZKR
UHSRUWHGO\ would VSHQG PRUH WLPH LQ WKHLU XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLW\ ZRXOG GR
VRWRH[SHULHQFHPRUHIUHHGRPUHGXFHORQHOLQHVVRUWKHOLNHOLKRRGRI
EHLQJDORQHRUWRH[SHULHQFHPRUHHQMR\PHQWRUIXQIURPWKHLUDFWLYLW\
VHH7DEOH

Discussion
7KHFXUUHQWVWXG\DGGVWRRXUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI$XVWUDOLDQDGROHVFHQWVOHLVXUH
DFWLYLW\ SDUWLFLSDWLRQ DQG WKH XQLTXH DQG SRVLWLYH GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV
SURYLGHG WR \RXWK E\ GLIIHUHQW OHLVXUH FRQWH[WV 7KLV VWXG\ KDV DOVR GHPRQ
VWUDWHGWKDWWKHLGHQWLW\DQGLQLWLDWLYHVXEVFDOHVRIWKH<(6FDQEHXWLOLVHGLQ
$XVWUDOLDWRUHOLDEO\PHDVXUHWKHGHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVSURYLGHGWR\RXWK
E\WKHLUOHLVXUHDFWLYLW\SDUWLFLSDWLRQ
Adolescents Leisure Choices in Western Australia
7KH UVW REMHFWLYH RI WKH VWXG\ ZDV WR JDLQ DQ LQVLJKW LQWR WKH OHLVXUH FKRLFHV
RI :HVW $XVWUDOLDQ DGROHVFHQWV 3DUWLFLSDQWV UHSRUWHG SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ PRUH
XQVWUXFWXUHG OHLVXUH DFWLYLWLHV WKDQ VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV ZLWK DOPRVW  RI
WKH\RXWKVXUYH\HGUHSRUWLQJSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQRUPRUHXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV
FRPSDUHGWRMXVWRYHURQHTXDUWHUIRUVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV&RQVLVWHQWZLWK$%6
QGLQJVDOPRVWRQHTXDUWHURIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVUHSRUWHGWKDWWKH\GLGQRW
SDUWLFLSDWHLQDQ\VWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVFRPSDUHGWRUHSRUWHGE\WKH$%6
DQGKDOIRIWKRVHUHSRUWHGDQXQZLOOLQJQHVVWRSDUWLFLSDWHDVWKHLUUHDVRQLQJIRU
QRQSDUWLFLSDWLRQ
7KHPDMRULW\RISDUWLFLSDQWVVHOHFWHGWHDPRULQGLYLGXDOVSRUWVDVWKHLUWDUJHW
VWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLW\3HUIRUPLQJDUWVDFWLYLWLHVZHUHWKHWKLUGPRVWSRSXODUWDUJHW
VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLW\ UHSRUWHG E\ SDUWLFLSDQWV ZLWK MXVW XQGHU RQH TXDUWHU RI
SDUWLFLSDQWVFKRRVLQJWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQVXFKDFWLYLWLHV%RWKRIWKHVHQGLQJVDUH
FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK SUHYLRXV QGLQJV RQ $XVWUDOLDQ DGROHVFHQWOHLVXUH SUHIHUHQFHV
UHSRUWHGE\WKH$%6VXJJHVWLQJWKDWDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVVSRUWVDQG
SHUIRUPLQJ DUWV DUH PRUH SRSXODU DPRQJ $XVWUDOLDQ DGROHVFHQWV WKDQ RWKHU
W\SHVRIDFWLYLWLHV
8QVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLW\ FKRLFHV ZHUH PRUH YDULHG DPRQJ SDUWLFLSDQWV WKDQ
VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLW\ FKRLFHV SRVVLEO\ GXH WR DGROHVFHQWV SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ PRUH

74

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV 7KH PRVW SRSXODU WDUJHW XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV ZHUH

VRFLDOLVLQJ ZLWK IULHQGV KREE\ DFWLYLWLHV DQG SOD\LQJ XQVWUXFWXUHG VSRUW
$OWKRXJK SUHYLRXV UHVHDUFK KDV VXJJHVWHG WKDW $XVWUDOLDQ DGROHVFHQWV VSHQG
WKHPDMRULW\RIWKHLUOHLVXUHWLPHXVLQJPHGLDVXFKDVZDWFKLQJ79$%6
 RI WKH DGROHVFHQWV VXUYH\HG RQO\  UHSRUWHG EHLQJ PRVW LQYHVWHG LQ
VXFKDFWLYLWLHV7KLVVXJJHVWVWKDWDOWKRXJK\RXWKVSHQGDYDVWDPRXQWRIWKHLU
OHLVXUHXWLOLVLQJPHGLDWKH\DUHPRUHSHUVRQDOO\LQYHVWHGLQKREELHVVRFLDOLVLQJ
RUSOD\LQJVSRUWZLWKWKHLUIULHQGV
Structured vs Unstructured Activities
7KH VHFRQG REMHFWLYH RI WKLV VWXG\ ZDV WR H[DPLQH ZKHWKHU VWUXFWXUHG RU
XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV SURYLGHG \RXWK ZLWK PRUH GHYHORSPHQWDOO\ IDFLOLWDWLYH
H[SHULHQFHV&RQVLVWHQWZLWKSUHYLRXVUHVHDUFKDGROHVFHQWVUHSRUWHGVLJQLFDQWO\
PRUH LQLWLDWLYH UHODWHG H[SHULHQFHV LQ VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV WKDQ XQVWUXFWXUHG
DFWLYLWLHV /DUVRQ  /DUVRQ HW DO  VSHFLFDOO\ LQ WKH DUHDV UHODWLQJ WR
JRDOVHWWLQJDQGHIIRUW7KHVHUHVXOWVFRQUPWKHVXJJHVWLRQWKDWXQVWUXFWXUHG
DFWLYLWLHVDOWKRXJKLQWULQVLFDOO\PRWLYDWHGODFNWKHFKDOOHQJHDQGGHHSDWWHQWLRQ
UHTXLUHGLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRILQLWLDWLYH/DUVRQ3DUWLFLSDQWVUHVSRQVHV
WR RSHQHQGHG TXHVWLRQV UHODWLQJ WR WKHLU VWUXFWXUHG OHLVXUH FKRLFHV FRQUPHG
WKH IDFLOLWDWLYH QDWXUH RI VXFK DFWLYLWLHV ZLWK PDQ\ SDUWLFLSDQWV KLJKOLJKWLQJ
WKHDELOLW\RIWKHDFWLYLW\WRFKDOOHQJHWKHPHQKDQFHWKHLUDELOLWLHVDQGSURYLGH
HQMR\PHQWDVIDFWRUVLQXHQFLQJDFWLYLW\VHOHFWLRQDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQ)RUH[DPSOH
It requires more skill, more focus, teamwork and concentration, and Because it
interests me and is more challenging
7KH DPRXQW RI WLPH DGROHVFHQWV VSHQW LQ WKHLU VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV ZDV
SRVLWLYHO\ FRUUHODWHG WR WKH OHYHO RI GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV WKH\ UHSRUWHG
LQGLFDWLQJWKDWPRUHWLPHSDUWLFLSDWLQJZLWKLQVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUHZDVDVVRFLDWHG
ZLWK KLJKHU OHYHOV RI GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV ,Q UHVSRQVH WR RSHQHQGHG
TXHVWLRQVPDQ\DGROHVFHQWVUHSRUWHGWKDWLIPRUHWLPHZDVDYDLODEOHWRWKHP
IRU VWUXFWXUHG OHLVXUH WKH\ ZRXOG VSHQG LW ZLWKLQ VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV IRU
UHDVRQVUHODWLQJQRWMXVWWRHQMR\PHQWEXWDOVRWRDFFHQWXDWLQJDQGLPSURYLQJ
RQHV VNLOOV DQG DELOLWLHV )RU H[DPSOH Yes because more training the better you
get and Yes because its heaps of fun and I learn 7KLV KLJKOLJKWV WKH DFWLYH
UROH WKDW DGROHVFHQWV SOD\ DV DJHQWV LQ WKHLU RZQ GHYHORSPHQW 'ZRUNLQ HW
DO  S VXJJHVWLQJ WKDW DGROHVFHQWV DUH DZDUH WKDW VWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV
DUH IDFLOLWDWLYH LQ WKHLU RZQ GHYHORSPHQW DQG DUH FDSDEOH RI PDNLQJ SRVLWLYH
OHLVXUHFKRLFHV
$SRVLWLYHFRUUHODWLRQZDVIRXQGEHWZHHQDGXOWLQYROYHPHQWGHYHORSPHQWDO
H[SHULHQFHUHSRUWVLQGLFDWLQJWKDWPRUHDGXOWLQYROYHPHQWZDVDVVRFLDWHGZLWK
KLJKHUOHYHOVRISRVLWLYHGHYHORSPHQWLQERWKLGHQWLW\DQGLQLWLDWLYH7KHVHUHVXOWV
VXSSRUWWKHVXJJHVWLRQWKDWLQRUGHUWREHEHQHFLDOWRDGROHVFHQWGHYHORSPHQW
DGXOWV VKRXOG QRW MXVW EH SUHVHQW EXW DOVR LQYROYHG SURYLGLQJ PRUH JXLGDQFH
WKDQVXSHUYLVLRQ0DKRQ\HWDO+RZHYHUWKHH[DFWUROHRIDGXOWVZDVQRW
PHDVXUHGVRLWLVXQFOHDUZKHWKHUVRPHDGXOWVZHUHPRUHDFWLYHLQWKHLUUROHV
WKDQRWKHUV

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

75

Within Context Comparisons

7KH IRXUWK REMHFWLYH RI WKH VWXG\ ZDV WR H[SORUH ZLWKLQFDWHJRU\ GLIIHUHQFHV E\
PDNLQJFRPSDULVRQVEHWZHHQDFWLYLWLHVZLWKLQWKHVDPHFRQWH[W8QOLNHSUHYLRXV
VWXGLHV'ZRUNLQHWDO+DQVHQHWDO/DUVRQHWDOQRVLJQLFDQW
GLIIHUHQFHVZHUHIRXQGEHWZHHQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVKRZHYHUWKLVPD\EHGXHWR
WKHVPDOOVDPSOHVL]HZKLFKZRXOGKDYHUHGXFHGWKHSRZHUWRGHWHFWGLIIHUHQFHV
'LIIHUHQW XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV GLG YDU\ LQ WKH GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV
UHSRUWHGE\DGROHVFHQWV,QFRPSDULVRQWRRWKHUXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVXQVWUXFWXUHG
VSRUWVDQGKREE\DFWLYLWLHVZHUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKKLJKHUOHYHOVRILGHQWLW\UHHFWLRQ
DQG LQLWLDWLYH H[SHULHQFHV UHODWLQJ WR JRDO VHWWLQJ HIIRUW DQG SUREOHP VROYLQJ
8QVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVPHGLDXVHDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQRULHQWDWHGDFWLYLWLHV
SURYLGHGDGROHVFHQWVZLWKIHZHUGHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVLQFRPSDULVRQWRRWKHU
XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV 7KHVH UHVXOWV VXJJHVW WKDW VRPH XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLWLHV
PD\EHPRUHEHQHFLDOWRDGROHVFHQWGHYHORSPHQWWKDQRWKHUV$FWLYLWLHVVXFKDV
XQVWUXFWXUHGVSRUWVRUKREELHVDOWKRXJKQRWVWUXFWXUHGRUJXLGHGE\DQDGXOWPD\
SRVVHVVFKDUDFWHULVWLFVVLPLODUWRVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV)RUH[DPSOHKREELHVVXFKDV
GUDZLQJRUFUHDWLYHZULWLQJFRXOGEHFKDUDFWHULVHGDVJRDORULHQWDWHGFKDOOHQJLQJ
DQGVNLOOHQKDQFLQJDQGDVWKHVHDFWLYLWLHVDUHQRWVWUXFWXUHGWKH\DUHOLNHO\WREH
PRUHVHOIGLUHFWHG8QVWUXFWXUHGVSRUWVPD\DOVRVKDUHWKHIDFLOLWDWLYHFKDUDFWHULVWLFV
RIVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVDQGDOWKRXJKWKHUHLVDQDEVHQFHRIJXLGDQFHIURPDGXOWV
DGROHVFHQWVPD\EHJXLGLQJRUOHDUQLQJIURPWKHLUSHHUV
6RPHXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVZHUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKERUHGRPRUDQLQDELOLW\WR
PDLQWDLQLQWHUHVWZKLFKPD\EHDSRVVLEOHH[SODQDWLRQIRUWKHGLIIHUHQFHVIRXQG
EHWZHHQXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV3UHYLRXVUHVHDUFKKDVVXJJHVWHGWKDWERUHGRP
FDQEHSUHGLFWHGE\WKHLQDELOLW\RIDQDFWLYLW\WRPDLQWDLQWKHLQYROYHPHQWRI
LWV SDUWLFLSDQWV &DOGZHOO 'DUOLQJ 3D\QH  'RZG\  $FWLYLWLHV WKDW DUH
FKRVHQDVDUHVXOWRIVRFLDOLQXHQFHRUDODFNRIDOWHUQDWHDFWLYLWLHVHJPHGLD
XVHVRFLDOL]LQJDUHPRUHOLNHO\WRSUHGLFWERUHGRPWKDQWKRVHUHTXLULQJPRUH
LQYROYHPHQWHJKREELHVVSRUWV
$Q LQWHUHVWLQJ GLIIHUHQFH ZDV UHYHDOHG LQ WKH FRPSDULVRQV EHWZHHQ PHGLD
XVHDQGOLVWHQLQJWRPXVLFFDWHJRULHV$OWKRXJKWKHVHDFWLYLWLHVZHUHDVVRFLDWHG
ZLWK VLPLODU OHYHOV RI SK\VLFDO SDVVLYLW\ WKH\ RIIHU DGROHVFHQWV VLJQLFDQWO\
GLIIHUHQW GHYHORSPHQWDO H[SHULHQFHV )XWXUH UHVHDUFK VKRXOG FRQVLGHU WKHVH
QGLQJVZKHQJURXSLQJXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVLQWRFDWHJRULHV$VDGROHVFHQWV
SDUWLFLSDWHLQPRUHXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVWKDQVWUXFWXUHGLWLVDOVRVXJJHVWHG
WKDW IXUWKHU UHVHDUFK LV QHHGHG WR JDLQ D PRUH LQ GHSWK XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH
SRVLWLYHDVSHFWVRIIHUHGE\GLIIHUHQWXQVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUHDFWLYLWLHV
Limitations
7KHUH DUH VHYHUDO OLPLWDWLRQV WKDW QHHG WR EH FRQVLGHUHG ZKHQ JHQHUDOLVLQJ
QGLQJVWRWKHZLGHUSRSXODWLRQ)LUVWO\WKHVDPSOHVL]HXWLOLVHGLQWKHFXUUHQW
VWXG\ZDVREWDLQHGIURPDVLQJOHKLJKVFKRRODQGZDVUHODWLYHO\VPDOON LQ
FRPSDULVRQWRVLPLODUVWXGLHV+DQVHQHWDO/DUVRQHWDO7KHVPDOO
VDPSOHVL]HPD\EHDWWULEXWHGWRWKHSRRUSDUHQWDOUHVSRQVHUDWHZKLFKLV
WKHVHFRQGOLPLWDWLRQRIWKLVVWXG\7KHSDUHQWDOFRQVHQWIRUPVZHUHGLVWULEXWHG

76

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

WRVWXGHQWVZKRZHUHWKHQJLYHQWKHUHVSRQVLELOLW\RIIRUZDUGLQJWKHIRUPVWR
WKHLUSDUHQWVDQGUHWXUQLQJWKHPWRWKHVFKRRO7KLVSURFHVVPD\KDYHLQFUHDVHG
WKHOLNHOLKRRGRIIRUPVEHLQJPLVSODFHGRUORVW7KLVDOVRPD\KDYHUHVXOWHGLQ
WKHVDPSOHEHLQJELDVHGSHUKDSVFRQVLVWLQJRIPRUHFRPSOLDQWDGROHVFHQWV
Strengths
,Q VSLWH RI WKHVH OLPLWDWLRQV WKLV VWXG\ DOVR FRQWDLQHG VHYHUDO VWUHQJWKV 7KH
VWXG\XWLOLVHGDZLWKLQVXEMHFWGHVLJQWRDGGUHVVSRVVLEOHELDVHVUHODWHGWRVHOI
VHOHFWLRQ LQWR DFWLYLWLHV 3DUWLFLSDQWV ZHUH DVNHG WR VHOHFW D WDUJHW DFWLYLW\ RQH
WKH\ ZHUH WKH PRVW LQYHVWHG LQ IRU ERWK VWUXFWXUHG DQG XQVWUXFWXUHG DFWLYLW\
FRQWH[WVDQGUHSRUWWKHOHYHORIGHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVWKH\SHUFHLYHGWREH
RIIHUHGE\HDFK%\FRPSDULQJDFWLYLWLHVWKDWSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHKLJKO\LQYHVWHG
LQ IRU HDFK FRQWH[W GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ DGROHVFHQWV EHFDPH OHVV LPSRUWDQW LQ
H[SODLQLQJGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQDFWLYLW\W\SHV
$OWKRXJKWKHORZSDUHQWDOUHVSRQVHUDWHUHVXOWHGLQDVPDOOVDPSOHVL]HWKH
PDMRULW\RIWKHVDPSOHFRQVLVWHGRIDGROHVFHQWVIURPORZWRPHGLXP6(6IDPLOLHV
0XFKRIWKHDYDLODEOHUHVHDUFKRQOHLVXUHLVJHQHUDOO\EDVHGXSRQVDPSOHVZLWK
DPHGLXPWRKLJK6(6+DQVHQHWDO/DUVRQHWDO/DUVRQ 9HUPD
7KHFXUUHQWVWXG\KDVSURYLGHGYDOXDEOHLQIRUPDWLRQRQDGROHVFHQWVZLWK
DORZ6(6LOOXVWUDWLQJWKDWVXFK\RXWKDUHDOVREHQHWHGE\VWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLW\
SDUWLFLSDWLRQ
7KHXVHRIWKH<(6DVDPHDVXUHPHQWWRROLVDOVRDVWUHQJWKRIWKHFXUUHQW
VWXG\GHPRQVWUDWLQJUHOLDEOHXVHRIWKH<(6LQ$XVWUDOLDQDGROHVFHQWV:LWK
WKHH[FHSWLRQRIWKHVXEVFDOHIRULGHQWLW\H[SORUDWLRQLQXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV
WKH UHOLDELOLW\ PHDVXUHV REWDLQHG RQ WKH <(6  VXEVFDOHV ZHUH FRPSDUDEOH
WR WKRVH RI SUHYLRXV UHVHDUFKHUV +DQVHQ HW DO  LQ ERWK DFWLYLW\ FRQWH[WV
GHPRQVWUDWLQJ DGHTXDWH LQWHUQDO FRQVLVWHQF\ 0HDQV UHSRUWHG E\ $XVWUDOLDQ
DGROHVFHQWVIRUERWKLGHQWLW\ZRUNM DQGLQLWLDWLYHGHYHORSPHQWM 
ZHUHVLPLODUWRWKRVHUHSRUWHGE\$PHULFDQDGROHVFHQWVM DQGUHVSHF
WLYHO\/DUVRQHWDO$VDUHVXOWRIXVLQJWKH<(6WKHQGLQJVREWDLQHG
ZLWKLQWKLVVWXG\PD\EHFRPSDUHGZLWKWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOUHVHDUFKDYDLODEOHRQ
DGROHVFHQWOHLVXUH
7KH FXUUHQW VWXG\ DOVR FROOHFWHG TXDOLWDWLYH LQIRUPDWLRQ LQWR DGROHVFHQWV
OHLVXUHFKRLFHVXVLQJRSHQHQGHGTXHVWLRQV7KLVHQDEOHGULFKLQGLYLGXDOGDWDWR
EHFROOHFWHG$OWKRXJKERWKVWUXFWXUHGDQGXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVZHUHDVVRFLDWHG
ZLWK IXQ DQG HQMR\PHQW DGROHVFHQWV UHSRUWHG PDUNHGO\ GLIIHUHQW UHDVRQV IRU
SDUWLFLSDWLQJLQDQGHQMR\LQJVWUXFWXUHGDQGXQVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUHKLJKOLJKWLQJ
DUHDVUHTXLULQJIXUWKHULQYHVWLJDWLRQ6WUXFWXUHGDFWLYLW\FKRLFHVZHUHPRWLYDWHG
E\JRDORULHQWDWHGDQGVNLOOHQKDQFHPHQWFKDUDFWHULVWLFVZKHUHDVXQVWUXFWXUHG
DFWLYLW\ FKRLFHV ZHUH PRWLYDWHG E\ WKH QHHG IRU DXWRQRP\ IUHHGRP DQG
RWKHU SHUVRQDO QHHGV UHOD[DWLRQ 7KH TXDOLWDWLYH GDWD FROOHFWHG DOVR SURYLGHG
LQIRUPDWLRQ VXSSRUWLQJ TXDQWLWDWLYH QGLQJV DQG WKH WKHRULHV WKDW PRWLYDWHG
WKLVUHVHDUFK7KHFRQWULEXWLRQVRIWKHTXDQWLWDWLYHDQGTXDOLWDWLYHGDWDFROOHFWHG
LQWKLVVWXG\ZHUHFRPSOLPHQWDU\WRHDFKRWKHUSURYLGLQJDJUHDWHULQVLJKWLQWR
WKHOHLVXUHFKRLFHVRIDGROHVFHQWVDQGWKHLUGHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHV

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

77

Broader Implications
7KLV UHVHDUFK KDV SURYLGHG WKH FXUUHQW OLWHUDWXUH ZLWK $XVWUDOLDQ GDWD RQ
DGROHVFHQWOHLVXUHFKRLFHVDQGWKHGHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVWKH\SURYLGH7KH
UHVXOWV IURP WKH FXUUHQW VWXG\ KDYH SURYLGHG D PRGHVW IRXQGDWLRQ IRU IXWXUH
UHVHDUFK LQ WKH DUHD RI $XVWUDOLDQ DGROHVFHQW OHLVXUH DQG KDYH LGHQWLHG DUHDV
WKDWQHHGIXUWKHULQYHVWLJDWLRQ$OWKRXJKVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHVGLVSOD\HGKLJKHU
OHYHOVRIGHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVWKH\ZHUHQRWFRQQHGWRWKLVFRQWH[WDV
SRVLWLYHH[SHULHQFHVZHUHDOVRUHSRUWHGDPRQJGLIIHUHQWXQVWUXFWXUHGDFWLYLWLHV
7KLV VWXG\ KDV KLJKOLJKWHG WKDW QRW DOO XQVWUXFWXUHG OHLVXUH DFWLYLWLHV DUH
ZLWKRXW EHQHW WR DGROHVFHQW GHYHORSPHQW DQG VRPH KDYH SDUWLFXODUO\ JRRG
GHYHORSPHQWDO SRWHQWLDO )XUWKHUPRUH WKLV VWXG\ KDV VXSSRUWHG VXJJHVWLRQV
WKDW DGROHVFHQWV DUH EHFRPLQJ PRUH DFWLYH LQ WKHLU RZQ GHYHORSPHQW ZLWK
DGROHVFHQWVGLVSOD\LQJDQDZDUHQHVVWKDWWKHLUSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUH
PD\HQKDQFHWKHLUGHYHORSPHQW7KLVLVDQLPSRUWDQWFRQVLGHUDWLRQLQWKHVWXG\
RI SRVLWLYH \RXWK GHYHORSPHQW DV LW KLJKOLJKWV D QHHG WR SURYLGH DGROHVFHQWV
ZLWKPRUHRSSRUWXQLWLHVWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQGHYHORSPHQWDOO\IDFLOLWDWLYHFRQWH[WV
EH\RQGVFKRRORUZRUNWRDOORZWKHPDPSOHRSSRUWXQLWLHVWREHWKHGULYHUVRI
WKHLURZQKHDOWK\GHYHORSPHQW

Authors Note
7KLV DUWLFOH LV EDVHG XSRQ DQ KRQRXUV WKHVLV VXEPLWWHG E\ %UHH ' $EERWW WR
0XUGRFK8QLYHUVLW\6FKRRORI3V\FKRORJ\3RUWLRQVRIWKHZRUNRQWKLVSDSHU
ZHUH IXQGHG E\ D JUDQW IURP WKH $XVWUDOLDQ 5HVHDUFK &RXQFLO WR %RQQLH
%DUEHU :H DUH HVSHFLDOO\ LQGHEWHG WR 5HHG /DUVRQ IRU JHQHURXV DGYLFH LQ WKH
GHYHORSPHQWRIWKLVVWXG\:HZLVKDOVRWRWKDQN&RUH\%ORPHOGIRUKHUFRQWUL
EXWLRQVWRWKLVSURMHFW:HZRXOGDOVROLNHWRWKDQNWKHVFKRROVWDIILQSDUWLFXODU
WKHDFWLQJGHSXW\SULQFLSDODQGWKHSK\VLFDOHGXFDWLRQFRRUGLQDWRUIRUDOOWKHLU
HQWKXVLDVPDQGKHOSWRZDUGVWKLVUHVHDUFK)LQDOO\ZHZRXOGOLNHWRWKDQNWKH
VWXGHQWVIRUWKHLUSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHVXUYH\DQGWKHLUKRQHVW\ZKLOVWGRLQJVR

References
$XVWUDOLDQ %XUHDX RI 6WDWLVWLFV $%6  Childrens Participation in
Cultural and Leisure Activities, Australia, Apr 2006 5HWULHYHG -XQH 

IURP
KWWSZZZDEVJRYDX$XVVWDWVDEV#QVI/RRNXS
%'($(&$'&
$XVWUDOLDQ %XUHDX RI 6WDWLVWLFV $%6  Childrens participation in
cultural and leisure activities 5HWULHYHG $XJXVW   IURP KWWS
ZZZDXVVWDWVDEVJRYDX$XVVWDWVVXEVFULEHUQVI/RRNXS
$($%')'&)$'&$($)LOHBDSUSGI
%DUEHU%/6WRQH05+XQW-( (FFOHV-6%HQHWVRIDFWLYLW\
SDUWLFLSDWLRQ WKH UROHV RI LGHQWLW\ DIUPDWLRQ DQG SHHU JURXS QRUP
VKDULQJ ,Q - / 0DKRQH\ /DUVRQ 5 :  (FFOHV - 6 (G Organized
activities as contexts of development: extracurricular activities, after-school and
community programs0DKZDK1HZ-HUVH\/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV
3XEOLVKHUV

78

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

%URK%$/LQNLQJH[WUDFXUULFXODUSURJUDPPLQJWRDFDGHPLFDFKLHYHPHQW

:KREHQHWVDQG:K\"Sociology of Education
&DOGZHOO / / 'DUOLQJ 1 3D\QH / /  'RZG\ %  :K\ DUH \RX
ERUHG" DQ H[DPLQDWLRQ RI SV\FKRORJLFDO DQG VRFLDO FRQWURO FDXVHV RI
ERUHGRPDPRQJDGROHVFHQWVJournal of Leisure Research
&RDWVZRUWK - ' 6KDUS ( + 3DOHQ / 'DUOLQJ 1 &XPVLOOH 3  0DUWD
(  ([SORULQJ DGROHVFHQW VHOIGHQLQJ OHLVXUH DFWLYLWLHV DQG LGHQWLW\
H[SHULHQFHV DFURVV WKUHH FRXQWULHV International Journal of Behavioral
Development
&RRSHU+9DOHQWLQH-&1\H% /LQGVD\--5HODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ
YH DIWHUVFKRRO DFWLYLWLHV DQG DFDGHPLF DFKLHYHPHQW Journal of Education
Psychology
'DUOLQJ 1 &DOGZHOO / /  6PLWK 5  3DUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ VFKRRO EDVHG
H[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLWHVDQGDGROHVFHQWDGMXVWPHQWJournal of Leisure Research,

'ZRUNLQ-%/DUVRQ5 +DQVHQ'$GROHVFHQWVDFFRXQWVRIJURZWK
H[SHULHQFHVLQ\RXWKDFWLYLWLHVJournal of Youth and Adolescence
(FFOHV-6%DUEHU%/6WRQH0 +XQW-([WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHV
DQGDGROHVFHQWGHYHORSPHQWJournal of Social Issues
(ULNVRQ(+Identity: youth and crisis1HZ<RUN1RUWRQ
)UDVHU7KRPDV - / &{Wq -  'HDNLQ -  <RXWK VSRUW SURJUDPV DQ
DYHQXH WR IRVWHU SRVLWLYH \RXWK GHYHORSPHQW Physical Education and Sport
Pedagogy
)UHGHULFNV-$ (FFOHV-6D,VH[WUDFXUULFXODUSDUWLFLSDWLRQDVVRFLDWHG
ZLWK EHQHFLDO RXWFRPHV" &RQFXUUHQW DQG ORQJLWXGLQDO UHODWLRQV Developmental Psychology
)UHGHULFNV - $  (FFOHV - 6 E ([WUDFXUULFXODU LQYROYHPHQW DQG
DGROHVFHQWDGMXVWPHQW,PSDFWRIGXUDWLRQQXPEHURIDFWLYLWLHVDQGEUHDGWK
RISDUWLFLSDWLRQApplied Developmental Science
+DQVHQ ' 0 /DUVRQ 5 :  'ZRUNLQ - %  :KDW DGROHVFHQWV OHDUQ
LQRUJDQLVHGDFWLYLWLHVDVXUYH\RIVHOIUHSRUWHGGHYHORSPHQWDOH[SHULHQFHV
Journal of Research on Adolescence
+RIIPDQ-3([WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHVDWKOHWLFSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGDOFRKRO
XVH*HQGHUGLIIHUHQWLDWHGDQGVFKRROFRQWH[WXDOHIIHFWVJournal of Health and
Social Behavior
.OHLEHU'Leisure experience and human development: a dialectical interpretation1HZ<RUN%DVLF%RRNV
.ORFNDUV$- 6D[*0XOWLSOH&RPSDULVRQV4XDQWLWDWLYH$SSOLFD
WLRQV LQ WKH 6RFLDO 6FLHQFHV 1HZEXU\ 3DUN &DOLIRUQLD 6DJH 3XEOLFDWLRQV
,QF
/DUVRQ 5 :  7RZDUG D SV\FKRORJ\ RI SRVLWLYH \RXWK GHYHORSPHQW
American Psychologist
/DUVRQ5:+DQVHQ'0 0RQHWD*'LIIHULQJSUROHVRIGHYHORS
PHQWDOH[SHULHQFHVDFURVVW\SHVRIRUJDQLVHG\RXWKDFWLYLWLHVDevelopmental
Psychology

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

79

/DUVRQ 5 : +DQVHQ '  :DONHU .  (YHU\ERG\V JRWWD JLYH
GHYHORSPHQW RI LQLWLDWLYH DQG WHDPZRUN ZLWKLQ D \RXWK SURJUDP ,Q - /
0DKRQH\ /DUVRQ 5 :  (FFOHV - 6 (G Organized activities as contexts
of development: extracurricular activities, after-school and community programs
0DKZDK1HZ-HUVH\/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV3XEOLVKHUV
/DUVRQ 5 :  9HUPD 6  +RZ FKLOGUHQ DQG DGROHVFHQWV VSHQG WLPH
DFURVVWKHZRUOGZRUNSOD\DQGGHYHORSPHQWDORSSRUWXQLWLHVPsychological
Bulletin
0DKRQH\-/ &DLUQV5%'RH[WUDFXUULFXODUDFWLYLWLHVSURWHFWDJDLQVW
HDUO\VFKRROGURSRXW"Developmental Psychology
0DKRQH\ - / /DUVRQ 5 :  (FFOHV - 6  Organised Activities as
Contexts of Development: extracurricular activities, after-school and community
programs 0DKZDK 1HZ -HUVH\ /DZUHQFH (UOEDXP $VVRFLDWHV
3XEOLVKHUV
0DKRQH\ - / /DUVRQ 5 : (FFOHV - 6  /RUG + /  2UJDQL]HG
DFWLYLWLHV DV GHYHORSPHQWDO FRQWH[WV IRU FKLOGUHQ DQG DGROHVFHQWV ,Q - /
0DKRQH\ /DUVRQ 5 :  (FFOHV - 6 (G Organized activities as contexts
of development: extracurricular activities, after-school and community programs
0DKZDK1HZ-HUVH\/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV3XEOLVKHUV
0DKRQH\ - / /RUG +  &DUU\O (  $Q HFRORJLFDO DQDO\VLV RI DIWHU
VFKRROSURJUDPSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIDFDGHPLFSHUIRUPDQFH
DQG PRWLYDWLRQDO DWWULEXWHV IRU GLVDGYDQWDJHG FKLOGUHQ Child Development

0DKRQH\ - / 6WDWWLQ +  0DJQXVVRQ '  <RXWK UHFUHDWLRQ FHQWUH
SDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGFULPLQDORIIHQGLQJD\HDUORQJLWXGLQDOVWXG\RIVZHGLVK
ER\VInternational Journal of Behavioral Development
0F0HHNLQJ '  3XUND\DVWKD %   , FDQW KDYH P\ PRP UXQQLQJ PH
HYHU\ZKHUHDGROHVFHQWVOHLVXUHDQGDFFHVVLELOLW\Journal of Leisure Research,

0F1HDO 5 %  ([WUDFXUULFXODU $FWLYLWLHV DQG KLJK VFKRRO GURSRXWV
Sociology of Education
2VJRRG':$QGHUVRQ$/ 6KDIIHU-18QVWUXFWXUHGOHLVXUHLQ
WKHDIWHUVFKRROKRXUV,Q-/0DKRQH\/DUVRQ5: (FFOHV-6(G
Organized activities as contexts of development: extracurricular activities, afterschool and community programs 0DKZDK 1HZ -HUVH\ /DZUHQFH (UOEDXP
$VVRFLDWHV3XEOLVKHUV
3DVVPRUH$ )UHQFK''HYHORSPHQWDQGDGPLQLVWUDWLRQRIDPHDVXUHWR
DVVHVVDGROHVFHQWVSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQOHLVXUHDFWLYLWLHVAdolescence
3HUVVRQ$.HUU0 6WDWWLQ+:K\DOHLVXUHFRQWH[WLVOLQNHGWR
QRUPEUHDNLQJ IRU VRPH JLUOV DQG QRW RWKHUV SHUVRQDOLW\ FKDUDFWHULVWLFV
DQGSDUHQWFKLOGUHODWLRQVDVH[SODQDWLRQVJournal of Adolescence

6KDZ60.OHLEHU'$ &DOGZHOO///HLVXUHDQGLGHQWLW\IRUPDWLRQ
LQPDOHDQGIHPDOHDGROHVFHQFHDSUHOLPLQDU\H[DPLQDWLRQJournal of Leisure
Research

80

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

6WDII-0RUWLPHU-7 8JJHQ&:RUNDQGOHLVXUHLQDGROHVFHQFH,Q

/HUQHU50 6WHLQEHUJ/(GVHandbook of adolescent psychologyQGHG
+RERNHQ1HZ-HUVH\-RKQ:LOH\ 6RQV,QF
7LJJHPDQQ07KHLPSDFWRIDGROHVFHQWJLUOVOLIHFRQFHUQVDQGOHLVXUH
DFWLYLWLHVRQERG\GLVVDWLVIDFWLRQGLVRUGHUHGHDWLQJDQGVHOIHVWHHPJournal
of Genetic Psychology

Address for correspondence

%UHH'$EERWW
6FKRRORI3V\FKRORJ\
0XUGRFK8QLYHUVLW\
6RXWK6WUHHW
0XUGRFK
:$

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

81

T V Bowles

School of Psychology, Australian Catholic University

Perceptions of the Teaching Behaviours of

Academics and Facilitating Student Learning:
A Qualitative Study of Tertiary Students
Instructional Metacognitive Knowledge

Abstract
Two key assumptions fundamental to theories and research that explain the learning
of tertiary students is that students readily know and can articulate which behaviours
of academics positively influence their learning. In this study open-ended questions
were used to elicit responses from 200 students, one group enrolled in psychology as
a major, and another group studying psychology units as an elective. Results showed
that there was no difference in the perceptions of students as a function of their
major in psychology. Clear and professional delivery of material was most frequently
identified as best practice for academics. Students knew this because it was most
frequently associated with student understanding and performance. The teaching
approach of academics and the aids to learning used by academics were nominated
most frequently as staff activities that enhanced student learning. Students knew this
was effective because it enhanced understanding and performance and because of
the provision of information from staff. It was suggested that academics could be
more effective and students would learn more effectively if lectures and tutorials were
delivered more carefully and facilities and aids were improved. For each question,
between 12% to 40% of respondents did not know how to appropriately respond.
The discussion focused on the meaning of the no responses, the identified factors of
instructional metacognitive knowledge, the areas that academics might improve, and
the necessity for instructional metacognitive knowledge to accompany information
transferred in lectures and tutorials.
Keywords: tertiary students instructional metacognitive knowledge

3V\FKRORJ\ VWXGHQWV OLNH RWKHU XQGHUJUDGXDWH VWXGHQWV DUH VHOIUHJXODWHG

DQG FRPSHWHQW OHDUQHUV $VNHOO:LOOLDPV /DZVRQ  0XUUD\+DUYH\ 
$V VWXGHQWV RI SV\FKRORJ\ WKH\ VWXG\ KXPDQ EHKDYLRXU DQG KRZ WR FKDQJH
EHKDYLRXU 6XFK UHJXODWHG EHKDYLRXU LQFOXGHV VHOIFRUUHFWLQJ DQG DGMXVWLQJ
WKHSURFHGXUHVDQGPHFKDQLVPVWRHIFLHQWO\WDNHNQRZOHGJHDQGLQIRUPDWLRQ
LQWR WKH VWXGHQWVHOI 7KHVH SURFHGXUHV DQG PHFKDQLVPV KDYH GHYHORSHG IRU

82

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

WKH LQGLYLGXDO VWXGHQW RYHU  IRUPDWLYH \HDUV RI HGXFDWLRQ SULRU WR XQGHU
JUDGXDWHVWXG\7KLVPDNHVVWXGHQWVZKRHQWHUXQLYHUVLW\H[SHUWOHDUQHUVEXW
ZKDWGRWKH\NQRZRILQVWUXFWLRQDOPHWDFRJQLWLYHNQRZOHGJH"7KHJHQHUDODLP
RI WKLV UHVHDUFK ZDV WR LGHQWLI\ WKH PHWDFRJQLWLYH NQRZOHGJH DQG HGXFDWLRQDO
SURFHGXUHVWKDWIDFLOLWDWHWHUWLDU\VWXGHQWVOHDUQLQJ,QSDUWLFXODUSDUWLFLSDWLQJ
VWXGHQWV ZHUH DVNHG WR GHVFULEH WKH EHVW SUDFWLFHV RI DFDGHPLFV DFDGHPLF
EHKDYLRXUWKDWHQKDQFHGVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJZKDWOHFWXUHUVDQGWXWRUVFRXOGGRWR
WHDFKPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\DQGKRZVWXGHQWVFRXOGOHDUQPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\
(DUO\ H[SODQDWLRQV RI OHDUQLQJ UHOHYDQW WR WHUWLDU\ VWXG\ IRFXVHG RQ WKH
WKRXJKWV DQG FRJQLWLRQV RI VWXGHQWV IRU H[DPSOH :LQQH  0DU[ 
7KLV DSSURDFK OHG DZD\ IURP EHKDYLRXUDO DSSURDFKHV WR HPSKDVL]H WKH UROH
RI FRJQLWLYH SURFHVVHV LQ VWXGHQW OHDUQLQJ :LQQH  0DU[   6XFK
UHVHDUFKHUVHPSOR\HGTXDOLWDWLYHWHFKQLTXHVWRHVWDEOLVKWKHSURFHVVHVXVHGE\
VWXGHQWV WR OHDUQ $QRWKHU VWUDQG RI UHVHDUFK ZDV GHYHORSHG E\ LQYHVWLJDWLQJ
VWXGHQWVVHOIHIFDF\%DQGXUDDQGVHOIUHJXODWLRQ$LQOH\ 3DWULFN
 3XUGLH +DWWLH 'RXJODV  =LPPHUPDQ  /HDUQLQJ DSSURDFKHV
$LQOH\%LJJV.HPEHU /HXQJ%RZOHVKDYHDOVRLQIRUPHG
SUHYLRXV XQGHUVWDQGLQJV RI DGROHVFHQW DQG DGXOW OHDUQLQJ IROORZHG PRUH
UHFHQWO\ E\ FRQVWUXFWLYLVW DSSURDFKHV WR OHDUQLQJ %RJKRVVLDQ  .D0LQJ
.LW7DL5XGGXFN )OXWWHU2WKHULPSRUWDQWUHVHDUFKKDVIRFXVHG
RQ WKH PHWDFRJQLWLYH NQRZOHGJH RI VWXGHQWV HJ (OHQ  /RZ\FN  
7KLVVWXG\H[WHQGVWKHSUHYLRXVUHVHDUFKLQYHVWLJDWLQJVWXGHQWVPHWDFRJ
QLWLYH NQRZOHGJH RI WKH WHDFKLQJ DQG OHDUQLQJ G\QDPLF XVLQJ D TXDOLWDWLYH
PHWKRGRORJ\ZLWKWHUWLDU\VWXGHQWV

Instructional Metacognitive Knowledge

6WXGHQWV DQG WKHLU OHFWXUHUV DSSURDFK WKH FRPSOH[ G\QDPLF RI OHDUQLQJ ZLWK
LPSOLFLW PRGHOV RU EHOLHIV DERXW KRZ WR EH PRVW HIFDFLRXV W\SLFDOO\ EDVHG
RQ VRPH PHWDFRJQLWLYH DQG LPSOLFLWO\ ORJLFDO H[SODQDWLRQ RI OHDUQLQJ ,W LV
FRPPRQO\KHOGWKDWVWXGHQWVZKRDUHHTXLSSHGZLWKLQVWUXFWLRQDOPHWDFRJQLWLYH
NQRZOHGJHZLOODFKLHYHHIFLHQWO\DQGHIIHFWLYHO\$VNHOO:LOOLDPV/DZVRQ 
0XUUD\+DUYH\%URZQOHH%RXOWRQ/HZLV 3XUGXH&RQQHU
0DNLQJH[SOLFLWWKHXQGHUO\LQJHSLVWHPRORJLFDODQGPHWDFRJQLWLYHEHOLHIVDERXW
OHDUQLQJ LV DQ LPSRUWDQW UROH RI WKH HGXFDWRU %URZQOHH HW DO ([FKDQJLQJ
LQIRUPDWLRQ EHWZHHQ DFDGHPLFV DQG VWXGHQWV LV H[SHFWHG WR UHVXOW LQ SRVLWLYH
OHDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQWV .RQLQJV %UDQG*UXZHO  YDQ 0HUULHQERHU 
7R PDNH XQGHUO\LQJ HSLVWHPRORJLFDO DQG PHWDFRJQLWLYH EHOLHIV DERXW OHDUQLQJ
H[SOLFLW UHTXLUHV WKDW WKH\ DUH UDLVHG WR FRQVFLRXVQHVV VR WKDW WKH VWXGHQW FDQ
KDYH D OHYHO RI SHUFHSWLRQ WKDW OHDGV WR GLDORJXH DQG HQJDJHPHQW DQG FRQVH
TXHQWO\ UHHFWLRQ GHHSHU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ DQG NQRZOHGJH /RQHUJDQ 
7\SLFDOO\ PDNLQJ ORJLFDO H[SODQDWLRQV RI OHDUQLQJ H[SOLFLW RFFXUV ZLWKLQ WKH
FRQWH[W RI ODQJXDJH :LWKRXW WKH FDSDFLW\ WR DUWLFXODWH WKHLU OHDUQLQJ VWXGHQWV
PD\RSHUDWHEXWQRWLQDPDQQHUWKDWZLOOUHVXOWLQFRQVFLHQWLRXVVHOIUHHFWLYH
XQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGNQRZOHGJHRUDFWLYHHQJDJHPHQWZLWKWKHFRQWHQWDQGWKH
LQXHQFH RI WKH DFDGHPLF SUHVHQWLQJ WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ 7R GDWH WKHUH KDV EHHQ

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

83

OLWWOH LQYHVWLJDWLRQ RI WKH VWXGHQWV SHUFHSWLRQV RI WKH DFDGHPLFV LQXHQFH RQ
VWXGHQWOHDUQLQJ6LPLODUO\WKHUHKDVEHHQOLWWOHUHVHDUFKWKDWH[SOLFLWO\H[DPLQHV
VWXGHQWV FRQFHSWLRQV LH LQVWUXFWLRQ DQG LWV VHOIUHHFWLYH OHDUQLQJRULHQWHG
QDWXUH LH LWV UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK P\ OHDUQLQJ /RZ\FN  (OHQ  S 
ZKLFKLVWKHGHQLWLRQRIVWXGHQWVLQVWUXFWLRQDOPHWDFRJQLWLRQ(OHQ /RZ\FN
7RWKLVHQGWKLVSDSHUZLOOIRFXVRQLGHQWLI\LQJZKDWHYLGHQFHVWXGHQWV
GUDZXSRQWRYDOLGDWHWKHLUFRUHDQGSHULSKHUDOEHOLHIVDERXWOHDUQLQJDQGWKH
WHDFKLQJOHDUQLQJG\QDPLF%URZQOHHHWDO

Findings From Previous Research

)LQGLQJV IURP SUHYLRXV UHVHDUFK KDV VKRZQ WKDW PHWDFRJQLWLYH NQRZOHGJH
FDQ EH LGHQWLHG DQG XVHG LQ WHUWLDU\ WHDFKLQJ ,Q D VXPPDU\ DUWLFOH RQ WKH
SURPRWLRQ RI WHUWLDU\ VWXGHQW VHOIUHJXODWLRQ VL[ LQVWUXFWLRQDO VWUDWHJLHV ZHUH
OLVWHG 6FKUDZ &ULSSHQ  +DUWOH\  7KHVH VWUDWHJLHV LQFOXGH LQTXLU\ DV
WKH SURPRWLRQ RI FULWLFDO WKRXJKW RUJDQLVDWLRQ DQG H[SHUW PRGHOOLQJ FROODER
UDWLRQ ZKLFK SURYLGHV PRGHOOLQJ DQG SURPSWV UHHFWLRQ VWUDWHJ\ XVH ZKLFK
IRUPVWKHFRQGLWLRQVIRUOHDUQLQJDQGVHOIHIFDF\PHQWDOPRGHOVRIWKHFRQWHQW
ZKLFKH[SOLFDWHWKHHOGRILQWHUHVWSURYLGLQJWKHIUDPHZRUNIRUUHHFWLRQDQG
HYDOXDWLRQ WHFKQRORJ\ ZKLFKSURYLGHVIRUWKH DGRSWLRQRIVNLOOVDQGPHDQVRI
HYDOXDWLQJWHVWLQJDQGYDOLGDWLQJDQGDWWHQWLRQWRSHUVRQDOEHOLHIVZKLFKOHDGV
WRHQJDJHPHQWZLWKVWXGHQWVDQGSURPRWHVFRQFHSWXDOFKDQJH2WKHUUHVHDUFK
LQWRVWXGHQWVFRQFHSWLRQVRIWKHLUOHDUQLQJVKRZHGWKDWWKH\GHVFULEHGWKHLUZRUN
DW XQLYHUVLW\ DV WKHLU RZQ UHVSRQVLELOLW\ EXW WKDW WKH VWXGHQWV FRQFHSWLRQ RI
OHDUQLQJZDVVLPSOHDQGTXDQWLWDWLYHLQQDWXUHDQGODFNLQJFRPSOH[LW\'HYOLQ
&RUUHVSRQGLQJO\UHVHDUFKLQYHVWLJDWLQJVWXGHQWVLQVWUXFWLRQDOPHWDFRJ
QLWLYHNQRZOHGJHIRXQGWKDWVWXGHQWVGRQRWDWWDFKDEVROXWHYDOXHWRWKHGHOLYHU\
V\VWHPVRULQVWUXFWLRQDOHOHPHQWVUDWKHUWKHUHOHYDQFHRIWKHFRQWHQWLVEDVHGRQ
WKH FRQWH[W 6WXGHQWV GLVWLQJXLVK EHWZHHQ WKHLU RZQ OHDUQLQJ DQG VWXG\LQJ IRU
ZKLFKWKH\DSSHDUPRUHUHDFWLYHDQGUHOLQTXLVKUHVSRQVLELOLW\7KLVLVSRVVLEO\
GXHWRPDWKHPDWKDQWLFHIIHFWVZKHUHVWXGHQWVEHFRPHOHVVDEOHWRXVHOHDUQLQJ
VNLOOV RU KDYH D OHVV FOHDU NQRZOHGJH DERXW WKH WDXJKW GRPDLQ WKDQ WKH\ KDG
ZKHQEHJLQQLQJWKHXQLWRUVXEMHFW/RKPDQ6WXGHQWVIRFXVRQIHHGEDFN
DQG VSHFLF LQIRUPDWLRQ UHODWHG WR VXEMHFW PDWWHU EXW UDUHO\ RQ LQVWUXFWLRQDO
HOHPHQWV(OHQ /RZ\FN,PSRUWDQWO\WKHUHVHDUFKHUVDUJXHWKDWVWXGHQWV
LQVWUXFWLRQDOPHWDFRJQLWLYHNQRZOHGJHZDVDWKHRUHWLFDOO\VHSDUDWHHOGEXWLV
QRW FRQFHLYHG DV VXFK E\ VWXGHQWV 7KLV GUDZV LQWR TXHVWLRQ ZKHWKHU VWXGHQWV
KDYH FRJQLVDQFH RI WKH FRPSOH[ OLQN EHWZHHQ DFDGHPLF WHDFKLQJ DFWLYLWLHV DQG
VWXGHQWDFWLRQDQGSHUIRUPDQFH
7KURXJK IDFWRU DQDO\WLF PHWKRGV WKH PDLQ HOHPHQWV RI HIIHFWLYH WHUWLDU\
WHDFKLQJKDYHEHHQGHQHG-RQHV8VLQJDYHU\ODUJHVDPSOHRIDUDQJH
RI WHUWLDU\ VWXGHQWV IURP GLIIHULQJ GLVFLSOLQHV D PRGHO RI JRRG WHDFKLQJ ZLWK
RQHIDFWRUUHODWHGWROHDUQLQJFHQWUHGEHKDYLRXUDQGWKHVHFRQGDVVRFLDWHGZLWK
WHDFKLQJEHKDYLRXUZDVGHYHORSHG$QRWKHUIDFWRULDODQDO\VLVRIVWXGHQWUDWLQJV
KDVVKRZQWKDWDFRQVLGHUDWLRQFRQFHUQGLPHQVLRQZDVWKHEHVWVLQJOHSUHGLFWRU
RIJOREDOUDWLQJVRISURIHVVRUVEXWWKHLQWHUDFWLRQVRIRUJDQLVDWLRQFRPSHWHQFH

84

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

GLPHQVLRQZLWKWKHFRQVLGHUDWLRQFRQFHUQGLPHQVLRQRISHUIRUPDQFHZDVPRUH
KLJKO\UHODWHGWRRYHUDOOUDWLQJVWKDQHLWKHUYDULDEOHDQDO\VHGVHSDUDWHO\.HDYHQ\
0F*DQQ7KHVHDERYHPHQWLRQHGIDFWRUVKDYHDVLPLODULW\WRIDFWRUVRI
JHQHUDODQGVSHFLFVHOIHIFDF\%DQGXUD,QDQRWKHUVWXG\WKURXJK
DVHULHVRIYDOLGDWLQJSURFHVVHVEHKDYLRXUDODQFKRUVZHUHGHYHORSHGWRGHVFULEH
DFDGHPLFV EHKDYLRXU WKDW SURPRWHV OHDUQLQJ LQ SKDUPDF\ *UXVVLQJ 9DOXFN
 :LOOLDPV  7HQ VHWV RI GHVFULSWRUV HPHUJHG WHDFKLQJ DELOLW\OHFWXUHV
WHDFKLQJDELOLW\ODERUDWRU\WHDFKLQJDELOLW\H[SHULHQWLDOFRXUVHRUJDQLVDWLRQ
VHOHFWLRQDQGXVHRIPHGLDVWXGHQWSHUIRUPDQFHHYDOXDWLRQVWXGHQWLQVWUXFWRU
LQWHUDFWLRQZRUNORDGFRXUVHGLIFXOW\HQWKXVLDVPPRWLYDWLRQDQGNQRZOHGJH
RIVXEMHFWDUHD7KHIDFWRUVGHVFULEHGDERYHKDYHDKLJKFRLQFLGHQFHRIFRQWHQW
ZLWKWKHWKUHHIDFWRUVHOIHIFDF\PHDVXUHRIWKH2KLR6WDWH7HDFKHU(IFDF\6FDOH
7VFKDQQHQ0RUDQD +R\7KHIDFWRUVRIWKLVVFDOHDUHHIFDF\IRULQVWUXF
WLRQDO VWUDWHJLHV HIFDF\ IRU FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW DQG HIFDF\ IRU VWXGHQW
HQJDJHPHQW7RJHWKHUWKHVHIDFWRUVSURYLGHDUDQJHRISRVVLEOHUHVSRQVHVIURP
VWXGHQWVDVVXPLQJWKDWWKHVWXGHQWVSHUFHLYHWKHZRUNRIDFDGHPLFVLQWKHVDPH
PDQQHUWKDWWKHDFDGHPLFVKDYHFRQFHSWXDOL]HGLWWKURXJKVXFKLQVWUXPHQWV
6XFKLQVWUXPHQWVXVHIRUFHGFKRLFHRSWLRQVDQGWKHUHIRUHJLYHDSRWHQWLDOO\
IDOVHO\SRVLWLYHFHUWDLQW\DERXWZKDWWKHVWXGHQWNQRZVWREHWKHEHKDYLRXURI
WKH DFDGHPLF 7R DGGUHVV WKLV SUREOHP LQ WKH FXUUHQW UHVHDUFK VWXGHQWV DUH
EHLQJDVNHGWRUHVSRQGWRRSHQHQGHGTXHVWLRQVUHODWHGWRWKHVOLJKWO\GLIIHUHQW
TXHVWLRQVRIWKHEHVWSUDFWLFHVRIOHFWXUHUVDQGWXWRUVZKDWWHDFKLQJVWDIIGRWR
HQKDQFH VWXGHQW OHDUQLQJ DQG KRZ VWXGHQWV NQRZ WKHVH WR EH HIIHFWLYH ZKDW
ZRXOGDVVLVWOHFWXUHUVDQGWXWRUVWRWHDFKPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\DQGZKDWZRXOGKHOS
VWXGHQWVOHDUQPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\"
&RQWUDU\WRWKHFRPSOH[PXOWLIDFWRULDOGHVFULSWLRQRIVWXGHQWVFRQFHSWLRQRI
WKHDFDGHPLFGHVLJQHGE\DFDGHPLFVDERYHVRPHUHVHDUFKVKRZVWKDWVWXGHQWV
DFWXDOO\KDYHIDUVLPSOHUPRGHOVIURPZKLFKWKH\GHVFULEHWKHWHDFKLQJOHDUQLQJ
G\QDPLF 5HVHDUFK KDV VKRZQ WKDW VWXGHQWV DUH OHVV OLNHO\ WR DGRSW VXUIDFH
DSSURDFKHVWROHDUQLQJDVWKH\DJHDQGDUHPRUHOLNHO\WRDGRSWGHHSDSSURDFKHV
EXWWKDWWKHUHZDVDGHFUHDVHLQWKHXVHRIWKHGHHSDSSURDFKWROHDUQLQJIURP
WKH UVW WR WKLUG \HDU RI XQLYHUVLW\ FRXUVHV *RZ  .HPEHU  6LPLODUO\
UHFHQWUHVHDUFKKDVVKRZQWKDWPRUHFRPSOH[VWXG\VWUDWHJLHVZHUHQRWXVHGWR
UHSODFHROGHUPHWKRGVRIOHDUQLQJZKHQGLIFXOWLHVLQOHDUQLQJZHUHHQFRXQWHUHG
E\VWXGHQWV&DR 1LHWIHOG)XUWKHULWZDVIRXQGWKDWVWXGHQWVUHSRUWHG
UHO\LQJRQSULPDULO\SDVVLYHUHKHDUVDOVWUDWHJLHVUDWKHUWKDQWKHHIIHFWLYHVWUDWHJLHV
GHVFULEHG LQ SUHYLRXV OLWHUDWXUH 7KLV VXJJHVWV WKDW VHOIUHHFWLYH SURFHVVHV
DQG DQ DELOLW\ WR FRPSUHKHQG WKH OLQN EHWZHHQ WHDFKLQJ DQG OHDUQLQJ OHDGLQJ
DXWRPDWLFDOO\ WR VHOIFRUUHFWLRQ RU DGMXVWPHQW WR LPSURYH OHDUQLQJ SURFHVVHV
ZDVODUJHO\DEVHQWIRUVWXGHQWV,IVWXGHQWVGRQRWXVHPHWDFRJQLWLYHIHHGEDFN
DQGDGMXVWPHQWSURFHVVHVLWLVQRWOLNHO\WKDWVWXGHQWVDUHFRJQLVDQWRIWKHHIIHF
WLYHQHVVRIPRUHFRPSOH[LQVWUXFWLRQDONQRZOHGJHWUDQVIHUSURFHVVHVKHQFHWKH
GHIDXOWWRVLPSOHSURFHVVHVRUVXUIDFHDSSURDFKHV
4XDOLWDWLYH UHVHDUFK KDV VKRZQ WKDW  PDLQ FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RI KLJKO\ UDWHG
DFDGHPLFV FDQ EH LGHQWLHG IURP VWUXFWXUHG LQWHUYLHZV ZLWK PHGLFDO VWXGHQWV

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

85

%LOOLQJV*DJOLDUGL %DUUHWW  0D]RU  7KH FKDUDFWHULVWLF EHKDYLRXUV RI

DFDGHPLFV DUH KHOSLQJ VWXGHQWV XQGHUVWDQG DQG UHWDLQ PDWHULDO SURMHFWLQJ
SDVVLRQ DQG  RU HQWKXVLDVP DERXW WKH VXEMHFW SURYLGLQJ FOHDU H[SODQDWLRQV
PDNLQJPDWHULDOLQWHUHVWLQJEULQJLQJRXWFOLQLFDOSHUVSHFWLYHVRUVKRZLQJFOLQLFDO
DSSOLFDELOLW\ RI PDWHULDO WHDFKLQJ WR DSSURSULDWH OHYHO RI WKH VWXGHQW XVLQJ
DSSURSULDWH DSSURDFKHV IRU WKH VWXGHQWV UHSHDWLQJ DQG UHLQIRUFLQJ LPSRUWDQW
PDWHULDOPDNLQJFOHDUWDNHDZD\SRLQWVSDFLQJPDWHULDOHIIHFWLYHO\UHODWLQJWR
VWXGHQWVE\EHLQJVXSSRUWLYHSDWLHQWDQGHVWDEOLVKUDSSRUWSUHVHQWLQJPDWHULDO
LQGLIIHUHQWZD\VXVLQJPXOWLPHGLDHIIHFWLYHO\DQGUHTXHVWLQJVWXGHQWIHHGEDFN
ZKLOH EHLQJ RSHQ WR WKHLU TXHVWLRQV DQG VXJJHVWLRQV $JDLQ VWXGHQWV GLG QRW
DUWLFXODWHUHHFWRQDQGDGMXVWWKHLURZQEHKDYLRXUWRLPSURYHOHDUQLQJLQVWHDG
WKH\ GHIDXOWHG WR SUHYLRXVO\ XVHG LQHIFLHQW SURFHVVHV ,W ZDV OLNHO\ WKDW WKH
VWXGHQWVFDSDFLW\WRUHHFWRQWKHHIIRUWVRIVWDIIWRSURPRWHDQGWHDFKHIIHFWLYH
OHDUQLQJZDVVLPLODUO\SUREOHPDWLFDQGWKDWWKHVWXGHQWVLQVWUXFWLRQDOPHWDFRJ
QLWLYHNQRZOHGJHZDVORZRUVLPSOH(OHQ /RZ\FN
'HVSLWH WKH ODUJH DPRXQW RI UHVHDUFK QR FRKHVLYH VHW RI LQXHQWLDO DQG
HIIHFWLYH IDFWRUV GHQLQJ VWXGHQWV LQVWUXFWLRQDO PHWDFRJQLWLYH NQRZOHGJH KDV
HPHUJHG7KHVWXG\PDMRULQZKLFKVWXGHQWVHQUROPD\LQXHQFHWKHLULQVWUXF
WLRQDO PHWDFRJQLWLYH NQRZOHGJH 0XFK RI WKH WHUWLDU\ UHVHDUFK LQWR VWXGHQW
OHDUQLQJ KDV EHHQ FRPSOHWHG ZLWKLQ D HOG RU VSHFLDOLVW GRPDLQV IRU H[DPSOH
DPRQJ HQJLQHHUV RU WUDLQLQJ WHDFKHUV HJ %LOOLQJV*DJOLDUGL HW DO 
7KH PDMRU LQ ZKLFK D VWXGHQW HQUROV H[SRVHV WKH VWXGHQW WR D ERG\ RI GLVFUHWH
NQRZOHGJHVHSDUDWHIURPRWKHUPDMRUVRUHOGVRINQRZOHGJH,WLVSRVVLEOHWKDW
ZKHQ OHFWXULQJ DQG WXWRULQJ D UDQJH RI PHWDFRJQLWLYH NQRZOHGJH LV GLVFORVHG
DQG LPSDUWHG WR VWXGHQWV ZKLFK LQ WXUQ LQXHQFHV VWXGHQWV LQVWUXFWLRQDO
PHWDFRJQLWLYH NQRZOHGJH $ VHDUFK RI (EVFR DQG 3V\FKOLW UHYHDOHG WKDW WKHUH
KDGEHHQQRUHVHDUFKLQWRZKHWKHUHQUROPHQWLQDPDMRUHOGRIVWXG\V\VWHP
DWLFDOO\ DOWHUV VWXGHQWV LQVWUXFWLRQDO PHWDFRJQLWLYH NQRZOHGJH +HQFH LQ WKLV
UHVHDUFKVWXGHQWVHQUROOHGLQ3V\FKRORJ\DQGWKRVHHQUROOHGLQRWKHUPDMRUVZLOO
EHFRPSDUHGWRHVWDEOLVKZKHWKHUWKHUHLVDGLIIHUHQFHLQVWXGHQWVLQVWUXFWLRQDO
PHWDFRJQLWLYHNQRZOHGJHEDVHGRQWKHPDMRUZLWKLQZKLFKWKH\VWXG\
,QVXPPDU\VWXGHQWVSHUFHSWLRQVRIHIIHFWLYHWHDFKLQJKDYHEHHQUHSRUWHGDV
SRRUZKLFKLVPDGHPRUHSUREOHPDWLFZKHQUHVHDUFKLQWRVWXGHQWNQRZOHGJHRI
DFDGHPLFVKDVRFFXUUHGWKURXJKIRUFHGFKRLFHRSWLRQVWKDWOHDYHQRRSSRUWXQLW\
WRLQGLFDWHXQFHUWDLQW\RURIIHUWKHSRVVLELOLW\WRUHHFWWKHVLPSOLFLW\ZLWKZKLFK
WKH VWXGHQW SHUFHLYHV WKHLU VWDIIVWXGHQW OHDUQLQJ UHODWLRQVKLSV )XUWKHU LW
DVVXPHV WKDW VWXGHQWV KDYH D FRPSHWHQW NQRZOHGJH RI WKH FRPSOH[ SURFHVV RI
WKH WHDFKLQJOHDUQLQJ G\QDPLF LQ WKH DEVHQFH RI WUDLQLQJ ZKLFK KDV QRW EHHQ
HYLGHQFHGLQWKHOLWHUDWXUH3UHYLRXVUHVHDUFKKDVLQGLFDWHGWKDWIDFWRUVGHQLQJ
LQVWUXFWLRQDOPHWDFRJQLWLYHNQRZOHGJHDQGWKHWHDFKLQJOHDUQLQJG\QDPLFZHUH
FRQVLGHUHGFRPSOH[DQGYDULRXVO\GHVFULEHG
,Q DQ HIIRUW WR SURYLGH LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW ZKDW VWXGHQWV SHUFHLYH WR EH
DFDGHPLFV EHVW SUDFWLFH KRZ DFDGHPLFV HQKDQFH VWXGHQW OHDUQLQJ ZKDW
DFDGHPLFVFRXOGGRWRWHDFKPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\DQGZKDWZRXOGKHOSVWXGHQWVWR
OHDUQPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\DTXDOLWDWLYHWHFKQLTXHRIGDWDJDWKHULQJZLWKWHUPVUHGXFHG

86

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

WRFDWHJRULHVZDVDGRSWHG4XHVWLRQQDLUHEDVHGIRUPDWVDUHFRQVLGHUHGSDUWLFX
ODUO\YDOLGDQGKDYHEHHQVRIRUDFRQVLGHUDEOHWLPH&RIIPDQDQGSURYLGH
SRZHUIXOLQIRUPDWLRQEXWGRQRWDIIRUGWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVWKHIDFLOLW\WRUHVSRQG
LQ WKHLU RZQ WHUPV RU DERXW FRQWHQW WKDW ZDV WKHLURZQFRQFHUQ6DQGHORZVNL
7KXVRSHQHQGHGTXHVWLRQVKDYHEHHQGHYLVHGDQGWKHUHVXOWLQJGDWDZLOO
EH FDWHJRUL]HG WR IDFLOLWDWH VRPH RUGHULQJ DQG GDWD UHGXFWLRQ 0D\ULQJ 
5\DQ %HUQDUGDOORZLQJIRUJURXSDQDO\VLVEDVHGRQWKHPDMRULQZKLFK
VWXGHQWSDUWLFLSDQWVDUHHQUROOHG2QHLVVXHDULVLQJIURPWKHXVHRIRSHQHQGHG
TXHVWLRQV LV WKH RFFXUUHQFH RI QR UHVSRQVHV +RZHYHU WKLV UHVSRQVH DFWXDOO\
SURYLGHVLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKHOHYHORINQRZOHGJHRUUHHFWLYHFDSDFLW\RIWKH
UHVSRQGHQWLQUHIHUHQFHWRWKHTXHVWLRQ+HLQULFK
7R GDWH OLWWOH UHVHDUFK KDV LQYHVWLJDWHG WKH FHUWDLQW\ DQG HYLGHQFH VWXGHQWV
KDYH DERXW KRZ WKH ZRUN RI DFDGHPLF VWDII WKURXJK OHFWXUHV DQG WXWRULDOV
HQKDQFH WKHLU RZQ VWXGHQW OHDUQLQJ )XUWKHU QR UHVHDUFK KDV LQYHVWLJDWHG
ZKHWKHU VWXGHQWV IURP VSHFLF PDMRU FRXUVHV V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ H[SHULHQFH
GLIIHUHQWDSSURDFKHVWRWHDFKLQJWKDWLQXHQFHWKHLULQVWUXFWLRQDOPHWDFRJQLWLYH
NQRZOHGJH 6XFK SRVVLELOLWLHV DUH DQDO\VHG LQ WKLV UHVHDUFK 7KH DEVHQFH RI D
SUHYLRXVO\GHQHGVHWRILQVWUXFWLRQDOPHWDFRJQLWLYHNQRZOHGJHIDFWRUVDQGWKH
OHYHORIFRPSOH[LW\DQGFHUWDLQW\WKDWVWXGHQWVKDYHLQWKHLUNQRZOHGJHSURPSWV
WKLV LQYHVWLJDWLYH TXDOLWDWLYH UHVHDUFK 7KXV WKH SULPDU\ DLP RI WKLV UHVHDUFK
ZDVWRGHVFULEHVWXGHQWVSHUFHSWLRQVRIWKHEHVWSUDFWLFHVRIOHFWXUHUVDQGWXWRUV
ZKDWWHDFKLQJVWDIIGRWRHQKDQFHVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJZKDWZRXOGKHOSOHFWXUHUV
DQG WXWRUV WHDFK PRUH HIIHFWLYHO\ DQG ZKDW ZRXOG KHOS VWXGHQWV OHDUQ PRUH
HIIHFWLYHO\

Method
Respondents
7ZRKXQGUHGXQGHUJUDGXDWHVWXGHQWVYROXQWHHUHGWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHUHVHDUFK
$OOVWXGHQWVZHUHHQUROOHGLQVXEMHFWVSUHVHQWHGE\WKH3V\FKRORJ\'HSDUWPHQW
RIRQHXQLYHUVLW\LQDFDSLWDOFLW\LQ$XVWUDOLD2IWKHVHSDUWLFLSDQWVVWXGHQWV
ZHUH HQUROOHG LQ 3V\FKRORJ\ DV D
PDMRUDQGZHUHHQUROOHGLQRWKHU
Table 1. Student respondents
PDMRUV7DEOH
by course enrolled
Frequency
Psychology

Percent

104

52.0

Social Science

34

17.0

Arts Combined

21

10.5

Science

12

6.0

Arts

21

10.5

4.0

200

100.0

Other
Total

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

Procedure
$WWKHWULDOVWDJHRIWKHGHYHORSPHQW
RI WKH TXHVWLRQQDLUH VWXGHQWV
UHDFWHG QHJDWLYHO\ WR SURYLGLQJ
GHPRJUDSKLF LQIRUPDWLRQ $V VXFK
LQIRUPDWLRQZDVQRWDFHQWUDOSDUWRI
WKHTXDOLWDWLYHUHVHDUFKLWZDVDJUHHG
WKDWDPLQLPXPDPRXQWRISHUVRQDO
LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW VWXGHQWV ZRXOG
EHJDWKHUHGWRPD[LPLVHDQRQ\PLW\
7KXV VWXGHQWV ZHUH DVNHG RQO\ WR

87

LQGLFDWH WKHLU PDMRU FRXUVH RI VWXG\ 6WXGHQWV ZKR DJUHHG WR SDUWLFLSDWH ZHUH
DVNHGWRFRPSOHWHDTXHVWLRQQDLUHFRQWDLQLQJVL[RSHQHQGHGTXHVWLRQV$SSHQGL[
7KHUVWDVNHGDERXWWKHLUFRXUVHRIHQUROPHQW7KH\ZHUHWKHQDVNHGDERXW
KRZOHFWXUHUVDQGWXWRUVGHPRQVWUDWHEHVWSUDFWLFHDQGZKDWWHDFKLQJVWDIIGRWR
HQKDQFHVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJ$IWHUHDFKRIWKHVHTXHVWLRQVWKHVWXGHQWVZHUHDVNHG
KRZWKH\NQHZWKDWWKLVDSSURDFKZRUNHGIRUWKHP7KHVHTXHVWLRQVZHUHLQFOXGHG
WR SURYLGH HYLGHQFHEDVHG YDOLGLW\ DV LW ZDV QRW RQO\ LPSRUWDQW WKDW WHDFKLQJ
SURFHVVHV RFFXU EXW WKDW WKH\ KDYH DQ LPSDFW RQ LPSURYLQJ VWXGHQW RXWFRPHV
7KH IWK TXHVWLRQ ZDV DQ LQYLWDWLRQ IRU VWXGHQWV WR LQGLFDWH ZKDW WKH\ WKRXJKW
OHFWXUHUVDQGWXWRUVFRXOGGRWREHPRUHHIIHFWLYH)LQDOO\WKHVWXGHQWVZHUHDVNHG
WRQRPLQDWHZKDWZRXOGDVVLVWWKHPWREHFRPHPRUHHIIHFWLYHOHDUQHUV
2SHQHQGHG TXHVWLRQV ZHUH XVHG WR HOLFLW UHVSRQVHV IURP VWXGHQWV DV WKLV
ZDV FRQVLGHUHG DQ DSW PHWKRG IRU JDLQLQJ WKH GHVLUHG LQIRUPDWLRQ 3DWWRQ
0D\ULQJ5\DQ %HUQDUG6DQHORZVNL7KHWHUPVIURP
VWXGHQWVZHUHDOORFDWHGLQWRQDWXUDOFDWHJRULHVWKDWHPHUJHGIURPWKHGDWDDQG
ZHUH SURJUHVVLYHO\ VRUWHG LQ DQ LWHUDWLYH PDQQHU RI H[SDQVLRQ DQG UHGXFWLRQ
into open coded categories that were independent of other categories and were
IXUWKHU UHQHG LQWR D[LDO FRGLQJ FDWHJRULHV IROORZHG E\ VHOHFWLYH FRGLQJ RI WKH
QDO OLVW -LFN  .HDWV  0LOHV  +XEHUPDQ  7XUQHU +HUVHQ 
+HLVHU)ROORZLQJWKHGDWDUHGXFWLRQFRGHVRIWHUPVDQGWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJ
IUHTXHQF\RIUHVSRQVHVZHUHHQWHUHGLQWRDGDWDEDVHWRDOORZIRUFRPSDULVRQRI
UHVSRQVHVWRGHWHUPLQHZKHWKHUUHVSRQVHVYDULHGRQWKHEDVLVRIWKHPDMRUEHLQJ
FRPSOHWHGE\WKHUHVSRQGHQW&UHVZHOO 3LDQR&ODUN

Results
5HVSRQGHQWVVFRUHVZHUHFKHFNHGIRUUHSHDWDQGV\VWHPDWLFUHVSRQVHDVZHOODV
DQDO\VHVRIWKHQRUHVSRQVHFDWHJRU\7KHUHZDVDODUJHQXPEHURIQRUHVSRQVHV
RIWKHSRVVLEOHUHVSRQVHV7KHGLVWULEXWLRQRIWKHVHUHVSRQVHV
FDQ EH DQDO\VHG WR HVWDEOLVK ZKHWKHU VWXGHQWV V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ RSWHG QRW WR
SDUWLFLSDWHE\FRQVLVWHQWO\QRWUHVSRQGLQJ%\FRQWUDVWLIWKHVWXGHQWVUHVSRQVHV
ZHUH VSUHDG DFURVV PDQ\ VWXGHQWV WKH\ ZRXOG EH OHVV OLNHO\ WR EH V\VWHPDWLF
WKHUHE\LPSO\LQJDQDEVHQFHRIXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIDUHVSRQVHWRWKHTXHVWLRQ2I
WKHQRUHVSRQVHVWKHUHZHUHQRFDVHVZKHUHVXFKUHVSRQVHVZHUHFRQVLVWHQW
DFURVVDOOVL[SRVVLEOHUHVSRQVHV2QO\WKUHHUHVSRQGHQWVKDGQRUHVSRQVHVIRUYH
TXHVWLRQVUHVSRQGHQWVKDGQRUHVSRQVHVIRUIRXUTXHVWLRQVUHVSRQGHQWV
KDG QR UHVSRQVHV IRU  TXHVWLRQV  UHVSRQGHQWV KDG QR UHVSRQVHV IRU WZR
TXHVWLRQVDQGUHVSRQGHQWVKDGRQO\RQHQRUHVSRQVH2QO\SDLUV
RIUHVSRQVHVZHUHDGMDFHQWPDLQO\TXHVWLRQVRQHDQGWZRWKUHHDQGIRXURUYH
RU VL[ IXUWKHU VXJJHVWLQJ WKDW WKH UHVSRQVHV ZHUH QRW V\VWHPDWLF EXW LQGLFDWHG
WKDWVWXGHQWVGLGQRWUHDGLO\KDYHDUHVSRQVHWRWKHSDUWLFXODUTXHVWLRQ
Question 1a: What do your lecturers and tutors do that demonstrates best
practice in teaching?
6WXGHQWVZHUHDVNHGZKDWOHFWXUHUVDQGWXWRUVGLGWKDWGHPRQVWUDWHGEHVWSUDFWLFH
LQWHDFKLQJ)LYHGRPLQDQWFDWHJRULHVHPHUJHGIURPWKHGDWD7DEOH7KHODUJHVW

88

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Table 2. Categories describing the best practice of teachers and tutors

Categories
Explanation/
Understanding
(n = 41)

Practical
Demonstrations
& Activities
(n = 44)

Clear &
Professional
Delivery
(n = 60)

Motivation
& Individual
Attention
(n = 30)

No Answer/
Irregular
Response
(n = 25)

Explain concepts

Freq

19

9.5

Ensuring understanding

4.0

Knowledge of course

3.5

Revision

1.5

Clear communication of objectives

1.0

Providing exam content information

.5

Base lectures on texts

.5

Use practical examples

24

12.0

Demonstrations and activities

4.0

Encourage discussion - question and answer time

3.5

Group work

1.0

Provide homework exercise

.5

Course specific activity book

.5

Provide additional info

.5

Clear lecture notes available (online/reserve)

30

15.0

Clear overheads/ visual aids

12

6.0

Organised and well prepared

11

5.5

Clear and professional delivery of information

3.0

Up-to-date resources

.5

Encourage class participation

4.0

Approachable/available individually

4.0

Enthusiasm

2.5

Individual attention

2.5

Encourage independent learning

1.0

Maintaining student interest

.5

Willingness to help students in need

.5

No Answer

20

10.0

Unrelated answer

1.5

Do not know

1.0

Total

200

100

FDWHJRU\ZLWKRIWKHUHVSRQVHVUHODWHGWROHFWXUHUVSURYLGLQJFOHDUDQGSURIHV
VLRQDOGHOLYHU\7KLVFRPSULVHGFOHDUQRWHVDYDLODEOHWRVWXGHQWVFOHDURYHUKHDGV
DQGYLVXDODLGVDQGEHLQJRUJDQLVHGDQGZHOOSUHSDUHG7KHQH[WODUJHVWFDWHJRU\
RIWHUPVZLWKRIWKRVHQRPLQDWHGZDVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKSUDFWLFDOGHPRQVWUDWLRQ
DQGDFWLYLWLHV7KLVFRPSULVHGWKHXVHRISUDFWLFDOH[DPSOHVGHPRQVWUDWLRQVDQG

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

89

DFWLYLWLHVDQGWKHHQFRXUDJHPHQWRIFODVVURRPGLVFXVVLRQDVZHOODVTXHVWLRQDQG
DQVZHUWLPH&ORVHO\IROORZLQJLQIUHTXHQF\ZDVWKHH[SODQDWLRQXQGHUVWDQGLQJ
FDWHJRU\FRPSULVLQJVWDWHPHQWVWRGRZLWKOHFWXUHUVH[SODLQLQJFRQFHSWVHQVXULQJ
XQGHUVWDQGLQJ DQG GHPRQVWUDWLQJ NQRZOHGJH RI WKH FRXUVH 6WDII GHDOLQJ ZLWK
LVVXHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKVWXGHQWPRWLYDWLRQDQGLQGLYLGXDODWWHQWLRQDFFRXQWHGIRU
RIWKHQRPLQDWHGUHVSRQVHV7KLVFRPSULVHGHQFRXUDJLQJFODVVSDUWLFLSDWLRQ
RI LQGLYLGXDOV DQG EHLQJ DYDLODEOH DQG DSSURDFKDEOH WR LQGLYLGXDOV 7KH QDO
FDWHJRU\RIQRDQVZHURULUUHJXODUUHVSRQVHDFFRXQWHGIRUDSSUR[LPDWHO\DQG
LWFRPSULVHGUHVSRQVHVWKDWZHUHQRWPDGHRUQRWUHOHYDQWWRWKHTXHVWLRQ
7DEOH  VKRZV WKH SURPLQHQFH RI FOHDU SURIHVVLRQDO GHOLYHU\ DQG WKH
LPSRUWDQFH RI SUDFWLFDO GHPRQVWUDWLRQ DQG SURYLGLQJ FOHDU H[SODQDWLRQV DQG
XQGHUVWDQGLQJ7KHVHFDWHJRULHVDUHIROORZHGZLWKOHVVHUIUHTXHQFLHVE\WKHODVW
WZR FDWHJRULHV RI PRWLYDWLRQ DQG LQGLYLGXDO DWWHQWLRQ DQG QR UHVSRQVH 7KHUH
ZDVQRVLJQLFDQWDVVRFLDWLRQLQWKHUHVSRQVHVEHWZHHQWKHVWXGHQWVHQUROOHGLQ
D3V\FKRORJ\PDMRUFRPSDUHGZLWKRWKHUVr2(4, N  p d 
DQGWKHUHVSRQVHFDWHJRULHV
Table 3. Categories defining what teachers and tutors do that works for
students
Categories

Freq

Enhanced
Independent
Learning
(n = 32)

Practice

14

7.0

Empowers active student learning

11

5.5

Translate learning into practice

3.5

Attention
to Task
(n = 21)

Complete necessary work

3.5

Stay focused

3.0

Listen in lectures rather than worry about notes

3.0

Higher lecture attendance

1.0

Provision of
Information
(n = 28)

Showed what to do

Enhanced
Understanding/
Performance
(n = 72)

No Answer
(n = 47)

12

6.0

Feedback

4.5

Enables revision

3.5

Better understanding

44

22.0

Positive learning environment/confident students

12

6.0

Generates interest

3.0

Promotes informed discussion

2.0

Improved results

2.5

All refer to same texts

.5

40

20.0

3.5

200

100.0

No Answer
Do not know
Total

90

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Question 1b: How do you know that this works for you and other students?
6WXGHQWV ZHUH DVNHG KRZ WKH\ NQHZ WKDW ZKDW OHFWXUHUV DQG WXWRUV GLG WR
GHPRQVWUDWH EHVW SUDFWLFH ZRUNHG IRU WKHP DV VWXGHQWV 7KH ODUJHVW FDWHJRU\
ZLWKRIUHVSRQVHVZDVUHODWHGWRHQKDQFHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGSHUIRUPDQFH
7DEOH  7KH ODUJHVW QXPEHU RI FRQWULEXWLQJ WHUPV WR WKLV FDWHJRU\ ZDV UHODWHG
WR EHWWHU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ D SRVLWLYH OHDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQW DQG GHYHORSLQJ
FRQGHQW VWXGHQWV 7KH QH[W ODUJHVW FDWHJRU\ ZDV QR DQVZHU DQG GR QRW NQRZ
ZKLFK DFFRXQWHG IRU  RI WKH UHVSRQVHV 7KH QH[W PRVW IUHTXHQW FDWHJRU\
ZDV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK HQKDQFLQJ LQGHSHQGHQW OHDUQLQJ ZKLFK DFFRXQWHG IRU 
RI WKH WRWDO FRQWULEXWLRQV DQG WKH WHUPV FRQWULEXWLQJ WR WKLV FDWHJRU\ UHODWHG WR
SUDFWLFHDQGWKHHPSRZHUPHQWRIVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJ7KHFDWHJRU\RISURYLVLRQRI

Table 4. Categories defining what teaching staff do to enhance student

learning
Categories
Teaching
Approach
(n = 66)

Freq
Use examples to explain concepts

21

10.5

Encourage questions/participation

17

8.5

Explain what to do

13

6.5

Engage with and encourage students

4.5

Provide critical discussion

2.0

Interactive teaching

1.0

20

10.0

17

8.5

Make class interesting

2.0

Lab experiments

1.0

Aids to Learning Lecture notes and handouts

(n = 43)
Use visual aids/notes

Professional
Approach
(n = 22)

Extra Activities
& Resources
(n = 26)

No Answer
(n = 43)

Approachable/available

17

8.5

Show a dedication to teaching

1.0

Firm understanding of content

.5

Give feedback

1.0

Revision exercises/workbook

13

6.5

Group work/homework/discussions

1.5

Provide info and help on exam content

1.5

Revision classes

1.5

Provide references

1.0

Let students work individually

1.0

Readily available resources

.5

37

18.5

3.0

200

100.0

No Answer
Unrelated response
Total

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

91

LQIRUPDWLRQZDVWKHQH[WPRVWIUHTXHQWZLWKRIWKHWHUPV6KRZLQJVWXGHQWV
ZKDWWRGRDQGSURYLGLQJIHHGEDFNZHUHWKHWZRPRVWIUHTXHQWWHUPVFRQWULEXWLQJ
WR WKLV FDWHJRU\ $VVLVWLQJ VWXGHQWV WR DWWHQG WR WKH WDVN ZDV WKH QDO FDWHJRU\
LQGLFDWLQJWKDWVWXGHQWVNQHZWKDWZKDWOHFWXUHUVDQGWXWRUVGLGZRUNHGIRUWKHP
7KHDWWHQWLRQWRWDVNIDFWRUDFFRXQWHGIRUDSSUR[LPDWHO\RIWKHWHUPVDQG
FRPSOHWLQJQHFHVVDU\ZRUNDQGVWD\LQJIRFXVHGFRQWULEXWHGPRVWWRWKLVFDWHJRU\
7KHUHZDVQRDVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHFRXUVHLQZKLFKVWXGHQWVZHUHHQUROOHGDQG
the response categories, r2(4, N  p d 
Question 2a: What do the teaching staff do to enhance student learning?
7KHTXHVWLRQRIZKDWWHDFKLQJVWDIIGRWRHQKDQFHVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJGUHZGLIIHUHQW
UHVSRQVHV IURP WKH VWXGHQWV LQ FRPSDULVRQ WR WKH UHVSRQVHV WR WKH SUHYLRXV
TXHVWLRQV 7KH ODUJHVW JURXS RI QRPLQDWLRQV ZDV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKH WHDFKLQJ
DSSURDFK RI WKH VWDII 7DEOH  7KLV ZDV FKDUDFWHULVHG E\ XVLQJ H[DPSOHV WR
H[SODLQFRQFHSWVHQFRXUDJLQJTXHVWLRQVDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGH[SODLQLQJZKDW
Table 5. Categories defining what teachers and tutors do that works for
students
Categories
Enhanced
Independent
Learning
(n = 21)

Promotes and ensures learning

Attention
to Task
(n = 25)

Increased interest

Provision of
Information
(n = 30)

Enhanced
Understanding/
Performance
(n = 44)

No Answer/
Irregular
Response
(n = 80)

Enables learning in own time

20

10.0

.5

12

6.0

Keep focused

3.5

Concentrate on lecture rather than take notes

2.0

Ensures coverage of course material

1.0

Feedback

17

8.5

Enables revision

3.5

Know that help is always available

2.5

Provides a different perspective

.5

Better understanding

30

15.0

Improved results

4.0

Engage in critical discussion

2.0

Encourages participation

1.0

No Answer

63

31.5

Experience

10

5.0

3.5

200

100.0

Do not know

Total

92

Freq

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

VWXGHQWVZRXOGGR7KHQH[WPRVWIUHTXHQWJURXSRIWHUPVUHODWHG

WR WKH DLGV WR OHDUQLQJ SURYLGHG E\ WKH VWDII PHPEHU 7KLV ZDV FKDUDFWHULVHG
E\WKHSURYLVLRQRIOHFWXUHQRWHVDQGKDQGRXWVYLVXDODLGVDQGPDNLQJFODVVHV
LQWHUHVWLQJ7KHQH[WPRVWIUHTXHQWUHVSRQVHZDVQRDQVZHU)ROORZLQJ
WKLVZDVWKHFDWHJRU\RIWKHSURYLVLRQRIH[WUDDFWLYLWLHVDQGUHVRXUFHVZKLFK
ZDVFKDUDFWHULVHGE\UHYLVLRQH[HUFLVHVZRUNERRNVJURXSZRUNKRPHZRUN
DQGGLVFXVVLRQRQWKHSURYLVLRQRILQIRUPDWLRQDERXWDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVH[DPV
$OWKRXJKWKHSV\FKRORJ\VWXGHQWVZHUHVOLJKWO\OHVVOLNHO\WRQRPLQDWHWHDFKLQJ
DSSURDFK WKDQ VWXGHQW ZLWK RWKHU PDMRUV WKHUH ZDV QR VLJQLFDQW DVVRFLDWLRQ
EHWZHHQ WKH FRXUVH HQUROPHQW VWDWXV RI WKH UHVSRQGHQW DQG WKHLU QRPLQDWLRQV
r2(4, N  p d 
Question 2b: How do you know that this works for you and other students?
6WXGHQWVZHUHDVNHGKRZWKH\NQHZWKDWZKDWVWDIIGLGWRHQKDQFHOHDUQLQJZRUNHG
IRUWKHPDQGRWKHUVWXGHQWV7KHFDWHJRU\ZLWKWKHPRVWIUHTXHQWQXPEHURIWHUPV
ZDVQRDQVZHUZLWKRIWKHWHUPV7DEOH7KLVFDWHJRU\FRPSULVHGQRUHVSRQVHV
DVZHOODVRIWKHWRWDOQXPEHURIUHVSRQVHVEDVHGRQH[SHULHQFH([SHULHQFHZDV
DOORFDWHGLQWRWKHXQUHODWHGQRUHVSRQVHFDWHJRU\EHFDXVHLWGLGQRWGHPRQVWUDWH
DQ\HYLGHQFHEDVHGMXVWLFDWLRQIRUWKHGHFLVLRQPDGHE\VWXGHQWV7KHQH[WPRVW
IUHTXHQWUHVSRQVHFDWHJRU\ZDVHQKDQFLQJXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGSHUIRUPDQFH
ZKLFKUHSUHVHQWHGWHUPVVXFKDVJHQHUDWLQJDEHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGLPSURYHG
UHVXOWV7KHQH[WODUJHVWFDWHJRU\ZDVWKHSURYLVLRQRILQIRUPDWLRQLQZKLFK
UHVSRQVHV VXFK DV SURYLGLQJ IHHGEDFN HQDEOLQJ UHYLVLRQ DQG NQRZLQJ WKDW KHOS
ZDVDOZD\VDYDLODEOHZHUHWKHPRVWFRQWULEXWLQJWHUPV$WWHQWLRQWRWDVN
ZDVFRQWULEXWHGWRE\LQFUHDVLQJLQWHUHVWDQGNHHSLQJVWXGHQWVIRFXVHGZDVWKHQH[W
PRVWIUHTXHQWFDWHJRU\7KHFDWHJRU\ZLWKWKHOHDVWQXPEHURIWHUPVZDVHQKDQFHG
LQGHSHQGHQW OHDUQLQJ  3URPRWLQJ DQG HQVXULQJ OHDUQLQJ DQG HQDEOLQJ
OHDUQLQJLQRQHVRZQWLPHFRQWULEXWHGWRWKLVFDWHJRU\$QDO\VLVRIWKHDVVRFLDWLRQ
EHWZHHQ FRXUVH HQUROPHQW DQG QRPLQDWLRQ VKRZHG WKDW WKHUH ZDV QR VLJQLFDQW
DVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHVHYDULDEOHVr2(4, N  p d 
Question 3a: What would help lecturers and tutors to teach more effectively?
6WXGHQWV ZHUH DVNHG ZKDW ZRXOG KHOS OHFWXUHUV DQG WXWRUV WHDFK PRUH
HIIHFWLYHO\7KHFDWHJRULHVRIUHVSRQVHVRIWHUPVSURYLGHGE\VWXGHQWVWKDWZHUH
PHQWLRQHGPRVWIUHTXHQWO\UHODWHGWRWKHFDWHJRU\RIFOHDUOHFWXUHDQGWXWRULDO
GHOLYHU\ZKLFKZDVHTXDOO\UDQNHGZLWKIDFLOLWLHVDQGDLGVDV
VKRZQ LQ 7DEOH  /HFWXUH DQG WXWRULDO GHOLYHU\ RI ZRUN ZDV FKDUDFWHULVHG E\
FOHDU H[SODQDWLRQV HQVXULQJ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ DQG PRUH LQWHUHVWLQJ WHDFKLQJ %\
FRQWUDVWWKHFDWHJRU\RIIDFLOLWLHVDQGDLGVZDVFRQWULEXWHGWRPRVWE\KDYLQJ
WHDFKLQJ PDWHULDO RQOLQH RU RQ UHVHUYH DQG WKH XVH RI YLVXDO DLGV 7KH QH[W
PRVW IUHTXHQW FDWHJRU\ ZDV UHPRWH SUHSDUDWLRQ  5HPRWH SUHSDUDWLRQ
FRPSULVHG WHUPV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK FRPPXQLFDWLRQ DQG FRQVLVWHQF\ EHWZHHQ
OHFWXUHUVPRUHVWUXFWXUHGOHDUQLQJDQGFODULW\DERXWWKHRXWFRPHVDQGFRQWHQW
RIWKHXQLW)ROORZLQJWKLVZDVWKHFDWHJRU\RIOHFWXUHUDWWULEXWHVDQGVW\OH
7KLV FDWHJRU\ ZDV FKDUDFWHULVHG E\ LQGLYLGXDO DWWHQWLRQ DQG DSSURDFKDELOLW\

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

93

Table 6. Categories defining what would help lecturers and tutors to

teach more effectively
Categories
Clear Lecture
& Tutorial
Delivery
(n = 47)

Remote
Preparation
(n = 39)

Facilities & Aids

(n = 47)

Lecturer
Attributes
& Style
(n = 30)

No Answer
(n = 37)

Clear explanations/ensure understanding

Freq

17

8.5

More interesting teaching (not reading from notes)

4.5

More learning time

4.0

Provide and encourage questions

3.5

More examples

2.0

Less group work

.5

More practical work

.5

Communication and consistency between teachers

15

7.5

More structured learning (coordinate lecturers/tutors)

4.5

Clear about outcomes and content

3.5

Relate theory to practice

2.0

Better preparation

1.0

Feedback from students (i.e. this research)

1.0

Lecture materials online/on reserve

18

9.0

Use visual aids

10

5.0

Better texts

2.0

More clear handouts/notes

3.0

Decrease course content/reading

2.0

Good facilities

1.0

Smaller classes

1.0

Provide text book references when teaching

.5

Individual attention/approachable

3.5

More enthusiasm

2.5

Listening to students

2.0

More guidance

1.5

Revision and quiz

1.5

Relate to students of all ages

1.0

Formal teacher training

1.0

Be less critical

.5

Be more relaxed

.5

Awareness of different students needs

.5

Motivate students

.5

33

16.50

2.0

200

100.0

No Answer
Unrelated answer
Total

HQWKXVLDVP DQG OLVWHQLQJ WR VWXGHQWV 7KH QR DQVZHU FDWHJRU\  ZDV
FKDUDFWHULVHGPRVWO\E\QRDQVZHUUHVSRQVHVDQGXQUHODWHGDQVZHUV

94

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Table 7. Categories describing what would help students learn more

effectively
Categories

Freq

Revision/homework

18

9.0

Clear explanations/ensure understanding

14

7.0

Clear lecture and text summaries

4.5

Develop student interest in topics

3.5

More approachable/individual contact

2.0

Enjoy and have an interest in the subject

1.5

Interactive learning

1.5

Group work

.5

Do not assume students complete homework

.5

Explanations on board not just overhead

.5

Remote
Preparation
(n = 12)

Clear expectations, more direction

3.0

Complete required work and study

1.5

Relate theory to practice

1.5

Facilities & Aids

(n = 59)

Better texts/content

12

6.0

More examples (videos)

11

5.5

More useful handouts

4.5

Handouts and lecture materials online/e-reserve

4.0

More visual aids

2.5

More learning time

2.5

More library resources

1.5

Smaller classes

1.0

More morning classes

1.0

Catch-up classes

.5

Taped lectures

.5

More informed/organised teacher

3.5

More understanding from teachers

2.5

Improved teaching

2.5

Passionate teachers

1.5

Less stress

.5

No Answer

43

21.5

2.0

200

100.0

Clear Lecture
& Tutorial
Delivery
(n = 61)

Lecturer
Attributes
& Style
(n = 21)

No Answer
(n = 47)

Unrelated answer
Total

7DEOHVKRZVPXFKPRUHFRQVLVWHQF\DFURVVWKHUDQJHRIFDWHJRULHVZLWKWKUHH
FDWHJRULHVLQGLFDWLQJWKDWFOHDUOHFWXUHDQGWXWRULDOGHOLYHU\UHPRWHSUHSDUDWLRQ
DQGIDFLOLWLHVDQGDLGVUHFHLYHGDSSUR[LPDWHO\RIWKHQRPLQDWLRQV7KHQR
DQVZHU UHVSRQVH UHDFKHG DSSUR[LPDWHO\  7KH DVVRFLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ FRXUVH

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

95

HQUROPHQW DQG QRPLQDWLRQ VKRZHG WKDW WKHUH ZDV QR VLJQLFDQW DVVRFLDWLRQ
EHWZHHQWKHVHYDULDEOHVr2(4, N  p d 
Question 3b: What would help you learn more effectively?
6WXGHQWVZHUHDVNHGZKDWZRXOGKHOSWKHPOHDUQPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\&OHDUOHFWXUHU
DQGWXWRULDOGHOLYHU\ZDVWKHODUJHVWFDWHJRU\ZKLFKFRPSULVHGUHYLVLRQ
DQGKRPHZRUNFOHDUH[SODQDWLRQVWRHQVXUHXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGFOHDUOHFWXUHV
DQGWH[WVXPPDULHV7DEOH1H[WZDVWKHFDWHJRU\RIIDFLOLWLHVDQGDLGV
ZLWKPRVWIUHTXHQWWHUPVUHODWHGWREHWWHUWH[WVPRUHH[DPSOHVDQGKDQGRXWV
DQG OHFWXUH PDWHULDOV SODFHG RQOLQH )ROORZLQJ WKLV WKH QH[W FDWHJRU\ ZDV
OHFWXUHUDWWULEXWHVDQGVW\OHFRQWULEXWHGWRPRVWO\E\PRUHLQIRUPHGDQG
RUJDQLVHGWHDFKLQJPRUHXQGHUVWDQGLQJIURPWHDFKHUVDQGLPSURYHGWHDFKLQJ
7KH FDWHJRU\ ZLWK WKH ORZHVW QXPEHU RI WHUPV ZDV WKH UHPRWH SUHSDUDWLRQ
FDWHJRU\ZKLFKZDVFRPSULVHGRIWHUPVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKFOHDUH[SODQDWLRQV
DQG PRUH GLUHFWLRQ 7KH QR DQVZHU FDWHJRU\ FRQWDLQHG DSSUR[LPDWHO\ 
RI WKH UHVSRQVHV $QDO\VLV RI WKH DVVRFLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ FRXUVH HQUROPHQW DQG
QRPLQDWLRQ VKRZHG WKDW WKHUH ZDV QR VLJQLFDQW DVVRFLDWLRQ LQYROYLQJ FRXUVH
HQUROPHQWr2(4, N  p d 

Discussion
,QVXPPDU\GDWDIURPWKLVUHVHDUFKUHYHDOHGDQXPEHURIQGLQJVLQOLQHZLWK
SUHYLRXVUHVHDUFK)LUVWO\WKHUHZHUHPDQ\QRUHVSRQVHVWKDWZHUHVSUHDGDFURVV
UHVSRQVHVDQGFRXOGQRWEHDWWULEXWHGWRV\VWHPDWLFHUURUV7KHVHUHVSRQVHVZHUH
PRUH OLNHO\ DWWULEXWDEOH WR VWXGHQWV QRW NQRZLQJ WKH DQVZHU 6HFRQGO\ WKDW
VWXGHQWVVWXG\LQJ3V\FKRORJ\ZHUHQRWVLJQLFDQWO\GLIIHUHQWLQWKHIUHTXHQF\
RI WKH FDWHJRULHV GHULYHG IURP WKHLU QRPLQDWLRQV LQ UHVSRQVH WR WKH TXHVWLRQV
LQYHVWLJDWLQJ WKH VWXGHQWV SHUFHSWLRQ RI WHDFKLQJ EHKDYLRXU RI DFDGHPLFV
DQG VXJJHVWLRQV DERXW ZKDW ZRXOG DVVLVW VWXGHQWV WR OHDUQ PRUH HIIHFWLYHO\
FRPSDUHGZLWKVWXGHQWVVWXG\LQJRWKHUPDMRUV7KLUGO\DQGLPSRUWDQWO\FOHDU
UHVSRQVHVZHUHIRUPHGLQWRVHWVRIIDFWRUVGHULYHGIURPHDFKTXHVWLRQSURYLGLQJ
DQHJUDLQHGGHVFULSWLRQRIDFDGHPLFEHKDYLRXUVDQGWKHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIVXFK
EHKDYLRXU
7KHRSHQHQGHGDSSURDFKXVHGLQWKLVUHVHDUFKKDVSURYLGHGDEURDGUDQJH
RI UHVSRQVHV LQ VWXGHQWV RZQ WHUPV 0D\ULQJ  3DWWRQ  5\DQ 
%HUQDUG6DQGHORZVNLDQGDOORZHGIRUWKHHPHUJHQFHRIIUHTXHQWO\
XVHG WHUPV WKDW FRXOG EH FROODSVHG LQWR VHYHUDO VXSHURUGLQDWH FDWHJRULHV -LFN
.HDWV0LOHV +XEHUPDQ7XUQHUHWDODQGVXEVHTXHQWO\
DQDO\VHG&UHVZHOO 3LDQR
%DVHGRQWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKHQRUHVSRQVHGDWDFRPELQHGZLWKWKHFRPSOH[LW\
RI WKH UHVSRQGHQWV H[SODQDWLRQV WR WKH TXHVWLRQV LW FRXOG EH FRQFOXGHG WKDW
VWXGHQWV SHUFHSWLRQV RI LQVWUXFWLRQDO PHWDFRJQLWLYH NQRZOHGJH ZHUH QRQ
UHHFWLYH+HLQULFKDQGUHODWLYHO\VLPSOH'HYOLQ)XUWKHUPRUHLW
OLQNHGVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJWRXQLWFRQWHQWDQGFHQWUHGWKHDFDGHPLFDVUHVSRQVLEOH
IRU VWXGHQW OHDUQLQJ DV VXJJHVWHG LQ SUHYLRXV UHVHDUFK (OHQ  /RZ\FN
 7KH FRQWHQW RI WKH UHVSRQVHV GRHV UHHFW WKH FRQFHUQ IRU RUJDQLVDWLRQ

96

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

FRPSHWHQFHDQGWKHFRQVLGHUDWLRQFRQFHUQHGGLPHQVLRQVGHULYHGIURPSUHYLRXV
IDFWRULDOUHVHDUFK.HDYHQ\ 0F*DQQ7KHFDWHJRULHVRIUHVSRQVHVDOVR
UHHFWVLPLODUFRQWHQWZLWKIDFWRUVRIVHOIHIFDF\WKHRU\LGHQWLHGLQWKHIDFWRUV
RILQVWUXFWLRQDOVWUDWHJLHVHIFDF\IRUFODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWDQGHIFDF\IRU
VWXGHQWHQJDJHPHQW7VFKDQQHQ0RUDQD +R\7KHVWXGHQWVUHVSRQVHV
GHYLDWH PDUNHGO\ IURP WKH VL[ FRPSOH[ PHWDFRJQLWLYH DQG PRWLYDWLRQDO
SURFHVVHVVXJJHVWHGLQVRPHOLWHUDWXUH6FKUDZHWDODQGUHHFWHGIHZRI
WKHEHKDYLRXUDODQFKRUVLGHQWLHGDVSURPRWLQJOHDUQLQJLQSKDUPDF\VHWWLQJV
*UXVVLQJHWDO
7KXV ZKLOH QRW EHLQJ VXSHUFLDO WKH UHVSRQVHV GHPRQVWUDWH D UHODWLYHO\
VLPSOH FRQFHSWLRQ RI WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ DFDGHPLF OHFWXUHV DQG WXWRULDOV
DQG WKH SURFHVVHV RI OHDUQLQJ 7KH QGLQJV VKRZHG WKDW EHVW SUDFWLFH ZDV
FKDUDFWHULVHG E\ FOHDU DQG SURIHVVLRQDO GHOLYHU\ SUDFWLFDO GHPRQVWUDWLRQV DQG
WDVNVFOHDUH[SODQDWLRQDQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHFRXUVHIROORZHGE\DWWHQWLRQ
WR WKH LQGLYLGXDO VWXGHQW DQG WR WKHLU PRWLYDWLRQ $ WRWDO RI  RI VWXGHQWV
GLGQRWNQRZZKDWFKDUDFWHULVHGEHVWSUDFWLFHLQOHFWXUHUVDQGWXWRUV6WXGHQWV
NQHZ WKDW WKH EHVW SUDFWLFH RI OHFWXUHUV DQG WXWRUV ZRUNHG IRU WKHP PRVWO\
ZKHQ LW UHODWHG WR HQKDQFLQJ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ DQG SHUIRUPDQFH 2WKHU EHVW
SUDFWLFHV WKDW FRQWULEXWHG WR VWXGHQW OHDUQLQJ ZHUH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK HQKDQFLQJ
LQGHSHQGHQW OHDUQLQJ WKH SURYLVLRQ RI WLPHO\ DFFXUDWH LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG
DWWHQWLRQ WR WKH WDVN XQGHU FRQVLGHUDWLRQ ,Q DOO  RI VWXGHQWV GLG QRW RU
FRXOG QRW LQGLFDWH KRZ WKH EHVW SUDFWLFH RI OHFWXUHUV DQG WXWRUV KDG DQ HIIHFW
RQWKHLUZRUN6WXGHQWVQRPLQDWHGWKHWHDFKLQJDSSURDFKRIVWDIIIROORZHGE\
DLGVWROHDUQLQJWKHSURYLVLRQRIDFWLYLWLHVDQGUHVRXUFHVDQGDQDSSURDFKWKDW
ZDVSURIHVVLRQDODVWKHPDMRUZD\VLQZKLFKVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJZDVHQKDQFHG$
WRWDORIVWXGHQWVGLGQRWRUFRXOGQRWLQGLFDWHKRZVWDIISUDFWLFHVHQKDQFH
WKHLU OHDUQLQJ 6WXGHQWV QRPLQDWHG IRXU PDLQ FDWHJRULHV LQGLFDWLQJ KRZ WKH\
NQHZWKDWZKDWWHDFKLQJVWDIIGLGWRHQKDQFHVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJZRUNHGIRUWKHP
DQG RWKHU VWXGHQWV 7KHVH FDWHJRULHV ZHUH LQ RUGHU RI PDJQLWXGH HQKDQFLQJ
VWXGHQWXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGSHUIRUPDQFHWKHSURYLVLRQRILQIRUPDWLRQDVVLVWLQJ
VWXGHQWV WR SD\ DWWHQWLRQ WR WKH WDVN DQG HQKDQFLQJ LQGHSHQGHQW OHDUQLQJ
,PSRUWDQWO\  RI VWXGHQW UHVSRQVHV ZHUH QR DQVZHU UHODWHG WR H[SHULHQFH
RU GLG QRW NQRZ LQ UHVSRQVH WR ZKDW OHFWXUHUV DQG WXWRUV GR WKDW ZRUNV IRU
VWXGHQWV7KLVDFFRXQWVIRUWKHODUJHVWSRUWLRQRIWKHQRDQVZHUUHVSRQVHVIRUDQ\
RIWKHTXHVWLRQV7KHIDFWRUVWKDWZRXOGIDFLOLWDWHOHFWXUHUVDQGWXWRUVWHDFKLQJ
PRUHHIIHFWLYHO\ZHUHDVVRFLDWHGPDLQO\ZLWKOHFWXUHDQGWXWRULDOGHOLYHU\DQG
IDFLOLWLHVDQGDLGV7KHUHPDLQLQJWZRFDWHJRULHVUHODWHGWRUHPRWHSUHSDUDWLRQ
DQGOHFWXUHUDWWULEXWHVDQGVW\OH7KHQRDQVZHUUHVSRQVHFRQVWLWXWHGDSSUR[L
PDWHO\RIWKHQRPLQDWHGWHUPV6WXGHQWVQRPLQDWHGIRXUFDWHJRULHVWKDW
ZRXOG KHOS WKHP WR OHDUQ PRUH HIIHFWLYHO\ 7KHVH FDWHJRULHV ZHUH UHODWHG WR
OHFWXUHU DQG WXWRU GHOLYHU\ WKH IDFLOLWLHV DQG DLGV XVHG E\ VWDII DQG VWXGHQWV
WKHOHFWXUHUDWWULEXWHVDQGVW\OHDQGWKHUHPRWHSUHSDUDWLRQRIWKHVWDII7KHQR
DQVZHUUHVSRQVHWRZKDWZRXOGKHOSVWXGHQWVOHDUQPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\FRPSULVHG
 RI UHVSRQVHV ,Q VKRUW WKHVH GDWD VXJJHVW DQ HPSKDVLV RQ WKH LQXHQFH
RIVWDIIDVFHQWUDODQGGLUHFWLYHLQWKHOHDUQLQJRIVWXGHQWVZKLFKLVLQOLQHZLWK

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

97

WKHVXJJHVWLRQVRI(OHQDQG/RZ\FNGHVSLWHWKHVWXGHQWVH[SHULHQFHDQG

DFDGHPLFH[SHUWLVH:KLOHQRWUHHFWLQJGHHSO\RQWKHLUSUDFWLFHLQWKHWHDFKLQJ
DQG OHDUQLQJ G\QDPLF VWXGHQWV DUH DSSURDFKLQJ DFDGHPLFV IURP D FULWLFDO
DQGHYDOXDWLYHSRVLWLRQWKHFRUROODU\RIZKLFKZDVDUHGXFWLRQRIWKHLUWDNLQJ
SHUVRQDO UHVSRQVLELOLW\ IRU WKDW VDPH G\QDPLF 3HUKDSV WKLV LV WKH DSSURSULDWH
VWXGHQW SRVWXUH DQG RXWFRPH RI D FRQVXPHUGULYHQ WHUWLDU\ HGXFDWLRQ V\VWHP
LQVWHDGRIVHOIUHHFWLYHFRQVFLRXVQHVV
7KHPDMRUVLQZKLFKWKHVWXGHQWVZHUHHQUROOHGZHUHQRWDIDFWRUWKDWGLIIHU
HQWLDWHG WKH UHVSRQVHV RI VWXGHQWV RQ WKH FDWHJRULHV GHQHG LQ WKH UHVHDUFK
7KHFDWHJRU\RWKHUPDMRUZDVWKHDPDOJDPRIYHGLIIHUHQWPDMRUVLQZKLFK
VWXGHQWVZHUHHQUROOHG,QIXWXUHUHVHDUFKRQHPDMRUVKRXOGEHFRPSDUHGZLWK
DQRWKHUWRHVWDEOLVKZKHWKHUVWXGHQWVHQUROOHGLQVSHFLFPDMRUVGLIIHUIURPHDFK
RWKHU ,QYHVWLJDWLQJ WKH DPRXQW RI GLUHFW WHDFKLQJ DERXW WKH WHDFKLQJOHDUQLQJ
G\QDPLFDQGWKHVWXGHQWVPHWDFRJQLWLYHNQRZOHGJHZRXOGEHEHQHFLDO,QYHV
WLJDWLQJWKHZD\WKDWVXFKLQIRUPDWLRQLVPDQLIHVWDQGZKHWKHULWLVHIIHFWLYHLQ
DQHPEHGGHGIRUPRUEHWWHUGLUHFWO\WDXJKWDQGLQGHSHQGHQWRIFRXUVHFRQWHQW
ZRXOGEHEHQHFLDO
7KHUH ZHUH D YHU\ KLJK QXPEHU RI UHVSRQGHQWV ZKR GLG QRW NQRZ RU GLG
QRW UHVSRQG WR TXHVWLRQV RI ZKDW RU KRZ WKH DFWLYLWLHV RI OHFWXUHUV DQG WXWRUV
LQXHQFHGVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJ7KLVQGLQJPD\EHLQWHUSUHWHGPDQ\ZD\VEXWZDV
PHDQLQJIXOLQFRQWH[W+HLQULFK,WPD\LQGLFDWHVLPSO\QRWNQRZLQJRU
ODFNRILQVLJKWRULWPD\LQGLFDWHWKDWVWXGHQWVDUHGLVHQJDJHGRUKDYHDVLPSOH
H[SODQDWLRQRUVXUIDFHDSSURDFKWROHDUQLQJ%LJJVHWDO,WPD\LQGLFDWH
WKDWVWXGHQWVKDYHEHFRPHSDVVLYHDQGGRQRWHQJDJHLQDFWLYHUHHFWLRQRULW
PD\LQGLFDWHWKDWVWXGHQWVGLGQRWYDOXHUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHTXHVWLRQV:KDWHYHU
WKHH[SODQDWLRQWKHYHU\KLJKQRDQVZHUUHVSRQVHZDVFRQFHUQLQJDVWKHVHVDPH
VWXGHQWVHYDOXDWHDFDGHPLFVWDIIHDFKVHPHVWHU,IDERYHRIVWXGHQWVGRQRW
NQRZ KRZ WKH DFWLYLWLHV RI WKRVH ZKR GHVLJQ DQG LPSOHPHQW WKH FXUULFXOXP
LQXHQFHVWKHLUOHDUQLQJWKHQEDVHGRQWKHQGLQJVIURPWKLVUHVHDUFKDQ\GDWD
GHULYHG IURP VXFK VWXGHQWV DERXW OHFWXUHUV DQG WXWRUV LV KLJKO\ TXHVWLRQDEOH
DQGOLNHO\WREHXQUHOLDEOHDQGLQYDOLG*LYHQWKDWVLJQLFDQWZHLJKWLVJLYHQWR
WKHSHUFHSWLRQVDQGFRPPHQWVRIVWXGHQWVUHODWHGWRWKHSURPRWLRQRIVWDIIDQG
LQIXWXUHSXEOLFSHUFHSWLRQVRI$XVWUDOLDQXQLYHUVLWLHVLWLVPRVWLPSRUWDQWWKDW
VWXGHQWVDUHJLYHQRSSRUWXQLWLHVWRLPSURYHWKHLUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHFRPSOH[
LWLHVRIWKHWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJG\QDPLF
6WXGHQWV ORFXV RI FRQWURO DQG UHVSRQVLELOLW\ IRU OHDUQLQJ LQ WKH WHDFKLQJ
DQG OHDUQLQJ G\QDPLF LV LPSRUWDQW ,I VWXGHQWV DUH HQDEOHG WR PRUH FOHDUO\
XQGHUVWDQG KRZ WHDFKLQJ SUDFWLFHV FDQ HQKDQFH WKHLU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ DQG
SHUIRUPDQFH WKHQ WKH\ PD\ EH DEOH WR RSHUDWH PRUH GLUHFWO\ RQ DQG LQ WKHVH
SURFHVVHV DQG WKHUHE\ LQFUHDVH WKHLU LQVWUXFWLRQDO PHWDFRJQLWLYH NQRZOHGJH
,PSRUWDQWO\DVVLVWLQJVWXGHQWVWRJHQHUDOLVHWKHLUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIRWKHUIDFWRUV
WKDWHQKDQFHOHDUQLQJVXFKDVDFFXUDWHQRWHWDNLQJRIVDOLHQWIDFWVGXULQJOHFWXUHV
V\VWHPDWLFUHYLVLRQRIZRUNDQGUHHFWLQJRQV\QWKHVLVLQJDQGDFWLYHO\WDNLQJ
LQWRRQHVHOIWKHNQRZOHGJHJLYHQZRXOGIDFLOLWDWHVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJ3URYLGLQJ
VWXGHQWV ZLWK LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW WKHLU SUHIHUUHG OHDUQLQJ DSSURDFK DQG KRZ

98

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

WKLVPD\EHUHJXODWHGDQGPDQDJHGWRLQFUHDVHWKHLUUHSHUWRLUHRIDSSURDFKHV
DQG WKH DSSOLFDWLRQ RI WKRVH DSSURDFKHV ZRXOG DVVLVW LQ LPSURYLQJ VWXGHQWV
OHDUQLQJDQGSHUIRUPDQFH6XFKLQIRUPDWLRQZRXOGDOVRIDFLOLWDWHLQGHSHQGHQW
OHDUQLQJDQGHQDEOHVWXGHQWVWRPRUHIXOO\HQJDJHLQWKHWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJ
G\QDPLF %RZOHV  5HHFWLRQ RQ DFWLYH HQJDJHPHQW ZLWK DQG SUDFWLFH
RI SUHIHUUHG DQG RWKHU VW\OHV RI OHDUQLQJ VWXG\ DQG DVVHVVPHQW ZRXOG DVVLVW
VWXGHQWVWREHFRPHPRUHFRPSHWHQWDQGFRQGHQWOHDUQHUVPRUHFRQGHQWDQG
FRPSHWHQW LQ GLVSOD\LQJ WKHLU NQRZOHGJH DQG VNLOOV DSSURSULDWHO\ ZKLFK LQ
WXUQZRXOGKDYHDYHU\SRVLWLYHHIIHFWRQWKHLUVWXGHQWH[SHULHQFHDQGDFDGHPLF
SHUIRUPDQFH
7KHUH ZDV OLWWOH HYLGHQFH IURP WKLV UHVHDUFK WKDW VWXGHQWV FRQVLGHU
WKHPVHOYHV WR EH FRUHVSRQVLEOH IRU WKH WHDFKLQJ DQG OHDUQLQJ G\QDPLF 1RU
ZDV WKHUH HYLGHQFH WKDW VWXGHQWV DFFHSW UHVSRQVLELOLW\ IRU DQ\ HOHPHQWV RI
WKHLUOHDUQLQJ%\FRQWUDVWJHQHUDWLQJWHDFKLQJSURFHVVHVDQGH[SHULHQFHVWKDW
HQKDQFH WKH VWXGHQWV FRQVFLRXV IDFLOLW\ WR EHFRPH D PRUH LQGHSHQGHQW VHOI
UHJXODWLQJOHDUQHULVFRPPRQWRPRVWFXUULFXOXPRIIHULQJV,WLVDOVRFHQWUDOWR
WKH YDOXHV RI XQLYHUVLWLHV 'HVSLWH KDYLQJ WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ WR UHIHU WR HIIHFWLYH
OHDUQLQJ WKURXJK TXHVWLRQ E VWXGHQWV FRQWLQXHG WR UHIHU WR KRZ WKH GHOLYHU\
RI XQLW PDWHULDO FRXOG EH LPSURYHG UDWKHU WKDQ UHIHU WR WKHLU RZQ HIIRUWV DQG
DFWLYLWLHV 7KLV PD\ EH D UHHFWLRQ RI WKH TXHVWLRQQDLUH DV LWV PDMRU IRFXV ZDV
LPSURYLQJWKHWHDFKLQJVLGHRIWKHWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJG\QDPLF,IVWXGHQWV
ZHUHDZDUHRIWKHSRZHURIWKHLURZQHIFDFLRXVQHVVDQGDFWLYHOHDUQLQJPRUH
UHVSRQVHV ZRXOG KDYH GHVFULEHG VWXGHQW HQJDJHPHQW 7KDW WKLV ZDV QRW WKH
FDVH EHDUV RQ DFDGHPLF VWDII WR GLUHFWO\ WHDFK DERXW OHDUQLQJ DQG WKH WHDFKLQJ
DQG OHDUQLQJ G\QDPLF ,W DOVR EHDUV RQ VWXGHQWV WR PRYH IURP EHLQJ UHDFWLYH
OHDUQHUVUHO\LQJRQDFDGHPLFVDVWKHFRUHRIWKHLQVWUXFWLRQDOSURFHVVDQGWRFXH
VWXGHQWVIRUOHDUQLQJ(OHQ /RZ\FN&RUUHVSRQGLQJO\VWXGHQWVZRXOG
EHQHW IURP DFWLYH HQJDJHPHQW DQG FORVHU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH DSSURDFK RI
DFDGHPLFV
7RIDFLOLWDWHVWXGHQWVDFWLYHHQJDJHPHQWLQOHDUQLQJVWXGHQWVVKRXOGEH
SURYLGHGZLWKVWDIIHYDOXDWLYHIHHGEDFNDERXWWKHLURZQOHYHORIHQJDJHPHQW
ZLWKWKHOHDUQLQJSURFHVVGXULQJFODVVWKHLUIDFLOLW\WRSUREOHPVROYHGHPRQ
VWUDWLRQ RI WKHLU DFWLYH HQJDJHPHQW ZLWK OHDUQLQJ RXWVLGH FODVV JHQHUDO
PRWLYDWLRQDQGIRFXVRQWKHWDVNLQFRPSDULVRQWRSDVVLYHRIIWDVNDFWLYLWLHV
7KLVFRXOGEHDFKLHYHGE\SURYLGLQJDUDWLQJVFDOHRIVWXGHQWEHKDYLRXUQRW
XQOLNHZKDWVWXGHQWVSURYLGHZKHQUDWLQJDFDGHPLFVWDIIDWWKHHQGRIHDFK
VHPHVWHU6XFKLQIRUPDWLRQFRXOGEHIRUPDORULQIRUPDOLQLWVRUJDQLVDWLRQDO
VWUXFWXUH DQG VWRUHG E\ WKH VWXGHQW WR EHFRPH D SRUWIROLR IRU SUHVHQWDWLRQ
DERXW ZRUN SHUIRUPDQFH DQG WKHLU VW\OH RI ZRUN ZKHQ VHHNLQJ IXUWKHU
HGXFDWLRQ RU HQWU\ LQWR WKH ZRUNIRUFH ,Q YHU\ ODUJH FODVVHV WKH WXWRU PD\
EHWWHUFRPSOHWHWKLV,QVRPHLQVWDQFHVLWPD\EHSRVVLEOHIRUERWKWKHVWXGHQW
DQG VWDII PHPEHU WR FROODERUDWLYHO\ HYDOXDWH WKH VWXGHQWV SURJUHVV ,I WKLV
UHFRPPHQGDWLRQZDVDGRSWHGLWVKRXOGQRWEHFRPHDQRQHURXVWDVNIRUVWDII
DQGDWULDORILWVLPSDFWRQZRUNORDGLVUHFRPPHQGHGSULRUWRDQ\ODUJHVFDOH
LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

99

,QDVLPLODUPDQQHULWZRXOGEHEHQHFLDOIRUVWXGHQWVWRUHJXODUO\HYDOXDWH
WKHLU RZQ SHUIRUPDQFH WKURXJK D YDULHW\ RI IRUPDO DQG LQIRUPDO PHWKRGV
LQFOXGLQJ TXHVWLRQQDLUHV SRUWIROLRV UHYLHZV RI SUDFWLFH DQG FKHFNOLVWV RI
DFWLYLWLHV 7KH DLP RI VXFK SURFHVVHV ZRXOG EH WR EURDGHQ WKH IDFLOLW\ RI WKH
VWXGHQWWREHFRPHLQGHSHQGHQWVHOIPRWLYDWHGDQGVHOIGLUHFWHGDVDOHDUQHU
OHVVSDVVLYHDQGOHVVGHSHQGHQWRQWKHJXLGDQFHRIVWDIIWRDFKLHYHWKHVWXGHQWV
JRDOV
$FFHSWLQJWKHOLPLWDWLRQVRIWKLVUHVHDUFKLVDOVRLPSRUWDQW,WZDVFRPSOHWHG
DWWKHHQGRIVHPHVWHUWZRLQRQH8QLYHUVLW\VFKRROLQWKHDEVHQFHRIV\VWHPDWLF
VDPSOLQJ SURFHGXUHV 7KH TXHVWLRQQDLUH VRXJKW QR LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW RWKHU
IDFWRUVWKDWLQXHQFHOHDUQLQJVXFKDVSUHYLRXVHGXFDWLRQDOH[SHULHQFHWKHDJH
RIWKHVWXGHQWWKHVH[RIWKHVWXGHQWRUWKH\HDUVRIVWXG\VLQFHFRPPHQFHPHQW
LQWKHFRXUVH7KXVFRQFOXVLRQVIURPWKLVGDWDDUHWREHLQWHUSUHWHGDVLQVLJKWV
DQG UHHFWLRQV DUH QRW FDXVDO RU SUHGLFWLYH DQG VKRXOG RQO\ EH JHQHUDOLVHG
ZLWKFDUH
,W LV UHFRPPHQGHG WKDW WKLV UHVHDUFK EH UHSOLFDWHG 7KH QGLQJV IURP WKLV
UHVHDUFK DUH LPSRUWDQW DV WKH\ LQGLFDWH WKDW VWXGHQWV GR QRW DSSUHFLDWH WKH
FRPSOH[LWLHVDQGLPSRUWDQFHRIHQJDJLQJLQWKHWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJG\QDPLF
DVHGXFDWRUVPLJKWKRSH)XWXUHUHVHDUFKHVWDEOLVKLQJWKHLQGHSHQGHQFHRIWKH
IDFWRUVLGHQWLHGLQWKLVUHVHDUFKDQGWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQVXFKIDFWRUVDQG
WKRVHIRXQGLQSUHYLRXVUHVHDUFKLVQHFHVVDU\

Acknowledgments
7KH DXWKRU ZRXOG OLNH DFNQRZOHGJH DQG H[WHQG JUDWLWXGH WR -HVVLFD %UHQQDQ
/LVD(LVHQ$QQD6KHHKDQ &HFLOLD:LQNHOPDQIRUDVVLVWDQFHLQWKHSUHSDUDWLRQ
RIWKLVSDSHU
3RUWLRQVRIWKLVDUWLFOHZHUHSUHVHQWHGDWWKHDQQXDOFRQIHUHQFHRIWKH
$XVWUDOLDQ3V\FKRORJLFDO6RFLHW\DVDQLQYLWHGDGGUHVVIRUWKH3HDUVRQ(GXFDWLRQ
DQG$XVWUDOLDQ3V\FKRORJLFDO6RFLHW\(DUO\&DUHHU7HDFKLQJ$ZDUGDQGDV
DQLQYLWHGDGGUHVVIRUWKH$XVWUDOLDQ&DWKROLF8QLYHUVLW\([FHOOHQFHLQ7HDFKLQJ
$ZDUG
$V WKH DXWKRU LV WKH (GLWRU RI WKH AEDP WKH HGLWRULDO PDQDJHPHQW DQG
GRXEOHEOLQG UHYLHZ SURFHVV RI WKH PDQXVFULSW ZDV FRPSOHWHG E\ RQH RI WKH
VHUYLQJ(GLWRULDO%RDUG0HPEHUVRIWKHAEDP

References
$LQOH\0(QJDJHPHQWZLWKOHDUQLQJ$GROHVFHQWSHUFHSWLRQVRIVHOIDQG
VFKRROThe Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 11
$LQOH\ 0  3DWULFN /  0HDVXULQJ VHOIUHJXODWHG OHDUQLQJ SURFHVVHV
WKURXJKWUDFNLQJSDWWHUQVRIVWXGHQWLQWHUDFWLRQZLWKDFKLHYHPHQWDFWLYLWLHV
Educational Psychology Review, 18, 
$VNHOO:LOOLDPV+/DZVRQ/ 0XUUD\+DUYH\5:KDWKDSSHQVLQ
P\XQLYHUVLW\FODVVHVWKDWKHOSVPHWROHDUQ"7HDFKHUHGXFDWLRQVWXGHQWV
LQVWUXFWLRQDOPHWDFRJQLWLYHNQRZOHGJHInternational Journal for the Scholarship
of Teaching and Learning, 1,

100

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

%DQGXUD$Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory
(QJOHZRRG&OLIIV1HZ-HUVH\3UHQWLFH+DOO
%DQGXUD $  6RFLDO FRJQLWLYH WKHRU\ $Q DJHQWLF SHUVSHFWLYH Annual
Review of Psychology, 52
%LJJV-%.HPEHU' /HXQJ'<37KHUHYLVHGWZRIDFWRU6WXG\
3URFHVV4XHVWLRQQDLUH5634)British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71,

%LOOLQJV*DJOLDUGL6%DUUHWW69 0D]RU.0,QWHUSUHWLQJFRXUVH
HYDOXDWLRQ UHVXOWV LQVLJKWV IURP WKLQNDORXG LQWHUYLHZV ZLWK PHGLFDO
VWXGHQWVMedical Education, 38,
%RJKRVVLDQ 3  %HKDYLRULVP &RQVWUXFWLYLVP DQG 6RFUDWLF 3HGDJRJ\
Educational Philosophy and Theory, 38,
%RZOHV7$GXOWDSSURDFKHVWROHDUQLQJDQGDVVRFLDWHGWDOHQWVAustralian
Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology, 4, 
%URZQOHH - %RXOWRQ/HZLV *  3XUGLH 1  &RUH EHOLHIV DERXW
NQRZOHGJH DQG SHULSKHUDO EHOLHIV DERXW OHDUQLQJ 'HYHORSLQJ DQ KROLVWLF
FRQFHSWXDOLVDWLRQRIHSLVWHPRORJLFDOEHOLHIVAustralian Journal of Educational
and Developmental Psychology, 2
&DR /  1LHWIHOG - /  &ROOHJH VWXGHQWV PHWDFRJQLWLYH DZDUHQHVV
RI GLIFXOWLHV LQ OHDUQLQJ WKH FODVV FRQWHQW GRHV QRW DXWRPDWLFDOO\ OHDG WR
DGMXVWPHQWRIVWXG\VWUDWHJLHVAustralian Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology, 7,
&RIIPDQ:('HWHUPLQLQJVWXGHQWVFRQFHSWVRIHIIHFWLYHWHDFKLQJIURP
WKHLUUDWLQJVRILQVWUXFWRUVJournal of Educational Psychology, 45, 
&RQQHU /  &RQVFLRXV NQRZOHGJH RI OHDUQLQJ $FFHVVLQJ OHDUQLQJ
VWUDWHJLHV LQ D QDO \HDU KLJK VFKRRO ELRORJ\ FODVV International Journal of
Science Education, 26,
&UHVZHOO-: 3LDQR&ODUN9/Designing and conducting mixed method
research7KRXVDQG2DNV&$6DJH
'HYOLQ 0  7DNLQJ UHVSRQVLELOLW\ IRU OHDUQLQJ LVQW HYHU\WKLQJ $ FDVH
IRU GHYHORSLQJ WHUWLDU\ VWXGHQWV FRQFHSWLRQ RI OHDUQLQJ Teaching in Higher
Education, 7,
(OHQ -  /RZ\FN -  6WXGHQWV YLHZV RQ HIFLHQF\ RI LQVWUXFWLRQ $Q
H[SORUDWRU\VXUYH\RIWKHLQVWUXFWLRQDOPHWDFRJQLWLYHNQRZOHGJHRIXQLYHUVLW\
IUHVKPHQHigher Education, 36
(OHQ- /RZ\FN-0HWDFRJQLWLYHLQVWUXFWLRQDONQRZOHGJH&RJQLWLYH
PHGLDWLRQDQGLQVWUXFWLRQDOGHVLJQJournal of Structural Learning and Intelligent
Systems, 13
(OHQ- /RZ\FN-,QVWUXFWLRQDOPHWDFRJQLWLYHNQRZOHGJH$TXDOLWDWLYH
VWXG\ RQ FRQFHSWLRQV RI IUHVKPHQ DERXW LQVWUXFWLRQ Journal of Curriculum
Studies, 32
*RZ /  .HPEHU '  'RHV KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ SURPRWH LQGHSHQGHQW
OHDUQLQJ"Higher Education, 19,
*UXVVLQJ 3 * 9DOXFN 5 -  :LOOLDPV 5 *  'HYHORSPHQW DQG
YDOLGDWLRQ RI EHKDYLRUDOO\DQFKRUHG UDWLQJ VFDOHV IRU VWXGHQW HYDOXDWLRQ

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

101

RISKDUPDF\LQVWUXFWLRQAmerican Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 58,


+HLQULFK+$:KRSHUFHLYHVWKHFROOHFWLYHSDVWDQGKRZ"$UHUHIXVDOVRQ
RSHQHQGHGTXHVWLRQVVXEVWDQWLDODQVZHUV"Quality and Quantity, 39
-LFN 7  0L[LQJ TXDOLWDWLYH DQG TXDQWLWDWLYH PHWKRGV 7ULDQJXODWLRQ LQ
DFWLRQ,Q-9DQ0DDQHQ(GQualitative methodologySS/RQGRQ
6DJH
-RQHV -  6WXGHQWV PRGHOV RI XQLYHUVLW\ WHDFKLQJ Higher Education, 10,


.D0LQJ <  .LW7DL +  &RQVWUXFWLYLVW WHDFKLQJ DQG WHDFKHU

FHQWUHG WHDFKLQJ D FRPSDULVRQ RI VWXGHQWV OHDUQLQJ LQ D XQLYHUVLW\
FRXUVHInnovations in Education & Teaching International, 43,
.HDWV'Skilled interviewingQGHG0HOERXUQH$XVWUDOLD&RXQFLOIRU
(GXFDWLRQDO5HVHDUFK
.HDYHQ\ 7 -  0F*DQQ )  %HKDYLRUDO GLPHQVLRQV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK
VWXGHQWV JOREDO UDWLQJV RI FROOHJH SURIHVVRUV Research in Higher Education,
9,
.RQLQJV . ' %UDQG*UXZHO 6  YDQ 0HUULHQERHU - - *  7RZDUGV
PRUHSRZHUIXOOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWVWKURXJKFRPELQLQJWKHSHUVSHFWLYHV
RIGHVLJQHUVWHDFKHUVDQGVWXGHQWVBritish Journal of Educational Psychology,
75,
/RKPDQ')3UHGLFWLQJPDWKHPDWKDQWLFHIIHFWVLQWKHWHDFKLQJRIKLJKHU
RUGHUVNLOOVEducational Psychology, 19,
/RQHUJDQ%HUQDUGInsight: A Study of Human Understanding: Volume 3 of
the Collected Works of Bernard Lonergan.7RURQWR8QLYHUVLW\RI7RURQWR3UHVV
2ULJLQDOZRUNSXEOLVKHG
/RZ\FN -  (OHQ -  Students instructional metacognition in learning
environments (SIMILE). /HXYHQ %HOJLXP &DWKROLF 8QLYHUVLW\ RI /HXYHQ
&HQWUHIRU,QVWUXFWLRQDO3V\FKRORJ\DQG7HFKQRORJ\
0D\ULQJ 3  )RUXP 4XDOLWDWLYH 6RFLDO 5HVHDUFK  5HWULHYHG )HEUXDU\
 IURP KWWSZZZTXDOLWDWLYHUHVHDUFKQHWITVWH[WH
PD\ULQJHKWP
0LOHV0 +XEHUPDQ$0Qualitative data analysisQGHG7KRXVDQG
2DNV&$6DJH3XEOLFDWLRQV,QF
3DWWRQ04Qualitative research and evaluation methodsUGHG7KRXVDQG
2DNV&$6DJH
3XUGLH1+DWWLH- 'RXJODV*6WXGHQWFRQFHSWLRQVRIOHDUQLQJDQG
WKHLU XVH RI VHOIUHJXODWHG OHDUQLQJ VWUDWHJLHV $ FURVVFXOWXUDO FRPSDULVRQ
Journal of Educational Psychology. 88, 87-100.
5XGGXFN- )OXWWHU-3XSLOSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGSXSLOSHUVSHFWLYH&DUYLQJ
DQHZRUGHURIH[SHULHQFHCambridge Journal of Education, 30
5\DQ*: %HUQDUG+5'DWDPDQDJHPHQWDQGDQDO\VLVPHWKRGV
,Q 1 . 'HQ]LQ  < 6 /LQFROQ (GV Handbook of qualitative research SS
/RQGRQ6DJH3XEOLFDWLRQV
6DQGHORZVNL 0  5HVSRQVH WR 3DUDGLJPV DQG SUHVXSSRVLWLRQV 7KH

102

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

GLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQTXDOLWDWLYHDQGTXDQWLWDWLYHUHVHDUFKScholarly Iinquiry
for Nursing Practice, 14
6FKUDZ * &ULSSHQ . -  +DUWOH\ .  3URPRWLQJ VHOIUHJXODWLRQ LQ
VFLHQFHHGXFDWLRQ0HWDFRJQLWLRQDVSDUWRIDEURDGHUSHUVSHFWLYHRQOHDUQLQJ
Research in Science Education, 36,
7XUQHU60+HUVHQ0 +HLVHU17KHLQWHUYLHZLQJSURFHVV,Q0
+HUVHQ  6 0 7XUQHU (GV Diagnostic interviewing UG HG SS 
1HZ<RUN1<.OXZHU$FDGHPLF3OHQXP3XEOLVKHUV
7VFKDQQHQ0RUDQD 0  +R\ $ :  7HDFKHU HIFDF\ FDSWXULQJ DQ
HOXVLYHFRQVWUXFWTeaching and Teacher Education 17,
:LQQH 3 +  0DU[ 5 :  5HFRQFHSWXDOLVLQJ UHVHDUFK RQ WHDFKLQJ
Journal of Educational Psychology, 69
:LQQH3+ 0DU[5:0DWFKLQJVWXGHQWVFRJQLWLYHUHVSRQVHVWR
WHDFKLQJVNLOOVJournal of Educational Psychology, 72
:LQQH3+ 0DU[5:6WXGHQWVDQGWHDFKHUVYLHZVRIWKLQNLQJ
SURFHVVHVIRUFODVVURRPOHDUQLQJThe Elementary School Journal, 82
=LPPHUPDQ%-%HFRPLQJDVHOIUHJXODWHGOHDUQHUTheory Into Practice,
41

Address for correspondence

7HUU\%RZOHV
&HQWUHIRU6RFLDO(PRWLRQDO&RJQLWLYH
DQG%HKDYLRXUDO'HYHORSPHQW
$XVWUDOLDQ&DWKROLF8QLYHUVLW\
/RFNHG%DJ
)WL]UR\0'&
)LW]UR\
9,&

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

103

Appendix 1

Teaching and Learning Committee Questionnaire (Student Form)

In response to the Universitys Teaching and Learning Policy we are obliged to
reflect on our practice and best practice. In line with this goal the School Teaching
and Learning Committee is embarking on a brief questionnaire to assist us to better
understand the process of teaching and learning within the school.
Please comment only on the School of Psychology units, staff and courses. To
participate complete the following questions as honestly as possible.
What course are you enrolled in? _______________________________________
1a What do your lecturers and tutors do that demonstrates best practice in
teaching?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
1b How do you know that this works for you and other students?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2a What do the teaching staff do to enhance student learning?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2b How do you know that this works for you and other students?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3a What would help lecturers and tutors to teach more effectively?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3b What would help you learn more effectively?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

104

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

P Grimbeek

Griffith University

Book Review
A text on advanced categorical data analysis that includes
helpful information for statistical dunces
YDQGHU$UN$/&URRQ0$ 6LMWVPD.(GVNew developments
in categorical data analysis for the social and behavioural sciences 0DKZDK 1-
/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV,6%1KDUGEDFN

Keywords: review of categorical analysis text

, UHFHLYHG WKLV ERRN IRU UHYLHZ SXUSRVHV LQ  DQG GLG LQGHHG LQWHQG WR
UHYLHZLWWRWKHSRLQWRIFDUU\LQJLWDERXWZLWKPH,KHOGEDFNIRUDZKLOHIRU
WKH PRVW SDUW EHFDXVH WKH ERRN LV VR XQDVKDPHGO\ WHFKQLFDO LQ LWV DSSURDFK
WR FDWHJRULFDO GDWD DQDO\VLV 7KH WZHOYH FKDSWHUV FRYHU DQ H[WHQVLYH UDQJH RI
WRSLFVWKDWLQFOXGHVWDWLVWLFDOPRGHOVIRUFDWHJRULFDOYDULDEOHVPLVFODVVLFDWLRQ
SKHQRPHQDIDFWRUDQDO\VLVZLWKFDWHJRULFDOLQGLFDWRUV%D\HVLDQFRPSXWDWLRQDO
PHWKRGVFRPSDULVRQVRIHVWLPDWLRQPHWKRGVORJLVWLFPHWKRGVPLVVLQJGDWD
LPSXWDWLRQ LWHP UHVSRQVH WKHRU\ PRGHOV DQG PXOWLOHYHO PRGHO DVVHVVPHQW
0XFK RI WKLV SDVVHG ZHOO DERYH P\ KHDG , VFDQQHG WKH WH[W DQG SDVVHG RQ
QRQHWKHZLVHU
2QUHHFWLRQ,IRXQGWKDWWKHERRNLQFOXGHVLQIRUPDWLRQWKDWVHHPVKHOSIXO
HYHQWRVWDWLVWLFDOGXQFHVVXFKDVPH)RULQVWDQFHLWLQFOXGHVDEULHIUHYLHZRI
W\SHVRIODWHQWYDULDEOHVDVDSUHOXGHWRGLVFXVVLQJIDFWRUDQDO\VLVZLWKFDWHJRULFDO
YDULDEOHV 3DUDPHWULF IDFWRU DQDO\VLV PDNHV WKH VLPSOLI\LQJ DVVXPSWLRQ WKDW D
ODWHQW YDULDEOH VXFK DV DFDGHPLF VHOIFRQFHSW HJ 3HUFHSWLRQ RI $ELOLW\ 6FDOH
IRUVWXGHQWV>3$66@&KDSPDQ %RHUVPDFDQEHHVWLPDWHGZLWKWKHDLG
RIRUGLQDOLQGLFDWRUVVXFKDV/LNHUWVFDOHUHVSRQVHFDWHJRULHVUHI/LNHUW
HJLevel of agreementRUHYHQYLDUHVSRQVHVWRGLFKRWRPRXVUHVSRQVHFDWHJRULHV
HJNoYVYes,WLVIXUWKHUDVVXPHGWKDWVXFKODWHQWYDULDEOHVKDYHSDUDPHWULF
PHDVXUHPHQWSURSHUWLHVLHFRQWLQXRXVDQGLQWHUYDORUHTXDOLQWHUYDOOHYHOVRI
PHDVXUHPHQW)RULQVWDQFHWKH3$66RIIHUVSUHFLVHO\WZRUHVSRQVHFDWHJRULHV
(No, YesWRWKHLWHPI always understand everything I read1RQHWKHOHVVWKHWDFLW
DVVXPSWLRQLVWKDWWKHVHFDWHJRULFDOUHVSRQVHVUHODWHWRDSDUDPHWULFFRQWLQXXP
RIWKRXJKWVDQGIHHOLQJVWKDWFDQEHVXPPDULVHGDVDFDGHPLFVHOIFRQFHSW$Q
XQELDVHGYLHZPLJKWLQFOXGHQRWRQO\WKHSRVVLELOLW\WKDWWKHH[WHUQDOH[SUHVVLRQV
RI ODWHQW YDULDEOHV FRXOG EH HLWKHU SDUDPHWULF FRQWLQXRXV RU QRQSDUDPHWULF
FDWHJRULFDOEXWDOVRWKDWWKHODWHQWYDULDEOHVWKHPVHOYHVFRXOGEHFDWHJRULFDO,W
LVHQWLUHO\IHDVLEOHIRULQVWDQFHWKDWWKHGLVFUHWHRUFRQWLQXRXVUHVSRQVHVWRLWHPV

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

105

H[SUHVVLQJ IDFHWV RI DFDGHPLF VHOIFRQFHSW PLJKW EH H[SUHVVLQJ D FDWHJRULFDO

ODWHQWYDULDEOHLH$FDGHPLFVHOIFRQFHSWWKDWLVHLWKHUORZRUKLJK
7KH ERRN XQGHU UHYLHZ XVHV WKLV GLVFXVVLRQ RI W\SHV RI ODWHQW YDULDEOHV DV
DQHQWU\SRLQWWRDQH[SRVLWLRQRIQHZFODVVHVRIODWHQWFODVVDQDO\VLV+RZHYHU
HYHQ WKH VWDWLVWLFDO GXQFH PLJKW EH LQXHQFHG E\ LWV UHYLHZ RI W\SHV RI ODWHQW
YDULDEOHVWRFRQVLGHUQRQSDUDPHWULFIDFWRUDQDO\WLFDOWHUQDWLYHVWRWKHKRDU\SDWK
RISDUDPHWULFH[SORUDWRU\IDFWRUDQDO\VLVHVSHFLDOO\ZKHQWKHODWWHULVPDQLIHVWO\
LQDSSURSULDWH 7R WKLV HQG WKH 6366 SDFNDJH RI DQDO\WLF SURFHGXUHV RIIHUV
QRQSDUDPHWULF IDFWRU DQDO\VLV RSWLRQV VXFK DV Correspondence analysis, Optimal
ScalingWKDWSHUKDSVFRXOGEHXVHGPRUHRIWHQHJ)XQQHOO%U\HU *ULPEHHN

,Q D VLPLODU YHLQ WKH FKDSWHU RQ PLVFODVVLFDWLRQ GLVFXVVHV FKDQJHV LQ WKH
QXPEHURISDUWLFLSDQWVVHOHFWLQJVD\NoYHUVXVYesUHVSRQVHFDWHJRULHVLQWHUPV
RIWKHIDOODF\RIUHJUHVVLRQWRWKHPHDQ$VWKHDYHUDJHO\VWDWLVWLFDOO\QXPHUDWH
UHDGHUZRXOGEHDZDUHUHJUHVVLRQWRWKHPHDQFRQFHUQVWKHIDOODF\RIPLVLGHQWL
I\LQJUDQGRPFKDQJHVDVV\VWHPDWLF)RULQVWDQFHZKHQWKHVFRUHIRUDVXEVHWRI
SRRUUHDGHUVLPSURYHVRQHKDLOVWKHUHDGLQJSURJUDP+RZHYHUWKHVHVKLIWVLQ
UHDGLQJSURFLHQF\PLJKWZHOOUHODWHWRVRPHUDQGRPYDULDELOLW\LQSHUIRUPDQFH
DFURVVWLPHUDWKHUWKDQWKHEHQHFHQWHIIHFWVRIWKHUHDGLQJSURJUDP7KHERRN
XVHV WKH SKHQRPHQRQ RI UHJUHVVLRQ WR WKH PHDQ WR SURSRVH DQ DQDORJRXV
H[SODQDWLRQ IRU FKDQJHV LQ FDWHJRULFDO UHVSRQVHV WHUPHG WKH PLVFODVVLFDWLRQ
IDOODF\:KHUHDPDMRULW\DOUHDG\VHOHFWRQHRSWLRQRQHZD\WRH[SODLQIXUWKHU
VKLIWV WRZDUGV WKDW PRGDO UHVSRQVH LV LQ WHUPV RI WKH PLVFODVVLFDWLRQ IDOODF\
2QHPLJKWFRQFOXGHWKDWWKHUHFODVVLFDWLRQSURFHVVUHVXOWHGIURPDQHOHPHQWRI
LQEXLOWUDQGRPQHVVHYHQZKHQLWDSSHDUVRWKHUZLVH)RULQVWDQFHPRVWSDUWLFL
SDQWVPLJKWDJUHHLQUHODWLRQWRWKH3$66DVVHVVPHQWRIDFDGHPLFVHOIFRQFHSW
WKDW WKH\ XQGHUVWDQG HYHU\WKLQJ WKH\ UHDG DQG WKHQ RQ UHWHVW VRPH RI WKRVH
ZKRLQLWLDOO\GLVDJUHHGPLJKWDJUHHWKDWWKH\DOVRXQGHUVWDQGHYHU\WKLQJWKH\
UHDG7KHUHVHDUFKHUFRXOGDWWULEXWHWKLVVKLIWWRVLJQLFDQWSURJUDPPDWLFHYHQWV
RUDOWHUQDWLYHO\LGHQWLI\LWDVDQH[DPSOHRIWKHPLVFODVVLFDWLRQIDOODF\
$IXUWKHUH[DPSOHRIWKHPLVFODVVLFDWLRQIDOODF\RFFXUVLQWKHFDVHRIDQXUVH
WDVNHGZLWKGHFLGLQJZKHWKHURUQRWSDWLHQWVUHFRYHULQJIURPKHDGLQMXU\KDYH
EHFRPHIXQFWLRQDOO\FDSDEOHRIGULYLQJDPRWRUYHKLFOH7KHQXUVHPLJKWGHFLGH
WKDWPRVWEXWQRWDOOSDWLHQWVDUHQRZFRPSHWHQWWRGULYH,QUHDVVHVVLQJWKH
UHPDLQLQJIUDFWLRQDWDODWHUGDWHWKLVQXUVHPLJKWMXGJHVRPHRIWKHUHPDLQGHU
DOVRWWRGULYHDPRWRUYHKLFOH$FOLQLFDOH[SODQDWLRQLVWKDWWKRVHUHFODVVLHG
IURPWKHXQWJURXSKDYHUHFRYHUHGVLJQLFDQWO\LQWKHLQWHULP$QDOWHUQDWLYH
H[SODQDWLRQEDVHGRQWKHPLVFODVVLFDWLRQIDOODF\LVWRFRQFOXGHWKDWWKHLQLWLDO
SURFHVVLQFOXGHVDQHOHPHQWRILQEXLOWUDQGRPQHVV7KDWLVZKHQDVNHGWRPDNH
MXGJPHQWVUHSHDWHGO\ZHDUHXOWLPDWHO\OLNHO\WRDJUHHIRULQVWDQFHWKDWDOPRVW
DOOKXPDQEHLQJVZKHWKHURUQRWKHDGLQMXUHGDUHWWRGULYH:KHWKHUWKLVLVD
JRRGMXGJPHQWLVDQRWKHUPDWWHUHQWLUHO\
7KH QRWLRQ RI UHIUDPLQJ UHJUHVVLRQ WR WKH PHDQ LQ WHUPV RI WKH PLVFODVVL
FDWLRQ IDOODF\ JLYHV ULVH WR WKH LUUHYHUHQW WKRXJKW WKDW SHUKDSV WKLV IDOODF\ LV
DOVR DFWLYH ZLWKLQ WKH UHDOP RI HFRQRPLF WKRXJKW 0RUH VSHFLFDOO\ 3DUHWRV

106

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

3ULQFLSOHDQHFRQRPLFQRWLRQEDVHGRQWKHREVHUYDWLRQE\3DUHWRLQDQG
ODWHUSRSXODULVHGE\'U-RVHSK-XUDQUHI.RFKSRVWXODWHGIDPRXVO\WKDW
RIWKHSHRSOHRZQRIWKHZHDOWK%DVHGRQWKLVQRWLRQRQHH[SODQDWLRQ
IRUWKHFXUUHQWREVHUYDWLRQWKDWLQFUHDVLQJO\VPDOOJURXSVDUHWUXO\ZHDOWK\LV
WKDWWKLVSKHQRPHQRQLVQRWDQH[DPSOHRIVLJQLFDQWO\DGYHUVHUHGLVWULEXWLYH
HFRQRPLFFKDQJHEXWUDWKHUWKHRXWZRUNLQJRIDQLQKHUHQWO\UDQGRPWHQGHQF\
WRFODVVLI\LQFUHDVLQJO\ODUJHUSURSRUWLRQVRIWKHSRSXODWLRQDVIDOOLQJZLWKLQWKH
PRGDOFDWHJRU\RIlacking wealth
)LQDOO\ SHUKDSV WKH PRVW UHOHYDQW ZD\ WR YLHZ WKLV ERRN LV DV SDUW RI D
FROOHFWLRQRIUHFHQWWH[WVWKDWHLWKHUZDUQDERXWWKHGDQJHUVLQKHUHQWLQDVVXPLQJ
WKDW QRQSDUDPHWULF GDWD LV SDUDPHWULF RU SRLQW WR QRQSDUDPHWULF DOWHUQDWLYHV
7RWKDWHQGWKHWDNHKRPHPHVVDJHLQWKLVERRNLVFRQVLVWHQWZLWK/HHV
FRJHQWGHPRQVWUDWLRQWKDWWKHFXUUHQWDSSURDFKWRPHDVXULQJDWWLWXGHLVULGGOHG
ZLWKLQFRQVLVWHQFLHV/HHIRFXVHGRQWKHPXWDELOLW\RIFRJQLWLYHPHDVXUHPHQWV
DQGWKHLUODWHQWYDULDEOHVDQGSURIIHUHGWKHVROXWLRQRIUHYHUWLQJWREHKDYLRXUDO
PRGHOVRIKXPDQEHKDYLRXU:KLOH,DPQRWHQDPRXUHGZLWKWKHEHKDYLRXULVW
YLVLRQWKHVWDWLVWLFDODQDORJXHWR/HHVH[SOLFDWLRQLVWKDWDWVRPHSRLQWLWPLJKW
EH VWDWLVWLFDOO\ ZLVH WR FRQVLGHU XVLQJ QRQSDUDPHWULF PHDVXUHV DQG QRQSDUD
PHWULF ODWHQW YDULDEOHV VHH DOVR *ULPEHHN  0LFKHOO  )LQDOO\ %RQG
DQG )R[  LQ VKRZLQJ WKH DSSOLFDWLRQ RI WKH 5DVFK PRGHO WR TXDOLWDWLYH
GDWDVHWVVXFKDVWKRVHEDVHGRQ/LNHUWVFDOHPHDVXUHPHQWKDYHSURYLGHG\HW
DQRWKHUDYHQXHRIHVFDSHIURPWKHFRQYHQWLRQDODVVXPSWLRQWKDWWKHXQLYHUVHRI
PHDVXUHVDQGODWHQWYDULDEOHVLVSDUDPHWULFVHHDOVR*ULPEHHN

References
%RQG7* )R[&0Applying the Rasch model: Fundamental measurement
in the human sciences.0DKZDK1-/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV
&KDSPDQ - :  %RHUVPD ) -  6WXGHQWV 3HUFHSWLRQ RI $ELOLW\ 6FDOH
&RPSDULVRQ RI VFRUHV IRU JLIWHG DYHUDJH DQG OHDUQLQJ GLVDEOHG VWXGHQWV
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63
)XQQHOO%%U\HU)*ULPEHHN3 'DYLHV0'HPRJUDSKLFSUROLQJ
IRUHGXFDWLRQDOUHVHDUFKHUV8VLQJ6366RSWLPDOVFDOLQJWRLGHQWLI\GLVWLQFW
JURXSVRISDUWLFLSDQWV,Q%%DUWOHWW)%U\HU '5RHEXFN(GV Educating:
Weaving research into practice9ROSS%ULVEDQH$XVWUDOLD*ULIWK
8QLYHUVLW\6FKRRORI&RJQLWLRQ/DQJXDJHDQG6SHFLDO(GXFDWLRQ
*ULPEHHN 3  5HDVRQV IRU UHFRQVLGHULQJ TXDQWLWDWLYH UHVHDUFK EDVHG RQ
WKHXVHRI/LNHUWVFDOH RWKHUVRFLDOVFLHQFHGDWDVHWV>5HYLHZRIWKHERRN
0HDVXUHPHQW LQ SV\FKRORJ\ &ULWLFDO KLVWRU\ RI D PHWKRGRORJLFDO FRQFHSW@
Australian Educational & Developmental Psychologist, 16
*ULPEHHN 3  7KLUWHHQ JRRG UHDVRQV IRU DSSO\LQJ WKH 5DVFK PRGHO WR
KXPDQGDWD>5HYLHZRIWKHERRN$SSO\LQJWKH5DVFKPRGHO)XQGDPHQWDO
PHDVXUHPHQWLQWKHKXPDQVFLHQFHV@Australian Educational & Developmental
Psychologist, 18
.RFK5The 80/20 principle: The secret to success by achieving more with less
1HZ<RUN:LOH\

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

107

/HH &  Alternatives to cognition: A new look at explaining human social
behavior/RQGRQ/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV
/LNHUW 5  $ WHFKQLTXH IRU WKH PHDVXUHPHQW RI DWWLWXGHV Archives of
Psychology, 140
0LFKHOO -  Measurement in psychology: Critical history of a methodological
concept1HZ<RUN&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

108

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Instructions to authors and description of the process

1. Review process

7KHMRXUQDORSHUDWHVDSROLF\RIDQRQ\PRXVH[SHUWSHHUUHYLHZ3DSHUVZLOO
EHFULWLFDOO\DQGULJRURXVO\UHYLHZHGE\WKH(GLWRUDQGDPLQLPXPRIWZR
LQGHSHQGHQW H[SHUW UHYLHZHUV 7KH UHYLHZV DUH EOLQG UHYLHZHUV ZLOO QRW
NQRZWKHLGHQWLW\RIDXWKRUV
$XWKRUV ZLOO EH QRWLHG RI WKH UHFHLSW RI WKH PDQXVFULSW $IWHU WKH
GRXEOHEOLQGUHYLHZLVFRPSOHWHWKHPDQXVFULSWUHYLHZVDQGWKHGHFLVLRQ
OHWWHUZLOOEHIRUZDUGHGWRWKHDXWKRU$IWHUHGLWLQJWKHDXWKRUZLOOUHVXEPLW
WKH PDQXVFULSW ZLWK FRUUHFWLRQV DQG H[SODQDWLRQV IRU QDO IRUPDWWLQJ LQ
UHDGLQHVVIRUSULQWLQJ7KHMRXUQDOLVSXEOLVKHGLQWZRHGLWLRQVSHU\HDUDQG
DXWKRUV ZLOO EH QRWLHG LQ ZKLFK HGLWLRQ RI WKH MRXUQDO WKH SDSHU ZLOO EH
SXEOLVKHG
2. Instructions to authors

 6
 XEPLVVLRQVDUHH[SHFWHGWREHWKHRUHWLFDOO\JURXQGHGDQGPHWKRGRORJL
FDOO\VRXQG
 $XWKRUV DUH H[SHFWHG WR ZULWH WKHLU PDQXVFULSW DQG SUHSDUH WKHLU
UHIHUHQFHVLQOLQHZLWKWKH$3$VW\OHJXLGH
 7ZRFRYHUSDJHVDUHH[SHFWHGRQHZLWKWKHDXWKRUVLGHQWLW\DQGGHWDLOV
UHPRYHG
 0DQXVFULSWVPXVWEHW\SHGLQGRXEOHVSDFLQJZLWKPDUJLQVRIDPLQLPXP
RIWZRFHQWLPHWUHV
 3DJHVPXVWEHQXPEHUHG
 $OO PDQXVFULSWV VKRXOG EHJLQ ZLWK DQ $EVWUDFW RI QRW PRUH WKDQ 
ZRUGV GHVFULELQJ WKH VDOLHQW LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW %DFNJURXQG $LPV
6DPSOH0HWKRGV5HVXOWV&RQFOXVLRQVDQG,PSRUWDQFH
 7DEOHVDQGJXUHVDFFRPSDQLHGE\WKHLUWLWOHVKRXOGEHW\SHGLQGRXEOH
VSDFLQJRQHSHUSDJH
 7DEOHVDQGJXUHVVKRXOGEHSODFHGDWWKHHQGRIWKHPDQXVFULSWDQGDQ
LQGLFDWLRQ RI ZKHUH WKH\ DUH WR EH LQVHUWHG HJ ,16(57 7$%/( 21(
+(5( VKRXOG EH SUHVHQW LQ WKH PDQXVFULSWV WH[W FORVH WR ZKHUH WKH
WDEOHJXUHLVUHIHUUHGWR
 :KHUHYHUSRVVLEOHHIIHFWVL]HVKRXOGEHLQGLFDWHG
 $XWKRUV DUH H[SHFWHG WR ZULWH LQ DQ LQFOXVLYH PDQQHU LQ UHIHUHQFH WR
JHQGHUDQGDELOLW\GLVDELOLW\
 $XWKRUV DUH UHVSRQVLEOH IRU DFTXLULQJ ZULWWHQ SHUPLVVLRQ WR SXEOLVK
OHQJWK\ TXRWDWLRQV LOOXVWUDWLRQV HWF IRU ZKLFK WKH\ GR QRW RZQ
FRS\ULJKW
 $XWKRUVDUHUHVSRQVLEOHIRUHQVXULQJWKDWWKHUHVHDUFKGHVFULEHGKDVEHHQ
JDWKHUHGDQDO\VHGDQGSUHVHQWHGLQWKHPRVWHWKLFDOO\DQGVFLHQWLFDOO\
UHVSHFWIXODQGULJRURXVPDQQHU
 $XWKRUVPXVWHQVXUHWKDWWKHUHDUHQRPHDQVRIHVWDEOLVKLQJDXWKRUVKLS
IURPWKHWH[W

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

109

3. Manuscript length

3DSHUVVKRXOGQRUPDOO\EHQRPRUHWKDQZRUGVDOWKRXJKWKH(GLWRU
UHWDLQV GLVFUHWLRQ WR SXEOLVK SDSHUV EH\RQG WKLV OHQJWK LQ FDVHV ZKHUH
WKH FOHDU DQG FRQFLVH H[SUHVVLRQ RI WKH VFLHQWLF FRQWHQW UHTXLUHV JUHDWHU
OHQJWK
%ULHIUHSRUWVOHVVWKDQZRUGVDUHDOVRZHOFRPH3OHDVHLQGLFDWHDW
VXEPLVVLRQZKLFKW\SHRISDSHULVEHLQJVXEPLWWHG
4. Criteria for publication

,QPDNLQJ\RXUUHSRUW\RXDUHUHTXHVWHGWRSD\DWWHQWLRQWRWKHIROORZLQJ
SRLQWV
7KHSDSHU
LVVXIFLHQWO\WKHRUHWLFDOO\DQGHPSLULFDOO\JURXQGHG
LVVXIFLHQWO\RULJLQDO
FOHDUO\ DGYDQFHV NQRZOHGJH DQG SUDFWLFH LQ HGXFDWLRQDO DQG GHYHORS
PHQWDOSV\FKRORJ\
FRQWDLQVEDODQFHGV\QWKHVHVVXPPDULHVDUJXPHQWVDQGFRQFOXVLRQV
KDVFOHDUJUDPPDUV\QWD[DQGH[SUHVVLRQ
LVRUGHUHG
LV IUHH RI IDXOWV LQ H[SHULPHQWDO SURFHGXUH SURSRVHG DSSOLFDWLRQ RU
WKHRUHWLFDOUHDVRQLQJ
LVIUHHRIHUURUVLQPDWKHPDWLFVFDOFXODWLRQVXQLWVHWF
LVSDUVLPRQLRXV
UHDGVZHOO
KDVDWLWOHDQGDQDSSURSULDWHDEVWUDFW
KDVFRUUHFWO\ODEHOOHGJXUHVDQGWDEOHV
KDV FRUUHFWO\ ZULWWHQ DQG DSSURSULDWH UHIHUHQFHV IUHH IURP REYLRXV
RPLVVLRQV
5. Submission of the manuscript

$OOPDQXVFULSWVZLOOEHDFNQRZOHGJHGDQGUHYLHZHGE\WKH(GLWRULDO%RDUG
RUE\LQYLWHGUHYLHZHUV
'U7HUU\%RZOHV
(GLWRU$('3
6FKRRORI3V\FKRORJ\
$XVWUDOLDQ&DWKROLF8QLYHUVLW\
9LFWRULD3G
0HOERXUQH
9,&
3KRQH
(PDLOWERZOHV#SDWULFNDFXHGXDX

110

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

6. Copyright

,WLVWKHSROLF\RIWKH$XVWUDOLDQ3V\FKRORJLFDO6RFLHW\WRRZQWKHFRS\ULJKW
WR LWV SXEOLFDWLRQV DQG WR WKH FRQWULEXWLRQV FRQWDLQHG WKHUHLQ LQ RUGHU WR
SURWHFWWKHLQWHUHVWVRIWKH6RFLHW\DQGLWVDXWKRUVDQGDWWKHVDPHWLPHWR
IDFLOLWDWHWKHDSSURSULDWHUHXVHRIWKLVPDWHULDOE\RWKHUV
7KHUHIRUH XSRQ DFFHSWDQFH RI WKHLU PDQXVFULSW IRU SXEOLFDWLRQ E\ WKH
6RFLHW\DXWKRUVZLOOEHVHQWDFRS\ULJKWWUDQVIHUIRUPWROORXWDQGUHWXUQ
WRWKH(GLWRU3XEOLFDWLRQRIWKHPDQXVFULSWZLOOEHFRQWLQJHQWXSRQUHFHLSW
RIWKHFRPSOHWHGFRS\ULJKWWUDQVIHUIRUP
3XEOLFDWLRQVRIWKH6RFLHW\DUHGLVWULEXWHGWRYDULRXVRWKHUSXEOLFDWLRQV
IRUUHYLHZDQGDEVWUDFWLQJSXUSRVHV,QDGGLWLRQWKH6RFLHW\KDVFRQWUDFWXDO
DJUHHPHQWVZLWKYDULRXVVHFRQGDU\SXEOLVKHUVIRUWKHUHSXEOLFDWLRQLQKDUG
FRS\PLFUROPRUGLJLWDOIRUPRILQGLYLGXDODUWLFOHVDQGMRXUQDOLVVXHVDV
DZKROH
,WLVWKH6RFLHW\VSRVLWLRQWKDWWKHDEVWUDFWVWKDWDUHSXEOLVKHGZLWKLWV
MRXUQDODUWLFOHVDUHLQGLFDWLYHRIDQGQRWDVXEVWLWXWHIRUWKHZRUNDVDZKROH
WKHUHIRUH DFFHVV VHUYLFHV DUH DOORZHG IUHH XVH RI WKHVH DEVWUDFWV ZLWKRXW
VHFXULQJWKHSHUPLVVLRQRIWKH6RFLHW\
(QTXLULHVDERXWSROLF\DQGSURFHGXUHVUHODWLQJWRSHUPLVVLRQWRUHSURGXFH
PDWHULDOSXEOLVKHGLQWKHMRXUQDOVKRXOGEHGLUHFWHGWRWKH$XVWUDOLDQ3V\FKR
ORJLFDO6RFLHW\
5. Disclosure

7KH SXEOLFDWLRQ RI DQ DGYHUWLVHPHQW E\ WKH $XVWUDOLDQ 3V\FKRORJLFDO

6RFLHW\ LV QRW DQ HQGRUVHPHQW RI WKH DGYHUWLVHU QRU RI WKH SURGXFWV DQG
VHUYLFHVDGYHUWLVHG2QO\WKRVHSURIHVVLRQDOGHYHORSPHQWDFWLYLWLHVFDUU\LQJ
WKH$36ORJRDQGDQDSSURSULDWHHQGRUVHPHQWVWDWHPHQWFDQEHFRQVLGHUHG
WREHVSHFLFDOO\DSSURYHGE\WKH$36$GYHUWLVHUVPD\QRWLQFRUSRUDWHLQ
DVXEVHTXHQWDGYHUWLVHPHQWRUSURPRWLRQDOSLHFHWKHIDFWWKDWDSURGXFWRU
VHUYLFHKDVEHHQDGYHUWLVHGLQDQ\SXEOLFDWLRQRIWKH6RFLHW\7KHSXEOLFD
WLRQV RI WKH 6RFLHW\DUHSXEOLVKHGIRUDQGRQEHKDOI RIWKH PHPEHUVKLSWR
DGYDQFHSV\FKRORJ\DVDVFLHQFHDQGDVDSURIHVVLRQ7KH$36UHVHUYHVWKH
ULJKWWRXQLODWHUDOO\FDQFHORUUHMHFWDGYHUWLVLQJWKDWLVQRWGHHPHGWREHLQ
NHHSLQJZLWKLWVVFLHQWLFDQGSURIHVVLRQDODLPV

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

111

APS College of Educational

and Developmental Psychologists
National Committee 20062007
Chair
-R0LOQH+ROPH


3KRQH
(PDLOMPLOQHKRPH#XZVHGXDX

Secretary
0DULQD9HGGRYL


3KRQH
(PDLOPYHGGRYL#GRKKHDOWKQVZJRYDX

Treasurer
(OLVH6WXPEOHV


3KRQH
(PDLOHVWXPEOHV#WVFQVZRUJDX

Membership Secretary
)UDQFHV*LEVRQ


3KRQH
(PDLOIUDQFHVJLEVRQ#DFHVPTHGXDX

Course Approvals
7HUU\%RZOHV


3KRQH
(PDLOWERZOHV#SDWULFNDFXHGXDX

PD Co-ordinator
)UDQFHV*LEVRQ


3KRQH
(PDLOIUJLEVRQ#GRKKHDOWKQVZJRYDX

Journal Editor
7HUU\%RZOHV


3KRQH
(PDLOWERZOHV#SDWULFNDFXHGXDX

Members
7LP+DQQDQ


3KRQH
(PDLOWKDQQDQ#XZVHGXDX

-DQ)OHWFKHU


3KRQH
(PDLOMDQ#SV\XZDHGXDX

112

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist

Section representatives
New South Wales
1HLO1LFROO


3KRQH
(PDLOQSUQLF#R]HPDLOFRPDX

Victoria
7HUU\%RZOHV


3KRQH
(PDLOWERZOHV#SDWULFNDFXHGXDX

Queensland
/LQGD*LOPRUH


3KRQH
(PDLOOJLOPRUH#TXWHGXDX

Western Australia
/LVD6WXGPDQ


3KRQH
(PDLO/LVD6#GVFZDJRYDX

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

113

Volume 24 Number 1, 2007

115

116

The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist