Esdep Lecture Note (Wg2)

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ESDEP WG 2
APPLIED METALLURGY
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To provide a sequel to Lecture 2.3.1, introducing toughness as an important engineering property.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 2.3.1: Introduction to the Engineering Properties of Steels
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 2.1: Characteristics of Iron Carbon Alloys
Lecture 2.2: Manufacturing and Forming Processes
SUMMARY
This lecture introduces the phenomena of ductile and cleavage fracture and the engineering property of toughness. It summarizes the influences of
temperature loading rate, multi-axial stress conditions and geometry on toughness. It introduces the notched impact bend test as the most common
means of monitoring toughness. It introduces linear-elastic and elastic-plastic fracture mechanics. It presents the wide plate test and assessment
techniques based on fracture mechanics. It summarizes the means of obtaining an optimum combination of strength and toughness. It introduces the
concept of fatigue, the principal influences on fatigue behaviour, and the means of ensuring adequate fatigue endurance.
1. TOUGHNESS
Metals often show quite acceptable properties when small smooth bar specimens are tested in tension at ambient temperature and at slow loading rates.
However they fail in a brittle manner when large components are loaded or when the loading is performed at low temperatures or applied rapidly.
Susceptibility to brittle fracture is enhanced if notches or other defects are present. Resistance to brittle fracture is commonly referred to as toughness.
Metals with a body-centred cubic lattice, e.g. pure iron and ferritic steels have the unfortunate characteristic that their fracture mechanism undergoes a
dramatic transition with decreasing temperature from a tough ductile mode in the higher temperature region to a brittle cleavage mode at lower
temperatures. Face-centred cubic metals, e.g. copper, aluminium and austenitic steels, do not fail by cleavage under all loading conditions and at all
temperatures.
1.1 Types of Fracture

Ductile fracture involves the formation, growth and coalescence of voids. A simple analogy is the fracture of plasticene or putty containing particles of
sand. The voids form around precipitates or non-metallic inclusions, Figure 1. The ductility or toughness of the material is basically dependent on the
volume fraction of the void nucleating particles, i.e. the proportion of sand in the previous analogy. The amount of deformation prior to rupture and thus
the toughness of the material increases with its purity.
The macroscopic orientation of a ductile fracture surface may vary from 90 to 45 to the direction of the applied stress. In thick sections most of the
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fracture surface tends to be oriented at 90 to the direction of the applied tensile stress. However, ductile fractures commonly have a "shear-tip" near a
free boundary as the transverse stresses reduce to zero causing the plane of maximum shear to be at 45 to the direction of the applied stress.
Cleavage fracture occurs in body-centred cubic metals when the maximum principal stress exceeds a critical value, the so-called microscopic cleavage
fracture stress s*f.
Certain crystallographic planes of atoms are separated when the stress is sufficiently high to break atomic bonds. Crystallographic planes with low
packing densities are preferred as cleavage planes. In steels the preferred change planes are the bee cube planes.
The fracture surface lies perpendicular to the maximum principal stress and appears macroscopically flat and crystalline. When viewed by eye a
cleavage fracture usually displays characteristic chevron markings which point back to the origin of the fracture. When brittle fracture occurs in a large
structure, such markings can be invaluable in identifying the site of crack initiation. When viewed in the microscope, cleavage cracks can be seen to pass
through the grains along preferred crystallographic planes (transgranular cleavage).
If grain boundaries are weakened by precipitates or by the enrichment of foreign atoms, cleavage cracks can also propagate along grain boundaries
(intergranular cleavage).
1.2 Influence of Temperature, Loading Rate, Multi-axiality and Geometry

Temperature influences fracture behaviour mainly due to its effect on yield strength and the transition from ductile to cleavage fracture. Figure 2 shows
schematically the yield strength and the microscopic cleavage fracture stress as a function of temperature for a ferritic steel. The yield strength falls with
increasing temperature, whereas the cleavage fracture stress is hardly influenced. The transition temperature is defined by the intersection between the
yield strength and cleavage fracture strength curves. At lower temperatures specimens fail without previous plastic deformation (brittle fracture).
Somewhat above the transition temperature, cleavage fracture can still occur due to the effect of deformation induced work hardening. At higher
temperatures cleavage is not possible and the fracture becomes fully ductile.
The yield strength rises with increasing loading rate (marked with dashed line in Figure 2) whereas the microscopic cleavage fracture stress shows
almost no strain rate dependence. This rise causes the ductile-brittle transition temperature to move to higher values at higher rates of loading. Thus, an
increase of loading rate and a reduction of temperature have the same adverse effect on toughness.
A multi-axial stress state has an important influence on the transition from ductile to cleavage fracture. A triaxial state of stress, in which the three
principal stresses s1, s2 and s3 are all positive (but not equal), inhibits or constrains the onset of yielding. Under these conditions, yielding occurs at a
higher stress than that observed in a uniaxial or biaxial state of stress. This situation is illustrated in Figure 3 where it can be seen that the transition
temperature arising from the intersection of the cleavage and yield strength curves is shifted to a higher temperature, i.e. the metal has become more
brittle.
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The most familiar situation in which multi-axial states of stress are encountered in steel structures is in association with notches or cracks in thick
sections. The stress concentration at the root of the notch gives rise a local region of triaxial stresses even through the applied loading may be
uni-directional (Figure 4).
1.3 Notched Impact Bend Test

The notched impact bend test is the most common test for the assessment of susceptibility to brittle fracture because it is inexpensive and quickly
performed. 10mm square bars with a machined notch, (ISO-V or Charpy specimens), are struck by a calibrated pendulum. The energy absorbed from the
swinging pendulum during deformation and fracture of the test specimen is used as a measure of the impact energy. The notch impact energy consists of
elastic and plastic deformation work, fracture energy and kinetic energy of the broken pieces.
Figures 5 and 6 show the notch impact energy as a function of testing temperature. At low temperatures the failure of ferritic steels occurs by cleavage
fracture giving a lustrous crystalline appearance to the fracture surface. At high temperatures failure occurs by ductile fracture after plastic deformation.
In the transition range small amounts of ductile fracture are found close to the notch but, due to the elevated stresses near the crack tip, the fracture
mechanism changes to cleavage. Throughout the transition range the amount of cleavage fracture becomes less and the notch impact energy rises as the
testing temperature increases.
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In order to characterise the transition behaviour, a transition temperature is defined as the temperature at which:
a defined value of the notch impact energy is reached (eg. T27J, T40J),
half of the maximum impact energy value is reached (T50%), or
50% ductile fracture is observed on the fracture surface (FATT 50: Fracture Appearance Transition Temperature, 50% ductile fracture).
The impact energy values obtained show a high amount of scatter in the transition area because here the results depend on the local situation ahead of
the crack tip. Beyond this area, scatter becomes less because there is no change of fracture mechanism.
The notched impact bend test gives only a relative measure of toughness. This measure is adequate for defining different grades of toughness in
structural steels and for specifying steels for well established conditions of service. For the assessment of known defects and for service situations where
there is little experience of brittle fracture susceptibility, a quantitative measure of toughness which can be used by design engineers is provided by
fracture mechanics.
1.4 Fracture Toughness

Fracture mechanics provides a quantitative description of the resistance of a material to fracture. The fracture toughness is a material property which can
be used to predict the behaviour of components containing cracks or sharp notches. The fracture toughness properties are obtained by tests on specimens
containing deliberately introduced cracks or notches and subjected to prescribed loading conditions.
Depending on the strength of the material and the thickness of the section, either linear-elastic (LEFM) or elastic-plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM)
concepts are applied.
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The Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics Approach

The stress intensity factor KI describes the intensity of the elastic crack tip stress field in a thick, deeply cracked specimen loaded perpendicular to the
crack plane.
KI = Y s
(1)
where
s is the nominal stress
a is the crack depth
Y is the correction function dependent on the crack and test piece geometry
The critical value of the stress intensity factor for the onset of crack growth is the fracture toughness KIC.
Another material property obtained from linear-elastic fracture mechanics is the energy release rate GI. It indicates how much elastic strain energy
becomes free during crack propagation. It is determined according to Equation (2):
GI = p Y2 s2 a / E = K12 / E
(2)
where
E is the Young's modulus
Analogous to the stress intensity factor, crack growth occurs when GI reaches a critical value GIc.
The fracture toughness properties KIc and GIc are determined with fracture mechanics specimens, generally as shown in Figures 7 and 8.
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The great value of the fracture toughness parameters KIc and GIc is that once they have been measured for a particular material, Equations (1) and (2)
can be used to make quantitative predictions of the size of defect necessary to cause a brittle fracture for a given stress, or the stress which will
precipitate a brittle fracture for a defect of known size.
As the designation implies, linear elastic fracture mechanics is applicable to materials which fracture under elastic conditions of loading. The fracture
phenomena in high strength quenched and tempered steels are of this type. In lower strength structural steels, extensive plasticity develops at the notch
root before failure occurs. This behaviour invalidates many of the assumptions of linear elastic fracture mechanics and makes testing difficult or not
meaningful. In such cases elastic-plastic fracture mechanics must be applied.
There are two alternative techniques of elastic-plastic fracture mechanics:
1. Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD)
2. J Integral
Their essential features are summarised below.
The Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics Approach
A consequence of plasticity developing at the tip of a previously sharp crack is that the crack will blunt and there will be an opening displacement at the
position of the original crack tip. This is the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD). As loading continues, the CTOD value increases until eventually a
critical value dc is attained at which crack growth occurs.
The critical crack tip opening displacement is a measure of the resistance of the material to fracture, i.e. it is an alternative measurement of fracture
toughness.
For materials which exhibit little plasticity prior to failure, the critical CTOD, dc, can be related to the linear elastic fracture toughness parameters KIc
and GIc as follows:
KIc2 = E.Gk / (1 - u2) = m.E.sy.dc / (1 - u2)
where
E is Youngs modulus
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sy is the uniaxial yield strength

u is Poissons ratio
m is a constraint factor having a value between 1 and 3 depending on the state of stress at the crack tip.
Another way of taking account of crack tip plasticity is the determination of the J-integral. J is defined as a path-independent line-integral through the
material surrounding the crack tip. It is given by:
J=-
(3)
where
U is the potential energy
B is the specimen thickness
a is the crack length
(4)
U=
F is the load
Vg is the total displacement

Since the determination of J is difficult, approximate solutions are used in practice.
(5)
J=h
where
b=w-a
h = 2 (for SENB-specimens)
h = 2 + 0,522 b/w (for CT-specimens)
The critical value of J is a material characteristic and is denoted JIc. For the linear elastic case, JIc is equal to GIc.
1.5 Fitness for Purpose

Conventional assessment of components is based on a comparison of design resistance with applied actions. Toughness criteria are generally satisfied by
the appropriate selection of material quality, as discussed in Lecture 2.5. However there are situations where a more fundamental assessment has to be
carried out because of:
onerous service conditions.
defects during manufacture.
defects, e.g. fatigue cracks, developing during previous service life.
Such assessments can be performed by different methods. If the component is small, it may be possible to test it. For large or unique structures, such as
bridges or offshore platforms, this method of producing the most realistic data has to be excluded. Tests on representative details of a component may be
performed, if the simulation of the real structure is done carefully, e.g. accounting for specific service conditions including the geometry of the structure
and discontinuities, loading rate, service temperature and environmental conditions. A typical example of such a test method is the wide plate test, which
is discussed below.
Fracture mechanics concepts have been developed to assess the safety of components containing cracks. Depending on the overall behaviour of the
component (linear-elastic or elastic-plastic) different methods can be used for failure assessment.
1.5.1 Wide plate testing
During the last 20 years, large flat tensile specimens, so-called wide plates, have been used to simulate a relatively simple detail of a tension loaded large
structure. A main objective of wide plate testing is the evaluation of the deformation and fracture behaviour of a specimen under service conditions. The
second reason for this kind of test is the application of test results for the development and checking of failure assessment methods, e.g. fracture
mechanics methods.
Wide plate tests require testing facilities with high loading capacities due to the fact that such tests are usually carried out at full thickness. The
maximum dimensions of wide plates tested on large test rigs with a load capacity of up to 100MN are as follows:
specimen width W 3000mm
specimen thickness to 300mm
specimen length l 5000mm
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Figure 9 shows different types of specimen containing discontinuities for tests on the base metal or welded joints. The discontinuities may be throughthickness or surface notches or cracks. The configuration of the plate is usually chosen according to the specific structural situation to be assessed.
Stress or strain criteria can be used as safety criteria which must be fulfilled to assure the safety of a specific structural element. The production of a
given amount of overall strain is in some cases used as the failure criterion. The gross-section-yielding concept requires that gross-section-yielding
(GSY) occurs prior to fracture. Based on this concept, wide plates with different crack lengths are tested under similar loading conditions to determine a
critical crack length just fulfilling the GSY-criterion. Figure 10 shows the ratio of the maximum gross-section stress in the structure to ultimate tensile
strength as a function of the crack length ratio 2a/W of centre-notched wide plates. The upper limit line describes the theoretical maximum stress, if the
ultimate tensile strength is reached in the cross-section containing the discontinuity. All test results show lower values than are implied by the theoretical
line, resulting from the important influence of toughness in the presence of discontinuities. Only in the case of infinite toughness can the theoretical line
be reached. The intersection of the experimentally determined curve and the yield strength line marks the critical crack length ratio 2ac/W. As long as the
2a/W ratio is smaller than the critical ratio, the GSY-criterion is fulfilled. Unfortunately, the critical 2ac/W ratio depends strongly on the dimensions of
the crack and the plate, so that different types of cracked components always require a series of specific wide plate tests. This concept is therefore only
used if other concepts cannot be applied.
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1.5.2 Fracture mechanics concepts

The basis of a fracture mechanics safety analysis is the comparison between the crack driving force in a structure and the fracture toughness of the
material evaluated in small scale tests. The application of one of the concepts depends on the overall behaviour of the structure which may be linearelastic (K-concept) or elastic-plastic (CTOD- or J-Integral-concepts). For a safe structure the crack driving force must be less than the fracture
toughness. In general the toughness values of the material are evaluated according to existing standards. The crack driving force can be calculated on the
basis of analytical solutions (K-concept), empirical or semi-empirical approaches (CTOD-Design-Curve approach, CEGB-R6-procedures) or using
numerical solutions (indirectly: EPRI-handbook, directly: finite-element calculations). The different methods are explained briefly below:
K-concept
The K-concept can be applied in the case of linear-elastic component behaviour. The crack driving force, the so-called stress intensity factor KI, defined
in Section 1.4, has been evaluated for a large range of situations and calculation formulae are for example given in the stress-analysis-of-cracks
handbook.
Usually the critical fracture toughness KIc of the material is evaluated according to the ASTM standard E399 or the British Standard BS5447. Brittle
failure can be excluded as long as:
KI < KIc
For a given fracture toughness the critical crack length or stress level can be calculated from:
ac =
sc =
CTOD-Design-Curve approach
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A critical crack length or stress level can be determined using the limit curve of the CTOD-Design-Curve approach for the driving force assessment
together with measured values of CTODcrit for the material. The limit curve has been adopted by standards, e.g. the British Standard BS-PD 6493. The
latest version of the limit curve is shown in Figure 11 and can be used for:
2a/W 0,5 and snet sYS.
Analysis can only be performed under global elastic conditions (snet sYS) although local plastic deformation may occur in front of a crack tip which is
accounted for in the CTOD-value of the material.
CEGB-R6-routines
The CEGB-R6-routines can be used to assess the safety of structures for brittle and ductile component behaviour. The transition from linear-elastic to
elastic-plastic behaviour is described by a limit curve in a failure analysis diagram (Figure 12). The ordinate value Kr can be regarded as any of three
equivalent ratios of applied crack driving force to material fracture toughness as follows:
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Kr =
=
Other methods
Other methods are emerging. The Electrical Power Research Institute (EPRI) in New York has used a detailed analysis by finite elements to determine
limiting J contour values for standard geometries. Alternatively the J contour values may be obtained by direct finite element analysis of the particular
situation.
2. OPTIMAL COMBINATION OF STRENGTH AND TOUGHNESS

Preceding sections have described the influence of the micro structure on strength and toughness using metallurgical mechanisms. Chemical and
physical metallurgy can change microstructural characteristics so that optimum strength and toughness requirements may be obtained. By combining the
various treatments it is possible to achieve a wide range of steel properties (Figure 13):
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Chemical metallurgy treatments

Variation of the chemical composition of a steel by adding alloying elements aims to increase strength and/or increase resistance to brittle fracture. Solid
solution hardening generally lowers toughness and is not widely employed. Precipitation hardening also increases strength and decreases toughness. The
addition of manganese and nickel produces a small increase in strength due to solution hardening but a more significant reduction is impact transition
temperature due to grain refinement (Figure 14). Alloying with the micro-alloying elements Niobium, (Nb) Vanadium (V) and Titanium (Ti) producing
carbides and nitrides simultaneously raises strength by precipitation hardening and toughness by grain refinement. Decreasing the content of elements
such as S and P improves the degree of purity, which has positive effects on toughness and weldability.
Physical metallurgy treatments

The microstructure of a steel can be greatly affected by heat treatment or forming. Correctly chosen temperature, degree of deformation, time between
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deformation steps and cooling rate can reduce the grain size and control the state of precipitation, thus raising toughness and strength (Figure 15).
This combination of heat treatment and forming known as thermo-mechanical treatment leads to even better results if micro-alloying elements such as V
or Nb are added, causing additional grain refinement with improved toughness and strength properties.
3. FATIGUE PROPERTIES
When considering the response of metallic materials to cyclic loading, it is essential to distinguish between components such as machined parts, which
are initially free of defects, and those such as castings and welded structures, which inevitably contain pre-existing defects. The fatigue behaviour of
these two types of component is quite different. In the former case, the major part of the fatigue life is spent in initiating a crack; such fatigue is
'initiation-controlled'. In the second type of component, cracks are already present and all of the fatigue life is spent in crack propagation; such fatigue is
'propagation-controlled'.
For a given material, the fatigue strength is quite different depending on whether the application is initiation- or propagation-controlled. Also the most
appropriate material solution may be quite different depending on the application. For example with initiation-controlled fatigue, the fatigue strength
increases with tensile strength and hence it is usually beneficial to utilise high strength materials. On the other hand, with propagation-controlled fatigue,
the fatigue resistance may actually decrease if a higher strength material is employed.
3.1 Initiation-Controlled Fatigue

3.1.1 Testing
The fundamental diagram in fatigue testing is the Whler or S-N-diagram (Figure 16). Specimens are exposed to cyclic loading with a constant
amplitude and the number of cycles to fracture is recorded. This parameter is plotted against the corresponding stress amplitude with a double- or
semi-logarithmic scale. The diagram is divided into two parts. In the first part, life time increases with decreasing alternating stress amplitude. In the
second part for most-ferritic steels the curve becomes horizontal and defines a 'fatigue limit' stress below which failure can never occur. The transition or
'knee' between the two parts of the curve lies between 3 and 10 x 106 cycles, depending on the material. For other alloys, e.g. fcc-metals, which do not
show a fatigue limit, an 'endurance limit' is defined as the stress amplitude corresponding to a life of 107 cycles.
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One characteristic feature of fatigue properties is the wide scatter of results under constant testing conditions. Therefore 6-10 experiments must be
performed for each stress amplitude. The analysis is done by means of statistical evaluation leading to different S-N curves for various life time
probabilities (10%, 50%, 90% curves).
3.1.2 Fatigue damage
Crack-free stage
During the first 104 stress cycles, although the loading is nominally elastic, dislocation activity occurs in localised areas and leads to the formation of
bands of localised plastic deformation known as "persistent slip bands" (PSB).
Crack initiation
Crack initiation generally takes place within the persistent slip bands. In the case of pure metals, crack initiation usually occurs at the surface. In
commercial quality materials, crack initiation usually occurs at non-metallic inclusions or other impurities which act as microscopic sites of strain
concentration.
Crack propagation
Once initiated the crack propagates through the first few grains in the direction of maximum shear stress, i.e. at 45 to the normal stress. When the crack
has attained a length of a few grain diameters, continued propagation is controlled by the cyclic stress intensity field at the crack tip and the crack path
becomes oriented at 90 to the maximum principal stress direction. Although the major part of the fatigue life is spent in crack initiation, this is not
apparent from examination of the fracture surface where only the final propagation stage can be seen.
3.1.3 Influences of various parameters
The relationships between initiation-controlled fatigue strength and other parameters are complex and sometimes only known qualitatively. Nevertheless
they are of great importance for material selection and dimensioning of structural parts. Therefore a number of different parameters are discussed below
with respect to their influence on fatigue properties.
Loading: Different loading conditions include cyclic tension and compression, cyclic torsion, cyclic bending and any possible combination of
these. As discussed in the context of yielding in Section 2.3 of Lecture 2.3.1, such complex stresses can be combined by means of the Hencky-von
Mises expression to generate an equivalent stress which can be compared with the fatigue strength obtained from uniaxial loading.
Mean stress: Fatigue strength is reduced by tensile mean stress and increased by compressive mean stress.
Frequency: For most materials no influence is observed over a wide range. Some alloys show a smaller life time for lower frequencies because
corrosion effects interfere.
Microstructure: The influence of microstructural modification on fatigue strength is similar to that on tensile strength. In general fatigue strength
increases in proportion to tensile strength. For example, for a wide range of wrought steels, the fatigue strength is between 40% and 50% of the
tensile strength. Improved purity raises fatigue strength.
Residual stresses: As with mean stress effects, compressive residual stress improves fatigue strength, whereas internal tensile stress has the
opposite effect. To optimise fatigue strength, surface compressive residual stress is generated by techniques such as shot peening, and surface
rolling.
Surface: Surface finish has a large influence on fatigue; the smoother the surface the better the fatigue strength. The treatment of surfaces during
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manufacturing often causes strain hardening and compressive residual stresses which both increase fatigue strength. The influence of notches is
described under "Geometry".
Geometry: Notches and changes of section act as sites of stress concentration and hence have a considerable influence on fatigue properties. For
large smooth notches, the stress concentration must be evaluated and incorporated in the fatigue analysis. Sharp notches behave as crack-like
defects and cause the fatigue behaviour to be propagation-controlled.
Welding: Welding inevitably generates small crack-like defects which greatly lower the fatigue strength and cause the fatigue to be propagationcontrolled.
Corrosion: Exposure to a corrosive environment facilitates both crack initiation and propagation. Consequently the fatigue strength is reduced.
The fatigue limit in steels may be eliminated in a corrosive element.
3.1.4 Fatigue limit under actual service conditions
The S-N diagram characterises material behaviour under single-amplitude loading. For weight-saving constructions exposed to complex stresses, the
parameters determined by such tests are not sufficient.
For testing under realistic conditions, an analysis of the actual stresses has to be obtained. For that purpose the sequence and duration of different stress
levels, as well as their rise or fall, are recorded. This stress-time function is either reproduced under laboratory conditions, or special testing programmes
are calculated from these data and used in experiments. Results obtained by this method cannot be transferred to different materials and loading
conditions.
3.1.5 Prediction of cumulative damage
The fundamental method of life time cumulative damage prediction was formulated by Miner. The damage from each cycle at a certain stress level is
defined as the reciprocal value of the number of cycles to fracture (1/Ni). Fracture occurs when the sum of cycles at each level (ni) related to the number
of cycles to failure (Ni) is equal to unity. The mathematical expression is:
Since this is a very simple equation, results are widely scattered. In reality the values form a Gaussion distribution with a maximum around 1. To
guarantee safe construction, calculations are made with factors smaller than 1 and stresses below their maximum values. Furthermore it is possible to
take the effects of different loading levels into account with respect to their number, maximum stress and sequence.
3.2 Propagation-Controlled Fatigue

Steel castings, rough forgings and welded structures invariably contain surface imperfections which behave as minute crack-like defects which
effectively eliminate the crack-initiation stage in fatigue. Consequently the whole of the fatigue life is concerned with crack propagation. The rate of
crack advance is determined by the cyclic stress intensity D Kr which is the cyclic equivalent of the stress intensity factor KI defined in Section 1.5.
DKI = Y Ds
where
Ds is the cyclic stress range
a is the crack depth
Y is the correction function dependent on the crack and test piece geometry.
The rate of crack propagation is then given by the following relationship which is known as Paris' Law:
= C DKIm
N = Number of cycles
C is a material constant which is inversely proportional to Young's modulus E. The power m has a value of about 3 for most metallic materials.
The advantage of the fracture mechanics description of crack propagation is that the rate equation can be integrated to determine the number of cycles
required for a crack to propagate from some initial length ai to same final length af. Thus for m = 3;
Nf = 2 (1/ai - 1/af ) / (CY3Ds3p3/2)
ai may be a known crack size or an NDT limit, af may be a critical defect size for unstable fracture or a component dimension such as the wall thickness
of a vessel.
In the above equation for the fatigue life, the constant C is dependent on the type of material but is not sensitive to variations in microstructure or
strength level. Consequently, for a given cyclic stress range, Ds, the fatigue life is independant of the strength of the material. If, however, the stress
range increases in proportion to the material yield strength, then the fatigue life will be less for the higher strength material. For example, a two-fold
increase in stress range produces almost a ten-fold reduction in fatigue life. This is a major constraint on the utilisation of higher strength structural
steels for fatigue dominated applications.
The fatigue behaviour of welded joints is propagation-controlled. However it is impracticable to apply a fracture mechanics analysis because the initial
defect size cannot be evaluated and the cyclic stress range is amplified by local stress concentration effects associated with the weld profile. Instead the
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fatigue strength is determined experimentally for the range of weld types and welding processes which are commonly employed in welded structures.
This data is presented as a series of S-N curves for different weld classifications as shown in Figure 16.
The fatigue strength of welded joints is not sensitive to the strength of the parent plate. Consequently, as explained previously, it is difficult to take full
advantage of higher strength steels in welded structures where there is significant exposure to cyclic loading.
4. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Steels may fail by unacceptable brittle fracture.
Satisfactory ductility has generally to be achieved by ensuring ductile rather than cleavage fracture.
The tendency for brittle fracture increases in:
Reducing temperature
Increasing strain rate
Multi-axial tension
Geometric discontinuities causing stress concentrations.
Fracture mechanics is a valuable means of quantifying the resistance of a material to fracture.
The notched impact bend test (Charpy test) is a cost effective means of qualitatively monitoring toughness.
More accurate methods of monitoring toughness, e.g. CTOD testing, have developed from the understanding of fracture mechanics.
The optimal balance of strength and toughness can be achieved by a combination of chemical and physical metallurgical treatments.
Structures under repeated loading may fail by fatigue.
Resistance to fatigue is influenced by stress range, number cycles, mean stress, geometry, residual stresses and defects, especially those associated
in welding.
5. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Griffith, A.A., Phil. Trans. Royal Society A221 (1921).
2. Wells, A.A., Unstable Crack Propagation in Metals: Cleavage and Fast Fracture, Proc. Symp. Crack Propagation, Cranfield 1961, Vol. 1.
3. E 813-81 Standard Test Method for JIC, A Measure of Fracture Toughness, ASTM 1981.
4. Method for crack opening displacement testing, BS5762, British Standard Institution, London 1979.
5. Methods of tests for plain strain fracture toughness (KIc) of metallic materials, BS5447, British Standard Institution, London 1977.
6. Milne, I. et al, Assessment of the integrity of structures containing defects, CEGB-R/H/R6-Rev. 3, Central Electricity Generating Board, London,
1986.
7. Guidance on Methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in fusion welded structures, PD 6493: British Standards Institution, London 1991.
8. Kumar, V. et al, An Engineering Approach for Elastic-Plastic Fracture Analysis, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), NP 1931, Project
1237-1, Final Report, General Electric Company, New York.
9. Dahl, W. et al, Application of Fracture Mechanics Concepts to the Failure of Wide Plates, Nuclear Engineering Design 1985.
APPENDIX 1
Fracture toughness values of different materials
Material
Kc (MNm-3/2)
Material
Kc (MNm-3/2)
Ductile metals, e.g. Cu
200
cast iron
15
Grade Fe430B structural steel (room

temperature)
140
glass reinforced
40
plastic
12
Grade Fe 430B structural steel (-100 C)
40
Pressure vessel steels
170
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Esdep Lecture Note (Wg2)

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ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG2]

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1.1 Types of Fracture